Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2007 - INCB

INTERNATIONAL NARCOTICS CONTROL BOARD2007ReportEMBARGOObserve release date:Not to be published or broadcast beforeWednesday, 5 March 2008, at 0001 hours (GMT)CAUTIONUNITED NATIONS

E/INCB/2007/1UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATIONSales No. E.08.XI.1ISBN 978-92-1-148224-9ISSN 0257-3717

To suggest that the legalization of drugs would “solve” the world drug problem is toignore historical facts. The first international controls over narcotic drugs,introduced in 1912, helped to reduce the scourge of opium addiction in some Asiancountries. Some 60 years later, accession to the Convention on PsychotropicSubstances of 1971 contributed to a significant decline in the abuse of psychotropicsubstances, which had created serious health problems in the 1950s and 1960s.Given those and other experiences, any suggestion to legalize the use of illicit drugsseems rather simplistic and misplaced. There are no “quick fix” solutions to thedrug problem. Governments should continue to take action to address drug abuseand illicit drug trafficking in a comprehensive, sustained and concerted manner.That is where the solution to the world drug problem lies. To do nothing is not anoption.Philip O. EmafoPresident of the International Narcotics Control Boardiv

IV. Recommendations to Governments, the United Nations and other relevantinternational and regional organizations .................................. 728-739 107A. Recommendations to Governments .................................. 731-737 107B. Recommendations to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and tothe World Health Organization ..................................... 738 114C. Recommendations to other relevant international organizations .......... 739 114AnnexesI. Regional groupings used in the report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2007 116II. Current membership of the International Narcotics Control Board ...................... 119vi

3,4-MDP-2-PMeOPPMINUSTAHNATONPPOASOIDP-2-PPEN OnlineSAARCSARPCCOSCOTFMPPTHCUNAIDSUNODCUPUWHO3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone1-(4-methoxyphenyl)piperazineUnited Nations Stabilization Mission in HaitiNorth Atlantic Treaty OrganizationN-phenethyl-4-piperidoneOrganization of American StatesInter-American Observatory on Drugsphenyl-2-propanonePre-Export Notification OnlineSouth Asian Association for Regional CooperationSouth African Regional Police Chiefs Cooperation OrganizationShanghai Cooperation Organization1-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)piperazinetetrahydrocannabinolJoint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDSUnited Nations Office on Drugs and CrimeUniversal Postal UnionWorld Health Organizationviii

The designations employed and the presentation of the material in thispublication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of theSecretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country,territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of itsfrontiers or boundaries.Countries and areas are referred to by the names that were in official use at thetime the relevant data were collected.Data reported later than 1 November 2007could not be taken into consideration inpreparing this report.ix

E/INCB/2007/1I. The principle of proportionality and drug-related offences1. Over 95 per cent of the Member States of theUnited Nations are now parties to the internationaldrug control conventions. The conventions contain thebasic legal structure, obligations, tools and guidancethat are needed for all States to achieve the main aimsof the international drug control system: controlleduniversal availability of narcotic drugs andpsychotropic substances for medical and scientificpurposes only; prevention of drug abuse, drugtrafficking and other forms of drug-related crime; andthe undertaking of effective remedial action whenprevention does not fully succeed. As such, theconventions constitute the world’s agreed proportionateresponse to the global problems of illicit drug abuseand trafficking and the world’s agreed legal frameworkfor international drug control.2. The conventions set minimum standards only. Ifthose standards are met and not undermined, each Statehas discretion to transpose the provisions of theconventions into domestic law and practice in line withits own legal system and principles. Each State canalso apply more strict or severe measures if it considersthem desirable or necessary for the protection of publichealth and welfare or for the prevention andsuppression of illicit traffic.3. There are wide differences between countries andregions in community tolerance or intolerance towardsdrug-related offences and offenders, and thosedifferences have an impact on the way the conventionsare implemented. Penalties for similar offences mayseem severe in some places, but lenient in others. Alsothe nature and extent of the drug problem appears tovary from one country or region to another. 1 Statestherefore attempt to address the drug problem based ontheir perception of the reality and extent of theproblem, as well as on the resources available foraddressing it. Some States target major drug traffickersand dismantle their networks, while others deal onlywith small cases. People who divert internationallycontrolled substances to illicit markets may avoidsanctions in one place but go to prison and lose theirbusiness in another. A prominent citizen may be__________________1 Due to factors such as whether it is mainly a drugproducing,transit or consumer country or region, theprevalence of drug abusers, the types of drugs abused,and other variables such as crime rates.reprimanded for systematically laundering drug money,while a poor person in the same country may be jailedfor shoplifting. Some States imprison drug-abusingoffenders without providing any treatment orrehabilitation. Others provide both treatment andrehabilitation, with or without prison.4. Some of the differences in national approaches todealing with offenders, protecting public safety andrepairing any harm caused to victims and thecommunity flow from the different legal systems of theStates parties to the conventions. They in turn reflectunderlying differences concerning, for example:(a) how best to deal with unlawful behaviour byoffenders; (b) how best to promote a sense ofresponsibility on the part of offenders and theiracknowledgement of the harm they have done tovictims and the community; (c) how best to deter themand others from offending in the future; (d) whatconstitutes “fair punishment”; (e) when and in whatcircumstances to separate offenders from society; and(f) how best to rehabilitate them. Ultimately, thedifferences reflect what comes from the depths of eachcountry’s culture and value system about drug-relatedbehaviour, crime, punishment and rehabilitation.5. Some of the differences have a positive impact onthe implementation of a convention; for example, theymay encourage new and improved ways to reducedrug-related crime, drug abuse and repeat offending.Other differences may have the reverse effect; forexample, they may give rise to perceptions of profoundinjustice, generate tension or confusion betweencountries, hamper international cooperation or simplylimit the range of problem-solving options consideredby a Government – particularly if it considers that itsown national drug control system is better than thoseof other countries or that little can be learned fromothers. The conventions permit some of thedifferences, but also set clear limits on them. Theconventions do not, for example, allow a party tochoose whatever interpretation of a provision suits itsparticular culture, value system or view ofproportionality, in order to justify policies andpractices that may undermine the aims of theconventions. The International Narcotics ControlBoard, in line with its mandate under the conventions,has expressed its views on several occasions when1

E/INCB/2007/1such cases were brought to its attention and willcontinue to do so whenever appropriate.6. Proportionality has also become an importantissue in its own right since the Board first touched onthat issue in its 1996 review of drug abuse and thecriminal justice system. 2 Eleven years later, there isstill much room for improvement. The Board haschosen the principle of proportionality and drug-relatedoffences as its special theme for the present report toput greater focus on the issue and to help improve theproportionality of responses by States to drug-relatedoffences, so that the implementation of the conventionscan be even more effective.A. The principle of proportionality7. Transposing the international drug controlconventions into domestic law is subject to theinternationally recognized principle of proportionality.The principle requires a State’s response to anythingthat may harm peace, order or good governance to beproportionate. In a narrower, criminal justice sense, theprinciple permits punishment as an acceptable responseto crime, provided that it is not disproportionate to theseriousness of the crime. Variants of the broadprinciple are often enshrined in States’ constitutions,with specific rules set out in more detailed nationallaw. International and regional human rightsinstruments 3 and crime prevention and criminal justiceinstruments often develop or set the standards.8. The principle of proportionality has ancientorigins. Its first recorded formulations date back over4,000 years. One of the earliest was the Code ofHammurabi, with its rules of retributive justice to curbexcessive punishment by victims or the State (“an eyefor an eye”, “a tooth for a tooth” and “a bone for abone”). Some punishments applied equally to allwrongdoers. Others depended on the respective statusof the wrongdoer and the victim in Mesopotamiansociety: if the victim was “socially superior”,punishment could be excessive but within fixed limits;if the victim was an “equal”, the punishment could be__________________2 International Narcotics Control Board Report for 1996(United Nations publication, Sales No. E.97.XI.3),paras. 1-6, 21-31 and 36-37.3 For example, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights(General Assembly resolution 217 A (III)).no worse than the crime; and if the victim was“socially inferior”, fixed compensation could bespecified. Since the introduction of the Code ofHammurabi, there have been considerabledevelopments, particularly regarding how to bettermake the offender accountable, restore public peace,remedy the victim’s loss or the damage and, whenappropriate, ultimately enable the rehabilitation andsocial reintegration of the offender.9. Whether or not a State’s response to drug-relatedoffences is proportionate depends in turn on how itslegislative, judicial and executive arms of governmentrespond in both law and practice. For example:(a) Is the particular response necessary?(b) To what extent can the response result in theachievement of the desired objectives?(c) Does the response legitimately go beyondwhat is needed?(d) Does the response comply withinternationally accepted norms concerning the rule oflaw? 4(e) When the offences have internationalaspects, is there effective international caseworkcooperation between the regulatory, law enforcement,prosecution and judicial services of all the countriesconcerned, for example, in obtaining relevantintelligence and evidence, tracing and ultimatelyconfiscating criminal wealth and returning fugitives ofjustice? If the answer to the above questions is no,justice may not be done, making the response to theoffending manifestly disproportionate.10. In the Board’s view, whether or not the principleof proportionality is satisfied in any State’s drugrelatedcasework depends on whether or not the casesare dealt with fully in accordance with the conventionsand the rule of law.__________________4 These include the absolute supremacy of laws seeking toachieve good over the arbitrary power of individuals andinstitutions; upholding law and order; the equality andaccountability of everyone before the law for every actdone without legal justification; well-functioning courtsproviding predictable and efficient judgements; andupholding the rights and duties of individuals under thecountry’s constitutional law.2

E/INCB/2007/1B. Proportionality and the internationaldrug control conventions11. As indicated in paragraph 1 above, there is nowalmost universal adherence to the international drugcontrol conventions. The United Nations Conventionagainst Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs andPsychotropic Substances of 1988 5 is the most recent,most specific and most prescriptive of thoseconventions. It is mainly designed to promote moreclarity, homogeneity and effective implementation bylaw enforcement, prosecution and judicial services ofStates in dealing with drug-related crime at the nationaland international levels. Proportionality is an importantprinciple in effectively implementing the provisions ofthe conventions. As formal legal agreements, theconventions reflect compromises (in some cases,compromises reached after long, hard-foughtnegotiation) on the essential mandatory measures andactions that parties to the conventions are required totake and the results that they are expected toaccomplish. The fact that so far over 95 per cent of allStates have chosen to become parties to theconventions is evidence that those binding legalinstruments represent a proportionate response toglobal drug problems. Some of the mainproportionality provisions of the conventionsencourage and facilitate proportionate responses byStates to drug-related offences. Other provisions seekto limit disproportionate responses. The mainproportionality provisions are discussed below.12. To ensure that narcotic drugs and psychotropicsubstances are indeed available for medical andscientific purposes only, States must control all drugsunder international control with different levels ofstrictness, depending on the therapeutic usefulness,public benefits and risks associated with their use.Accordingly, the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugsof 1961 as amended by the 1972 Protocol 6 and theConvention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971 7 eachclassifies the drugs to which it applies into four groups,for which it respectively provides four general controlregimes of differing strictness. The conventionschedule in which a drug is listed determines theparticular control regime governing the drug, which the__________________5 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1582, No. 27627.6 Ibid., vol. 976, No. 14152.7 Ibid., vol. 1019, No. 14956.parties must then apply. The manufacture, distributionor use of or trade in drugs classified as having little orno therapeutic value and liable to cause the mostserious health and social problems if abused must beprohibited or very strictly controlled. For drugsclassified in other groups, the greater their therapeuticvalue and the less serious the problems resulting fromtheir abuse, the less strict the controls that apply tothem.13. The conventions generally require parties toestablish a wide range of drug-related activities ascriminal offences under their domestic law but permitparties to respond to them proportionately. The1988 Convention covers drug-related activities notspecifically envisaged in the earlier treaties, such asthe organization, management and financing of drugtrafficking, money-laundering, trafficking in precursorchemicals, and a range of other enabling, facilitating orsupporting activities. The 1988 Convention alsogenerally requires States to establish as a criminaloffence the possession, purchase or cultivation of drugsfor non-medical personal consumption.14. In requiring parties to establish as offencescertain drug-related activities, the conventions permitparties to define all offences and defences using theframework and terminology of their national legalsystems. Subject to the convention limits summarizedbelow, parties are also permitted to deal with offendersin conformity with their own national laws. Thisincludes (again, subject to those limits), the differentlegal, moral and cultural traditions reflected in thoselaws.15. The 1988 Convention requires parties to take arange of special measures to ensure that offences of aserious kind or nature are not committed withimpunity. 8 Perpetrators should not be treated moreleniently than reasonably justified or are not able toescape justice entirely. Because serious offencestypically pose significant risks to public health andsafety, and offenders profit from the misery of others,parties must deal with serious offences more severelyand extensively than offences of a less grave nature.For such serious offences, the 1988 Conventionrequires parties to make the commission of such__________________8 In the present chapter, “serious offence” means anyoffence referred to in article 3, paragraph 1, of the1988 Convention.3

E/INCB/2007/1serious offences liable to sanctions that take intoaccount the grave nature of those offences, such asimprisonment, other forms of deprivation of liberty,pecuniary sanctions and confiscation. By way ofexception or qualification, if all the facts andcircumstances surrounding the commission of such anoffence nevertheless indicate that it is an appropriatecase of a minor nature, the 1988 Convention permitsparties to provide alternatives to conviction orpunishment, such as education, rehabilitation or socialreintegration.16. To help ensure that serious offence cases haveserious consequences in all countries and not just insome, the 1988 Convention seeks to limit thepossibility of unduly lenient responses to seriousoffences and offenders. For example, it requires partiesto ensure that their courts take into accountaggravating circumstances when sentencing offenders.The circumstances listed are illustrative, notexhaustive. 9 Any discretionary powers to prosecutethose offences must be exercised to maximize theeffectiveness of law enforcement and with due regardto deter their commission. Parties must ensure thatcourts and other competent authorities bear in mind theserious nature of those offences and any aggravatingcircumstance when considering early release or paroleof convicted offenders. Where prosecution for a seriousoffence must take place within a fixed period after thecommission of the offence, the time limit must belonger if the alleged offender has evaded theadministration of justice.17. The 1988 Convention seeks to put an end to safehavens abroad for persons committing serious drugrelatedcrimes. It requires parties to establish wideextraterritorial jurisdiction to make offendersaccountable for serious offences wherever they arecommitted; to confiscate wealth derived from suchoffences, wherever those offences have beencommitted and wherever such wealth is held; to giveand receive assistance from each other in seriousoffence investigations, prosecutions and judicialproceedings; and to investigate serious offences__________________9 They include factors such as involvement in the offenceof any organized criminal group to which the offenderbelongs, the use of violence or arms, any victimizationor use of minors, and commission of the offence in oraround places used by students or children for education,sports or social activities.committed at home or abroad (with the other States’agreement) using, for example, controlled delivery, 10undercover operations, 11 joint investigation teams andmaritime cooperation. 1218. The conventions differentiate sharply betweenoffences related to drug trafficking and offences relatedto personal use of illicit drugs and between offencescommitted by drug abusers and those committed byothers. Under the 1988 Convention, drug abusers whocommit offences may be required to undergo treatment,education, aftercare, rehabilitation or socialreintegration, in addition to being convicted orpunished, providing that the facts and circumstancessurrounding the commission of the offence indicate itto be an offence of a minor nature. However, withoffences involving the possession, purchase orcultivation of illicit drugs for the offender’s personaluse, the measures can be applied as completealternatives to conviction and punishment, and none ofthe convention obligations referred to inparagraphs 15-17 above apply to such offences. Assuch, the conventions recognize that, to be trulyeffective, a State’s response to offences by drugabusers must address both the offences and the abuseof drugs (the underlying cause).__________________10 Controlled delivery is the investigative technique ofallowing illegal or suspicious consignments of, forexample, illicit drugs (sometimes other substances aresubstituted for the illicit drugs), to pass out of, throughor into one or more countries with the knowledge orunder the supervision of their competent authorities witha view to identifying those involved in the commissionof serious offences.11 Undercover operations involve allowing lawenforcement to operate covertly outside their agencies(for example, buying illicit drugs) but under thesupervision of their competent authorities with a view tocatching persons committing serious offences.12 Maritime cooperation is used to address the problem ofdrug smuggling by sea, with a view to allowing theauthorities of an intervening State to board and search avessel when there are reasonable grounds to suspect thatit is engaged in trafficking; if evidence is found, theintervening State may be authorized to take appropriateaction with respect to the vessel and the persons andcargo on board.4

E/INCB/2007/124. The international drug control conventionsrequire parties to make the commission of seriousoffences liable to sanctions such as imprisonment orother forms of deprivation of liberty, pecuniarysanctions and confiscation – sanctions that take intoaccount the grave nature of those offences. The list ofsanctions is illustrative (not exhaustive) and alternative(not cumulative). The conventions do not oblige partiesto make the commission of a specific offence liable toimprisonment, another offence liable to a fine, anotherliable to confiscation or yet another liable to all three.They rightly leave the choice to States becausecriminal responsibility and the scale, severity andimpact of different offences always vary according tothe facts and circumstances of each case.25. In meeting the conventions’ aims of suppressingillicit drug trafficking and depriving those involved ofthe profits, a sanction such as imprisonment will beappropriate in many cases, but it may be inappropriatein others. For example, the organization, managementand carrying out of large-scale trafficking in illicitdrugs and precursors, money-laundering and relatedserious offences should normally result in substantialprison sentences and confiscation. However, there is nouniversal moral instinct about what is right or wrongwhen it comes to punishment in less serious cases. Theconventions expressly permit but do not oblige eachparty to punish an offender if its domestic authoritiesconsider the offence an appropriate case of a minornature or, in the case of a drug-abusing offender, if theoffence is the possession, purchase or cultivation ofillicit drugs for personal use. Thus, provided theminimum convention requirements are met, thedecision to make any such offence punishable in thosecircumstances, particularly by imprisonment, is left tothe discretion of each State. 1426. Nevertheless, many States do imposeunconditional imprisonment on drug abusers for suchlesser offences, and such offenders typically accountfor a significant proportion of the growing prison__________________14 For example, under United States federal law, unlawfulpossession of illicit drugs for a defendant’s own use issubject to mandatory minimum terms of imprisonmentunder 21 U.S.C. § 844(a). In Brazil, under LawNo. 11.343 of 23 August, 2006, a person who unlawfullybuys, holds, stores, transports or carries illicit drugs forpersonal use is subject to warning, educational measures,community service and, in certain cases, fines, but notimprisonment.population in some of those countries. Contrary to theUnited Nations standards and norms in crimeprevention and criminal justice, (in particular, theUnited Nations Standard Minimum Rules for theAdministration of Juvenile Justice (the BeijingRules)) 15 young drug offenders and first offenders aresent to prison not as a last resort but as a first resort;young prisoners are not kept separate from adultprisoners, nor are untried offenders kept separate fromsentenced prisoners; places where prisoners live orwork may be overcrowded and have poor lighting,ventilation, sanitation or hygiene facilities; and theservices of at least one qualified doctor and adequatepharmaceutical supplies and psychiatric services maynot be available. Moreover, unless closely supervised,prisons can become markets for illicit drugs andconsequently increase the scale and severity of drugabuse, as well as the incidence of HIV and otherdiseases. Governments have a responsibility to reducethe availability of illicit drugs in prisons, provideadequate services for drug offenders (whether intreatment services or in prison) and minimize thepossibility of some penal institutions functioningunintentionally as informal learning centres fromwhich inmates leave with greater criminal expertisethan when they entered. 16Proportionality and prosecution decisionmaking27. When the Board addressed implementation issueswith drug abuse and the criminal justice system in itsreport for 1996, 17 some of its suggestions andrecommendations indirectly touched on decisions ofwhether to investigate and prosecute a drug offencecase or to dispose of it in some other way. Thosedecisions are among the most important and sensitiveto be made. Each has an impact on the proportionalityof a State’s response to drug offences in general and toeach offence and offender in each particular case.__________________15 General Assembly resolution 40/33, annex.16 For example, paragraph 9 of the Basic Principles for theTreatment of Prisoners (General Assemblyresolution 45/111, annex) states that prisoners shouldhave access to the health services available in thecountry without discrimination on the grounds of theirlegal situation.17 Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for1996 …, paras. 22 and 24.6

E/INCB/2007/128. Under the basic legal system of some countries,all offences must be automatically prosecuted if thereis enough evidence (strict legality systems). Policemust report all cases to prosecutors, and prosecutorsrefer all prosecutable cases to the courts. In othercountries, the police may have some discretion aboutpossible further action, 18 though those police powersare not always used. 19 Some States that did notpreviously allow discretion now do so. 20 Prosecutingor judicial authorities have wider discretion to take nofurther action, initiate or divert from prosecution ortake other action, such as reducing charges ordiscontinuing prosecution (expediency systems). Ifthey decide not to prosecute, they can imposeconditions on offenders. 21 If those conditions are notmet, prosecution may resume. Many ministries ofjustice and prosecution services and some internationalorganizations have issued decision-making guidelinesfor prosecution and diversion-related decisions.__________________18 Prosecution-related decisions are taken not just on thebasis of evidence of a prosecutable case, but also aftercarefully weighing all relevant factors for and againstprosecution, which normally include the nature andseriousness of the offence, the interests of any victimsand the wider community and the circumstances of theoffender. The relevance and weight given to each factornormally depend on all the facts and circumstances ofeach case.19 As in, for example, Finland and Sweden, perhapsbecause of the perceived deterrent effect of prosecutionand the higher level of social sanction against drugabuse (European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and DrugAddiction, Prosecution of Drug Users in Europe:Varying Pathways to Similar Objectives EMCDDAInsights Series, No. 5 (Luxembourg, Office for OfficialPublications of the European Communities, 2002),p. 20).20 In Belgium, for example, the principle of expediency hasoperated since its introduction in 1998. In practice, thepolice exercise discretionary powers to divert drug usersfrom the system at the earliest point in Germany, theNetherlands, Portugal and Spain, stipulating that thepublic prosecutor, taking into account the criminalpolicy guidelines of the Minister of Justice and theBoard of Prosecutors-General, must decide theexpediency of prosecution (European Monitoring Centrefor Drugs and Drug Addiction, Prosecution of DrugUsers in Europe …, pp. 20 and 86-87).21 For example, to refrain from using illicit drugs,frequenting specified kinds of places or associatingunnecessarily with specified persons and to undergomedical, psychiatric or psychological treatment,including treatment for drug dependency.29. There are advantages and disadvantages to bothdiscretionary and non-discretionary prosecutionsystems. Non-discretionary prosecution systems can besimpler to operate, give more consistent andpredictable case outcomes and reduce the risk ofcorruption. As all cases must be prosecuted, however,minor cases can drive up costs, overload the justicesystem and divert resources from cases with potentiallyhigher impact. Discretionary systems give flexibility todeal with cases cost-effectively with higher overallimpact. But uncontrolled discretion can reducepredictability and consistency and tempt decisionmakers not to prosecute when they should. 22Discretion can also lead to systematic administrativenon-enforcement action 23 or legislative action to curbadministrative or judicial discretion and ensure morestrict or uniform interdiction and sentencing ofoffenders. 24 Both discretionary and non-discretionarysystems can produce disproportionate outcomes. 25__________________22 For example, due to corruption or to avoid eitherpaperwork or the painstaking forensic work thateffective investigation, prosecution and trial entail.23 In the Netherlands, for example, the police do notnormally investigate cases involving possession ofcannabis for personal use, as possession of cannabis insmall quantities is tolerated in coffee shops, in certainconditions.24 In the United States, for example, there is the SentencingReform Act of 1984. The United States Congress enactedmandatory minimum sentencing laws, under whichjudicial authorities must order fixed sentences for thoseconvicted of offences largely involving drug andweapons and for recidivist offenders, regardless ofculpability or other mitigating factors. Mandatory drugsentences are determined on the basis of three factors:the type of drug, the weight of the drug mixture (or thealleged weight in conspiracy cases) and the number ofprior convictions. Judges are unable to consider otherimportant factors such as the offender’s role, motivationand the likelihood of recidivism. A defendant mayreduce the mandatory minimum by providing theprosecutor with “substantial assistance” (informationthat aids the Government in prosecuting otheroffenders).25 For example, in a discretionary system, a governmentleader caught accepting bribes from a drug traffickermay keep the bribes and escape prosecution becauseimproper pressure is brought to bear on the decisionmaker. In a non-discretionary system, a student caughtexperimenting with drugs may forfeit his or her futureprofessional career if the law offers no options otherthan arrest, pretrial detention, prosecution and7

E/INCB/2007/130. All responses to drug-related offences by Statesmust comply with the conventions and not result in anyweakening of the implementation of the conventions.Whether States have discretionary or non-discretionaryprosecution systems, the minimum conventionrequirements should be met in all cases. For theresponse to be proportionate in the context of theinternational drug control conventions, prosecutableserious offence cases should in general be prosecuted,unless the circumstances indicate that a case is of aminor nature. If it is a case of a minor nature or a caseinvolving an offence related to personal use, it shouldbe either prosecuted or conditionally disposed of usingalternatives to formal trial and adjudication. Anydiscretionary decision of whether or not to prosecuteshould be governed by a legal or regulatory frameworkthat guides the exercise of discretion to ensure fairnessand consistency, so that all people are equal before thelaw and are treated equally when suspected ofcommitting a criminal offence.Proportionate sentencing and alternativedisposal of drug-related casework31. The nature and severity of the penalties andsanctions applied by a State are therefore critical inassessing whether the principle of proportionality issatisfied in the State’s response to drug-relatedoffences in general or to any particular case. Asindicated in paragraphs 13-18 above, traffickingrelatedoffences must be treated as offences of a gravenature, with sanctions that adequately reflect theseriousness of those offences. The international drugcontrol conventions do not specify what preciseprocedure or process each party should follow or whatparticular penalty, sanction or alternative to apply to aparticular offender in a particular case. Providing theaims and requirements of the conventions are met,States can generally use their own processes andprocedures and apply the different penalties, sanctionsand alternatives they determine – according to theirown laws, moral and cultural traditions, legal systemsand the facts and circumstances of each case.32. The internationally recognized United Nationsstandards and norms in the treatment of prisoners,alternatives to imprisonment, the use of force by thepolice, juvenile justice and the protection of victimsprovide useful guidance for States in deciding what__________________unconditional prison.custodial and non-custodial penalties and sanctions toadopt and apply, for what offences, to which offenders,in what circumstances and at what stage of the criminaljustice process. The United Nations Standard MinimumRules for Non-custodial Measures (the Tokyo Rules) 26are the agreed international standards in setting andappropriately applying penalties, sanctions and noncustodialalternatives, and the United Nations StandardMinimum Rules for the Administration of JuvenileJustice (the Beijing Rules) 27 deal specifically withthose and other issues in the juvenile justice context. 2833. At the pretrial stage, the Tokyo Rules providethat, where appropriate and compatible with the legalsystem, the police, prosecution service or otherauthorized agency should be empowered to dischargethe offender if they consider it is unnecessary toproceed with the case for the protection of society,crime prevention or the promotion of respect for thelaw and the rights of victims. Criteria should bedeveloped within each legal system to guide decisionson appropriateness of discharge or determination of theproceedings. For minor cases, the prosecutor mayimpose suitable non-custodial measures, as appropriate(rule 5.1). Pretrial detention should be used as a meansof last resort in criminal proceedings, with due regardfor the investigation of the alleged offence and for theprotection of society and the victim. Alternatives topretrial detention should be employed at as early astage as possible and pretrial detention should last nolonger than necessary (rule 6.2).34. At the sentencing stage, the authorities maydispose of cases by custodial sentence or, whereappropriate, a non-custodial alternative. For custodialsentences and fines for serious drug-related offences, arange of variable severity is often set – usually with amaximum and sometimes also with a mandatoryminimum. The penalties and sanctions may varyaccording to the specific drug or class of drugs used,along the lines of the calibrated risk-benefit drugclassification system of the conventions (see__________________26 General Assembly resolution 45/110, annex.27 General Assembly resolution 40/33, annex.28 This may require innovative risk management. Forexample, where a suspect has no readily identifiableplace of residence, the community may be able to takegreater responsibility for ensuring that he or shecomplies with the release conditions and does not fleefrom justice.8

