Part B, Working Papers, February 1974 - Special Collections - US ...

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able to troops. They quickly may be converted to military facilities in theform of buildings or fortifications and just as quickly abandoned with theebb and flow of battle, only to be reproduced on another site with just as profligateuse of the forest resource.Trees are destroyed by bombs and shells used in military actions. Andfor every tree thus destroyed, hundreds or perhaps thousands more are damaged.Scars resulting from such damage provide sites for infection by tree-destroyingfungi and by predatory insects. Imbedded shrapnel degrades the tree andmay remain for decades, providing a faulty base for future growth.The war In South Vietnam is no exception to the general rule. It hasbeen a forest-based war and it has caused great damage to the forests thatconstituted its principal environment. Kernan (1968) has noted that "theVietnamese war is probably the most consistently forest war of any recorded,at least in modern history."One of the new forms of military activity introduced in the war in SouthVietnam was the use of massive quantities of various types of herbicide.When herbicides were used as military tools, the intended effect of the sprayingwas to remove the leaves from the trees, making opposition troops and thetrails, their arms caches, etc. visible from the air.The herbicides used to modify forest vegetative cover were not a militaryinvention any more than are axes and saws. Herbicides have been used byforesters for a long time to control weed species in forests and thus toencourage the growth of desirable species. Herbicides used in forestry inducedifferent responses in different tree species. This differential speciesresponse varies from one herbicide formulation to another. In normal forestryuse, the practice is to devise an application system which applies a lethal1-11
dose to the target species and, at the same time, ndnimizes the impact of theherbicide on non-target species.Considerable effort has been expended in theconduct of research designed to improve on these herbicide delivery systems.When military organizations adapted the peaceful use of this forest managementtool to military purposes, the operation changed materially.The objectiveswere different, the delivery system was different and the effects were different.In military herbicide use, the principal objective was defoliation toimprove visibility.The military advantage of killing a tree, as contrastedwith simply defoliating it, was that the operation did not have to be repeated,at least with respect to that particular tree.Since the military need was toaffect most large trees regardless of species, the species differentiationcharacteristic of herbicides was presumably a disadvantage.jBecause of the generalized nature of the herbicide target, concentrationsof herbicide as used in military operations were much greater than wouldnormally be used in forestry operations to insure effect on the less susceptiblespecies as well as the most susceptible species.Lack of security for operationson the ground dictated the use of aerial application methods except for secureareas along roads and on the perimeters of military installations and securevillages.The aircraft used, fixed-wing airplanes and helicopters, were notsusceptible to careful monitoring for effect on target vegetation followingeach treatment.In a conventional forest-management use of herbicides, suchmonitoring would be essential.Where excessive damage to non-target speciesoccurred, the treatment would be modified or stopped, since improvement ofthe forest as a productive enterprise is generally the long-term objective.The military forces using herbicides were engaged in war and not conductingfield experiments with silvicultural systems.They appeared to have as littleconcern for the impact of war on the forests with respect to this military1-12
Page 1 and 2: Item D Number ^sse D Not ScannedAut
Page 3 and 4: THE EFFECTS OF HERBICIDES IN SOUTH
Page 5: I. Introduction
Page 8 and 9: such a manner as to permit Its exte
Page 10 and 11: for Cambodia east of the Mekong Riv
Page 12 and 13: Inhibited by the absence of a fores
Page 16 and 17: activity as they and their predeces
Page 18 and 19: subjected to other military actions
Page 20 and 21: forest experiment stations in Thail
Page 22 and 23: SOUTH CHINA SEAFigure 1-2 Military
Page 24 and 25: References Cited(1) Gartuer, E. J.
Page 26 and 27: II.The History of Human Use of the
Page 28 and 29: Cambodian Inventory project says wi
Page 30 and 31: Cambodia's 33»700 square miles of
Page 32 and 33: It Js useful to examine some of the
Page 34 and 35: tree crown densities prior to the I
Page 36 and 37: Both cultivated areas and grassland
Page 38 and 39: APPENDIX .1A Study of Succession fr
Page 40 and 41: The permanent denuded quadrat was o
Page 42 and 43: emoved. Ourlnq the 1
Page 44 and 45: trends are still directed toward dr
Page 46 and 47: Table II-l (cont. - 2)SpeciesTotal
Page 48 and 49: Table II-2Species abundance in seed
Page 50 and 51: Table II-3Species from sapling enum
Page 52 and 53: Table II-4 (Cont. - p. 2)SpeciesTot
Page 54 and 55: Table II-6Species abundance from sa
Page 56 and 57: Table II-7 (Cont. - p. 2)SpeciesTot
Page 58 and 59: (9) Nuttonson, M. Y., 1963.The phys
Page 60 and 61: A. Identification of Forest Feature
Page 62 and 63: Beforereviewing the methods by whic
Page 64 and 65:
from that of temperate forests.The
Page 66 and 67:
(Tectona grand is) can be readily s
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Swellengrebel (37) has found that u
Page 70 and 71:
B. Comparison of use of Photogramme
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where H = tree height, CA = crown a
Page 74:
coefficients were fairly high (r=0.