E/INCB/2007/1paragraph 12 above), so that higher penalties andsanctions apply for strictly controlled drugs and lowerones for less strictly controlled drugs. To be reliableand fair, quantity-based sentencing systems must besupported by appropriate technical facilities andadequate financial and human resources.35. Non-custodial sanctions at the sentencing stageunder the Tokyo Rules include deprivation of libertywhile the offender continues to live in thecommunity. 29 Economic sanctions and monetarypenalties such as fines may be imposed, which ifunpaid may lead to imprisonment. Finally, at any stage,non-custodial sanctions may include verbal sanctionssuch as admonition, reprimand and warning.36. The demand for Governments to be moreeffective in their drug control work is difficult to meet,especially when resources are limited. In somecountries, justice, health-care, education and socialsystems often struggle to provide basic public services.There may not be enough courts, judges, lawyers,support staff or equipment to promptly and__________________29 For example, a sentence may be imposed and recordedbut suspended for a specified time. An offender may alsobe conditionally discharged (that is, acquitted and notpunished), provided that he or she complies with certainconditions: the offender may be allowed to continue tolive in the community under the supervision of a judicialauthority, probation service or other similar body,provided that he or she attends a certain course, therapyor treatment programme. A decision may be taken not topass sentence on condition that the offender undertakessome action, such as undergoing treatment foralcoholism or drug addiction or receiving psychologicalcounsel. The offender may be placed under house arrestand obliged to live in a certain place (normally his or herplace of residence) under the supervision of aspecialized agency and cannot change his or her place ofresidence, work or education without the permission ofthe supervising body. Curfews and other restrictions maybe imposed on the offender’s travel, movement or rightto associate with particular individuals. Restrictions maybe placed on other rights, such as the right to take upcertain types of employment or to occupy specificpositions in government. The judge may order theoffender to work without compensation, usually in anagency or organization, for the benefit of the community.The court may also direct an offender to spend a fixednumber of hours each day in an attendance centre for aspecified period undertaking a structured programme toaddress his or her offending behaviour in a groupenvironment.independently confirm that each detention is lawfuland appropriate and that each offender is either triedwithin a reasonable period or released. The trial courtmay lack access to legislation, case law, information toguide sentencing and other basic materials. If the trialeventually takes place, offenders might be without adefence lawyer. If a prison sentence is imposed,community care standards might not be followed in theprison. If imprisoned drug-abusing offenders arereturned to the community, they might pose an evengreater criminal threat and become even moreproblematic drug abusers. Meanwhile, many of theUnited Nations standards and norms in crimeprevention and criminal justice, particularly thoseoutlined in paragraph 26 above, may manifestly not bemet.D. Equality before the law37. Equality before the law is a universal humanright. 30 As everyone has duties to the community,article 29 of the Universal Declaration of HumanRights permits the exercise of human rights andfreedoms to be limited, but only by law, solely for thepurpose of securing due recognition of the rights andfreedoms of others and of meeting the justrequirements of morality, public order and the generalwelfare in a democratic society.38. Due respect for universal human rights, humanduties and the rule of law is important for effectiveimplementation of the international drug controlconventions. Non-respect for them can prejudice theability of the criminal justice system to enforce thelaw, can lead to discriminatory disproportionateresponses to drug offending and can undermine theconventions. 31 Presented below, is a review of several__________________30 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, articles 7 and10; and International Covenant on Civil and PoliticalRights (General Assembly resolution 2200 A (XXI),annex), articles 2, 3 and 26.31 For example, if human rights are not properly respectedby the police, public trust may erode to the point thatproactive community policing initiatives against localdrug problems become impossible. The loss ofcooperation and vital information from the communitymay reduce the ability of the justice system tosuccessfully disrupt the operations of the drugtrafficking groups involved.9

E/INCB/2007/1situations where some drug offenders can be treatedmore or less equally than others before the law.Higher-level offenders39. Because of their resources, some powerful drugcriminals have been able to compromise justicesystems. In its report for 1996, the Board touched onhow that could lead to a sense of injustice in thecommunity and undermine public confidence in thecriminal justice system. 32 In too many places, suchpowerful drug crime figures can easily cross borders,cover their tracks, set different justice systems againsteach other and kill, bully and corrupt in the process.40. Bringing to justice powerful drug traffickers anddismantling their networks are resource-intensive,painstaking and dangerous undertakings. Thetraffickers are usually careful never to touch the drugsand are difficult to convict unless they are caught redhanded.The cases can be complex to investigate; theyoften involve transactions made abroad in an effort todisguise or hide wealth derived from drug trafficking.Strong laws targeting criminal associations andconspiracies are usually needed to ensure theconviction of the persons involved and the confiscationof their criminally derived wealth. Such cases can alsorequire substantial international law enforcement andjustice system cooperation because of all the sensitiveintelligence, evidence and operational action neededfor success. By comparison, smaller cases involvingdrug trafficking are typically more easily proved andless ably defended than cases involving major drugtraffickers. Add to all that demands on justice systemsto be more accountable for their budgets andperformance, and the result can be strong pressure onthe authorities to focus more on low-level offendersand less on persons higher up in the drug traffickingchain.41. A month before he was killed in Medellin, theColombian drug dealer Pablo Escobar was ranked asone of the richest men in the world. At the height of hispower, his Medellin cartel controlled 80 per cent of theworld’s cocaine market and was estimated to bereceiving billions of dollars annually from its cocaineoperations. Escobar ruthlessly applied a strategy ofplata o plomo (accept a bribe or face assassination) to__________________32 Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for1996 …, para. 4-6.intimidate politicians, government officials and judges.Anyone viewed as a threat was executed. As a result,hundreds were killed; some were killed by Escobarhimself. In 1991, Escobar reached an agreement withthe Colombian authorities whereby, in return forturning himself in and discontinuing his drugtrafficking activities, he would: receive a guaranteethat he would not be extradited to the United States ofAmerica; and he would spend five years in a prison inColombia that he would build for himself. Afterpictures of his luxurious prison residence werepublished, Escobar escaped, fearing that he would beextradited to the United States. Without the agreement,Escobar might never have been held accountable in anyway for his actions. Colombia’s drug control effortshave accomplished much since then. Although nowonly of historical significance, the Escobar casetypifies some of the major problems still faced bymany States in bringing to justice powerful drugtraffickers and their supporters.42. In Afghanistan, drug warlords still operate withrelative impunity. Afghanistan produces some 92 percent of the world’s illicit opium, 33 and has a virtualmonopoly over the world’s illicit market for opiates,valued at billions of dollars. 34 Attempts to holdAfghanistan’s drug traffickers and their foreignpartners accountable have been mainly limited todomestic and international security efforts and someinternational law enforcement efforts. Those effortshave been hampered within Afghanistan by the securitysituation, lack of effective control in several importantparts of the country beyond the capital andcompromises made in the system of justice. Butpolitical and security responses or alliances alonecannot be effective against major drug traffickers, theiroperations and their assets. As a result, little has beenachieved in efforts to counter drug trafficking inAfghanistan. The Board has, in its reports, urged thosesupporting Afghanistan to increase their assistance tothe country to achieve greater success.__________________33 World Drug Report 2007 (United Nations publication,Sales No. E.07.XI.5), fig. 13.34 UNODC estimated the global illicit market for opiates,measured at wholesale prices, to be US$ 20.6 billion in2003 (US$ 64.8 billion measured at retail prices) (WorldDrug Report 2005 (United Nations publication, SalesNo. E.05.XI.10), vol. 1, p. 17).10

E/INCB/2007/143. A number of other countries have difficultyholding accountable major drug traffickers. Experiencehas shown that all major drug traffickers, includingthose who are warlords, take sophisticated stepswherever needed to distance themselves from theircrimes and their ownership of wealth.44. In the Board’s view, when a State cannot fullydeal with the situation in its entire territory concerningmajor drug traffickers, much more could be done by allother States in which the traffickers hide theircriminally derived wealth. Those States could takecollective responsibility and, together with thetrafficker’s home State, take steps to trace, freeze,seize and ultimately confiscate such wealth, regardlessof where in the world it is held. That would requiredetermined, secure and well-coordinated action bytheir law enforcement, financial and criminal justiceauthorities, particularly in sharing intelligence andevidence with States in a position to take effectiveaction to confiscate such wealth. States might also giveconsideration to sharing such confiscated property withother parties, pursuant to article 5, paragraph 5 (b) (ii),of the 1988 Convention.Lower-level offenders45. In its report for 1996, the Board called onGovernments to take a more strategic approach totackling drug trafficking, in order to prevent theirjustice and prison systems from being overloaded bylow-level offender casework and to ensure that majordrug trafficking operations were disrupted and put outof business. 35 At the time, the Board noted that manylaw enforcement agencies did not have the resources orskills to do more than apprehend street sellers andindividual drug abusers, leaving intact the structure,financing and management of the illicit drugproduction chain. Eleven years later, that still appearsto be the case in many countries.46. Appropriate enforcement of the law in casesinvolving minor offences can also prevent minor crimefrom escalating into major crime (the “broken windowprinciple”). 36 However, enforcing the law against__________________35 Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for1996 …, para. 6.36 The “broken window principle” became a metaphor for asuccessful strategy to prevent vandalism, by fixing thecrime problems when they are still small, before theproblems escalate. According to the principle, if a vandalminor offenders only is contrary to the conventions,and contrary to the principle of proportionality.Celebrity drug offenders47. More people than ever before can now routinelyfollow, through the media, the behaviour ofwell-known public figures from the world of sport orthe entertainment industry or the performing arts. Ingeneral, the more iconic a person is in his or herculture and the more dramatic the behaviour, the higherthe level of interest of the media and the public.48. When such celebrities use illicit drugs, they breakthe law. Depending on how the authorities respond inthe case, the media reports and associated Internetchatter often reflect or generate perceptions that thesystem has treated the celebrity concerned, by virtue ofhis or her celebrity status, more leniently than others.49. Celebrity drug offenders can profoundlyinfluence public attitudes, values and behaviourtowards drug abuse, particularly among young peoplewho have not yet taken a firm and fully informedposition on drug issues. Cases involving celebrity drugoffenders can also profoundly affect public perceptionsabout the fairness and proportionality of the responseof the justice system, especially if there is a less lenientresponse to similar or lesser offences committed bynon-celebrities.E. Teamwork involving the justice andhealth-care systems50. The principle of proportionality applies to allaspects of a country’s response to drug abuse problems,including the prevention and treatment of drug abuse.When prevention and treatment do not succeed anddrug abusers come into contact with the criminaljustice system, proportionality requires aninterdisciplinary response. Although drug addiction is arecognized medical condition brought on by use, it isnot a legal excuse for committing crime.51. An addicted person will do almost anything, evencommit crime, to obtain the drug. Therefore, responses__________________who breaks a window is caught and made to repair thebroken window within a short time, say, within a week,the vandal is much less likely to break more windows ordo further damage.11

E/INCB/2007/1by States need to address both the offending and thedrug abuse (the underlying cause). Anything less doesnot meet the aims and requirements of the conventionsand does not satisfy the principle of proportionality.52. Drug-related crime committed by drug abusersneeds to be addressed in an integrated andindividualized way: 37 integrated because such crime isinextricably linked to drug abuse; and individualizedbecause there is no single treatment that is appropriatefor all individuals. No single justice system measurecan prevent reoffending. No justice, health-care,education, social or employment system alone has theremit or resources to deliver both; however, byworking together with all relevant actors in the public,private and community sectors, it can be done. It isbest done when there are clear and detailed guidelinesfor action that are integrated and coordinatedvertically, as well as horizontally, among the variousactors.53. In the Board’s view, the work and impact of drugtreatment courts, as one example, confirm the value ofthe integrated approach with certain types of offencesand offenders that justice and health-care systemsagree are appropriate for diversion to treatment. Drugtreatment courts aim to stop drug abuse and relatedcriminal activity of offenders through court-directedtreatment and rehabilitation programmes. Eligibleparticipants undergo treatment and rehabilitationprogrammes instead of traditional final sanctions suchas imprisonment. The programmes demand a high levelof accountability on the part of the offender, andpotential participants often prefer imprisonment, as itis the less demanding alternative. The court’smultidisciplinary team (from the justice and healthcaresystems), led by the judge, oversees eachparticipant’s progress throughout the programme.Programme compliance is objectively monitored by__________________37 In its report for 1996, the Board reiterated that drugabuse must be dealt with simultaneously from thedifferent perspectives of law enforcement, prevention,treatment and rehabilitation. The Board expressed itsbelief that increased cooperation between the judicial,health and social authorities is a necessity to provide abridge between the penal and health systems and calledon Governments to examine more closely thealternatives to prison developed in different parts of theworld, bearing in mind the different legal philosophiesand systems (Report of the International NarcoticsControl Board for 1996 …, paras. 24 and 26).frequent substance-abuse testing. Compliance isrewarded and non-compliance is sanctioned. Relapseinto drug abuse is not usually punished because somerelapse can occur on the long journey towardssustained recovery. However, any dishonesty on thepart of the offender about relapse is sanctioned. Suchsanctioning may be in the form of a very shortcustodial sanction aimed at helping the offender tofocus on and address any lingering failure to takeresponsibility for his or her own recovery – a keyobstacle to making real progress towards sustainedrecovery. Successful completion may lead tosuspension or dismissal of the criminal case, a noncustodialsentence or probation. Repeat offending orother serious programme non-compliance usually leadsto expulsion, and the offender is then dealt with in thetraditional manner in the criminal justice system.54. In a growing number of countries, 38 courts applykey principles in court-directed treatment andrehabilitation programmes. The courts do not alloperate the same way, and what works best in oneplace may not work in another. Some are separate,newly established courts, while others are existingcourts with specially adjusted procedures. There is nosingle, universal model, and they have evolved indifferent forms to suit different needs, legal systems,localities and available resources. Key differencesinclude eligibility to participate, when the case isdiverted, and programme outcomes; however, the corecharacteristics are the same.55. Applying the principles of drug treatment courtsincreases the cost of dealing with drug-abusingoffenders (because of the court’s monitoring ofprogramme compliance), and the cost of treatment.However, evaluation of the work and impact of suchcourts shows that they are generally better at retainingdrug-abusing offenders in treatment and at reducingrecidivism and are often more cost-effective than otheralternatives. 39 Success factors appear to includeeffective judicial leadership of the drug treatment courtteam; strong interdisciplinary team collaboration, with__________________38 For example, in Australia, Barbados, Bermuda, Brazil,Canada, Chile, Ireland, Jamaica, New Zealand, Norway,Trinidad and Tobago and the United States.39 United States, Government Accountability Office, AdultDrug Courts: Evidence Indicates Recidivism Reductionsand Mixed Results for Other Outcomes, GAO reportGAO-05-219 (Washington, D.C., 2005).12

E/INCB/2007/1each team member maintaining professionalindependence; among the team members from thejustice system, good knowledge of addiction, treatmentand recovery; among the team members from thehealth-care system, good knowledge of criminality; anoperational manual for consistency and efficiency;clear criteria for the eligibility of participants, withobjective screening of potential participants; detailedassessment of each potential participant; fully informedand documented consent of each participant to beadmitted to the drug treatment court programme;speedy referral of participants to treatment andrehabilitation following arrest; swift, certain andconsistent sanctions for programme non-complianceand rewards for compliance; ongoing programmeevaluation and willingness to make improvements;sufficient, sustained and dedicated drug treatment courtfunding; and changes in the underlying substantive orprocedural law, if necessary or appropriate.56. Treatment, rehabilitation and reintegration ofdrug-abusing offenders are effective and sustainableonly when well tailored to ensure the offender’srecovery and non-recidivism. The Board notes thatprogrammes for the treatment of drug abuse needcareful policy consideration, clearly articulatedprogramme objectives and a built-in evaluationcomponent. The programmes need to include relapseprevention and aftercare following primary treatment.Success will also depend on the expertise of thoseconducting the programmes, the availability of placesin suitable facilities and close cooperation between thecriminal justice and health agencies. Adequateresources need to be allocated to maximize the chancesof success. Treatment services for drug abuse shouldalso be made available within the prison system. 4057. The Board notes that although the provision oftreatment for drug abusers on a voluntary basis isdesirable, such treatment does not need to be voluntaryto be effective. Strong motivation can facilitate thetreatment process. The Board has emphasized that adrug-abusing offender’s encounter with the criminaljustice system can provide a valuable opportunity tomotivate the person to undergo treatment. 41 Theconventions permit the courts to use their authority andsanctioning powers creatively in an appropriate case to__________________40 Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for1996 …, paras. 29-31.41 Ibid., para. 30.help retain an offender in treatment, improve theprospects of the treatment succeeding and strengthenpublic safety by reducing the offenders drug abuse andpropensity to reoffend. Finally, the Board notes thegood results achieved in some countries where thejustice and health-care systems cooperate closely toprovide mandatory treatment for drug abusers inprisons.F. Recommendations58. The international drug control conventionsencourage and facilitate proportionate responses byStates to drug-related offences and offenders.Disproportionate responses undermine the aims of theconventions and undermine the rule of law.59. While many countries have made progress sincethe Board last addressed proportionality issues in itsreport for 1996, more remains to be done, particularlyin targeting and dismantling major drug traffickingorganizations. In several countries, there is a need tobetter balance law enforcement efforts, so that lowerleveloffenders do not bear the brunt of justice whilehigher-level offenders are not brought to trial.60. In order to ensure more effective implementationof the conventions, the Board recommends thatGovernments that have not already done so should takethe following measures:(a) Law enforcement. Governments shouldensure that law enforcement and justice systems givehigh priority to investigating, prosecuting andconvicting those who control, organize, manage orprovide production for major drug traffickingorganizations. Services to counter money-launderingare also important in this regard. While close attentionshould also be paid to street-level trafficking and tocrimes involving possession of illicit drugs, theyshould not be the only focus of law enforcement andjudicial action;(b) Assets of crime. Governments should ensurethat appropriate legislation is in place to allowauthorities to freeze and seize property and assets ofdrug traffickers and that the authorities give priority tosuch action. Cooperation among States andasset-sharing in cross-border cases should beemphasized in order to effectively dismantle theoperations of major drug trafficking organizations;13

E/INCB/2007/1(c) Alternative sentencing. Governments shouldconsider widening the range of custodial and noncustodialoptions for drug-related offences by illicitdrug users so that authorities can respondproportionately to the circumstances of each case. Insome cases drug courts focusing on persons whofrequently relapse into high-risk lifestyles andmandatory treatment programmes can offer drugabusingoffenders effective alternatives toimprisonment;(d) Penal and health-care systems.Governments should widen the availability of healthcareprogrammes and treatment programmes for drugabuse in prisons, many of which have been shown tobe quite cost-effective and useful in decreasingrecidivism. It is of the utmost importance that access toillicit drugs in prisons be terminated;(e) Offences by public celebrities. Theauthorities of criminal justice and treatmentprogrammes should ensure that public celebrities whoviolate drug laws are made accountable for theiroffences. Cases involving drug-abusing celebrities whoare treated more leniently than others breed publiccynicism and may lead to youth adopting a morepermissive attitude towards illicit drugs;(f) Mutual legal assistance. Governmentsshould review and, if necessary, revise their laws,policies, procedures, resource allocations, prioritiesand infrastructures regarding international justicesystem cooperation. The practical results should be thatStates receiving requests for international justicesystem cooperation or assistance dealt with thoserequests as quickly, thoroughly and usefully as theywould want their own requests to be treated by States.Requests should be limited to the essential assistanceneeded, so as not to unreasonably burden the receivingState that has to execute the request. To improve thequality, speed and effectiveness of the request-makingprocess, the Board recommends that Governments,when appropriate, should make use of the MutualLegal Assistance Request Writer Tool and theforthcoming extradition request writer tool of UNODC,as well as the UNODC guides on best practices inextradition, mutual legal assistance and confiscationcasework;(g) Resources. Governments should reviewtheir drug-related casework priorities, practices andprocedures to ensure that resources for lawenforcement, prosecution, court, and prison andcorrectional facilities are adequate for proportionate,effective action against drug-related crime.Governments should also consider increasing theirsupport to help Governments of developing countriesto enable their justice and health-care systems to dealmore effectively with their drug-related offencecasework;(h) Information policies. Governments shouldensure that the public and the media have access tofacts and statistics concerning the use of the criminaljustice system in response to drug trafficking and drugabuse. It is particularly important that the public beinformed about effective treatment programmes fordrug abuse and that health authorities makeinformation widely available concerning the means andmethods of treatment in order to encourage recidivistoffenders to enter such programmes.61. In the light of the recommendations made in itsreport for 1996 and the recommendations above, theBoard calls on Governments to comprehensivelyreview the responses by their legislative, judicial andexecutive arms of government to drug-related offences,in order to ensure that they are proportionate, and tomake appropriate changes to correct any shortcomings.The Board would appreciate receiving feedback fromStates on any such changes.14

E/INCB/2007/1II. Operation of the international drug control systemA. Narcotic drugsStatus of adherence to the Single Convention onNarcotic Drugs of 1961 and that Convention asamended by the 1972 Protocol62. Since the publication of the report of the Boardfor 2006, Andorra and the Democratic People’sRepublic of Korea have become parties to the1961 Convention as amended by the 1972 Protocol. Asat 1 November 2007, the number of States parties tothe Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of 1961 42 orthat Convention as amended by the 1972 Protocolstood at 186. Of those States, 183 were parties to the1961 Convention as amended by the 1972 Protocol.Afghanistan, Chad and the Lao People’s DemocraticRepublic continue to be parties to the 1961 Conventionin its unamended form only. The Board once againcalls on those three States to accede to the1972 Protocol amending the 1961 Convention 43 assoon as possible. A total of eight States have not yetbecome parties to the 1961 Convention: one State inAfrica (Equatorial Guinea), one in Asia (Timor-Leste)and six in Oceania (Cook Islands, Kiribati, Nauru,Samoa, Tuvalu and Vanuatu). The Board reiterates itsrequest to those States to become parties to the1961 Convention without further delay.Cooperation with GovernmentsSubmission of annual and quarterly statisticalreports on narcotic drugs63. In performing the tasks assigned to it under the1961 Convention, the Board maintains a continuousdialogue with Governments. The statistical data andother information received from them are used by theBoard in assessing the licit manufacture of, trade inand consumption of narcotic drugs worldwide, with aview to determining the extent of Governments’compliance with treaty provisions requiring them tolimit to medical and scientific purposes the licitmanufacture of, trade in and use of narcotic drugs,while at the same time ensuring their availability forlegitimate purposes.__________________42 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 520, No. 7515.43 Ibid., vol. 976, No. 14151.64. Parties to the 1961 Convention have an obligationto furnish to the Board annual statistical reports onproduction, manufacture, consumption, stocks andseizures of narcotic drugs. They also have anobligation to submit to the Board quarterly statistics onimports and exports of narcotic drugs. As at1 November 2007, a total of 172 States and territorieshad submitted annual statistics on narcotic drugs for2006. That accounts for 82 per cent of the 211 Statesand territories required to furnish such statistics. Atotal of 187 States and territories provided quarterlystatistics of imports and exports of narcotic drugs for2006; that figure represents 89 per cent of the211 States and territories requested to furnish thosestatistics. Details of the statistical data received,including the status of compliance by individual partieswith their reporting obligations, are included in the2007 technical report of the Board on narcotic drugs. 4465. The vast majority of States regularly submit themandatory annual and quarterly statistics. However,the Board is concerned that many States, includingsome that are major manufacturers, importers,exporters or users of narcotic drugs, such as Ireland,Japan, the Netherlands and the United States, did notprovide in 2007 the requested information in a timelymanner. The late submission of reports affects theability of the Board to monitor licit activities related tonarcotic drugs and delays the analysis by the Board ofthe worldwide availability of narcotic drugs formedical purposes, as well as its analysis of the globalbalance between the supply of opiate raw materials andthe demand for opiates.66. In some countries, the delay in the submission ofstatistical data to the Board is the result ofGovernments providing insufficient resources to theauthorities responsible for the control of licit activitiesrelated to narcotic drugs. The Board calls upon theGovernments concerned to provide adequate resourcesto ensure the compliance of those authorities with allthe reporting obligations under the 1961 Convention(see also paragraphs 236-241 below).__________________44 Narcotic Drugs: Estimated World Requirements for2008; Statistics for 2006 (United Nations publication,Sales No. E/F/S.08.XI.2).15

E/INCB/2007/167. When examining the statistics received fromGovernments, the Board brings to the attention of theGovernments concerned inconsistencies observed intheir reports and requests them to rectify suchinconsistencies and resolve the problems that have ledto those inconsistencies.68. The Board is always ready to assist Governmentsin complying with their reporting obligations under the1961 Convention. In 2007, as in previous years, theBoard provided to several Governments, at theirrequest, explanations on issues regarding reportingrequirements.69. The Board prepared detailed training material onthe control of narcotic drugs and guidelines onreporting on those drugs for use by national competentauthorities. Those training materials are available onthe website of the Board (www.incb.org). The methodsof reporting were included in the training of nationaldrug control administrators (see paragraph 185 below)and were dealt with during an informal consultation onreporting, organized for selected Governments by theBoard during the fiftieth session of the Commission onNarcotic Drugs, in March 2007.70. All Governments are encouraged to seek from theBoard any information that they may requireregarding the control of narcotic drugs under the1961 Convention, including reporting requirements.Estimates of requirements for narcotic drugs71. The universal application of the system ofestimates is essential to the functioning of theinternational control system for narcotic drugs. WhenGovernments establish estimates that are too low, theyrun the risk of not having sufficient drugs available formedical treatment. Conversely, estimates that areinappropriately high may result in quantities of drugsbeing available in a country in excess of currentrequirements for medical use, which could facilitatethe inappropriate use of drugs or even their diversioninto illicit channels.72. The majority of Governments furnished to theBoard by 1 November 2007 their estimatedrequirements for narcotic drugs for 2008. However, fora number of States and territories that did not providetheir estimates in time for examination andconfirmation, the Board had to establish estimates inaccordance with article 12, paragraph 3, of the1961 Convention. The estimates for all countries andterritories are published by the Board in its technicalreport on narcotic drugs. The updates of thoseestimates, which reflect, inter alia, supplementaryestimates furnished by Governments, are madeavailable on the website of the Board.73. The estimates established by the Board are basedon the estimates and statistics reported in the past bythe respective Governments. For Governments thathave not provided estimates and statistics for severalyears, the estimates established by the Board are insome cases considerably lower than the estimatesfurnished by those Governments in the past, as aprecaution in view of the risk of diversion. Therefore,the Governments concerned are urged to examine theirrequirements for narcotic drugs for 2008 and furnishtheir own estimates to the Board for confirmation, inorder to prevent any possible difficulties in importingthe quantities of narcotic drugs required for medicaluse in their countries.74. The Board examines the estimates received fromGovernments, including supplementary estimates, witha view to limiting the use of narcotic drugs to theamount required for medical and scientific purposesand ensuring adequate availability of those drugs forsuch purposes. When the estimates appear to beinadequate, the Governments concerned are requestedto adjust their estimates. In 2007, most Governmentspromptly adjusted their estimates when the Boardrequested them to do so.75. The Board requests all Governments to determinetheir annual estimates of requirements for narcoticdrugs as accurately as possible, so that resorting tosupplementary estimates is reserved for unforeseencircumstances or when developments in medicaltreatment, including the use of new medications andscientific research, result in additional requirements fornarcotic drugs.Deficiencies in reporting statistics and estimates76. Problems encountered by Governments infurnishing adequate statistics and/or estimates to theBoard are often an indication of deficiencies in theirnational control mechanisms for narcotic drugs and/orthe health-care systems in the countries concerned.Such deficiencies often reflect problems in theimplementation of the treaty provisions in thosecountries, for example lacunae in national laws or16

E/INCB/2007/1administrative regulations or the failure of somelicensees to comply with their obligations undernational legislation, including their obligation toprovide to the national authorities timely and accuratereports on their transactions involving narcotic drugs.The Board invites all Governments concerned to findthe causes for deficiencies in reporting statistics and/orestimates to the Board, with a view to resolving thoseproblems and ensuring adequate reporting.Prevention of diversion into the illicit trafficDiversion from international trade77. The system of control measures laid down in the1961 Convention provides effective protection ofinternational trade in narcotic drugs against attempts attheir diversion into illicit channels. In 2007, as inrecent years, no cases of diversion of narcotic drugsfrom licit international trade into the illicit traffic weredetected.78. The effective control of international trade innarcotic drugs depends to a large extent on thevigilance of exporting countries and their observanceof the limits set in the system of estimates for narcoticdrugs for the importing countries. While mostGovernments are fully implementing the system ofestimates and the import and export authorizationsystem, the Board identified in 2007 a few cases inwhich exports of narcotic drugs were authorized inexcess of the estimates of the respective importingcountries. Such exports did not comply with theprovisions of article 31 of the 1961 Convention andcould have resulted in the diversion of narcotic drugsinto illicit channels. The Board has reminded theGovernments concerned of their obligation to complywith the provisions of article 31 and has advised them,when authorizing exports of narcotic drugs in thefuture, to always consult the annual estimates ofrequirements for narcotic drugs for each importingcountry and territory, which are published by theBoard.Diversion from domestic distribution channels79. The diversion of pharmaceutical preparationscontaining narcotic drugs from domestic distributionchannels and the subsequent abuse of those divertedpreparations have become serious problems in manycountries. The narcotic drugs most often diverted andabused include codeine, dextropropoxyphene,dihydrocodeine, fentanyl, hydrocodone, methadone,morphine, oxycodone, pethidine and trimeperidine.Data received from Governments suggest that in somecountries there is a strong correlation between the mostabused pharmaceutical preparations containing narcoticdrugs and the availability of those preparations on thelicit market. The Board calls on all Governmentsconcerned to take effective measures to counter thediversion and abuse of pharmaceutical preparationscontaining narcotic drugs.80. Diverted pharmaceutical preparations containingnarcotic drugs are also smuggled, for example, out ofcountries in Asia into the United States and intocountries in Europe, where there is illicit demand forsuch preparations. Governments of countries in whichthose preparations are diverted from the domesticdistribution channels should critically examine theirestimates so that there is no excess of narcotic drugs,which could be diverted.81. In some countries, the abuse of pharmaceuticalpreparations containing narcotic drugs surpasses theabuse of illicitly manufactured drugs. For example, inthe United States, the level of misuse of OxyContin ®(containing oxycodone) reported in the 2006 NationalSurvey on Drug Use and Health is more than twice ashigh as the reported level of abuse of heroin. TheBoard is particularly concerned about the high numberof adolescents abusing those narcotic drugs. In theUnited States, about 10 per cent of students in theirfinal year of secondary school (aged 17-18) reportedhaving abused pharmaceutical preparations such asVicodin ® (containing hydrocodone) and OxyContin ® in2006 (see also paragraph 98 below). The widespreadprescription of those pharmaceutical preparations hascontributed to the belief that those drugs might be saferthan the illicitly manufactured drugs. The Board callson the Government of the United States to give highpriority in its drug abuse prevention programmes topreventing the abuse of pharmaceutical preparationscontaining narcotic drugs and to bring to the attentionof adolescents the high risks associated with suchabuse.Scope of controlControl of oripavine82. On the recommendation by the World HealthOrganization (WHO), the Commission on NarcoticDrugs adopted decision 50/1, in which it decided to17

E/INCB/2007/1include oripavine in Schedule I of the 1961 Conventionand that Convention as amended by the 1972 Protocol.The Secretary-General, in his note verbale dated27 June 2007, informed all States that, pursuant to theprovisions of article 3, paragraph 7, of the1961 Convention, Commission decision 50/1 hadbecome effective with respect to each party on the dateof its receipt of that note. The Board requests all Statesto implement without delay the provisions of the1961 Convention with respect to oripavine, includingby complying with the system of estimates andproviding statistical reports to the Board.Ensuring the availability of drugs for medicalpurposesDemand for and supply of opiates83. Pursuant to the 1961 Convention and relevantEconomic and Social Council resolutions, the Boardexamines on a regular basis issues affecting the supplyof, and demand for, opiates used for medical andscientific purposes. In cooperation with Governments,the Board strives to maintain a balance between supplyof and demand for opiates for legitimate uses. Adetailed analysis of the current situation with regard tosupply of and demand for opiates for medical andscientific purposes worldwide is contained in the2007 technical report of the Board on narcotic drugs. 4584. The Board recommends that global stocks ofopiate raw materials be maintained at a level sufficientto cover global demand for about one year, in order toensure the availability of opiates for medical needs incase of an unexpected shortfall of production and toreduce the risk of diversion associated with excessivestocks. Since the entry into force of the1961 Convention, Governments of producing countrieshave cooperated with the Board in seeking to maintainglobal stocks of the opiate raw materials at the levelrecommended by the Board. In the period 1999-2003,total production of opiate raw materials considerablyexceeded global demand, resulting in stock levels thatwere higher than necessary. The Board, therefore,invited producing countries to reduce the production ofopiate raw materials to prevent a further increase inglobal stocks. The Board appreciates that producingcountries have adhered to its advice and contributed tothe reduction of stocks.__________________45 Ibid.85. Stocks of opiate raw materials rich in morphine,which, at the end of 2005, had been higher than globaldemand for two years, were reduced to a levelsufficient to cover global demand for about 21 monthsat the end of 2006.86. In 2006, there was an increase in stocks ofthebaine and opiates derived from thebaine. At the endof 2006, global stocks of opiate raw materials rich inthebaine were sufficient to cover global demand forabout eight months; in addition, stocks of thebaine andopiates derived from thebaine were sufficient to coverglobal demand for about 30 months.87. According to information available to the Board,in 2007, some of the excessive stocks of opiate rawmaterials will be used to cover global demand, whichwill be more than total production. For 2008,Governments of some producing countries are planningto increase the area cultivated with opium poppy, inorder to cover increasing demand and to replenishstocks of opiate raw materials, where necessary. Thetotal supply of opiate raw materials will continue to besufficient to cover the demand. The Board urgesGovernments of producing countries to maintain thefuture production at the levels currently planned.88. Global demand continues to increase for bothopiate raw materials rich in morphine and those rich inthebaine. It is anticipated that, as a result of theactivities of the Board and WHO to ensure theadequate use of opioid analgesics, global demand foropiates and for opiate raw materials will rise further(see paragraphs 208-213 below).Prevention of the proliferation of production ofopiate raw materials89. Pursuant to the relevant Economic and SocialCouncil resolutions, the Board calls upon allGovernments to contribute to the maintenance of abalance between the licit supply of and demand foropiate raw materials and to cooperate in preventing theproliferation of sources of production of opiate rawmaterials. Most recently, in its resolution 2007/9 of25 July 2007, the Economic and Social Council urgedthe Governments of all countries where opium poppyhad not been cultivated for the licit production ofopiate raw materials to refrain from engaging in thecommercial cultivation of opium poppy, in order toavoid the proliferation of supply sites. The Board18

E/INCB/2007/1would welcome the cooperation of all Governments incomplying with Council resolution 2007/9.Informal consultation on supply of and demandfor opiates for medical and scientific purposes90. Pursuant to Economic and Social Councilresolution 2006/34 of 27 July 2006, the Boardconvened an informal consultation on the supply ofand demand for opiates for medical and scientificpurposes during the fiftieth session of the Commissionon Narcotic Drugs, in March 2007. During thatmeeting, the Governments of major producers andimporters of opiate raw materials examined recentdevelopments affecting global production of anddemand for opiate raw materials and discussed thevarious policies applied in their countries with respectto those raw materials.Cultivation and utilization of Papaver bracteatumas a raw material for the manufacture of opiates91. Papaver bracteatum is a variety of poppy forwhich no control provisions are contained in the1961 Convention as amended by the 1972 Protocol.The Board notes that in some countries there has beenan interest in conducting scientific research on thecultivation of Papaver bracteatum for the extraction ofalkaloids, in particular thebaine. In one country, thereis a proposal to begin commercial cultivation ofPapaver bracteatum for the extraction of alkaloids.92. The cultivation and utilization of Papaverbracteatum for the commercial extraction of alkaloidswere contemplated by some Governments in the 1970s,when there was a temporary shortage in the supply ofopiate raw materials. Papaver bracteatum wasconsidered as a possible source of thebaine forconversion into codeine. At that time, the Boardconcluded that the cultivation of Papaver bracteatumfor commercial purposes and the resulting productionof poppy straw must be taken into consideration whenbalancing the supply of and demand for opiate rawmaterials. The Board also concluded that Papaverbracteatum should be placed under internationalcontrol once its commercial cultivation had started. 46__________________46 Demand and Supply of Opiates for Medical andScientific Needs (United Nations publication, Sales No.E.82.XI.4), paras. 357-358.93. In its resolution 1982/12 of 30 April 1982, at atime when large stocks of opiate raw materials wereheld by the traditional supplier countries, the Economicand Social Council appealed to Governments that hadnot cultivated Papaver bracteatum to considerrefraining from embarking on its commercialcultivation. Pursuant to that resolution, no Governmentstarted the commercial cultivation of Papaverbracteatum.94. Since then, the international market for opiateraw materials has changed, and new varieties of opiumpoppy (Papaver somniferum) rich in thebaine havebeen developed for commercial use to satisfy thegrowing demand for opiate raw materials rich inthebaine. The Board invites all the Governmentsconcerned, in particular major producers and users ofopiate raw materials and countries in which researchon Papaver bracteatum is being conducted, toexamine, in cooperation with the Board, the possibleimpact of the commercial cultivation of Papaverbracteatum on the global supply of opiate rawmaterials and the steps to be taken in that connection toensure that there is a balance between the supply ofand demand for opiate raw materials. The Board willcontact the Governments concerned on that matter.95. The Board wishes to remind all Governments thatthe Commission on Narcotic Drugs, in its resolution 2(XXIX), urged parties engaged in the cultivation ofPapaver bracteatum for the production of thebaine orthebaine derivatives to voluntarily report to the Boardstatistics on the area cultivated and production.Consumption of narcotic drugs96. Global consumption of opioid analgesics for thetreatment of moderate to severe pain (expressed indefined daily doses for statistical purposes) increasedby more than two and one half times during the pastdecade. However, the increase in consumptionoccurred mainly in countries in Europe and NorthAmerica. In 2006, for example, countries in those tworegions together accounted for almost 96 per cent ofglobal consumption of fentanyl, 89 per cent of globalconsumption of morphine and 97 per cent of globalconsumption of oxycodone.97. The low levels of consumption of opioidanalgesics for the treatment of pain in many countries,in particular in developing countries, continue to be amatter of serious concern to the Board. The Board19

E/INCB/2007/1again urges all Governments concerned to identify theimpediments in their countries to adequate use ofopioid analgesics for the treatment of pain and to takesteps to improve the availability of those narcoticdrugs for medical purposes, in accordance with thepertinent recommendations of WHO. The Board truststhat the Access to Controlled Medications Programme,the framework of which was prepared by WHO incooperation with the Board, will provide effectiveassistance to Governments in that regard (seeparagraphs 208-213 below).98. Governments should be aware that increasedavailability of narcotic drugs for legitimate medicalpurposes may raise the risk of diversion and abuse ofthose drugs. In the United States, the most frequentlydiverted and abused pharmaceutical preparations arethose containing hydrocodone and oxycodone (seeparagraph 81 above). In 2006, the United Statesaccounted for 99 per cent of global consumption ofhydrocodone and 80 per cent of global consumption ofoxycodone. The medical use of hydrocodone reached19 defined daily doses for statistical purposes (S-DDD)per 1,000 inhabitants per day, and the medical use ofoxycodone reached 4 S-DDD per 1,000 inhabitants perday. In the United States, the consumption ofhydrocodone increased by 70 per cent and theconsumption of oxycodone by 55 per cent during thepast five years. The Board wishes to remind allGovernments of the need to closely monitor trends inthe consumption of pharmaceutical preparationscontaining narcotic drugs and to adopt measures tocounter their diversion and abuse, as necessary.99. Global consumption of methadone has increasedmore than three times over the past decade. Methadoneis used in several countries for the treatment of pain,but the sharp upward trend in its consumption ismainly attributable to its growing use in maintenancetreatment related to opioid dependency. In 2006, thecountries using the largest quantities of methadonewere (in descending order) the United States, Spain,Germany, the United Kingdom of Great Britain andNorthern Ireland, Italy, the Islamic Republic of Iranand Canada; those countries together accounted for83 per cent of global consumption. The Board requeststhe authorities of those and other countries wheremethadone is used for medical purposes to be vigilantwith regard to possible methadone diversion,trafficking or abuse and to take effectivecountermeasures, if necessary.B. Psychotropic substancesStatus of adherence to the Convention onPsychotropic Substances of 1971100. Since the publication of the report of the Boardfor 2006, Andorra, the Democratic People’s Republicof Korea and Nepal have become parties to theConvention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971. Thus,as at 1 November 2007, the number of States parties tothe 1971 Convention stood at 183. Of the 11 States thathave yet to become parties to the 1971 Convention,there are two in Africa (Equatorial Guinea andLiberia), one in the Americas (Haiti), one in Asia(Timor-Leste) and seven in Oceania (Cook Islands,Kiribati, Nauru, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu andVanuatu). The Board calls on those States which havenot yet become parties to the 1971 Convention toaccede to that Convention without further delay.Cooperation with GovernmentsSubmission of annual and quarterly statisticaldata101. Parties to the 1971 Convention have an obligationto furnish annual statistical reports on psychotropicsubstances to the Board. In its resolutions 1985/15 of28 May 1985 and 1987/30 of 26 May 1987, theEconomic and Social Council requested Governmentsto voluntarily provide to the Board information on thecountries of origin of imports and the countries ofdestination of exports of substances listed inSchedules III and IV of the 1971 Convention. Detailsof the statistical data received, including the status ofreporting by Governments, and the analysis of suchdata are included in the technical publication of theBoard on psychotropic substances. 47102. The majority of States regularly submit themandatory and voluntary statistical reports, and mostof the statistical reports are submitted in a timelymanner. By 1 November 2007, a total of 155 States andterritories had submitted to the Board annual statisticalreports on psychotropic substances for 2006 inconformity with the provisions of article 16 of the__________________47 Psychotropic Substances: Statistics for 2006;Assessments of Annual Medical and ScientificRequirements for Substances in Schedules II, III and IVof the Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971(United Nations publication, Sales No. E/F/S.08.XI.3).20

E/INCB/2007/11971 Convention. That accounts for 73 per cent of theStates and territories required to furnish such statistics.A total of 133 Governments voluntarily provideddetails on the countries of origin of imports and thecountries of destination of exports of substances listedin Schedules III and IV of the 1971 Convention. Inaddition, for the year 2006, 110 Governmentssubmitted voluntarily all four quarterly statisticalreports on imports and exports of substances inSchedule II of the 1971 Convention.103. The late submission of mandatory annualstatistical reports creates difficulties for theinternational control of psychotropic substances. TheBoard regrets that some countries, including the mainmanufacturing and exporting countries, such asIreland, Japan, the Netherlands and Switzerland, didnot submit their annual statistical reports onpsychotropic substances for 2006 in a timely manner.In addition, some Governments did not provide detailson the countries of origin of imports or countries ofdestination of exports of substances in Schedules IIIand IV of the 1971 Convention, pursuant to Economicand Social Council resolutions 1985/15 and 1987/30.Incomplete, late or no reporting may indicatedeficiencies in the national control system. The Boardreiterates its request to all States that experiencedifficulties in complying in a timely manner with theirreporting obligations to take the appropriate measuresto ensure that national controls are applied asnecessary and that the statistical reports onpsychotropic substances are submitted within thedeadline (before 30 June), pursuant to the1971 Convention and relevant Economic and SocialCouncil resolutions. The Board stands ready to assistthe competent authorities in complying with theirreporting obligations under the 1971 Convention.Assessments of requirements for psychotropicsubstances104. Governments are requested to provide to theBoard assessments, also called simplified estimates, ofannual domestic medical and scientific requirementsfor psychotropic substances, pursuant to Economic andSocial Council resolution 1981/7 of 6 May 1981 withrespect to substances in Schedule II of the1971 Convention and pursuant to Council resolution1991/44 of 21 June 1991 with respect to substances inSchedules III and IV of that Convention. Theassessments are collated and communicated to thecompetent authorities of all States and territories, to beused as a guide in approving exports of psychotropicsubstances. By 1 November 2007, the Governments ofalmost all countries had submitted to the Board at leastonce their assessments of annual medical and scientificrequirements for psychotropic substances. The Boardestablished annual assessments for Montenegro. 48 TheBoard urges the Government of Montenegro to reviewthose assessments as soon as possible with a view toamending them as necessary, so as to be able to importpsychotropic substances to meet medical needs.105. The Board has recommended that Governmentsreview and, if necessary, update the assessments oftheir annual medical and scientific requirements forpsychotropic substances at least every three years. InJanuary 2007, all Governments were asked to reviewand, if necessary, update the assessments of theirannual medical and scientific requirements forpsychotropic substances. By 1 November 2007,97 Governments had submitted to the Board a fullrevision of the assessments of their requirements forpsychotropic substances.106. However, the Board is concerned that19 Governments have not revised their requirementsfor psychotropic substances in the past three years.Those assessments may no longer reflect the actualmedical and scientific requirements for psychotropicsubstances in the countries concerned. Assessmentsthat are lower than the actual legitimate requirementsmay delay the importation of psychotropic substancesneeded for medical or scientific purposes in thecountry in question, owing to the need to verify thelegitimacy of import orders. Assessments that aresignificantly higher than the actual legitimate needsmay increase the risk of psychotropic substances beingdiverted into illicit channels. The Board encourages allGovernments to ensure that their assessments areregularly updated and that the Board is informed of anymodifications.__________________48 Prior to 2006, assessments for Montenegro wereincluded in the assessments of Serbia and Montenegro(see the Report of the International Narcotics ControlBoard for 2006 (United Nations publication, SalesNo. E.07.XI.11), para. 73).21

E/INCB/2007/1Prevention of diversion of psychotropicsubstances into the illicit trafficDiversion from international trade107. While, in the past, diversion of substances inSchedules III and IV of the 1971 Convention from licitinternational trade was one of the main sources used tosupply illicit markets, no diversion of substances inSchedule I has ever been reported to the Board and nodiversion from licit international trade of substances inSchedule II has been reported since 1990. Thosesuccesses are the result of a well-functioninginternational control regime for psychotropicsubstances in Schedules I and II.108. Licit international trade in psychotropicsubstances in Schedule I of the 1971 Convention hasbeen limited to a small number of transactionsinvolving quantities of only a few grams, because ofthe very limited use of such substances. While therehave been isolated attempts over the years to divertsubstances in Schedule I, no actual diversion into illicitchannels has ever taken place, because of the strictinternational control mechanism for those substances,in particular the requirement in article 7, paragraph (a),of the 1971 Convention to prohibit all use of thosesubstances except for scientific and very limitedmedical purposes. The Board calls upon allGovernments to remain vigilant and ensure that theirindustries, as well as authorized traders, are fullyaware of all restrictions in place concerning trade inand use of substances in Schedule I of the1971 Convention.109. Of the substances in Schedule II ofthe 1971 Convention, only amphetamines andmethylphenidate are manufactured and traded in largequantities. Methylphenidate is used mostly in thetreatment of attention deficit disorder (ADD).Amphetamines, which are mostly used in industrialprocesses, are also used in the treatment of ADD. Theimplementation of treaty-based control measures (theimport and export authorization system) and othermeasures recommended by the Board and endorsed bythe Economic and Social Council, such as assessmentsand quarterly statistical reports, have virtuallyeliminated the diversion of those substances.Preparations containing hallucinogens, fenetylline andmethaqualone, which are found on illicit markets insome regions, are almost exclusively illicitlymanufactured, while methylphenidate found on illicitmarkets is believed to have been diverted fromdomestic distribution channels.110. Licit international trade in substances inSchedules III and IV of the 1971 Convention consistsof thousands of individual transactions each year. TheBoard analyses data on international trade in thosepsychotropic substances and, when in doubt, requeststhe Governments concerned to initiate investigations ofsuspicious transactions. While, until a decade ago, thediversion of substances in Schedules III and IV fromlicit international trade had occurred frequently,involving quantities of up to hundreds of kilograms,nowadays almost all attempts at diverting suchsubstances are discovered and the very rare successfuldiversions involve only small quantities of substances.That positive development is attributable to the factthat the majority of Governments, as recommended bythe Board and requested by the Economic and SocialCouncil, have extended the additional controls overinternational trade (using, for example, the import andexport authorization system, the assessment system andthe detailed reporting system) to include most of thesubstances in Schedules III and IV as well.111. However, there continue to be attempts to divertsubstances in Schedules III and IV of the1971 Convention. The method used most in attempteddiversions, the falsification of import authorizations,was used in two major diversion attempts reported tothe Board in 2007. The first case involved theattempted diversion of 3 tons of phenobarbital, asubstance in Schedule IV of the 1971 Convention, fromChina to Afghanistan. The second case involved theattempted diversion of 250,000 pentazocine injectionsfrom India to Nigeria. Pentazocine is an opioidanalgesic in Schedule III of the 1971 Convention, withactions similar to those of morphine; it is widelyabused in Nigeria. In both cases, the exportation didnot take place.112. The Board invites all Governments to continue tobe vigilant with respect to orders for psychotropicsubstances and, if necessary, to confirm with theGovernments of the importing countries the legitimacyof such orders prior to approving the export of suchsubstances. The Board is prepared to facilitate suchconfirmations. Furthermore, the Board encourages thenational competent authorities of exporting countries toregularly check import orders against the assessmentsof the actual requirements for psychotropic substances22

E/INCB/2007/1of the relevant importing countries when verifying thelegitimacy of trade transactions. Such checks areespecially important in the case of orders placed bycompanies in the few countries that have not yetintroduced mandatory import authorizations for allpsychotropic substances.Diversion from domestic distribution channels113. The diversion of psychotropic substances fromdomestic distribution channels continues and, in somecases, relatively large quantities of psychotropicsubstances are involved. Information available on theabuse and seizure of psychotropic substances indicatesthat the diversion of pharmaceutical preparationscontaining such substances from licit distributionchannels is the most important source used by illicitdrug suppliers. The two most abused groups ofpsychotropic substances are benzodiazepines andamphetamine-type stimulants (ATS). In a number ofdeveloping countries, certain benzodiazepines such asdiazepam (often sold under the brand name Valium ® )and chlordiazepoxide (often sold under the brand nameLibrium ® ) can be easily obtained on the street, whereasin developed countries, notably Canada, the UnitedStates and certain European countries, there have beenreports of the misuse or abuse of stimulants,barbiturates and benzodiazepines obtained withoutprescription through illegally operating Internetpharmacies. The Board calls on Governments tomonitor the consumption levels of prescription drugscontaining psychotropic substances, to identifypossible diversions and to raise awareness about theconsequences of the abuse of such drugs.114. Recently, the diversion from licit distributionchannels of preparations containing the analgesicbuprenorphine has become a matter of growingconcern. The diversion and abuse of such preparationshave been reported in a number of countries, mainly inEurope, where buprenorphine is used also for thetreatment of opioid addicts, but also in other regions,such as East Africa and West Asia. Because of thosediversions, the Board has requested the governments ofall the countries and territories that have been reportinglicit consumption of buprenorphine (a total of47 countries and territories) to provide it withinformation on the control status of buprenorphine intheir respective territory. So far, the Governments of25 countries 49 have furnished the requestedinformation. According to that preliminaryinformation, Governments of many developedcountries have subjected buprenorphine to the samecontrol measures that are applied to narcotic drugs intheir countries. In addition, the importation ofbuprenorphine preparations in Mauritius, has beenprohibited since 1999 as it is being used illicitly as themain substitute for heroin in that country. The Boardcalls on the competent authorities of all countriesconcerned to increase their vigilance with regard to thediversion and abuse of and trafficking inbuprenorphine and to inform the Board of newdevelopments. The Board encourages all Governmentsconcerned to consider enhancing existing mechanismsfor control over that substance, as necessary.115. Details on the diversion and abuse ofpharmaceutical preparations, including the methodsused to divert pharmaceutical preparations from licitdistribution channels, and the measures to be taken byGovernments to counter such illicit activities can befound in paragraphs 282-290 below.Smuggling and abuse of counterfeit preparations116. Pharmaceutical preparations containingpsychotropic substances found on the illicit market arenot necessarily always diverted from licit manufactureand trade. In some cases, increased demand on illicitmarkets for a specific pharmaceutical preparationcontaining a psychotropic substance has led to theillicit manufacture of counterfeit preparations.117. While there were numerous cases involving thediversion of licitly manufactured Captagon ® and/or thebase substance fenetylline in the late 1980s, theadoption of enhanced control measures in the 1990shas put an end to such diversion. As fenetylline can nolonger be obtained from licit sources, traffickers haveresorted to producing counterfeit Captagon containingmainly amphetamines. Large seizures of suchcounterfeit Captagon tablets continue to be made incountries in West Asia. In 2006, over 2 millioncounterfeit Captagon tablets were seized in Saudi__________________49 Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, China, CzechRepublic, Denmark, El Salvador, Estonia, France,Greece, Iceland, Indonesia, Ireland, Israel, Latvia,Malaysia, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal,the Republic of Korea, the Russian Federation, Spain,Sweden and the United Kingdom.23