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therefore would be more easily Iden
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The third approach was to estimate
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dominantly terrestrial. This is due
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provide only a "very rough estimate
Page 85 and 86:
C. Stem Diameter/Crown Diameter Rel
Page 87 and 88:
without the factors of density and
Page 89 and 90:
existing Information from other cou
Page 91 and 92:
Analysis of covarlance was used to
Page 93 and 94:
obtained by many other investigator
Page 95 and 96:
Sampling grid9 x 18 » 162quadrats1
Page 97 and 98:
Table III-lNumber of Quadrats Havin
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Mean number of dead12merchantable t
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E. Errors in Tree Counting and Volu
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Figure III-2J-shaped curve of Tree
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the commercial trees are usually at
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error is the smallesttrees which ha
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Random ErrorEven if a well-trained
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all but the random error by use of
Page 113 and 114:
11. _ 19S9. The Application of Aeri
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31. Richards, P. W. 1952. The Tropi
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I. INTRODUCTIONThe task of the fore
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Figure IV-1DIAMETER-HEIGHT RELATION
Page 121 and 122:
Figure IV-2DIAMETER-HEIGHT RELATION
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tuberculatus tree just discussed ha
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In five-meter log components.The vo
Page 127 and 128:
volume at any given time, Is also a
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concerning stand structure while es
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following:total heights, inventory
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species, thus increasing the utiliz
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computed by the following integrati
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D. Exploitable Merchantable Volume
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TABLE IV-6. Exploitable Merchantabl
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ased upon samples of species compos
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METERS50 J4O J?METERS
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extensively by man, they are not co
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12 3VT - Z Z Aa.n.s .v.1=1 j=l ' '
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Table IV-10. Volume SummaryType of
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Table IV-12. Inventory Total Volume
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Table IV-14. Inventory Merchantable
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Table IV-16. Exploitable Merchantab
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(8) Sandrasegaran, K. 1971."Height-
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crop. If there is not a sufficient
Page 161 and 162:
B- Exploited hardwood forestsA larg
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or even extensive areas of timber,
Page 167 and 168:
Vulnerability of forest stands to a
Page 169 and 170:
Table V-l. Crown Characteristics of
Page 171 and 172:
Study of the forests of South Vietn
Page 173 and 174:
the trees continued to grow.The tas
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Having been satisfied that the prot
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commercial species. That is, the de
Page 179 and 180:
Military Region 3.This step, theref
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the number of loss model trees givi
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per tree which is in agreement with
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crownwood yields an estimate of woo
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was not a responsibility of the Com
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Figure V-lUnsprayed forest showing
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Figure V-3Appearance of very old bo
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manufacturing problems; production
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of the overstoryforest cover except
Page 197 and 198:
extensive aerial reconnaissance and
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total area, film j - obtained from
Page 201 and 202:
Table V-l. Basic Data Used in the L
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Table V-2. Results of the loss Made
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gains are rapid until some point af
Page 207 and 208:
species, and environmental conditio
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use of resulting prediction equatio
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transforms.Since there were several
Page 213 and 214:
The usual procedure in assay work p
Page 215 and 216:
Table 1 Herbicides and applications
Page 217 and 218:
Figure 2Response of Plnus lambertia
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- 7(Dto c-D -Ioj?Id(Au>oa-.inO-hI01
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c -\n>in o3 cr-maO c-» to3 rf.at o
Page 223 and 224:
The response of the Inland Forest o
Page 225 and 226:
Darrow, R. A., G. B. Truchulet, C.
Page 227 and 228:
Appendix V-3Inventory Model Descrip
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Thfs procedure was programmed in Fo
Page 231 and 232:
41 3.4742 2.995 14.266 1.587 .078 .
Page 233 and 234:
APPENDIX V-4Computation of Nonmerch
Page 235 and 236:
ehave in response to herbicide trea
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To obtain crown volume, assume crow
Page 239 and 240:
In order to deal in some detail wit
Page 241 and 242:
observation is that many of the tre
Page 243 and 244:
The April 1966 coverage gives no in
Page 245 and 246:
Much of the bombed area in the gene
Page 247 and 248:
Table VT-2The classification of lan
Page 249 and 250:
egetatlonClassTable VI-5 Percent of
Page 251 and 252:
Figure VI-2 Spray Hit Map for the S
Page 253 and 254:
VI !/Figure VI-4 1969 1:50,000 Phot
Page 255 and 256:
Figure VI-6 1967 Photography of the
Page 257 and 258:
vr-nFigure VI-7a Close Up of Road I
Page 259 and 260:
VI-23road 246Total trees relocated
Page 261 and 262:
Figure VI-11 1966 Photography of Va
Page 263 and 264:
VI-2/Figure VI-13 1966 Photography
Page 265:
- • flrW, >!f » •" "•**VI-2
Page 269 and 270:
The study of the inland forests of
Page 271 and 272:
use might appear to be very substan
Page 273 and 274:
This has been a problem for the for
Page 275 and 276:
If computed on the basis of 90 cubi
Page 277 and 278:
Both Flamm and Westing examine dama
Page 279:
References'. Catfnot, R. 1972. Biol
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