E/INCB/2007/1Arabia and about 8 million were seized in the SyrianArab Republic, as well as 193,000 tablets containingother psychoactive substances. Furthermore, in thesame year, a single consignment containing45,000 counterfeit Captagon tablets from the SyrianArab Republic was seized in the United Arab Emirates.The Board notes the steps taken by the Government ofthe Syrian Arab Republic to combat trafficking in thosetablets and encourages the Governments of all thecountries concerned in the region to follow suit, asappropriate.118. Pharmaceutical preparations containingpsychotropic substances have become major drugs ofabuse. For example, Rohypnol, ® a pharmaceuticalpreparation containing flunitrazepam, is beingcounterfeited to be sold on the illicit market.Flunitrazepam, a benzodiazepine-type sedativehypnoticin Schedule III, is one of the most frequentlymisused or abused benzodiazepines. Diversion offlunitrazepam from both international trade anddomestic distribution channels was significantlyreduced during the past decade by the adoption andimplementation of strict control policies for thatsubstance. It would appear that the majority of theRohypnol ® tablets seized since then have beencounterfeit products, although reliable information onthe share of counterfeit tablets among all seizedRohypnol ® tablets is not available. In order to be ableto accurately determine illicit drug manufacture andtrafficking trends involving Rohypnol, ® the Boardwishes to encourage all Governments concerned to testseized Rohypnol ® tablets, whenever possible, todetermine if they are counterfeit. The Board alsoencourages Governments to share information on thephysical appearance of seized Rohypnol ® tablets withother interested Governments through a profilingnetwork and to report their findings to the Board.Control measuresAssistance to Governments in verifying thelegitimacy of import transactions119. The Governments of many exporting countriescontinue to request the assistance of the Board inverifying the legitimacy of import authorizations forpsychotropic substances. In order to be able to betterassist Governments in verifying the authenticity ofimport documents for narcotic drugs, psychotropicsubstances and precursor chemicals, the Boardmaintains a collection of samples of official importcertificates and authorizations in use by nationalauthorities. The Board calls on all Governments thathave not yet provided it with such samples to do sowithout further delay.120. The Board notes with concern that, in certaincases, responses to its requests for confirmation of thelegitimacy of import orders are unduly delayed. TheBoard wishes to draw the attention of the Governmentsconcerned to the importance of responding in a timelymanner to enquiries made by the Board. Failure tocooperate with the Board may hinder the investigationof diversion attempts and/or may cause delays inlegitimate trade in psychotropic substances and impedethe availability of psychotropic substances forlegitimate purposes.National control measures regarding internationaltrade121. The Board notes with appreciation that, in 2007,Georgia extended the system of import and exportauthorizations to include all substances inSchedules III and IV of the 1971 Convention. Inaddition, El Salvador, Myanmar, Pakistan, thePhilippines and Saudi Arabia extended that system toinclude some substances that had previously not beencovered. At present, export and import authorizationsfor substances in Schedules III and IV are required bynational law in more than 160 countries and territories.122. The Board requests the Governments of allcountries that do not yet control the import and exportof all psychotropic substances by the system of importand export authorizations, regardless of whether theyare parties to the 1971 Convention or not, to introducesuch controls. Experience has shown that countries thatare involved in international commerce but do not havesuch controls are at particular risk of being targeted bytraffickers. The Board therefore urges the Governmentsof Ireland and Singapore, which are major importersand exporters of psychotropic substances, to extendsuch controls to include all substances listed inSchedules III and IV of the 1971 Convention.123. Governments should also carefully examine the“table showing the countries in which nationallegislation requires the issuing of import authorizationsfor substances in Schedules III and IV of the1971 Convention”, which is circulated twice a year to24

E/INCB/2007/1all Governments, and inform the Board of anyrevisions of the requested information.124. The system for the assessment of medical andscientific needs of psychotropic substances, establishedby the authorities of each country and territory, isanother important control measure applied tointernational trade in psychotropic substances.Experience has shown that the diversion ofpsychotropic substances can be prevented if exportingcountries verify whether the quantities ordered byimporting countries are within the assessments of theirmedical and scientific needs. The Board appreciatesthe cooperation of exporting countries that contact itwhen they receive authorizations for imports ofpsychotropic substances in excess of the assessedlegitimate requirements. The Board notes, however,that seven countries issued import authorizationsduring 2006 for sizeable quantities of benzodiazepinesin Schedule IV, without having established assessmentsfor the substances concerned. Moreover, somecountries, including countries that are majormanufacturers, importers and exporters of psychotropicsubstances, such as Belgium, Germany, theNetherlands, Spain, Switzerland and the UnitedKingdom, issued import authorizations for substancesin Schedules II, III or IV in quantities exceeding theirassessments. The Board reiterates its request to allGovernments to establish a mechanism for ensuringthat their assessments correspond to their actuallegitimate needs and that no imports exceeding theassessments are authorized.Consumption of psychotropic substances125. The consumption levels of psychotropicsubstances continue to differ widely depending on thecountry and region, as shown in previous reports of theBoard. While such differences can often be explainedby cultural diversity in medical practice and variationsin prescription patterns, the issue of excessively highor low levels of drug consumption merits specialattention. High levels of consumption of psychotropicsubstances that are not medically justified are a matterof concern to the Board, as they may lead to abuse anddiversion of the substances in question, as shown in theexamples below. Low levels of consumption ofpsychotropic substances in some countries may reflectthe fact that the substances are almost inaccessible bysome segments of the population in those countries,which may lead to parallel markets offering thosesubstances or counterfeit medicaments allegedlycontaining those substances. The Board invites theGovernments of all countries to compare theirconsumption patterns with those in other countries andregions, to identify unusual trends requiring attentionin their territory, as recommended in the report of theBoard for 2000, 50 and to promote rational use of thosesubstances.Buprenorphine126. Buprenorphine, listed in Schedule III since 1989,is used mainly as an opioid analgesic. In severalcountries, buprenorphine is also used in thedetoxification and substitution treatment of opioiddependence. Since new preparations containing highdoses of buprenorphine (Subutex ® ) or buprenorphinewith naloxone (Suboxone ® ) have been introduced inseveral countries for the treatment of drug dependence,global manufacture and consumption of buprenorphinehave increased substantially and the use ofbuprenorphine has been reported in an increasingnumber of countries. For instance, since 2000, thenumber of countries reporting imports ofbuprenorphine has more than doubled. Totalmanufacture of the substance increased steadily from1993 onwards, reaching an average of nearly 2 tons inthe period 2003-2006, which is double the amountmanufactured in the late 1990s, when the substancestarted to be used in higher doses for the treatment ofopioid addiction.127. The increased use of buprenorphine for medicalpurposes has been accompanied by increased diversionof buprenorphine preparations. The Board reiterates itsrequest to all Governments that experience suchproblems to strengthen the control measures applied tobuprenorphine, in order to stop the diversion of thatsubstance from licit distribution channels.Stimulants in Schedule II of the 1971 Conventionused for the treatment of attention deficit disorder128. Methylphenidate, amphetamine anddexamphetamine, substances in Schedule II of the1971 Convention, are used mainly for the treatment ofADD, primarily in children, and for the treatment of__________________50 Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for2000 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.01.XI.1),chap. I.25

E/INCB/2007/1narcolepsy. The use of those substances is considerablyhigher in the Americas than elsewhere. The use ofmethylphenidate increased significantly in the 1990s,mainly as a result of developments in the UnitedStates, where the substance is frequently publicized,including in advertisements directed at potentialconsumers. The United States accounted for over80 per cent of the calculated worldwide use ofmethylphenidate in 2006. However, since the late1990s, the use of methylphenidate for the treatment ofADD has risen sharply in many other countries as well,such as Canada, Germany, Iceland, Spain andSwitzerland. Global calculated consumption of thesubstance increased significantly, from 22 to 36 tons,in the period 2002-2006.129. The Board reiterates its concern that, in somecountries with high prescription levels for stimulants inSchedule II of the 1971 Convention, the diversion andabuse of those substances have been noted (seeparagraphs 282-290 below). The Board requests allGovernments to ensure that the control measuresforeseen in the 1971 Convention are applied tostimulants in Schedule II that are used for the treatmentof ADD and appeals to the Governments concerned toincrease their vigilance with regard to the diversion of,trafficking in and abuse of stimulants in Schedule II.The Board requests Governments to inform it of anynew development in that area.Stimulants in Schedule IV of the 1971 Conventionthat are used as anorectics130. The stimulants in Schedule IV of the1971 Convention are mostly used as anorectics. TheBoard has closely followed developments in theconsumption of those substances, with a view toidentifying consumption levels that may beinappropriate for medical purposes and might thereforelead to the diversion and abuse of the substances inquestion. Of those substances, phentermine is the oneused the most, followed by fenproporex, amfepramoneand phendimetrazine.131. Consumption of stimulants in Schedule IVcontinued to increase significantly in some countries inthe Americas, such as Argentina, Brazil and the UnitedStates, which are also the countries with the highestcalculated rate of use of the central nervous systemstimulants listed in Schedule IV worldwide. Overall,per capita consumption of those stimulants in theAmericas was three times more than in other regions.Whereas consumption levels for those substances fellin Europe and Oceania, the level of consumptionincreased in countries in Asia, in particular in theRepublic of Korea.132. The Board reiterates its appeal to Governmentsreporting high levels of consumption of stimulants inSchedule IV of the 1971 Convention to monitor theirtrend of use, to identify possible overprescribing ofanorectics and to ensure that domestic distributionchannels are adequately controlled.C. PrecursorsStatus of adherence to the United NationsConvention against Illicit Traffic in NarcoticDrugs and Psychotropic Substances of 1988133. All States that are major manufacturers, exportersand importers of scheduled chemicals are now partiesto the 1988 Convention. The Board welcomes theaccession of the Democratic People’s Republic ofKorea and Liechtenstein to the 1988 Conventionduring the period under review. As at 1 November2007, a total of 182 States, plus the EuropeanCommunity (extent of competence: article 12), wereparties to the 1988 Convention. A total of 12 Stateshave not yet become parties to the 1988 Convention:3 States in Africa (Equatorial Guinea, Namibia andSomalia), 1 in Asia (Timor-Leste), 1 in Europe (theHoly See) and 7 in Oceania (Kiribati, the MarshallIslands, Nauru, Palau, Papua New Guinea, SolomonIslands and Tuvalu). The Board urges all those Statesto implement the provisions of article 12 and tobecome parties to the 1988 Convention as soon aspossible.Cooperation with GovernmentsSubmission of statistical data on seizures134. Reporting on information on substancesfrequently used in the illicit manufacture of narcoticdrugs and psychotropic substances is an obligationunder article 12 of the 1988 Convention. By1 November 2007, such information had beensubmitted for 2006 by a total of 141 States andterritories, as well as the European Community (onbehalf of its member States). The rate of submission issimilar to that of previous years. Of the States parties26

E/INCB/2007/1to the 1988 Convention that failed to submit suchinformation for a number of years, Pakistan and theSudan have resumed providing that information to theBoard. In addition, Namibia, which is not yet a party tothe 1988 Convention and had never submitted suchinformation, provided the information for 2006. TheBoard urges those parties to the 1988 Conventionwhich have not submitted such information to providethe required information as soon as possible.135. Thirty-two Governments have reported theirseizures of precursors for 2006. The Board appreciatesthe fact that 17 of those Governments providedadditional information on non-scheduled chemicals,methods of diversion and stopped shipments. TheBoard calls upon all competent authorities effectingseizures or intercepting shipments of precursors tothoroughly investigate those cases and to report theresults of those investigations to the Board, as thatinformation is essential to the identification of newtrends in illicit drug manufacture and trafficking inprecursors.Annual submission of information on the licittrade in and uses of substances in Tables I and IIof the 1988 Convention136. Since 1995, in accordance with Economic andSocial Council resolution 1995/20 of 24 July 1995, theBoard has been requesting Governments to provide, ona voluntary basis, data on licit trade in, uses of andrequirements for scheduled substances. It is crucial forall Governments to be well informed of trade in andlicit requirements for substances in Tables I and II ofthe 1988 Convention, in order to be able to identifyunusual transactions at an early stage and thus preventthe diversion of those substances.137. As at 1 November 2007, a total of 109 States andterritories had submitted data for 2006 on the licitmovement of precursors and 97 Governments hadfurnished information for 2006 on licit uses of andrequirements for such substances. All of the majormanufacturing and exporting countries have continuedto furnish comprehensive information on licit trade inscheduled substances. As Pakistan, a country importinglarge quantities of substances in Table I, has resumedproviding data on its licit trade in scheduledsubstances, all major importing countries now providedata on licit trade. The major exporting countries andterritories continued to provide information onindividual exports through pre-export notificationspursuant to article 12, paragraph 10 (a), of the1988 Convention and in compliance with the voluntarymeasures promoted by two international initiatives toaddress the diversion of chemicals used in the illicitmanufacture of drugs: Project Cohesion, targetingheroin and cocaine; and Project Prism, targeting ATS.Control measures138. Having in place an adequate legislative basis orsystem for precursor control is essential to preventingthe diversion of precursors into illicit channels. TheBoard notes that, during the reporting period, theGovernments of a number of countries, includingAustralia, Chile, Peru and the Russian Federation, inaddition to member States of the European Union,introduced new or strengthened existing controls overprecursors.139. Despite the recent introduction of new laws andregulations in Mexico to restrict the import ofephedrine and pseudoephedrine and regulate their saleand despite the ban on ephedra, the Board remainsconcerned that those substances continue to besmuggled into Mexico. The Board is also concerned bythe lack of adequate legislation in place in the SyrianArab Republic and the United Arab Emirates to preventthe diversion of precursors, particularly in the form ofpharmaceutical preparations.Estimates of legitimate requirements forprecursors140. In its resolution 49/3, entitled “Strengtheningsystems for the control of precursor chemicals used inthe manufacture of synthetic drugs”, the Commissionon Narcotic Drugs requested Member States to provideto the Board annual estimates of their legitimaterequirements for four precursor chemicals: ephedrine,pseudoephedrine, 3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone (3,4-MDP-2-P) and phenyl-2-propanone(P-2-P). As at 1 November 2007, a total of 101 Stateshad provided those estimates to the Board, which is animprovement compared with the total of 80 States in2006. Those estimates have been published in the2006 51 and 2007 52 reports of the Board on the__________________51 Precursors and Chemicals Frequently Used in the IllicitManufacture of Narcotic Drugs and PsychotropicSubstances: Report of the International Narcotics27

E/INCB/2007/1implementation of article 12 of the 1988 Convention.In addition, a table showing the reported annuallegitimate requirements for substances frequently usedin the manufacture of ATS is available on the websiteof the Board (www.incb.org); the table is updatedregularly. The Board again requests all competentauthorities to provide information on annual legitimaterequirements of the four precursor chemicalsmentioned above, to review the reported informationand to amend it as necessary. The Board also invitescompetent authorities to inform the Board of anymethodologies that they have found useful forestimating their national requirements for thoseprecursor chemicals.Online system of pre-export notifications141. The Board notes that, as at 1 November 2007,92 countries and territories had registered to usePre-Export Notification Online (PEN Online), theautomated online system for the exchange of preexportnotifications, and that over 11,000 pre-exportnotifications had been sent to 164 countries andterritories over the PEN Online portal since theintroduction of the system in 2006. As the system hasfacilitated communication among Governments andhas been instrumental in identifying suspicioustransactions and preventing diversion, the Boardencourages all Governments that have not yet done soto register to use PEN Online.142. The Board has found that the time taken to replyto pre-export notifications is often too long. Importingcountries should adhere to the deadlines set byexporting countries for providing feedback on preexportnotifications, in order to prevent unwantedshipments. If an importing country needs more time toverify the legitimacy of a consignment, that should be__________________Control Board for 2006 on the Implementation ofArticle 12 of the United Nations Convention againstIllicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and PsychotropicSubstances of 1988 (United Nations publication, SalesNo. E.07.XI.12), annex V.52 Precursors and Chemicals Frequently Used in the IllicitManufacture of Narcotic Drugs and PsychotropicSubstances: Report of the International NarcoticsControl Board for 2007 on the Implementation ofArticle 12 of the United Nations Convention againstIllicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and PsychotropicSubstances of 1988 (United Nations publication, SalesNo. E.08.XI.4), annex V.indicated immediately to the Board and the exportingcountry in question. Doing so might significantlyreduce unnecessary delays in legitimate trade.Prevention of diversion of precursors into theillicit traffic143. The Board has continued to serve as theinternational focal point for the rapid exchange ofinformation and the verification of transactions inprecursor chemicals, particularly within the frameworkof Project Prism and Project Cohesion. During thereporting period, the Board has made a number ofobservations and has recommended to Governmentsaction to address existing problems in international andnational precursor control.144. As highlighted in the 2007 report of the Boardon the implementation of article 12 of the1988 Convention, 53 diversion from domesticdistribution channels and smuggling across borders arethe most common methods used by traffickers to obtainchemicals for illicit drug manufacture. That has beenfor quite some time a trend in trafficking in precursorsof heroin and cocaine. However, the Board has alsoobserved that, with respect to the diversion ofprecursors of ATS, with the exception of ephedrine andpseudoephedrine, there have been few if any casesinvolving such diversions in international trade. Forexample, no cases have been reported involving thediversion from licit trade of 3,4-MDP-2-P, a keychemical used in the manufacture ofmethylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, commonlyknown as “ecstasy”). It is believed that, as themonitoring of shipments of the relevant chemicals ininternational trade has been strengthened worldwide,traffickers obtain chemicals from domestic distributionchannels and then smuggle those substances, oftenacross international borders, to the illicit drugmanufacturing areas. In order to address thatdevelopment, the Board recommends that Governmentsshould take additional measures to monitor moreclosely the manufacture and domestic distribution ofprecursor chemicals. Those additional measures couldinclude verifying the legitimacy of the end-use of thechemical concerned, ensuring the proper registration__________________53 Precursors and Chemicals Frequently Used in the IllicitManufacture of Narcotic Drugs and PsychotropicSubstances: Report of the International NarcoticsControl Board for 2007 … .28

E/INCB/2007/1and auditing of operators, inspecting records that aremaintained and preventing accumulation of thechemicals in quantities that exceed licit marketrequirements.145. Seizures of acetic anhydride in and aroundAfghanistan are very limited. The Board recommendsto the Project Cohesion Task Force to take urgentmeasures to intercept consignments of acetic anhydridethat are being smuggled into Afghanistan and toidentify the sources of the chemical. The Board urgesthe Governments of Afghanistan and its neighbouringcountries to cooperate fully with the Task Force in suchendeavours.146. Governments of Latin American countries arehaving serious difficulties preventing chemicals,including potassium permanganate, from reachingcocaine manufacturing areas. The Project CohesionTask Force needs to devise strategies to address theproblem by identifying the origins of the chemicals, inparticular, of the potassium permanganate seized inareas where cocaine is illicitly manufactured.147. The Board appreciates the results achieved underProject Prism, in particular in connection withOperation Crystal Flow, which was conducted from1 January to 30 June 2007. The monitoring of1,400 individual shipments of ephedrine andpseudoephedrine has led to the identification of35 suspicious transactions and prevented the diversionof a total of 52 tons of the substances, which wouldhave been sufficient to manufacture 48 tons ofmethamphetamine; Mexico was the declared orintended country of destination of about half of thesuspicious shipments identified.148. The Board is concerned by some of the trendsidentified or confirmed during Operation Crystal Flow.Africa and West Asia in particular are being targetedby traffickers in their efforts to divert ephedrine. Ashighlighted in the 2007 report of the Board on theimplementation of article 12 of the 1988 Convention, 54traffickers have particularly targeted Burundi, theDemocratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia,Ghana, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Kenya, Nigeria,Somalia, South Africa, the Sudan, the Syrian ArabRepublic, the United Arab Emirates and the UnitedRepublic of Tanzania. The Board calls on theGovernments of all countries in Africa and West Asia__________________54 Ibid.to strengthen their control over the importation andmovement within their territory of the precursors,including by allocating additional resources to thecompetent national authorities and to training.Countries and territories exporting ephedrines areurged not to release any shipments of ephedrine,pseudoephedrine or preparations containing thosesubstances to any country until the legitimacy of suchshipments is duly confirmed by the Governments of thecountries to which those chemicals are being exported.149. Activities undertaken within the framework ofProject Prism have also confirmed that, in most partsof the world, traffickers are increasingly trying toobtain large amounts of pharmaceutical preparationscontaining ephedrine or pseudoephedrine through licittrade at the national and international levels. TheBoard again recommends that all Governments controlsuch preparations the same way as they control the rawchemicals ephedrine and pseudoephedrine.Governments are encouraged to use pre-exportnotifications for shipments of such preparations.150. The strengthened monitoring of precursors hasresulted in trafficking organizations looking for nonscheduledsubstances as alternative substances for usein the illicit manufacture of ATS. In that connection,the Board has updated its limited international specialsurveillance list of non-scheduled substances. TheBoard encourages Governments to put in placeeffective mechanisms, which would allow them toidentify and investigate suspicious transactionsinvolving such substances. It is important that theBoard is provided with detailed information on suchcases so that it may alert all relevant competentauthorities of the latest trends in diversion andtrafficking.151. Full details on the activities undertaken byGovernments and the Board in precursor control arecontained in the 2007 report of the Board on theimplementation of article 12 of the 1988 Convention.D. Promoting universal application of theinternational drug control treaties152. In discharging its mandate under the internationaldrug control treaties, the Board maintains a dialoguewith Governments through, for example, regularconsultations and country missions. That dialogue is29

E/INCB/2007/1aimed at assisting Governments in their efforts tocomply with the provisions of the treaties.153. By analysing the information it receives, theBoard is able to determine whether the internationaldrug control treaties are being implemented byGovernments as effectively as possible. On the basis ofits continuous evaluation of national efforts, the Boardis able to recommend action to Governments andrelevant international organizations and suggestadjustments to the international and national controlregimes.Evaluation of overall treaty compliance byselected Governments154. The Board reviews, on a regular basis, the drugcontrol situation in various countries andGovernments’ overall compliance with the provisionsof the international drug control treaties. The reviewcovers various aspects of drug control, including thefunctioning of national drug control administrations,the adequacy of national drug control legislation andpolicy, measures taken by Governments to combat drugtrafficking and abuse, and Governments’ fulfilment oftheir reporting obligations under the international drugcontrol treaties.155. The findings of the review, as well as the Board’srecommendations for remedial action, are conveyed tothe Governments concerned as part of the ongoingdialogue between the Board and Governments toensure that the international drug control treaties arefully implemented.156. The Board, while reviewing the drug controlsituation in various countries, adopts, when necessary,positions on particular drug control issues. Thosepositions are based on the Board’s interpretation of theprovisions of the international drug control treaties andare conveyed to the Governments concerned and, whenappropriate, made public by the Board through itsannual report. The Board notes that the vast majority ofGovernments comply with the Board’srecommendations and with their obligations under theinternational drug control treaties.157. In 2007, the Board reviewed the drug controlsituation in Canada, the Democratic People’s Republicof Korea and Turkmenistan, as well as measures takenby those Governments to implement the internationaldrug control treaties. In doing so, the Board paidparticular attention to new developments in drugcontrol in those countries.Canada158. The Board notes that, following its mission toCanada in October 2003 and its continuous dialoguewith the Government over the past few years, theGovernment has significantly improved its level ofcooperation with the Board and intensified its efforts tocurb illicit drug manufacture, trafficking and abuse.The Government has refrained from pursuing cannabisdecriminalization and, in October 2007, launched thenew National Anti-Drug Strategy, allocating63.8 million Canadian dollars over two years on threepriority areas: combating illicit drug production,preventing illicit drug use and treating drug-dependentpersons.159. The Board notes that, as part of the NationalAnti-Drug Strategy, the Government of Canada willenhance its law enforcement efforts to combat illicituse of drugs and increase the capacity of the criminaljustice system to investigate, interdict and prosecuteoffenders. The Government is also planning toimplement a national campaign for the prevention ofdrug abuse aimed at young people and their parents, toprovide treatment services for drug abusers and tosupport referral and treatment programmes for youngpeople with drug-related problems at the various stagesof the criminal justice system.160. Efforts have also been made by the Governmentof Canada to address prescription drug abuse: initialsteps have been taken to identify problematic use ofpharmaceuticals and to develop strategies to detect,prevent and treat the abuse of prescription drugs andover-the-counter drugs. Furthermore, an ongoinggeneral population survey, the Canadian Alcohol andDrug Use Monitoring Survey, has been developed witha view to tracking trends in the abuse of drugs,including prescription drugs. The Board encourages theGovernment to continue its efforts in this area,particularly with regard to the setting up of a nationalstandardized monitoring system that wouldsystematically report on the prevalence and nature ofdrug abuse nationwide.161. The Board, while taking note of theGovernment’s views on the drug injection room inVancouver, wishes to reiterate its position on that issueas expressed directly to the Government and in its30

E/INCB/2007/1annual reports, 55 namely that the provision of roomsfor the abuse of drugs is contrary to the internationaldrug control treaties, particularly article 4 of the1961 Convention, which obligates State parties toensure that the production, manufacture, import, exportand distribution of, trade in and use and possession ofdrugs are limited exclusively to medical and scientificpurposes. The Board trusts that the Government willreach a decision that will be in compliance with theprovisions of the international drug control treaties.Democratic People’s Republic of Korea162. In recent years, there has been increasedcooperation between the Board and the Government ofthe Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, as well asprogress made by the Government in theimplementation of the Board’s recommendationsfollowing its two missions to the country in 2002 and2006.163. In particular, the Board notes that in August 2003,the Supreme People’s Assembly of the DemocraticPeople’s Republic of Korea adopted a new law on theadministration of narcotic drugs, which brings itsnational legislation fully in line with the internationaldrug control treaties. In February 2005, theGovernment of the Democratic People’s Republic ofKorea established an inter-ministerial committee with aview to ensuring effective coordination of drug controlactivities and adequate implementation of drug controllegislation at the national level. In March 2007, theGovernment of the Democratic People’s Republic ofKorea acceded to the three international drug controlconventions.164. The Board notes, however, that the Government’scapacity for the implementation of the internationaldrug control treaties remains limited. The Boardencourages the Government of the DemocraticPeople’s Republic of Korea to continue seekinginternational assistance in various areas of drug controland, at the same time, to take an active part inaddressing drug trafficking and abuse at the regionaland international levels. The Government shoulddevelop a long-term national drug control strategy, inview of the increasing illicit manufacture of ATS inEast and South-East Asia, and should take preventive__________________55 See, for example, Report of the International NarcoticsControl Board for 2006 …, paras. 175-179, 328 and 648.measures against drug trafficking and abuse on itsterritory.Turkmenistan165. Since 1997, the Board has maintained a closedialogue with the Government of Turkmenistan, with aview to improving the Government’s implementationof the international drug control treaties and itscooperation with the Board. In particular, the Board,following its most recent mission to the country in2003, invited a Government delegation fromTurkmenistan to its session in February 2005, in orderto continue the dialogue on issues of concern to theBoard.166. The Board notes that the Government ofTurkmenistan has established the State CoordinatingCommittee to Combat Drug Addiction under theCabinet of Ministers of Turkmenistan to coordinatedrug control activities among Government agenciesinvolved in drug control. Furthermore, the nationalprogramme to combat illicit drug trafficking and toprovide assistance to persons dependent on narcoticdrugs and psychotropic substances for the period 2006-2010 was adopted by presidential decree in April 2006.167. The Board remains concerned about thecontinued limited information on drug trafficking andseizures in Turkmenistan, particularly in view of thecountry’s geographical proximity to Afghanistan. TheGovernment is invited to respond regularly to theBoard’s queries about the drug control situation in thecountry and the Government’s measures against drugtrafficking and abuse.168. The Board wishes to emphasize thatTurkmenistan, together with other countries sharingborders with Afghanistan, has an important role to playin preventing the trafficking in opium and heroin fromAfghanistan. As the vast majority of the world’s illicitopium production takes place in Afghanistan, strongerefforts on the part of Turkmenistan towards fulfillingits obligations and in cooperating with the Boardwould have a positive impact on the global effortsagainst trafficking in illicit drugs, in particular heroin.The Board urges the Government of Turkmenistan totake effective measures to intensify its drug lawenforcement efforts and make further progress incomplying with the international drug control treaties.31

E/INCB/2007/1Evaluation of the implementation byGovernments of recommendations made by theBoard following its country missions169. The Board undertakes an average of 20 countrymissions a year and sends to the Governments of thecountries visited recommendations on improving thedrug control situation in those countries. As part of itsongoing dialogue with Governments, the Board alsoconducts an evaluation of the implementation of thoserecommendations, two years after each mission.170. In 2007, the Board invited the Governments ofthe following eight countries to provide information onthe implementation of the Board’s recommendationsfollowing its missions to those countries in 2004:Belgium, Indonesia, Madagascar, Pakistan, Portugal,South Africa, Thailand and Timor-Leste. TheGovernments of the selected countries were requestedto provide information on progress made in theimplementation of the Board’s recommendations,including any achievements made and difficultiesencountered.171. The Board expresses its appreciation to theGovernments of Belgium, Madagascar and Portugal fortheir timely submission of the information, whichgreatly facilitated the Board’s assessment of the drugcontrol situation in those countries and theGovernments’ compliance with the international drugcontrol treaties. Information provided by theGovernments of Indonesia, Pakistan and Thailand wasreceived too late to be included in the present reportand will therefore be reported on in the report of theBoard for 2008.172. The Board regrets that no information wasreceived from the Governments of South Africa andTimor-Leste. The Board requests those Governments toprovide the requested information without furtherdelay.Belgium173. In 2003, the Government of Belgium adopted arevision to its national legislation on drug-relatedoffences, in particular offences involving cannabis. TheBoard notes that Belgian authorities plan to collectinformation on drug abuse in a nationwide healthsurvey in 2008. The Board expects that theGovernment will conduct an evaluation of the impactof the implementation of the revision on demandreduction and any consequences it may have had forthe abuse of drugs, in particular cannabis, in thecountry.174. The Government of Belgium has acted on theBoard’s recommendation regarding the use of seizedcocaine. The Board noted that the Government hadallowed a private firm to use seized cocaine tomanufacture pharmaceutical preparations for export.Pursuant to the Board’s recommendation to exploreother solutions, Belgium stopped using confiscatedcocaine in 2005 and since then has been using rawcocaine imported from Peru.175. The Government of Belgium, in cooperation withother Governments, has strengthened law enforcementefforts against the illicit manufacture of MDMA. Asnoted in the report of the Board for 2006, 56 in 2005,the law enforcement authorities in the Netherlandswere able to dismantle the largest illicit MDMAlaboratory ever found in that country, as a result of aninvestigation involving the cooperation of theircounterparts in Belgium and Germany. The Boardurges the Government of Belgium to continue itsefforts in that area and to take measures to address theillicit manufacture of synthetic drugs, particularlyMDMA.Madagascar176. The Board notes that some progress has beenmade by the Government of Madagascar in some areasof drug control. Following the decentralization reformsundertaken in the past few years, the inter-ministerialcommission for coordinating the fight against drugshas been restructured, which has resulted inimprovement in its efficiency. In addition, Madagascarhas put in place appropriate legislation in drug control,thus bringing its national legislation in line with theinternational drug control treaties and ensuring itscompliance with treaty obligations.177. The Government of Madagascar has acted on theBoard’s recommendations on demand reduction, inparticular with regard to training and drug awarenesscampaigns in the local media. The Government hasalso included in the national budget, under the heading“Programmes of public interest”, a dedicated budgetline to conduct drug-related activities. The Board__________________56 Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for2006 …, para. 602.32

E/INCB/2007/1encourages the Government to continue its efforts inthose areas.178. The Board notes, however, that there appears tobe lack of progress in the implementation of itsrecommendations on the control measures related topsychotropic substances. The Board urges theGovernment of Madagascar to take the necessary stepsto ensure adequate implementation of the provisions ofthe 1971 Convention, particularly with regard to theapplication of import authorization requirements topsychotropic substances, in accordance with theprovisions of that Convention and relevant Economicand Social Council resolutions.Portugal179. The Board notes the efforts made by theGovernment of Portugal to implement itsrecommendations following the 2004 mission of theBoard to that country. In particular, the Board notesthat the Government of Portugal has conducted anevaluation of the national drug control strategy and hascarried out a survey of services for the treatment ofdrug-dependent persons. The results of the evaluationwere taken into consideration in developing a newnational drug control strategy, covering the period2005-2012, and a national plan against drugs and drugaddiction, covering the period 2005-2008. Measuresare also being taken to improve precursor control: newadministrative structures are being created and newlegislation is being drafted in accordance withEuropean Union guidelines.180. While recognizing the positive developments indrug control in Portugal, the Board is concerned thatthe national plan on drugs and drug addictionenvisages the establishment, by 2008, of a room for theabuse of drugs and that the municipal government ofLisbon has submitted a proposal to set up the facility.The Board wishes to reiterate that rooms for the abuseof drugs, regardless of whether they are under thedirect or indirect supervision of the Government, arecontrary to the international drug control treaties,particularly article 4 of the 1961 Convention, whichobligates State parties to ensure that the production,manufacture, import, export, distribution of, trade in,use and possession of drugs are limited exclusively tomedical and scientific purposes. The Board urges theGovernment to ensure that any measures to addressdrug abuse and the spread of HIV/AIDS are incompliance with the provisions of the internationaldrug control treaties.181. Pursuant to the Board’s recommendation on thehigh level of consumption of psychotropic substances,mainly benzodiazepines, the Government of Portugalconducted a study in June 2005 that confirmed thatthere are chronic users of benzodiazepines, althoughthe numbers of those users appear to be decreasing.The Board encourages the Government to introducemeasures to better control the prescription ofbenzodiazepines and to conduct campaigns to raise theawareness of health-care professionals, so as to ensurethe rational use of those substances.Questionnaire on the evaluation of theimplementation of the international drugcontrol treaties182. A questionnaire entitled “Evaluation of theimplementation of the international drug controltreaties” was sent to the governments of all countriesand territories in January 2007 for completion. Thepurpose of the review was to highlight governmentefforts in the implementation of the international drugcontrol treaties, to identify weaknesses and loopholesin drug control at the national and international levelsand to provide recommendations for national andinternational drug control regimes.183. The Board is pleased to note that, as at1 November 2007, a total of 142 countries andterritories had returned the completed questionnaire.The Board appreciates the cooperation of all thegovernments that have submitted the requiredinformation as part of efforts to promote universalapplication of the international drug control treaties.184. The information submitted by governments in thequestionnaire, once it has been processed and analysed,will be reviewed by the Board. A report on the findingsof the evaluation will be published for consideration bygovernments.Assistance in increasing national capacity tocomply with treaty obligationsOngoing training opportunities185. At the request of Governments, the secretariat ofthe Board organizes in Vienna training for nationaldrug control administrators to improve the functioningof national drug control administrations. During 2007,33

E/INCB/2007/1the Board offered such training to national drug controladministrators from a number of countries, includingCanada, Cuba, Ghana, Jordan and the United States, aswell as to representatives of the United Nations InterimAdministration Mission in Kosovo.186. The training provided national drug controladministrators with an opportunity to obtain a betterunderstanding of the functioning of the internationaldrug control system and to discuss some of theproblems and difficulties encountered in theimplementation of the international drug controltreaties. The Board trusts that the training will enhancethe capacity of the national drug controladministrations to comply with the provisions of thetreaties in those countries.187. The Board also used various opportunities toprovide ad hoc advice to national drug controladministrators on treaty requirements for reporting onnarcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and precursors.Such advice was provided through communications,individual meetings, during the country missions of theBoard and in an informal consultation on reportingorganized by the Board during the fiftieth session ofthe Commission on Narcotic Drugs.188. To facilitate full compliance with reportingobligations as required under the international drugcontrol treaties, the Board has also made availableonline, detailed training material on the control ofnarcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and precursors,as well as guidelines for reporting on thosesubstances. 57Training seminar in Beijing189. At the request of the Government of theDemocratic People’s Republic of Korea, the Board, incooperation with the Government of China, organizeda training seminar in Beijing from 26 to 30 June 2007.Participants in the seminar were officials from variousGovernment ministries responsible for drug control inthe Democratic People’s Republic of Korea.190. The Democratic People’s Republic of Koreaacceded to the three international drug controlconventions in March 2007. The training seminar wasaimed at improving the understanding of the__________________57 The training material can be found on the website of theBoard (http://www.incb.org/incb/index.html).Government officials of how provisions of thoseconventions are implemented. The seminar coveredboth national and international aspects of drug control,focusing on Governments’ obligations under theinternational drug control treaties.191. Officials from the Office of China’s NationalNarcotics Control Commission and other relevantministries participated as resource persons and gavebriefings on various areas of drug control in China,particularly on the Government’s measures in the areaof implementation of the international drug controltreaties and on its cooperation with the Board. Theseminar was intended to provide an opportunity forofficials from the Government of the DemocraticPeople’s Republic of Korea to learn from theexperiences of the Government of China in nationaldrug control.192. The Board underlines the importance of accessionto the international drug control treaties by theGovernment of the Democratic People’s Republic ofKorea. The Board urges the Government to continue itsefforts and take the steps necessary to fully complywith its obligations under the international drug controltreaties.193. The Board wishes to express its appreciation forthe assistance received from the Government of Chinain organizing the seminar.E. Measures to ensure the implementationof the international drug controltreatiesAction of the Board taken pursuant to article 14of the 1961 Convention and article 19 of the1971 Convention194. Article 14 of the 1961 Convention as amended bythe 1972 Protocol and article 19 of the1971 Convention set out measures that the Board maytake to ensure the execution of the provisions of thoseconventions. The Board has invoked such measuresvis-à-vis a limited number of States for their persistentfailure to bring their control measures in line with therespective conventions, to submit information to theBoard as required under those conventions and torespond to enquiries of the Board. Most of those Stateshave taken remedial measures, which has led to theBoard’s decision to terminate action under article 14 of34

E/INCB/2007/1the 1961 Convention and article 19 of the1971 Convention vis-à-vis those States.Consultation with the Government ofAfghanistan pursuant to article 14 of the 1961Convention195. As part of the continuing consultations underarticle 14 of the 1961 Convention, a Governmentdelegation from Afghanistan attended the session of theBoard in May 2007 at the request of the Board. Thedelegation, headed by the Vice-Minister of CounterNarcotics, gave a presentation on the current drugcontrol situation in Afghanistan and measures taken bythe Government in the area of drug control, underliningthe Government’s resolve to strengthen its compliancewith the international drug control treaties and itscooperation with the Board.196. The Board notes with serious concern that, in2007, the illicit cultivation of opium poppy inAfghanistan reached an unprecedented level for thesecond consecutive year, the area under opium poppycultivation rising to 193,000 hectares, an increase of17 per cent compared with the level in 2006. As aresult of that increase, combined with a higher opiumyield, total opium production is expected to be about8,200 tons, more than one third over the level of 2006.197. The illicit cultivation of opium poppy isparticularly widespread in the southern and westernparts of Afghanistan, where such cultivation hasincreased in virtually every province. Much of the mostfertile areas in the south have been used for illicitopium poppy cultivation. In Helmand, illicit opiumpoppy cultivation has increased by 48 per cent,accounting for more than 50 per cent of the entireopium poppy crop in the country. More than 75 percent of the opium poppy cultivation in that province in2007 did not exist in 2005. Despite the fact thatHelmand had more resources than any other province,the opium poppy eradication efforts in Helmand fell farshort of expectations.198. The Board, while recognizing the difficultiesencountered by the Government of Afghanistan, notesthat one of the continuing major obstacles to theeradication of illicit opium poppy cultivation is thewidespread drug-related corruption among officials atvarious levels of government. Such corruption hasimpeded progress in the elimination of the drugproblem, as evidenced by the significant increase in theillicit opium poppy cultivation in the country over thepast two years. Despite increased eradication efforts in2007, most of the provinces have failed to significantlyreduce opium poppy cultivation.199. The Board wishes to emphasize that theGovernment of Afghanistan must take firm measuresagainst corrupt officials at any level of governmentwho are involved in illicit drug activities. Theelimination of illicit drug activities, particularly theillicit cultivation of opium poppy, is the responsibilityof the Government of Afghanistan, which must be heldaccountable at all levels.200. The upward trend in cannabis cultivation inAfghanistan is another worrying development, one thatrequires urgent action. According to UNODC, the areaunder cannabis cultivation has increased constantlyover the past two years, reaching 70,000 hectares in2007, compared with 30,000 hectares in 2005 and50,000 hectares in 2006. Cannabis cultivation takesplace mainly in the southern provinces but also in someareas that were declared poppy-free in 2007. Cannabiscultivation is increasing among farmers who do notcultivate opium poppy, mainly due to increasedcannabis prices and, compared with opium, the higheryield and lower investment required. Under article 14of the 1961 Convention, the Government ofAfghanistan is responsible for taking measures toensure that illicit activity related to any controlledsubstance, including cannabis, is dealt with inaccordance with the provisions of the internationaldrug control treaties.201. The Board notes that the control of licit activitiesrelated to narcotic drugs and psychotropic substancesneed to be strengthened in Afghanistan. TheGovernment continues to have difficulty in complyingwith the reporting obligations required under theinternational drug control treaties. The Government hasyet to put in place adequate systems for preventing thediversion of controlled substances from licit sourcesinto illicit channels and for ensuring that legitimaterequirements for controlled substances are met. TheBoard urges the Government to take steps to ensure theeffective functioning of the newly established DrugRegulation Committee.202. The Board notes that efforts have been made bythe Government to address the growing problem ofdrug abuse in Afghanistan, following the firstnationwide survey, conducted in 2005. According to35

E/INCB/2007/1the Ministry of Counter Narcotics, the number oftreatment and rehabilitation facilities for drug addictsin the country has increased. In view of the fact thatthe majority of drug addicts live in rural areas, theMinistry of Public Health is currently seekingassistance in funding a pioneering project, aimed atintegrating the treatment of drug addicts into itsprimary health-care system, so that the necessaryservices can be provided to drug addicts at localhospitals. The Board welcomes that initiative andencourages the Government to take a comprehensiveapproach towards addressing drug abuse andHIV/AIDS in the country.203. In recent years, there has been continuousadvocacy and pressure by some non-governmentalorganizations and others of the legalization of opiumpoppy cultivation in Afghanistan, based on theassumption that the opium produced in Afghanistancould be exported and utilized to manufacture opiatesto help meet world demand while, at the same time,helping to curb illicit drug activities by organizedcriminal groups. The Board reminds those involved insuch advocacy that the licit cultivation of opium poppyand the production of opiate raw materials are subjectto control measures imposed pursuant to the provisionsof the 1961 Convention and that Convention asamended by the 1972 Protocol.204. The Board believes that, until such time as theGovernment is able to put in place credible andsustainable control measures and to effectivelyexercise control over narcotic drugs, psychotropicsubstances and precursors, an enforceable ban onopium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan is the mostsuitable and realistic measure to address the drugproblem in the country. The Board commends thedecision of the Government of Afghanistan to rejectthe proposal to legalize illicit opium cultivation in thecountry. The Government has affirmed its commitmentto fulfilling the obligations under the international drugcontrol treaties, particularly the obligations underarticle 22 of the 1961 Convention as amended by the1972 Protocol.205. As the Board has emphasized over the years in itstechnical report on narcotic drugs, global demand foropiate raw materials for medical and scientificpurposes as requested by Governments has been fullymet. Currently, global stocks of opiate raw materialsare sufficient to cover global demand for more thanone year. The often expressed view that there is aglobal shortage of opiates for medical and scientificpurposes, which is often used to advocate legalizationof opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan, is not basedon hard facts.206. The Board is also concerned that precursorchemicals, in particular acetic anhydride, continue tobe available for the illicit manufacture of heroin inAfghanistan. Projected opium production in thatcountry increased in 2007, and illicit demand for aceticanhydride is expected to increase proportionally. Inthat connection, the Board reminds all Governmentsthat Afghanistan has no licit requirements for aceticanhydride. Any order or request involving the shipmentof acetic anhydride to that country should be reportedto the Board.207. The Board notes that in the AfghanistanCompact 58 an effective mechanism was established forcoordinating Afghan and international efforts for thecoming years. The Board calls upon the Government ofAfghanistan, the United Nations and the rest of theinternational community to cooperate closely inachieving the goals set out in the Compact. Bearing inmind the overarching objective of the National DrugControl Strategy of Afghanistan, 59 the Government ofAfghanistan, with assistance from the internationalcommunity, should, without further delay, takemeasures to achieve a substantial, sustainable decreasein opium poppy cultivation and in opium production,trafficking and abuse in the country.F. Special topicsAccess to opioid analgesics208. The Board has brought to the attention of theinternational community the fact that the levels ofconsumption of opioid analgesics for the treatment ofmoderate to severe pain were low in a number ofcountries. The Board welcomed the adoption of__________________58 “Letter dated 9 February 2006 from the PermanentRepresentative of Afghanistan to the United Nationsaddressed to the President of the Security Council”(S/2006/90), annex.59 “Letter dated 14 February 2006 from the PermanentRepresentative of Afghanistan to the United Nationsaddressed to the President of the Security Council”(S/2006/106), annex.36

E/INCB/2007/1Economic and Social Council resolution 2005/25 of22 July 2005, entitled “Treatment of pain using opioidanalgesics”, in which the Council called upon MemberStates to remove barriers to the medical use of suchanalgesics, taking fully into account the need toprevent their diversion for illicit use.209. Also in its resolution 2005/25, the Economic andSocial Council invited the Board and WHO to examinethe feasibility of a possible assistance mechanism thatwould facilitate the adequate treatment of pain usingopioid analgesics. The Board and WHO submitted ajoint report on the examination of that matter to theCommission on Narcotic Drugs at its fiftieth session,in March 2007, and to the World Health Assembly atits sixtieth session, in May 2007.210. The Board and WHO reviewed documents andstudies on the availability of opioid analgesics at thenational level and examined the activities undertakenand planned by various bodies to assist Governmentsin ensuring the availability of those drugs for medicaluse. The Board and WHO observed that, although therewas no shortage of licitly produced opioid analgesicraw materials worldwide and there had been asubstantial increase in the global consumption ofopioids in the past two decades, access to opioidanalgesics continued to be difficult in some countries.The difficulties in having access to opioid analgesicsare due to various interrelated factors, such asinadequate medical education and lack of knowledgeand skills in pain management, public attitude,regulatory impediments and economic constraints.211. The Board and WHO concluded that amechanism for facilitating the adequate treatment ofpain using opioid analgesics would be feasible.Therefore, WHO started the preparation of anassistance programme called Access to ControlledMedications Programme and elaborated a frameworkdocument for that programme, in consultation with theBoard.212. Activities of the Access to ControlledMedications Programme will address all the identifiedimpediments, focusing on regulatory, attitude andknowledge impediments. The programme will beimplemented by WHO, in cooperation withGovernments, WHO partners and collaborating centres.The Board will provide expertise to WHO in thoseareas of the programme related to the mandate of theBoard.213. The Board encourages all Governments and theinternational organizations concerned, such as theUnited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC),to cooperate with WHO in the implementation of theprogramme, with a view to promoting rational use ofopioid analgesics by health-care professionals. TheBoard calls on Governments to provide resources toWHO for the implementation of the programme.Cultivation of coca bush and uses of coca leafunder the international drug control treaties214. The Board is concerned that the cultivation ofcoca bush for purposes that are not in line with the1961 Convention is continuing in some countries. Usesof coca leaves contrary to the provisions of the1961 Convention are also continuing, and some ofthose uses are even being expanded.215. The Board reminds all Governments concernedthat coca leaf is a narcotic drug in Schedule I of the1961 Convention as amended by the 1972 Protocol.Governments should ensure that the production,export, import, distribution, use and possession of, aswell as trade in, coca leaf are limited to medical andscientific purposes, just as they would be limited in thecase of any other narcotic drug. In addition, cocaleaves may also be used for the preparation of aflavouring agent that should not contain any alkaloids,and, to the extent necessary for such use, production,trade in and possession of such leaves may bepermitted. Governments permitting the cultivation ofcoca bush should set up an agency to carry out certainfunctions, as required under articles 23 and 26 of the1961 Convention.216. The practice of chewing coca leaves continues inBolivia and Peru and, on a limited scale, in some othercountries. The Board wishes to point out that, within25 years following the entry into force of the1961 Convention, coca leaf chewing should have beenabolished in those countries where it was taking place.As the 1961 Convention came into force in 1964, cocaleaf chewing should have come to an end in 1989.217. In addition, coca leaf is used in Bolivia and Perufor the manufacture and distribution of mate de coca(coca tea). Such use is also not in line with theprovisions of the 1961 Convention. The Board againcalls on the Governments of Bolivia and Peru toconsider amending their national legislation so as toabolish or prohibit activities that are contrary to the37

E/INCB/2007/11961 Convention, such as coca leaf chewing and themanufacture of mate de coca (coca tea) and otherproducts containing coca alkaloids for domestic useand export. 60218. The Board reminds all Governments thatimportation of coca leaf for purposes other thanmedical and scientific purposes or the preparation of aflavouring agent is contrary to the provisions of the1961 Convention.219. The 1988 Convention requires Governments toestablish as criminal offences under domestic law,when committed intentionally, activities involving cocaleaf that are contrary to the provisions of the1961 Convention. The activities include, among otherthings, the production, offering for sale, distribution,sale, delivery on any terms whatsoever, brokerage,dispatch, transport, importation or exportation of cocaleaf contrary to the provisions of the 1961 Convention.Subject to its constitutional principles and the basicconcepts of its legal system, each party to theConvention should establish as a criminal offence,when committed intentionally, the possession andpurchase of coca leaf for personal consumptioncontrary to the provisions of the 1961 Convention.Governments should establish as criminal offencesunder its domestic law, when committed intentionally,the cultivation of coca bush for the purpose of theproduction of narcotic drugs contrary to the provisionsof the 1961 Convention.220. The provisions of the 1988 Convention, includingreservations made under that Convention, do notabsolve a party of its rights and obligations under theother international drug control treaties. It is thereforeimportant that States fulfil their obligations under thosetreaties in spite of any reservations they may havemade. Should a State require assistance from theinternational community to enable it to comply withany of its treaty obligations, it should make a formalrequest for such assistance.221. The Board calls upon the Governments of Boliviaand Peru to initiate action without delay with a view toeliminating uses of coca leaf that are contrary to the1961 Convention and to strengthen their efforts againsttrafficking in cocaine in the region. The Board calls on__________________60 Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for1993 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.94.XI.2),para. 211.the international community to provide assistance tothose countries towards achieving those objectives.Ketamine222. The Board welcomes the adoption of Commissionon Narcotic Drugs resolution 50/3, in which theCommission encouraged Member States to payparticular attention to the emerging problem ofwidespread abuse and diversion of ketamine and toconsider adopting a system of precautionary measuresfor use by their Government agencies to facilitate thetimely detection of the diversion of ketamine. TheBoard calls on all Governments to implement thatresolution without delay. The Board, together with theCommission, looks forward to the updated review ofketamine by WHO.223. Since 2004, the Board has drawn the attention ofGovernments to the problem of trafficking in and abuseof ketamine, a substance currently not underinternational control. 61, 62, 63 Ketamine abusecontinues to be reported in a number of countries,particularly in the Americas, East and South-East Asia,South Asia and Oceania.224. For 2006, the abuse of ketamine was reported inFrance, Greece, the Hong Kong Special AdministrativeRegion (SAR) of China, Israel, Peru, South Africa andthe United Kingdom. Seizures of that substanceeffected in 2006 were reported in Argentina, Australia,Hungary, the Macao SAR of China, Malaysia,Myanmar and the Philippines. In addition, thecompetent authorities of France have informed theBoard of an armed robbery involving ketamine andtiletamine (an anaesthetic used in veterinary medicine)that took place in France in 2007, at the premises of acompany trading in pharmaceutical raw materials.225. The Board is pleased to note that ketamine iscontrolled in a number of countries where it has beenfound to be abused. In 2007, the Governments of Chileand France provided to the Board information on the__________________61 Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for2004 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.05.XI.3),para. 390.62 Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for2005 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.06.XI.2),paras. 385, 431, 471 and 641.63 Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for2006 …, paras. 199-204 and 457-458.38

E/INCB/2007/1national control measures put in place in theircountries pursuant to Commission on Narcotic Drugsresolution 49/6, in which the Commission called uponMember States to consider controlling the use ofketamine by placing it on the list of substancescontrolled under their national legislation, where thedomestic situation so required, and encouragedMember States to consider adopting a system of importand export authorizations for use by their governmentagencies. The Board again requests all Governmentsthat have not yet done so to furnish it with informationon their national regulatory control measures that havebeen put in place for ketamine. In addition, the Boardagain requests all Governments to provide to it and toWHO all available information on the abuse ofketamine in their countries in order to assist WHO inits evaluation of ketamine for possible schedulingunder the 1971 Convention. 64Piperazine-derived compounds226. During the past several years, the Board hasnoted with concern reports of the abuse of andtrafficking in piperazine-derived compounds, amongthem N-benzylpiperazine (BZP), 1-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)piperazine(TFMPP),1-(3-chlorophenyl)piperazine (mCPP), 1-(4-methoxyphenyl)piperazine (MeOPP) and 1-(3,4-methylenedioxybenzyl)piperazine (MDBP).227. There are no current therapeutic uses of theabove-mentioned piperazine-derived compounds inhumans. Such substances are available primarily foruse as intermediates in the manufacture of chemicalsand pharmaceuticals and are used in neurochemicaland psychiatric research as pharmacological probedrugs for drug discrimination procedures in animals.The effects of most of those piperazines have neverbeen scientifically investigated, but they areunderstood to act directly on central monoaminereceptors in a complex manner, with specific actionsdepending on the substance in question. They are alsometabolites of substances with different psychoactiveproperties. They are widely available (they can beobtained through commercial chemical suppliers) andrelatively inexpensive.228. Piperazine-derived compounds are taken orally,but they can also be smoked or snorted. A few cases of__________________64 Ibid., paras. 202-204.injecting drug abuse of mCPP have been reported inFrance, in abusers who usually inject MDMA.Piperazine-derived substances are also frequentlyencountered in mixtures with other substances.229. The subjective effects of BZP are described asstimulant-like, similar to the effects of amphetamines.The substance roughly mimics the psychoactive effectsof d-amphetamine, although at a higher dosage.TFMPP produces a hallucinogen-like effect, mimickingsome of the psychoactive effects of MDMA. Thesubjective effects of mCPP are described as similar tothose produced by lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) ormescaline. mCPP has been shown to produce stimulantand hallucinogenic effects similar to MDMA. Panicattacks have also been reported.230. The abuse of BZP and TFMPP was first reportedin the United States (California) in 1996 and in Swedenin 1999. Since then, the abuse of those substances hasspread rapidly to other countries. Since the late 1990s,the abuse of BZP and TFMPP has increasingly beenreported in venues similar to those where MDMA isabused. Their growing popularity is evidenced by thefact that seizures of those substances have increased inthe United States since 2000. Numerous seizures ofBZP have also been effected in Europe. In early 2007,eight European Union member States reported seizuresof BZP to the European Police Office (Europol),including a seizure of 64,900 tablets in the UnitedKingdom. 65231. mCPP is available on illicit markets in manyEuropean countries, such as Austria, the Netherlandsand Sweden, and its availability in Europe as a wholeis increasing. The size of individual seizures of mCPPhave ranged from a few tablets to 30,000 tablets.Significant mCPP seizures were reported to Europoland the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs andDrug Addiction by Belgium, Estonia, Finland, France,Germany, Greece, Hungary, Malta, the Netherlands,Slovakia, Spain and the United Kingdom. Several otherEuropean Union member States have reported minorseizures of mCPP tablets. More than 800,000 mCPPtablets were seized in the European Union in 2006. Inthe Netherlands, 255,000 mCPP tablets were seized.__________________65 European Police Office, Amphetamine-type Stimulants inthe European Union 1998-2007: Europol Contribution tothe Expert Consultations for the UNGASS Assessment(The Hague, July 2007).39

E/INCB/2007/1Furthermore, the size of the seizures and the discoveryof traces of mCPP in major MDMA production andtabletting sites in the Netherlands strongly suggest theinvolvement of organized criminal groups. 66232. The authorities in a number of countries havealready placed some of those substances under nationalcontrol or are considering doing so. For instance, mostpiperazines are already under national control inAustralia, Japan and New Zealand, BZP is undernational control in Belgium, Denmark, Greece, Malta,Spain, Sweden and the United States and mCPP hasbeen placed under national control in Finland andGreece, whereas the introduction of controls for mCPPis being considered in Belgium, Germany and Latvia.Furthermore, the European Union has taken steps toensure that BZP is placed under control in all memberStates.233. In view of those developments, the Boardrequested WHO in March 2007 to consider reviewingpiperazine-derived compounds for possible schedulingunder the 1971 Convention. The Board urges allGovernments to report to WHO, as well as to theBoard, any information on the emerging abuse of andtrafficking in those substances.Information on the specific requirements fortravellers who carry medical preparationscontaining controlled substances for personaluse234. The Commission on Narcotic Drugs, in itsresolutions 45/5, 46/6 and 50/2, encouraged Statesparties to the 1961 Convention, that Conventionas amended by the 1972 Protocol and the1971 Convention to notify the Board of restrictionscurrently applicable in their territory to travellers undermedical treatment with preparations containingsubstances under international control. The Board hasreceived from 73 Governments information on thelegal provisions and/or administrative measurescurrently applicable in their countries to travellerscarrying medical preparations containing narcoticdrugs or psychotropic substances for personal use. TheBoard, in cooperation with those Governments, hasbeen putting the information received into a standardformat so that travellers may receive comprehensiveinformation on the requirements in their countries of__________________66 Ibid.destination. 67 The Board urges Governments that havenot yet done so to examine the standardizedinformation on their national requirements and toinform the Board immediately of their approval of thatinformation. Once approved, the standardizedinformation will be posted on the website of the Boardand will also be disseminated on a regular basis to allGovernments.235. The Board calls on all Governments that have notyet done so to submit to it their current nationalregulations and restrictions applicable to internationaltravellers carrying medical preparations containinginternationally controlled substances for personal use,pursuant to Commission on Narcotic Drugsresolutions 45/5, 46/6 and 50/2. In addition,Governments should notify the Board of any changesin their national jurisdictions in the scope of control ofnarcotic drugs and psychotropic substances relevant totravellers under medical treatment with internationallycontrolled substances, in accordance with Commissionresolution 50/2.Inadequate resources for Governments’regulatory agencies for national drug control236. In accordance with the provisions of the1961 Convention, the 1971 Convention and the1988 Convention, Governments are required, inter alia,to cooperate with the Board in the administration of thesystem of estimates and statistical returns for narcoticdrugs and the submission of statistical reports onpsychotropic substances.237. The Board is aware that drug control authoritieshave other tasks besides reporting to the Board. TheBoard is also aware that the duties of drug regulatoryagencies are manifold and include licensing andinspection of manufacturers and traders, issuing exportand import authorizations and ensuring adequate drugsupply. The Board recognizes that, without thecooperation of the different agencies, the competentnational authorities would not be able to reportadequately and in a timely manner to the Board. Suchinternal cooperation may require adequate funding.238. The Board notes with concern that the control oflicitly manufactured drugs is receiving decreasingattention by many Governments, despite the growing__________________67 See also Report of the International Narcotics ControlBoard for 2005 …, paras. 214-215.40

E/INCB/2007/1abuse of those drugs. Investigation by the Board hasshown that lack of resources is at the root of thedifficulties Governments have in complying with theirtreaty obligations, including difficulties in fulfillingtheir treaty obligations to report to the Board. Anumber of countries that are major manufacturers andtraders in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substancesare furnishing too late or not at all their mandatorystatistical reports to the Board (see paragraphs 65, 66,76, 103 and 106 above).239. The Board carries out its obligations under theinternational drug control treaties in part on the basisof data provided by Governments. If the Board doesnot receive the data required in a timely manner orthere are deficiencies in the quality of the datasubmitted, the Board will not be in a position to fullyaccomplish its obligations and the international drugcontrol system will not be performing to its fullcapacity.240. Governments are reminded that the internationalcontrol system for narcotic drugs and psychotropicsubstances functions as good as the quality andtimeliness of the information collected and supplied byGovernments and the good cooperation ofGovernments with the Board.241. Governments should be aware that a lack ofadequate resources allocated to the competentauthorities responsible for national control of narcoticdrugs and psychotropic substances and for cooperationwith the Board seriously affects the functioning of theinternational drug control system. The Board thereforeurges all Governments to always allocate adequateresources to their national competent authorities tomeet their treaty obligations by submitting thestatistical data to the Board in a timely manner and inthe quality required.Trafficking in and abuse of fentanyl242. In its report for 2006, the Board alertedGovernments to the increasing trafficking in and abuseof fentanyl and to the dangers related to the very highpotency of fentanyl and its analogues, which increasesthe risk of their overdose and other health problemsrelated to the abuse of opioids. The Board is concernedthat trafficking in and abuse of fentanyl continue topose problems in some countries, in particular in theUnited States. Recently, the Russian Federationhas reported seizures of illicitly manufactured3-methylfentanyl, an analogue of fentanyl. In mostcountries, relatively little is known about trafficking inand abuse of fentanyl. That lack of information may,however, in some cases be related to the fact thatclandestinely manufactured fentanyl is often sold asheroin and therefore appears on the illicit market asheroin. The Board invites the Governments ofcountries in all regions to remain vigilant with regardto trafficking in and abuse of fentanyl and itsanalogues.243. In the United States, most of the fentanyl seizedconsists of clandestinely manufactured fentanyl. Inaddition, a smaller number of seizures of other fentanylanalogues have been reported. In the period 2005-2007, trafficking in fentanyl and its analogues occurredin the north-eastern part of the United States. Thedistribution of illicitly manufactured fentanylcombined with heroin or cocaine has resulted inhundreds of suspected fentanyl-related overdoses andover 1,000 confirmed fentanyl-related deaths in thatpart of the country.244. A small number of clandestine laboratoriesmanufacturing fentanyl, including one laboratory inToluca, Mexico, dismantled by the Mexican authoritiesin May 2006, were involved in the outbreak of fentanylabuse in 2005 and 2006 in the United States. As aresult of measures adopted by the authorities of theUnited States, trafficking in fentanyl decreased in2007.245. Since April 2007, N-phenethyl-4-piperidone(NPP), a substance identified as a precursor offentanyl, was placed under control in the United Statesas a “List I chemical” under the Controlled SubstancesAct.246. In the Russian Federation, the vast majority ofseizures involve clandestinely manufactured3-methylfentanyl. In 2006, the total number of seizuresrepresented more than 1.3 billion single doses of thatnarcotic drug. The seizures were mainly effected in thecentral and north-western parts of the country and inthe area of Kaliningrad. The Board calls upon theauthorities of the Russian Federation to continue totake vigorous measures with a view to eliminatingtrafficking in and abuse of 3-methylfentanyl.247. Some other countries in Europe, includingBelarus, Estonia and Lithuania, reported seizures offentanyl or 3-methylfentanyl in 2006 and 2007. The41

E/INCB/2007/1Board calls upon those States to systematically collectdata on the extent of the problem and to adoptmeasures to counter trafficking in and abuse of thosedrugs, as necessary. The Board encourages those andthe other countries concerned in the region to exchangeall relevant information and to cooperate with eachother, in order to prevent the smuggling and abuse offentanyl and its analogues.248. The Board remains concerned that trafficking inand abuse of fentanyl may not be recognized as aproblem in some countries due to insufficientlaboratory analysis and/or inadequate reporting. TheBoard reaffirms its request to the Governments ofcountries in which there has been a sudden increase inopioid overdoses to determine whether those overdoseswere caused by the abuse of fentanyl and its analogues.The Board encourages Governments to ensure thatforensic laboratories include in their programmes theanalysis of fentanyl and its analogues.249. The Board notes with concern that a growingnumber of Governments are reporting the abuse ofdiverted pharmaceutical preparations containingfentanyl. Such abuse often involves fentanyl patchesdiverted from licit channels, including used anddiscarded patches. As the used and discarded patchescontain significant quantities of fentanyl, specificmeasures for the disposal of such patches arerecommended. The Board calls upon the Governmentsof countries in which fentanyl patches aremanufactured to examine, in cooperation with thepharmaceutical industry, possible ways to address thisissue without impeding access to an otherwise usefulmedicine. The Board requests the Governments of allcountries in which fentanyl patches are used to takecare with regard to the disposal of used patches, inorder to prevent them from being diverted for abuse.Internet250. In its resolution 50/11, the Commission onNarcotic Drugs recognized that the illegal distributionvia the Internet of internationally controlled licitsubstances was an escalating problem. Theunsupervised use by the general public, in particularunderage persons, of pharmaceutical preparationscontaining such substances purchased through theInternet constitutes a serious risk to health worldwide.In its resolution 50/11, the Commission encouragedMember States to notify the Board, in a regular andstandardized manner, of seizures of licit substancesunder international control ordered via the Internet anddelivered through the mail, in order to fully assesstrends relevant to that issue, and encouraged the Boardto continue its work with a view to raising awarenessof and preventing the misuse of the Internet for theillegal supply, sale and distribution of such substances.The Board is alarmed by the continuing rise in Internetsales of internationally controlled substances withoutvalid prescriptions.251. According to information from countries in whichactivities of illegal Internet pharmacies are closelyinvestigated, the very high volume of transactionscarried out by individual Internet pharmacies is amatter of serious concern. For example, in the UnitedStates, it was found that, in 2006, 34 illegal Internetpharmacies dispensed more than 98 million dosageunits of hydrocodone products. Since individualsordering from illicit Internet pharmacies can obtainquantities of about 100-200 tablets per order, thequantities of controlled drugs dispensed illegally overthe Internet have contributed significantly to theavailability of the prescription drugs abused.According to studies carried out by the National Centeron Addiction and Substance Abuse at ColumbiaUniversity, the number of websites advertising orselling controlled prescription drugs increased by70 per cent in 2007 compared with 2006. Of the187 websites analysed in 2007, 84 per cent soldprescription drugs containing controlled substanceswithout requiring the patient to provide a validprescription. Because of the high rate of abuse ofcertain prescription drugs by teenagers, it is ofparticular concern that there are no mechanisms inplace for preventing young people from purchasingcontrolled prescription drugs through the Internet.252. In August 2007, a report by an enterprise brandprotection company showed that the majority ofwebsites from which prescription drugs wereobtainable were operating without proper credentials.Only 4 of the 3,160 online pharmacy websites studiedwere accredited as Verified Internet Pharmacy PracticeSites (VIPPS ® ), the industry credential that assuresconsumers of the legitimacy of the online pharmacyoperations. Most of those Internet pharmacy websiteswere based in the United States, followed by theUnited Kingdom. The websites had a high visitor rate:the most frequented websites were visited by anaverage of 32,000 visitors a day. The prices (in some42

E/INCB/2007/1cases, one fifth of the official retail price) and thequantities traded indicated that the pharmaceuticalpreparations sold were questionable (that is, they wereexpired, stolen, diluted or counterfeit).253. Internet pharmacies continue to operate fromcountries not only in North America and Europe butalso in South Asia, South-East Asia and West Asia,from where large quantities of controlled prescriptiondrugs are illegally shipped to customers in NorthAmerica and Europe. In addition, the Internetcontinues to be used as a source for chemicals requiredfor the illicit manufacture of drugs. For example,Canadian authorities have discovered that gammabutyrolactone(GBL), the precursor of gammahydroxybutyricacid (GHB), was obtained fromCanadian or other sources in “GHB manufacturingkits” ordered via the Internet. 68 An Internet companybased in the United Kingdom supplied more than360 kg of chemicals to clandestine methamphetaminelaboratories in the United States in 2006 and 2007.254. In response to that worrying development, theUnited States authorities have introduced new tools,such as the Automation of Reports and ConsolidatedOrders System (ARCOS), to identify consignmentswith high or excessive volumes. ARCOS supportsefforts to identify retail pharmacies and practitionerswho might be connected with illegal sales of controlledsubstances via the Internet. In addition, the UnitedStates Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA)launched in 2006 an initiative to provide educationalinformation to DEA-registered Internet distributors ofcontrolled substances. DEA has establishedcooperation with other businesses and industries whoseservices are misused by illegally operating Internetpharmacies, such as Internet service providers, expresspackage delivery companies and financial servicecompanies.255. The Royal Pharmaceutical Society of GreatBritain has developed a pilot project that will givepersons placing orders through Internet pharmaciesdirect access to its website to enable them to verifywhether an Internet pharmacy is duly registered withthe Society, which is required of all pharmacies basedin England, Scotland or Wales. Visitors of the websitecan verify the registration details of both the pharmacy__________________68 Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Drug Situation Report2005, p. 19.and the pharmacist, thereby ensuring that they areordering medicines from a bona fide pharmacist.256. The Board calls upon all Governments to accordadequate importance to the detection and investigationof illegal sales of prescription drugs containinginternationally controlled substances and to undertakeall measures necessary to ensure that legislative andregulatory provisions are in force in their territory toeffectively counteract such illegal transactions.Governments should also ensure that customers ofInternet pharmacies are made aware of the potentialhealth risk involved in consuming prescription drugsobtained from illegal Internet pharmacies. In addition,Governments should seek the cooperation ofprofessional and consumer interest groups inidentifying and implementing measures to counteractillegal activities of Internet pharmacies.257. The Board continues to collect information fromGovernments on national legislation related to Internetservices and sites, national cooperation mechanismsand practical experience in the control andinvestigation of illegal Internet pharmacies. Inaddition, the Board collects contact details of nationalfocal points for activities related to illegal Internetpharmacies in order to facilitate internationalcooperation. The Board encourages all Governmentsthat have not yet done so to provide it with the requiredinformation.258. The Board is in the process of finalizingguidelines on matters related to Internet sites illegallyselling internationally controlled substances. Theguidelines are intended to provide guidance to nationalauthorities in formulating national legislation andpolicies for prescribers, pharmacists, law enforcementauthorities, regulatory authorities and the public withregard to the use of the Internet for dispensing,purchasing or importing internationally controlledsubstances.Operations of courier services and drug control259. Alerted by reports received from someGovernments, the Board has initiated a review into thecompliance of courier services 69 with control__________________69 For the purpose of the present report, courier servicesare defined as companies offering customized pickup,sorting, transport and delivery (domestic orinternational) of letters, parcels (mail type) and packages43

E/INCB/2007/1provisions on international shipments of narcotic drugsand psychotropic substances. The Board has begunanalysing information on the misuse of courier servicesfor smuggling illicit drugs and drugs licitlymanufactured and subsequently diverted.260. According to the preliminary analysis ofinformation received by the Board from severalGovernments, the legal situation with regard to the useof courier services to transport consignments ofinternationally controlled substances differs fromcountry to country. While in some countries suchshipping is regulated under specific laws, in othercountries the general provisions regarding thetransporting of narcotic drugs and psychotropicsubstances apply also to their shipment using courierservices. In most countries, postal laws apply to thesending of letters and parcels through courier services.261. The information received so far does not indicateany major problems regarding legitimate shipments ofnarcotic drugs and psychotropic substances by courierservices. Reports of the diversion of consignments ofnarcotic drugs and psychotropic substances while theyare being transported are very rare. However, in a fewcases, the non-compliance of courier services withcontrol provisions on transporting consignments ofnarcotic drugs and psychotropic substances has beendetected.262. In Sweden, guidelines on the transportation ofpharmaceuticals that are especially liable to theft weredeveloped by the Swedish Association of thePharmaceutical Industry, wholesalers and pharmacies,in cooperation with the Medical Products Agency ofSweden. The authorities intend to make the applicationof the guidelines mandatory for all shipments ofnarcotic drugs, including those sent by courierservices.263. The smuggling of narcotic drugs andpsychotropic substances using shipments registeredthrough various courier services was reported inseveral countries in different regions. The drugs areeither sent in misdeclared consignments or areconcealed in consignments of legitimate goods. In afew countries, the misuse of courier services wasidentified as a major modus operandi for drugsmuggling.__________________in fast delivery time. The companies operate outside thescope of universal service obligation.264. The experience of law enforcement authorities insome countries, including Poland and Venezuela(Bolivarian Republic of), indicates that drug traffickingorganizations have realized that using courier servicesis a relatively secure method of illegal drugtransportation; it allows criminals involved in drugtrafficking to maintain their anonymity and it keeps therisks to a minimum and the operational costs low.According to law enforcement authorities in those andother countries, using the technique of controlleddelivery is the most effective way to counteract suchsmuggling, since it makes possible the identification ofboth the senders and the recipients of illicit drugconsignments.265. The law enforcement authorities of severalcountries consider their cooperation with the staff ofcourier services to be an important tool for detectingdrug smuggling. Law enforcement authorities in India,for example, have been training the staff of courierservices to identify suspicious shipments. Severalseizures of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substanceshave been made in India on the basis of informationprovided by the staff of courier services to the customsauthorities. Cooperation between the law enforcementauthorities and courier services is also taking place inLithuania and Malaysia.266. The Board will continue gathering information onthe misuse of courier services in relation to traffickingin internationally controlled drugs, with a view todeveloping countermeasures in that area for adoptionby Governments. The Board invites all Governmentsand the relevant international organizations to provideit with pertinent information and their views on thatsubject.Problems in precursor control in Africa267. Operation Crystal Flow (a six-month operationused to track orders for shipments of ephedrine andpseudoephedrine to countries in Africa, the Americasand West Asia) has helped in identifying the trends intrafficking operations using Africa and West Asia astransit areas as part of efforts to divert ephedrines. Ashighlighted in the 2007 report of the Board on theimplementation of article 12 of the 1988 Convention, 70__________________70 Precursors and Chemicals Frequently Used in the IllicitManufacture of Narcotic Drugs and PsychotropicSubstances: Report of the International Narcotics44

E/INCB/2007/1countries being targeted for the diversion of precursorsof ATS include Burundi, the Democratic Republic ofthe Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Iran (Islamic Republicof), Kenya, Nigeria, Somalia, South Africa, the Sudan,the Syrian Arab Republic, the United Arab Emiratesand the United Republic of Tanzania. The Board callson the Governments of all countries in Africa and WestAsia to strengthen their controls over the import andmovement within their territory of those precursors.268. During the period 2006-2007, participants inProject Prism (the international initiative to address thediversion of chemicals used in the illicit manufactureof ATS) and in Operation Crystal Flow identifiedshipments to Africa to be diverted within the regionand to the Americas. In total, over 75 tons of ephedrineand pseudoephedrine were prevented from beingdiverted to or through the region. The DemocraticRepublic of the Congo alone was the destination ofseven stopped shipments involving a total of 23 tons ofpseudoephedrine during 2007. Traffickers are takingadvantage of the often less stringent or non-existingnational controls over pharmaceutical preparationscontaining ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, which arenot currently under international control, to smugglesuch consignments into African countries.269. One of the most commonly used methods ofdiversion in Africa was the falsification of importpermits. The Board notes with concern that severalAfrican countries are not in a position to respond in atimely manner to pre-export notifications and toinquiries about suspicious chemical shipments. TheGovernments of those countries should allocateadequate resources to staff development to enable thecompetent authorities to perform their regulatory andenforcement roles efficiently. The competentauthorities of countries and territories exportingephedrines are urged to confirm the legitimacy ofshipments of ephedrine, pseudoephedrine orpreparations containing those substances to anycountry before releasing such shipments.270. The Board is concerned by recent developmentsin which Africa has become one of the main regionsused for the diversion of precursors of ATS. Inparticular, the Board is concerned that the significantnumber of identified diversions and attempteddiversions to and through Africa is in sharp contrast__________________Control Board for 2007 … .with the limited number of seizures made byGovernments of countries in the region. Between 2000and 2006, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine seizures inthe entire region amounted to only 242 kg, with SouthAfrica accounting for most of those seizures. TheBoard calls on the Governments of countries in Africato take adequate measures to ensure that their territoryis not used for the trans-shipment of precursorchemicals.Demand reduction271. Pursuant to article 38 of the 1961 Convention asamended by the 1972 Protocol and article 20 of the1971 Convention, parties are required to take allpracticable measures for the prevention of abuse ofnarcotic drugs and psychotropic substances and for theearly identification, treatment, education, aftercare,rehabilitation and social reintegration of the personsinvolved. Article 14, paragraph 4, of the1988 Convention states that parties shall adoptappropriate measures aimed at eliminating or reducingillicit demand for narcotic drugs and psychotropicsubstances, with a view to reducing human sufferingand eliminating financial incentives for illicit traffic.272. The Board has addressed the issue of drugdemand reduction in a number of its annual reports. Inits report for 1993, 71 the Board underlined theimportance of demand reduction as an essential part ofglobal and national efforts against drug abuse. TheBoard invited Governments to consider makingdemand reduction a priority in their drug controlefforts, stressing the inextricable relationship betweendemand reduction and supply reduction. Thatconnection was further analysed by the Board in itsreport for 2004, 72 in which the Board stated thatneither demand reduction programmes nor supplyreduction programmes alone had been fully successfulin addressing the drug abuse problem and indicatedthat, to reduce drug abuse effectively, Governmentsneeded to implement supply and demand reductionpolicies concurrently. In its report for 1996, 73 theBoard highlighted the added value that the criminal__________________71 Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for1993 …, paras. 13-31.72 Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for2004 …, para. 7.73 Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for1996 …, paras. 1-37.45

E/INCB/2007/1justice system could offer in reducing drug demand andthe Board stressed that providing alternative measuresin the areas of treatment and rehabilitation, in additionto, or instead of, imposing fines or handing downprison sentences, could be a valuable instrument forreducing drug abuse. In its report for 1997, the Boardobserved that some segments of popular culture, inparticular music, promoted lifestyles in which the useof illicit substances was trivialized or even encouraged.The Board urged Governments to counter thosemessages by using new forms of communication,including the Internet, to disseminate messagesunderlining the negative consequences of drug abuse.In addition, the Board brought to the attention ofGovernments their obligation under article 3,paragraph 1 (c) (iii), of the 1988 Convention in relationto the public by inciting or inducing others to illicitlyuse narcotic drugs or psychotropic substances. 74273. In 1998, the General Assembly at its twentiethspecial session adopted the Declaration on the GuidingPrinciples of Drug Demand Reduction (Assemblyresolution S-20/3, annex), in which States Members ofthe United Nations pledged their commitment toinvesting in demand reduction programmes. Themeasures recommended in the Declaration included:regularly assessing the nature and magnitude of drugabuse; ensuring that demand reduction programmescovered all areas of prevention, from discouraginginitial use to reducing the negative consequences ofdrug abuse; forging partnerships among thestakeholders involved at the national and local levels;tailoring approaches to different target groups, inparticular youth; ensuring that disseminatedinformation was correct and reliable; and ensuring thatexperience acquired in demand reduction waspreserved and utilized.274. In 2007, the Executive Director of UNODC madean assessment of the progress in drug control since theadoption of the Declaration. All Governments wererequested to supply information on their efforts toimplement the international drug control conventions,including their demand reduction programmes.Information was collected on demand reductionthrough a questionnaire issued every two years after1998, focusing on prevention, treatment and__________________74 Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for1997 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.98.XI.1),paras. 1-42.rehabilitation, as well as reducing the negative healthand social consequences of drug abuse.275. Based on the information submitted byGovernments on the questionnaire, the ExecutiveDirector of UNODC ascertained that the overall levelof coverage in prevention efforts increased in six of thenine regions (Central, South and South-West Asia;Central and Western Europe; Latin America and theCaribbean; North Africa and the Middle East; NorthAmerica; and Oceania) in the period 2004-2006,compared with the periods 2000-2002 and 2002-2004.North America and Oceania showed high levels ofimplementation of prevention interventions. In theother regions, the implementation levels were muchlower, even though results per country differedsignificantly from the regional average. Althoughglobally prevention interventions are being expandedand maintained at that higher level, effective demandreduction requires substantially higher coverage ofinterventions. 75276. According to a report of the Executive Director, 76detoxification remains the most prevalent treatmentintervention method. The coverage of detoxificationhas increased in all regions except in Sub-SaharanAfrica and in Eastern and South-Eastern Europe.Substitution treatment is the least employedintervention strategy and its coverage has reached highlevels in North America and in Oceania. In most otherregions, small increases or even declines have beenreported. The coverage of non-pharmacologicaltreatment showed a minor increase since the period2002-2004. In Oceania, it remained the most commonintervention strategy. Interventions in the area of socialreintegration received largely the same coverage duringthe period 2004-2006 as in the period 2002-2004,registering small increases in most regions, with smalldecreases in Sub-Saharan Africa and in North Africaand the Middle East.277. In his report, the Executive Director also focusedon interventions to reduce the negative health andsocial consequences of drug abuse, mainly aimed atpreventing the spread of infectious diseases such as__________________75 “Drug demand reduction: fourth biennial report of theExecutive Director” (E/CN.7/2007/2/Add.1), paras. 33and 34.76 “Drug demand reduction: fourth biennial report of theExecutive Director” (E/CN.7/2007/2/Add.1), paras. 43-45.46

E/INCB/2007/1HIV/AIDS and hepatitis B and C. Interventions rangedfrom the dissemination of information, peer outreach,condom distribution, substitution treatment,counselling and HIV-testing to programmes for theexchange of needles and syringes. North America andOceania had the widest coverage of the combinedintervention strategies. Central and Western Europehad medium coverage of such interventions, whileinterventions in all other regions were limited, eventhough individual States within regions might have hadhigher coverage. 77278. As underlined earlier, reducing illicit supply andreducing demand have a mutually reinforcing effect.However, both objectives require essentially differentapproaches. Supply reduction interventions must beimplemented uniformly to ensure the functioning of theinternational drug control system. Consequently, thelegal framework for measures countering illicit drugmanufacture, production, trafficking and diversionmust be established at the international level. However,preventing drug abuse mostly involves communicatingmessages that should take into account the cultural,social and economic backgrounds of target groups. Inaddition, the provision of treatment and rehabilitationfor drug abusers can only take place in the socioculturalcontext of each country. Consequently, demandreduction entails policies and interventions that shouldbe developed at the national and local levels to achievethe desired results.279. The Board recognizes that demand reduction is apolicy objective requiring a wide variety of complexmeasures, in particular because effective interventionsoften need to be tailored to specific target groups. Inaddition, interventions must be sustained over a longperiod and the results of some might be difficult tomeasure. However, the Board stresses the importanceof drug demand reduction as an essential component ofthe global response to the drug problem. Withoutconcerted efforts towards drug demand reduction at thenational and local levels, reducing the illicit use ofdrugs cannot be accomplished.280. In developing and implementing demandreduction policies, proper statistical data and expertanalysis are indispensable. The Board calls upon every__________________77 “Drug demand reduction: fourth biennial report of theExecutive Director” (E/CN.7/2007/2/Add.1), paras. 48-57.Government that has not yet done so to establish aninformation system that can assess the drug abusesituation in its country. Demand reduction programmesalso require constant monitoring and a built-inevaluation process. The Board encouragesGovernments to make national and local experienceswith demand reduction interventions accessible to drugcontrol authorities in other regions or countries. Thesharing of information and experiences can contributeto improving the demand reduction strategies incountries that do not have established monitoring andevaluation systems.281. The Board reminds Governments of theirobligations under the drug control conventions, as wellas their commitments made in the Declaration on theGuiding Principles of Drug Demand Reduction. TheBoard calls upon Governments to implement theprovisions of the conventions and to carry out theaction called for in the Declaration. Governmentsshould make it a priority to increase their demandreduction interventions in a comprehensive manner, onthe basis of reliable information on drug abuse andpaying due attention to the specific characteristics oftarget groups, such as their age and gender.Abuse of narcotic drugs and psychotropicsubstances diverted from domestic distributionchannels282. Diversion of pharmaceutical preparationscontaining narcotic drugs and psychotropic substancesfrom domestic distribution channels has become themain source of those substances found on illicit drugmarkets.283. In some countries, the abuse of pharmaceuticalpreparations containing controlled substances is secondonly to the abuse of cannabis. The pharmaceuticalpreparations diverted and abused contain variousopioids, benzodiazepines and ATS. Among the opioids,preparations containing buprenorphine, codeine,dextropropoxyphene, fentanyl, hydrocodone,methadone, morphine, oxycodone and trimeperidineaccount for the largest quantities diverted (seeparagraph 79 above).284. Data collected by Governments on the patterns ofabuse of pharmaceutical preparations suggest thatthose patterns are related to the overall availability ofthe preparations. For example, to a considerable extent,the increasing abuse of pharmaceutical preparations47

E/INCB/2007/1containing narcotic drugs or psychotropic substances inCanada and the United States is attributed to theextensive licit supply of controlled substances in thosecountries. From 2002 to 2006, the licit use of narcoticdrugs increased by more than 80 per cent in Canadaand by more than 60 per cent in the United States, twocountries that had already in 2002 ranked among thehighest consumers of narcotic drugs worldwide. In thesame period, the consumption of amphetamines inSchedule II of the 1971 Convention doubled in Canadaand increased by 42 per cent in the United States. Thattrend in consumption clearly indicates the importanceof monitoring and providing education on theappropriate use of narcotic drugs and psychotropicsubstances. The Board requests the Governmentsconcerned to promote the rational use of narcotic drugsand psychotropic substances and to adopt prescriptionprocedures that promote the rational use of drugs.285. Some countries in South Asia and South-WestAsia are witnessing increasing abuse of various opioidanalgesics, including codeine preparations, andbenzodiazepines as preferred drugs. In a number ofcountries in Africa, certain benzodiazepines such aschlordiazepoxide, diazepam, lorazepam and nitrazepamcan be obtained easily and without prescription and onstreet markets. In Nigeria, pentazocine, an opioidanalgesic in Schedule III of the 1971 Convention, isthe second most commonly abused drug amongpersons who abuse drugs by injection. Oxycodone,hydrocodone and methadone are the narcotic drugsmost often mentioned as being responsible for theincreasing number of fatalities in Australia, Canadaand the United States, as well as in a number ofEuropean countries.286. The abuse of pharmaceutical preparationscontaining narcotic drugs or psychotropic substanceshas become part of and has contributed to the problemof increasing polydrug abuse. The increasingprescription of opioids, such as buprenorphine andmethadone, for substitution treatment also contributesto the problem of polydrug abuse, as well as theproblem of diversion. Some addicts illegally sell theirprescribed pharmaceutical preparations so that they canpurchase their drugs of choice, such as heroin.Significant amounts of those substances are diverted tosupply the growing illicit markets for those substances,not only in the country in which they are diverted butalso in other countries, into which they are smuggled.In Mauritius, for example, there has been a significantincrease in the number of seizures of buprenorphinesmuggled out of countries such as France.287. However, despite increasing abuse ofpharmaceutical preparations, most national drug abusemonitoring systems are not sensitive to thephenomenon of abuse of prescription drugs. Prescribedopioids, benzodiazepines and stimulants are rarelyincluded in drug abuse surveys and in data collected bylaw enforcement authorities on trafficking. That is justone of the reasons why the dimensions of the problemare unknown and inadequately assessed.288. The United States (in the National Survey onDrug Use and Health) systematically collects data onthe abuse of specific prescription drugs. A number ofother countries, while not systematically collectingsuch information, include prescription drugs in studieson the extent and patterns of drug abuse. The Boardnotes that the All Party Parliamentary Group on DrugMisuse in the United Kingdom launched in July 2007an inquiry into the scale and nature of the abuse ofprescription drugs and over-the-counter drugs in thatcountry. The Board welcomes that initiative and invitesthe Governments of other countries where that is notalready done to examine the issue of the diversion andabuse of pharmaceutical preparations containingnarcotic drugs and psychotropic substances and toadopt adequate countermeasures, as appropriate.289. The traditional methods of diversion include theuse of stolen or forged prescriptions, burglary ofpharmaceutical establishments and “doctor shopping”.In addition, diversions occur as a result of poorprescription practices by medical doctors and disregardfor prescription requirements in pharmacies. Thosediversion methods are often used to supply individualdrug abusers. Larger-scale theft, from factories andwholesalers and pretended exports, are diversionmethods used by drug traffickers. In such cases, thediverted drugs are abused within the country ofdiversion or smuggled into other countries. In somecountries, the diversion of pharmaceutical drugs hasbeen identified by some criminal groups as a lucrativeactivity.290. In countries experiencing a particularly negativedevelopment in the abuse of prescribed opioids, theauthorities should consider increasing the regulatorycontrol of such substances. The Board in its annual48

E/INCB/2007/1reports 78, 79 has encouraged the Government of theUnited States to review the controls applicable topreparations containing hydrocodone with a view topreventing their diversion and abuse. Considering theparticularly worrying trend of the abuse ofhydrocodone among youth (see paragraphs 81 and 98above), the Board again urges the authorities of theUnited States to examine the appropriateness of currentcontrol measures for preventing the diversion andabuse of that narcotic drug. If necessary, the authoritiesshould adopt stricter control measures forhydrocodone.__________________78 Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for2005 …, para. 72.79 Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for2006 …, para. 56.49

E/INCB/2007/1III. Analysis of the world situationA. AfricaMajor developments291. The main development causing concern in Africais the rapid increase in the smuggling of cocaine fromLatin America through West and Central Africa andinto Europe. According to Interpol estimates,200-300 tons of cocaine is smuggled into Europe eachyear; a growing proportion of that cocaine is passingthrough West Africa, where it is stockpiled and repackagedbefore being transported to Europe. There issome concern that West African countries are notadequately equipped to forestall that development.292. Africa is also being increasingly used bytraffickers as a trans-shipment area for the diversion ofprecursors, particularly ephedrine andpseudoephedrine. As most countries in Africa do nothave the legislative and institutional framework inplace to combat trafficking in precursor chemicals,traffickers are increasingly turning to countries in theregion in their efforts to obtain the chemicals they needfor illicit drug manufacture.293. Cannabis remains the main illicit drug of concernin Africa. Cannabis illicitly cultivated in Africa isabused locally or smuggled through the region and intoEurope and North America.294. The abuse of ATS and other psychotropicsubstances takes place in many African countriesbecause the drug control systems in those countries arenot functioning properly. There continues to be a lackof appropriate mechanisms and skilled humanresources to control and prevent drug trafficking, andthe provision of counselling, treatment andrehabilitation facilities for drug abusers remainsinadequate.Regional cooperation295. The Commission of the African Union haselaborated a new action plan on drug control and crimeprevention for the period 2007-2010. The new actionplan covers a wide range of issues, including drugtrafficking and drug demand reduction, and is to beadopted at the 2008 Summit of Heads of State andGovernment of the African Union. The Commission ofthe Economic Community of West African States(ECOWAS) is currently developing an integrated planof action against drugs and crime. The plan willaddress drug control issues, including the improvementof national forensic capabilities, as well as emergingand existing threats in West Africa.296. The Seventeenth Meeting of Heads of NationalDrug Law Enforcement Agencies, Africa, held inNairobi in September 2006, was attended by heads ofnational law enforcement agencies from countriesthroughout Africa, representatives of international druglaw enforcement agencies and experts from UNODC.Participants shared information on major regional drugtrafficking trends, and discussed action taken byGovernments to enhance regional and subregionalcooperation in law enforcement training, experienceswith drug trafficking countermeasures, the effectiveimplementation of controlled delivery operations,efforts to mobilize community support for lawenforcement anti-drug strategies, and inter-agencycooperation and the role of forensic laboratories incombating drug trafficking.297. The twenty-first conference on anti-narcoticspolicy and strengthening Arab cooperation was held inTunis in June 2007. The conference, which wasattended by representatives of North African countriesand other member States of the League of Arab States,addressed developments such as drug traffickingthrough the Internet and the smuggling of drugs byexpress mail, which has emerged in recent years inseveral Arab countries. Recommendations related tothe creation of additional drug rehabilitation centresand action against money-laundering were adopted.298. The eighth Interpol Meeting of Heads of AfricanNational Drugs Services, held in Arusha in June 2007,discussed drug control strategies and promotingcooperation to combat drug trafficking in Africathrough, for example, the incident response teams 80and the global police communications system 81 of__________________80 The incident response teams have been created byInterpol to rapidly assist developing countries thatunexpectedly make exceptional drug seizures.81 The global police communications system of Interpol(I-24/7) connects law enforcement officials in allInterpol member States and provides them with a means50

E/INCB/2007/1Interpol. With Somalia joining that communicationssystem in July 2007, all African countries are nowconnected to it.299. In July 2007, UNODC launched a three-yearproject that uses law enforcement cooperation and theexchange of intelligence to curb the smuggling ofcocaine from Latin America into West Africa. Theproject is aimed at establishing a multiregionalmechanism for intelligence exchange in the area ofdrug interdiction and to promote intelligence-led druginvestigations in Latin America, West Africa andEurope. The initiative, which is financed by theEuropean Commission and Spain, will provide trainingand equipment to law enforcement and intelligenceservices in Latin American and West African countriesthat cooperate with each other through the gatheringand sharing of intelligence. Seven countries in LatinAmerica and the Caribbean 82 and six countries in WestAfrica 83 have been selected to participate in theproject.300. In 2007, a joint port control unit, comprised ofpolice and customs officers, was established in Ghana,in the port of Tema, under the Container ControlProgramme of UNODC and the World CustomsOrganization. The programme, which was launched inEcuador and Ghana in November 2004, is addressingthe problem of drug trafficking by commercial seafreight container. Plans are under way to extend theprogramme to include ports in countries in East andSouthern Africa.301. The fourth regional working group on drug abuseand HIV/AIDS, organized by UNODC, the JointUnited Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS)and the World Health Organization (WHO), was heldin Cairo in November 2006. The workshop focused onbuilding the capacity to use a comprehensive approachto reduce the spread of HIV/AIDS among persons whoabuse drugs by injection in countries on the Arabianpeninsula and in North Africa. The workshop broughttogether representatives of law enforcement agencies,national AIDS programmes and non-governmentalorganizations, and United Nations entities, as well asresearchers, community representatives and people__________________of sharing crucial police information.82 Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Trinidad andTobago and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of).83 Cape Verde, the Gambia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Senegaland Togo.living with HIV. The North African countriesrepresented in the workshop were Algeria, Egypt, theLibyan Arab Jamahiriya, Morocco and Tunisia.302. At the subregional level, cooperation among druglaw enforcement agencies continues to bestrengthened. In East Africa, cooperation among drugcontrol police in Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda and theUnited Republic of Tanzania is being strengthenedthrough meetings held twice a year to discuss regionalnarcotics issues. In 2007, the Southern AfricanRegional Police Chiefs Cooperation Organization(SARPCCO) launched a project on the identification ofillicit drugs and chemical equipment. A working groupon the eradication of cannabis in Southern Africa hasalso been established within SARPCCO.National legislation, policy and action303. The Board notes that a number of Africancountries are currently updating national drug controllegislation. The Government of Guinea-Bissau, acountry that has recently been targeted by internationalnetworks smuggling cocaine from Latin America intoEurope, is revising its national legislation toincorporate the provisions of the international drugcontrol treaties. In Malawi, Uganda and the UnitedRepublic of Tanzania, current drug control legislationis being upgraded with a view to strengthening druglaw enforcement and to increasing penalties fordrug-related crime.304. Efforts are being undertaken by the Governmentsof Egypt, Kenya and Nigeria to draft or update nationaldrug control plans. In Egypt, the National Councilagainst Addiction and Drug Control has started toupdate the national drug control strategy. Similarly, inKenya, a multisectoral drug control master plan isbeing developed, with special emphasis on lawenforcement activities and the strengthening of thecapacity of judicial authorities to investigate drugoffences and combat drug-related money-laundering.The Government of Nigeria has developed a drugcontrol master plan for the period 2007-2011, which isexpected to be officially released at the end of 2007.305. The national drug law enforcement agency of theLibyan Arab Jamahiriya will organize, in cooperationwith the Universal Postal Union (UPU) and UNODC, aregional seminar on countering drug trafficking andmoney-laundering using the mail, to be held in Tripoliin November 2007. It is expected that during the51

E/INCB/2007/1seminar, a draft regional action plan will be developedto foster bilateral and multilateral cooperation aimed atcurbing the smuggling of drugs using the couriersystem.306. The Egyptian Anti-Narcotics GeneralAdministration continued to provide support, includingin the form of border control and computer networktraining, to other national drug law enforcementagencies in countries in North Africa. South Africa hasprovided advisory support and training to lawenforcement agencies of countries in East and SouthernAfrica. Botswana, Ethiopia, Mauritius, Mozambique,Swaziland and Zimbabwe recently received trainingand advice from South Africa on the establishment offorensic science laboratories. Moreover, the dogtraining school in Roodeplaat, South Africa, hasprovided training to dog handlers and delivered snifferdogs, trained to detect drugs, to other Africancountries, including Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi,Nigeria and the United Republic of Tanzania.307. The Government of Morocco recently launchedan initiative against drug-related corruption.Investigations following the arrest of a drug baron inMorocco in 2006 resulted in the arrest of more than adozen high-ranking Government, judicial, military andlaw enforcement officials in connection withdrug-related corruption.308. In many countries in Africa, treatment andrehabilitation programmes and facilities for drugdependentpersons are often inadequate or lacking. TheBoard has repeatedly encouraged the Governmentsconcerned to take the measures necessary to ensurethat adequate treatment is available to such persons.The Board notes the recent opening of treatment andrehabilitation centres for drug-dependent persons inBenin, Kenya and Togo. It is also noted that a numberof African countries, including Algeria, Côte d’Ivoire,Egypt, Kenya, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Mali,Morocco, Nigeria, Senegal and the United Republic ofTanzania, have taken measures to develop drug abuseprevention programmes and treatment andrehabilitation programmes for drug-dependent youthand prison inmates.309. The Governments of Ethiopia, Kenya and Ugandaare intensifying activities in the area of counteringmoney-laundering. A workshop organized incooperation with Interpol was held in Nairobi inDecember 2006 to provide investigators with casestudies on how to investigate money-laundering cases.The Government of Malawi, having adopted legislationagainst money-laundering, in line with relevantrecommendations of the Financial Action Task Forceon Money Laundering, is in the process of establishinga financial intelligence unit. New legislation againstmoney-laundering is expected to be adopted soon inGhana and the United Republic of Tanzania. In allWest African countries except Ghana, there are lawscriminalizing money-laundering even if they do notalways fully comply with international standards.Proper financial investigation units and mechanismsare in place in Nigeria and Senegal (and, to a lesserextent, in Cape Verde and the Niger). In May 2007,Nigeria became the first country in the West Africansubregion to be admitted as a full member of theEgmont Group of Financial Intelligence Units.Cultivation, production, manufacture,trafficking and abuseNarcotic drugs310. Cannabis is illicitly cultivated throughout Africaand is abused locally or smuggled within the regionand into Europe. Cannabis production and traffickingare reported in practically all African countries. Thelargest cannabis producers in the region are countriesin West Africa (Benin, Ghana, Nigeria and Togo),Southern Africa (the Democratic Republic of theCongo, Malawi, South Africa, Swaziland and Zambia)and East Africa (Comoros, Ethiopia, Kenya,Madagascar, Uganda and the United Republic ofTanzania). Increasing amounts of South Africancannabis are being seized in countries in Europe,particularly Ireland and the United Kingdom. InAugust 2007, a ton of cannabis was discovered inIreland in a container originating in South Africa.Cannabis is also found in mail leaving South Africa,especially for Italy and the United Kingdom.311. The production of cannabis resin takes place incountries in North Africa, mainly Morocco. The Boardnotes that the Government of Morocco has intensifiedits efforts to counter the illicit cultivation of cannabisplants and the illicit production of cannabis resin,which has resulted in a decline in the illicit productionof cannabis resin in that country. It appears that thathas resulted in the decline of seizures of cannabis resinin Europe, the largest market for cannabis resin in theworld. Despite decreases in recent years in the total52

E/INCB/2007/1area under cannabis cultivation in Morocco, thatcountry remains one of the world’s main producers andsuppliers of cannabis resin. A route used for smugglingcannabis resin from Morocco through Mauritania,Mali, the Niger and Chad and into either Egypt or theSudan was identified in early 2007. A total of 5.7 tonsof cannabis resin was seized in five seizures in theNiger in the period 2006-2007.312. While global cannabis abuse seems to havestabilized, in Africa the abuse of cannabis continues toincrease. Annual prevalence of cannabis abuse inAfrica is 7.7 per cent of the population aged 15-64 years. Among the subregions in Africa, the highestrate of cannabis abuse is in West and Central Africa(13 per cent), followed by Southern Africa (8.5 percent). 84 The abuse of cannabis continues to bewidespread in East Africa as well.313. Large illicit consignments of cocaine aretransported from countries in Latin America (fromColombia through Brazil and Venezuela (BolivarianRepublic of)) to the coastal areas of West Africa (onboard ships, private yachts and, more recently, privateairplanes) and then to Europe. In addition, largequantities of cocaine, most of which is destined forPortugal and Spain, are shipped to the waters off thecoast of Cape Verde and Guinea. During the first eightmonths of 2007, significant quantities of cocaine wereseized in Benin, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau,Mauritania and Senegal. In Africa, cocaine is repackedin small quantities and smuggled into Europe by air,using locally recruited couriers. In order to avoiddetection, cocaine traffickers frequently change theairports from which they depart and their routes. InWest Africa, the main airports used by courierssmuggling cocaine into Europe are in Dakar, Conakry,Freetown, Banjul, Accra and Lagos. In addition todirect routes leading to Europe, new cocainetrafficking routes through North Africa and the Arabianpeninsula have appeared. With the increasedavailability of cocaine in West Africa, organizedtrafficking networks have developed that are able toacquire and redistribute hundreds of kilograms ofcocaine. Cocaine is transported by air also to countriesin Southern Africa, notably South Africa (where it isabused locally), either directly from South America orvia West Africa, using couriers, air freight services orexpress mail services.__________________84 World Drug Report 2007 …, p. 114-115.314. Cocaine abuse has increased in Africa, notably incountries in West and Southern Africa, as well as in thecoastal area of North Africa, albeit from low levels.Annual prevalence of cocaine abuse in Africa stood atslightly over 1 million, in 2005; 85 in other words,cocaine abusers in Africa represent about 7.6 per centof all the cocaine abusers in the world. In South Africa,data from treatment centres indicate that cocaine abuseis increasing throughout the country.315. Heroin trafficking and abuse are on the increasein some countries in Africa. Heroin is smuggled by airfrom South-West Asia through East Africa and WestAfrica into Europe and through West Africa into NorthAmerica, usually by courier. In 2006, the WorldCustoms Organization reported heroin traffickingroutes leading from Afghanistan and Iran (IslamicRepublic of) through Qatar to Kenya and from theIslamic Republic of Iran through the United ArabEmirates to South Africa and the United Republic ofTanzania. Data of seizures of heroin in many countriesin Africa seem to suggest an increasing presence ofheroin on illicit markets in the region. The main transitcountries used by heroin traffickers in the variousAfrican subregions are as follows: Ethiopia, Kenya andUnited Republic of Tanzania in East Africa;Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria in West Africa; andSouth Africa in Southern Africa. Heroin is smuggledthrough major international airports in West Africa bycouriers on direct flights from countries in East Africa(Ethiopia and Kenya) and on the Arabian peninsula andfrom Pakistan. West Africa serves as a corridor forheroin smuggled into North America and Europe.Parcel post is another means by which heroin issmuggled into countries in Africa, mainly Nigeria andSouth Africa but also Côte d’Ivoire, the DemocraticRepublic of the Congo, Mali and Mozambique.316. The level of heroin abuse in Africa remains low.According to the World Drug Report 2007 86 ofUNODC, in 2005 it was estimated that980,000 persons in Africa (or 0.2 per cent of the totalpopulation aged 15-64) were heroin abusers. Althoughheroin abuse seems to be confined to areas alongtrafficking routes, it is reported to have increasedsharply in countries in East Africa (notably Kenya,Mauritius and the United Republic of Tanzania) andSouthern Africa (notably Mozambique and South__________________85 Ibid., p. 82.86 Ibid., table 4.53

E/INCB/2007/1Africa). In countries in West Africa, such asCôte d’Ivoire and Senegal, and in countries in NorthAfrica, such as Morocco, there have also been reportsof sharply increased heroin abuse, a development thatis probably linked to the fact that heroin traffickingroutes pass through those countries.317. Heroin is abused in Africa primarily by smoking.However, the abuse of heroin by injection is spreadingin Kenya, Mauritius and the United Republic ofTanzania, particularly in urban areas; in thosecountries, the authorities are concerned about the highprevalence of HIV/AIDS among injecting drugabusers.Psychotropic substances318. In many countries in Africa, the diversion ofpharmaceutical preparations containing psychotropicsubstances from licit distribution channels into parallelmarkets continues to be a cause for concern. The saleof such substances without medical prescription bystreet vendors and health-care providers continues topose a major problem throughout the region.319. Methaqualone has, for years, been the preferreddrug of abuse in South Africa; however, according tothe South African Community Epidemiology Networkon Drug Use, 87 its abuse appears to be on the decline.Methaqualone, which is generally smoked togetherwith cannabis, is not only manufactured locally inclandestine laboratories in South Africa, but alsosmuggled into the country out of China, India andother countries. In 2006, South African authoritiesdetected over 1 ton of methaqualone in a sea freightconsignment originating in China and intercepted30 kg of methaqualone from Zambia that was enteringSouth Africa through Zimbabwe.320. Illicit manufacture of ATS, mostlymethamphetamine and methcathinone, is taking placein Southern Africa. In addition, methamphetaminecontinues to be smuggled into South Africa, mainly outof China. In South Africa, both the illicit manufactureand abuse of ATS have increased. The substancesephedrine and pseudoephedrine, which are used for the__________________87 Charles Parry, Andreas Plüddemann and Arvin Bhana,“Alcohol and drug abuse trends: July-December 2006(phase 21)”, South African Community EpidemiologyNetwork on Drug Use (SACENDU) Update (CapeTown), 15 May 2007.illicit manufacture of those ATS, are smuggled intoSouth Africa out of China and India or are divertedfrom licit channels. Illicit manufacture of several typesof synthetic drugs seems to have increased, as shownby the growing number of clandestine laboratories thathave been dismantled in South Africa. For example,between 1995 and 1999, South Africa reported, onaverage, the dismantling of one clandestine laboratoryper year; that figure increased to 46 in 2006. Becauseof intensified law enforcement activities, suchlaboratories are increasingly being established onremote farms, making it more difficult for the police tofind and destroy them.321. MDMA (commonly known as “ecstasy”)continues to be smuggled out of Europe into SouthAfrica, to be sold on the illicit market in that country.In June 2007, 70,000 “ecstasy” tablets were interceptedat the airport at Brussels; the tablets were destined forCape Town.322. In Mauritius, buprenorphine (Subutex ® ) is abusedas a substitute for heroin, either alone or incombination with other drugs. During 2006, about520 seizures of small quantities of Subutex ® wereeffected in that country; in most of those cases, thesubstance was found on drug addicts. In addition, twocases involving the large-scale smuggling of Subutex ®were reported in Mauritius, the most recent oneinvolving 50,000 tablets from France.Precursors323. The Board is concerned that Africa isincreasingly being targeted by traffickers as a transshipmentpoint for the diversion of precursors,particularly ephedrine and pseudoephedrine. 88 Duringthe period 2006-2007, a large number of suspiciousshipments of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, as wellas preparations containing those substances, wereidentified; all of the shipments were destined forAfrican countries such as Burundi, the DemocraticRepublic of the Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana,Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria, Somalia, South Africaand the United Republic of Tanzania. During thatperiod, a total of over 75 tons of the two substances__________________88 For a detailed description, see Precursors and ChemicalsFrequently Used in the Illicit Manufacture of NarcoticDrugs and Psychotropic Substances: Report of theInternational Narcotics Control Board for 2007 … .54

E/INCB/2007/1were prevented from being diverted to or through theregion, which represents the highest amount everrecorded for Africa. The Democratic Republic of theCongo was the destination of seven stopped shipmentscontaining a total of 23 tons of pseudoephedrineduring 2007.324. As precursor control legislation is inadequate ornon-existent in many African countries and asmonitoring and control mechanisms are weak,traffickers have been placing orders for suchsubstances to be delivered to countries in Africa, fromwhere the consignments are to be smuggled into NorthAmerica or other regions. In most of the identifieddiversion attempts, forgery of import permits was theprevailing method used. Another matter of concern isthat the authorities of many African countries do notrespond to pre-export notifications and to inquiriesabout the legitimacy of shipments of precursors in atimely manner. The Board therefore urges theGovernments of the African countries affected by suchtransit traffic to put in place, as a matter of priority, thenecessary legislative and institutional framework toeffectively combat the smuggling of precursors throughtheir territories.Missions325. The Board sent a mission, for the first time, to theCongo in February 2007. The Board notes that theGovernment of the Congo, by acceding to the threeinternational drug control treaties in 2004, hasdemonstrated its political will and determination tocombat drug trafficking and abuse, in cooperation withthe international community. However, theGovernment is not able to fully comply with its treatyobligations. The Board therefore encourages theGovernment to give drug control issues the highestpossible priority and to strengthen its commitment tothe objectives of the international drug control treaties.326. The national drug control legislation of theCongo is outdated; it needs to be revised to ensureeffective control over narcotic drugs, psychotropicsubstances and precursors. The Board urges theGovernment of the Congo to give priority to updatingits national drug control legislation. Moreover, theadministrative mechanism for monitoring andexercising control over those substances needs to bestrengthened so that the Government may fulfil itsobligations under the international drug controltreaties. To that end, the Government may wish to availitself of the legal assistance of UNODC.327. Effective drug interdiction in the Congo ishampered by the fact that trained law enforcementofficers and the necessary equipment are lacking. TheBoard is concerned that the Congo is at risk of beingused as a transit country for drug trafficking, whichcould have spillover effects, such as increased drugabuse. The Board urges the Government of the Congoto give priority to further strengthening the druginterdiction capacity of the law enforcementauthorities, including the customs authorities, byproviding the necessary training and equipment. Tothat end, the Government may wish to request thesupport of other Governments and UNODC.328. The Board carried out a mission to Liberia inMarch 2007. While Liberia is party to the1961 Convention and the 1988 Convention, it has notratified the 1971 Convention (it is the only State inWest Africa that is not yet a party to that treaty). TheBoard therefore requests Liberia to ratify the1971 Convention as soon as possible. In addition,Liberia should take the measures necessary to ensureits full compliance with the reporting obligations of theinternational drug control treaties.329. Drug trafficking and abuse are major challengesthat the Government of Liberia is facing after aprotracted civil war. It is important for the Governmentto adopt appropriate national legislation to addressdrug trafficking and abuse. The Board therefore urgesthe Government to adopt adequate drug controllegislation without further delay. To that end, theGovernment may wish to seek legal assistance fromUNODC.330. The Board notes that there are at least nine lawenforcement agencies in Liberia that have a mandate toact against drug trafficking. The mandates of theagencies in question appear to be overlapping, whichmay result in duplication of activities. It is imperativefor the Government to resolve that issue as soon aspossible. In addition, the ability of the Government tocorrectly identify drugs being trafficked is limited. TheBoard notes the initial assessment made by UNODC toassist the Government in establishing laboratorycapabilities in Liberia.331. Drugs are believed to be widely abused inLiberia. However, there has never been a systematic55

E/INCB/2007/1assessment of the nature, extent and patterns of drugabuse in that country. The Government shouldtherefore give priority to conducting a rapidassessment of drug abuse in the country. Such anassessment is essential to the development of policyand the designing of appropriate programmes for theprevention of drug abuse and treatment andrehabilitation of the drug abusers.B. AmericasCentral America and the CaribbeanMajor developments332. The region of Central America and the Caribbeancontinues to be used as a transit and trans-shipmentarea for consignments of illicit drugs, primarilycocaine from countries in South America, mainlyColombia, bound for the United States and Europe. Itis estimated that 88 per cent of the cocaine entering theUnited States has passed through Central America,while about 40 per cent of the cocaine entering Europehas passed through the Caribbean. In some countries inthe region, the involvement of international andnational criminal groups in drug trafficking isincreasing and the rule of law is being undermined.The existence of youth gangs, or maras, involved andoften in control of the street-level distribution ofcocaine hydrochloride and “crack” cocaine, continuesto be a problem in countries in the region such asEl Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras.333. Most illicit drugs are transported throughCaribbean and Pacific waters, usually using fast boatsin the Caribbean and larger craft in the Pacific. Despitethe huge amount of cocaine passing through CentralAmerica and the Caribbean, the level of drug abuse inthe region remains relatively low. However, theincreasing quantities of drugs being trans-shippedthrough the countries in the region can, in the longerterm, lead to growing illicit markets and increasingdrug abuse levels in the transit countries.334. While the production of cannabis for the illicitmarkets in North America and Europe has decreased,cannabis abuse and trafficking within Central Americaand the Caribbean continue to pose problems. Thesignificant increase in seizures of MDMA reflects theintensified use of the region as a transit area and therelated problem of growing drug abuse.335. The control of precursor chemicals in CentralAmerica and the Caribbean appears weak. The Boardencourages countries in the region to put in place anadequate system for the control of precursors, in orderto prevent the region from being used for the diversionand smuggling of precursor chemicals into otherregions, for use in the illicit manufacture ofmethamphetamine.Regional cooperation336. Member States of the Organization of AmericanStates (OAS) are using the Multilateral EvaluationMechanism to monitor and evaluate individual andcollective efforts in addressing the drug problem. TheInter-American Drug Abuse Commission (CICAD)employs the results of the evaluation to make periodicrecommendations to member States on improving theircapacity to control illicit drug trafficking and abuseand enhance multilateral cooperation. Although not allrecommendations have been fully implemented,substantial progress has been made. Through theMultilateral Evaluation Mechanism, three evaluationshave been conducted and recommendations have beenmade to Governments. The responses fromGovernments have been very positive: 76 per cent ofrecommendations had been implemented byGovernments in the first round, 85 per cent in thesecond round and 81 per cent in the third round.337. Drug control efforts of countries in CentralAmerica and the Caribbean are often hampered by lackof funding. The Secretary-General of OAS invited theStates in the region to adopt laws that would, on aregular and permanent basis, allocate up to 1 per centof the drug-related assets seized to drug controlprogrammes and organizations. Recognizing theimportant role that sea transport plays in drugtrafficking in the region, the Board encourages theGovernments of countries in the region to follow therecommendation of OAS on implementing measures todeter, thwart and dismantle criminal organizationsusing the sea to transport narcotic drugs, arms andmaterials used in processing drugs.338. Drug abuse prevention programmes continue toexpand in the region. Such programmes include aprogramme on school drug abuse preventionguidelines, training teachers under the sponsorship of56

E/INCB/2007/1CICAD and life skills programmes. In addition, theUniversity of the West Indies launched in 2007 anonline programme in the Caribbean for the preventionand treatment of substance abuse. The onlineprogramme marks the conclusion of a two-yearpartnership between CICAD and the University of theWest Indies, undertaken at the request of national drugcontrol commissions of Caribbean countries.339. OAS and the Commission of the European Unionlaunched an initiative in February 2007 to link cities inEurope with cities in Latin America and the Caribbeanin order to create associations to improve, at themunicipal level, the rehabilitation and treatment ofdrug abusers. Furthermore, the Governments ofCanada, France, the Netherlands, Spain, the UnitedKingdom and the United States provided assistance incombating drug trafficking activities.340. The Regional Security System of theOrganization of Eastern Caribbean States has among itsmain objectives the prevention and interdiction oftrafficking in illicit narcotic drugs. The countries thatare members of the Regional Security System (Antiguaand Barbuda, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, SaintKitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia and Saint Vincent and theGrenadines) continued in 2006 to support efforts tocounteract the smuggling of drugs through the easternpart of the Caribbean.341. A seminar was held in Mexico City in May 2006to provide training for police, customs and officialsfrom the ministries of health of El Salvador,Guatemala, Nicaragua and Panama in improving thecurrent system for the control of precursors in thosecountries. The training focused on bringing nationallegal frameworks in line with the international drugcontrol treaties, on diversion techniques and on theimplementation of UNODC electronic tools for drugcontrol. Similar training was offered for police,customs and Government officials from Belize,Costa Rica and Honduras in October 2007.342. The Board would welcome the disruption, as aresult of the ongoing cooperation among countries inthe region, of operations involving trafficking in drugsand precursor chemicals.National legislation, policy and action343. In Belize, the National Coast Guard Service, withfull responsibility for law enforcement and safety atsea, was established in 2006 to deter trans-shipping ofnarcotic drugs. The National Coast Guard Servicepatrols the Belizean coastline and conducts operationsto combat drug trafficking.344. In 2006, the Costa Rican Institute on Drugsenhanced its coordination efforts in the areas ofintelligence-gathering, demand reduction, the seizureof assets and the licensing of precursor chemicals. In2006, Costa Rica also adopted legislation against illicitenrichment and reported the results of the evaluation ofseveral drug abuse prevention programmes.Programmes targeting universities, adults, theworkplace and prison inmates are included in thestrategy “Promoting Healthy Lifestyles”. The Boardencourages the Government of Costa Rica to ratify themultilateral Agreement concerning Cooperation inSuppressing Illicit Maritime and Air Trafficking inNarcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances in theCaribbean Area.345. In El Salvador, the Anti-Narcotics Division of theNational Police is responsible for preventing drugtrafficking by land, sea and air. It is also responsiblefor preventing the smuggling of drugs using maildelivery services. With regard to drug abuse preventionefforts, the Government of El Salvador is working withthe Anti-Drugs Foundation of El Salvador(FUNDASALVA), a non-governmental organization, toincrease public awareness of substance abuse and toprovide counselling, rehabilitation and reintegrationservices (including job training) for drug-dependentpersons. In 2007, UNODC, in collaboration with theUnited States Centers for Disease Control andPrevention conducted studies on the prevalence of drugabuse by injection, high-risk behaviour and HIV/AIDSin treatment centres in El Salvador and Guatemala.UNODC provided to El Salvador, Guatemala,Nicaragua and Panama support in publishing andpromoting recently approved or revised minimumstandards for the treatment of drug abusers.346. In 2006, Guatemala enacted a law againstorganized crime, authorizing wiretaps, undercoveroperations and controlled deliveries. The ExecutiveSecretariat of the Commission against Addictions andIllicit Drug Trafficking of Guatemala continues toimplement the Comprehensive National Program onPrevention Education. Using the “train-the-trainer”concept, the Government of Guatemala trained asufficient number of teachers so that courses on drug57

E/INCB/2007/1abuse prevention could be taught in schools.Corruption remains a problem in Guatemala, despiteefforts by the Government of Guatemala and theenforcement of a zero-tolerance policy on corruption inthe National Police.347. In 2006, Honduras adopted the Law onTransparency and Access to Information, giving publicaccess to information about activities of theGovernment, in particular its ministries and agencies.Congress is expected to adopt in 2007 a plan to revisethe police law and to reorganize the national police andlaw enforcement efforts to combat drug trafficking. Inorder to improve the work of the national police, plansare being made to increase the number of policeofficers and to reorganize the police command.348. While Panama is not a major producer orconsumer of chemicals used in the illicit manufactureof drugs, there are reports that significant quantities ofchemicals pass through the Colón Free Zone to othercountries. Legislation to strengthen the chemicalcontrol regime in Panama was adopted in April 2005.In 2006, emphasis was placed on building capacity toimplement the new legislation, for example by creatinga chemical control unit at the Joint IntelligenceCoordination Center.349. The Information Advisory Committee of theNational Drug Council of Antigua and Barbuda hasstarted to evaluate currently used methods for datacollection and analysis. With technical assistance fromCICAD, Antigua and Barbuda has carried out anational survey in secondary schools to determine thenature and extent of drug use in secondary schools andthe attitudes of youth towards the use of drugs.350. In Barbados, the National Council on SubstanceAbuse, in cooperation with non-governmentalorganizations, carries out drug abuse prevention andeducation programmes, such as the Drugs andDecisions programme in 45 primary schools, the DrugAbuse Resistance Education (DARE) programme andthe Parents’ Resource Institute for Drug Educationprogramme.351. In Cuba, rehabilitation programmes for drugdependentpersons are carried out by State-runorganizations ensuring the implementation of minimumcare standards. In order to prevent the diversion ofpharmaceuticals containing internationally controlledsubstances, only one port and one airport areauthorized to function as gateways for the import andexport for controlled substances.352. The Ministry of Health of Dominica hasestablished a series of community-based preventionprogrammes, including the DARE programme. TheBoard encourages Dominica to adopt the principle ofminimum standards of care in drug dependencytreatment as defined by CICAD.353. The Dominican Republic has strengtheneddomestic law enforcement and has identified activitiesagainst money-laundering that are to be given priority.Corruption continues to undermine drug controlactivities, despite efforts by the Government to dealwith that problem.354. The Board notes that in Grenada the 2005 draftprecursor chemical bill has not yet been adopted. TheBoard encourages the Government of Grenada to adoptlegislation on precursor control that is in conformitywith the provisions of the international drug controltreaties.355. The Observatoire haïtien des drogues (Haitiandrug monitoring centre) is not functioning properlybecause of lack of human resources and equipment.The national police reached an agreement in August2006 with the United Nations Stabilization Mission inHaiti (MINUSTAH) on procedures for checking allpolice officers for criminal records. In 2006,500 officers were dismissed for misconduct.Corruption is so prevalent in the country that it oftenhinders drug and crime control efforts. Anti-corruptionmeasures introduced by the Government have met withlimited success. The Board requests the Government tocurb the influence of organized crime on Governmentactivities and to fight corruption at all levels. TheBoard is concerned that the lack of resources toadequately patrol the borders and coast of Haiti hasresulted in the country becoming a major drugtrafficking hub in Central America and the Caribbean.356. In 2006, the Government of Jamaica announcedsecurity and legislative and policy initiatives to combatdrug trafficking, corruption and trafficking in humans.The initiatives called for measures such as forfeiture,port security and digital fingerprinting measures.However, the legislation did not go beyond the initialstages. The adoption of the Proceeds of Crime Act,which would facilitate seizures and forfeitures, wasstalled in Parliament. Legislation to criminalize the58

E/INCB/2007/1manufacture, sale, transport and possession of“ecstasy”, methamphetamine and precursors of thosedrugs was drafted in 2006 and scheduled to bepresented to Parliament in 2007. The Board urges theGovernment of Jamaica to adopt the two laws as soonas possible.357. In 2006, the National Drug Council of Trinidadand Tobago enhanced the capacities of the SpecialAnti-Crime Unit, which carries out operations tocounter drug trafficking and kidnapping. In 2006,crime control and law enforcement bills were passed inTrinidad and Tobago, streamlining the police serviceand holding it more accountable, in addition toincreasing the penalties for certain offences, includingoffences related to drug trafficking.Cultivation, production, manufacture,trafficking and abuseNarcotic drugs358. The region of Central America and the Caribbeanis used by drug traffickers as a major transit and transshipmentarea. Cooperation increased between criminalgroups in the region, and more complex cooperationmechanisms have been established between criminalgroups. Drug trafficking accounts for a large part of theorganized criminal activities in the region. Somecountries, such as the Dominican Republic, Haiti andJamaica, are major hubs for drug trafficking groupsshipping drugs to the United States and countries inEurope. In 2005, about 10 tons of cocaine weretransported through Jamaica, and 20 tons of cocainepassed through the Dominican Republic or Haiti. TheCaribbean islands continue to form part of the mainroutes used for smuggling cocaine into Europe: theNetherlands Antilles is used for shipments to theNetherlands, Jamaica for shipments to the UnitedKingdom and French-speaking Caribbean islands areused for shipments to France. The authorities in theNetherlands believe that the 100 per cent controlstrategy for passengers flying from the NetherlandsAntilles, Suriname and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republicof) to the Netherlands has significantly reduced theflow of illicit drugs through Schiphol airport, nearAmsterdam.359. While the Caribbean route is preferred byColombian drug traffickers, Mexican criminal groupsengaged in drug trafficking prefer the CentralAmerican corridor. As the Mexican criminal groupshave replaced Colombian drug trafficking groups in theUnited States (see paragraph 397 below), part of thetransit traffic in illicit drugs appears to have shifted toCentral America. Some less policed areas in CentralAmerica, such as the national park Laguna del Tigre inGuatemala, Mosquitia in Honduras and the Atlanticcoast of Nicaragua, are used by drug traffickers forrefuelling planes and vessels and for repackaging andstoring drugs. The share of cocaine shipmentsaccounted for by Central American countries andMexico increased from about 50 per cent in 1999 to88 per cent in 2005. Guatemala is used as a landingarea for private aircraft smuggling cocaine fromColombia into the United States. Guatemala is alsoused as a trans-shipment area for cocaine consignmentstransported by sea to Europe. Because of its extensiveunpatrolled areas, drug traffickers are also usingGuatemala as a storage area for drugs beingtransported to Mexico.360. During 2006, joint operations of Costa Rican andUnited States authorities led to the seizure of morethan 25 tons of cocaine. One growing problem is theuse of Costa Rican fishing vessels for smugglingnarcotic drugs and refuelling “go-fast” boatstransporting drugs. In 2006, over 36 tons of cocainewere seized in Panama.361. In Central America and the Caribbean, the levelof abuse of narcotic drugs is relatively low. Forexample, the annual prevalence of abuse of narcoticdrugs appears to range from 0.1 per cent in Antiguaand Barbuda to 1.3 per cent in Aruba; the majority ofcountries have an annual prevalence rate of less than1 per cent.362. In the Caribbean, Jamaica continues to be themain producer of cannabis and the only significantexporter of cannabis to other regions, but its cannabisproduction has decreased. There is substantial cannabisproduction in Central American countries, mostly fordomestic use or trafficking within the region. Jamaicahas the highest annual prevalence of cannabis abuse,with 10 per cent of all persons aged 15-64 abusingcannabis. In all countries in Central America exceptBelize and Guatemala the annual prevalence is lessthan 5 per cent. The cannabis abuse level is higher inmost countries in the Caribbean but still significantlylower than in Jamaica, ranging from 1.9 per cent in theDominican Republic to 7.3 per cent in Barbados.59

E/INCB/2007/1363. Substantial amounts of heroin originating inColombia and Mexico have been seized in countries inthe Caribbean (Aruba, Bermuda, the DominicanRepublic, the Netherlands Antilles, Puerto Rico andTrinidad and Tobago) and in Central America(Costa Rica, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Panama).Guatemala has reported large seizures of opium poppycapsules but only sporadic seizures of heroin. InSeptember 2006, the Government of Guatemalareported having eradicated 27 million opium poppyplants, indicating an increase in illicit opium poppycultivation to its previous peak level.364. The annual prevalence rate of abuse of opiates islow in most countries in the region, ranging from0.04 per cent in Honduras to 0.3 per cent inEl Salvador.Psychotropic substances365. The transit traffic in psychotropic substancesappears to be increasing in the Caribbean. In 2006, theauthorities in the Dominican Republic seized363,434 tablets of MDMA (“ecstasy”). A large part ofthe seized drugs were destined for the illicit market inNorth America. Increasing trafficking is contributing toa rise in the abuse of psychotropic substances such asMDMA in the Dominican Republic. According toauthorities, about half of all the MDMA trafficked inthe Dominican Republic is abused in the country. InJamaica, there is evidence that MDMA from theNetherlands is increasingly becoming available on theillicit markets, mostly for tourists. The annualprevalence of abuse of amphetamines is highest inEl Salvador (3 per cent), followed by the DominicanRepublic (1.1 per cent). Synthetic drugs also originatein the region, although to a lesser extent. A laboratorymanufacturing LSD was dismantled on the island ofSt. Maarten.Precursors366. Because of improved control over imports ofephedrine and pseudoephedrine, in Mexico, there havebeen fewer attempts to illegally import thosesubstances into that country and drug traffickers havetherefore found a new route for smuggling ephedrineand pseudoephedrine through Central Americancountries to clandestine laboratories in Mexico. In2006, Indian authorities stopped the shipment of 5 tonsof ephedrine and 2.5 tons of pseudoephedrine toBelize. Attempts to divert large quantities ofpharmaceutical preparations containing ephedrine andpseudoephedrine were prevented in Costa Rica andEl Salvador.North AmericaMajor developments367. The increasing influence that organized criminalgroups gained over and through drug trafficking is themajor drug threat in the region of North America.Organized crime is controlling drug trafficking inMexico. The role of criminal organizations in drugtrafficking in Canada and the United States hasexpanded, providing them with financial gains thatincrease their illicit drug manufacturing capacitieseven further. Despite strong efforts by the Governmentof Mexico and bilateral efforts in cooperation with theUnited States, organized crime is engaged in openwarfare against the authorities in order to maintainMexico’s position as the primary transit corridor formost of the cocaine consignments destined for theUnited States while maintaining their share of theprofits derived from the trafficking in heroin,methamphetamine and cannabis found on the UnitedStates market.368. In Canada, apart from motorcycle gangs involvedin drug trafficking, various ethnic criminal groupsengage in the large-scale illicit production of cannabisand illicit manufacture of and trafficking inmethamphetamine and MDMA. In the United States,criminal groups originating in Colombia, theDominican Republic and Mexico play a major role inillicit drug manufacture and trafficking. The Board,recognizing that national authorities in all of thosecountries are attempting to counteract thosedevelopments by increasing cooperation and jointoperations, encourages the national authorities tointensify those efforts in order to adequately respond tothose challenges.369. In Canada, the supply of “safer crack kits”,including the mouthpiece and screen components ofpipes for smoking “crack”, has been authorized by theVancouver Island Health Authority, in contravention ofarticle 13 of the 1988 Convention. Several other citiesin Canada, such as Ottawa and Toronto, have alsoapproved programmes for the distribution of drug60

E/INCB/2007/1paraphernalia, including crack pipes, to chronic drugusers. The Board calls upon the Government of Canadato eliminate those programmes, as well as existingprogrammes providing drug injection sites, which arein violation of the international drug control treaties, towhich Canada is a party.370. After years of apparent stability in the drug trade,significant and sustained increases in cocaine andmethamphetamine prices occurred in the illicit drugmarket in the United States during 2007. At the sametime, a drop in purity at the retail level was observed.Contributing causes of those positive developmentsseem to be: an increase in the flow of cocaine towardsEurope; eradication campaigns in Colombia; andintensified efforts by the Government of Mexico,which have disrupted the operating environment ofdrug traffickers.371. As a result of those developments, the abuse ofcocaine and “crack” in the United States hassignificantly decreased, but the abuse of prescriptiondrugs has become a major problem. Illegal Internetpharmacies constitute a large part of that problem byproviding prescription drugs without the requiredcontrols. The particularly high rates for the abuse ofprescription drugs, the consequences of which can befatal, are affecting a larger proportion of young peoplethan in previous years.372. The United States has nearly reached its goal ofreducing the abuse of cannabis, heroin and MDMAamong youth by 25 per cent within five years.However, the decrease in the abuse of cannabis amongyouth in the United States may be offset by an increasein the abuse of prescription drugs. The Board,therefore, encourages the authorities of the UnitedStates to vigorously address the problem of the illegalsale and abuse of prescription drugs.Regional cooperation373. Regional cooperation for drug control matters iswell established in North America. A large number ofbilateral investigative activities and joint operationshave been carried out in the region, some of themcovering the whole range of drug trafficking activitiessuch as Operation All Inclusive 2005-1 and OperationAll Inclusive 2006-1. Those two operations focused onSouth American source areas, the eastern Pacific andwestern Caribbean parts of the transit areas in Mexicoand Central America, and mainland areas of Mexicoand Central America, in order to target in a combinedeffort the flow of drugs, money and chemicals withinthose areas. Numerous other joint operations havetargeted trafficking in specific drugs, includingcocaine, methamphetamine and prescription drugs.374. United States law enforcement agencies providethe Federal Investigative Agency of Mexico with basicequipment and advanced contraband detection training.Training in the detection and dismantling ofclandestine laboratories is also provided to lawenforcement personnel to raise the capacity at the locallevel to bring to justice manufacturers of narcoticdrugs and psychotropic substances, particularlymethamphetamine. A matter of major concern toMexico is the use of proceeds from drug trafficking toacquire weapons in the United States for use in Mexicoby criminal organizations.375. The weak control of the financial system ofMexico is exploited by drug traffickers to laundermoney derived from drug trafficking. That has resultedin an increase in the number of money-launderingcases investigated in 2006 by the financial crime unitof the office of the Deputy Attorney General againstorganized crimes. In 2006, Mexico became a memberof the Financial Action Task Force of South Americaagainst Money Laundering (GAFISUD).376. Two successful examples of cooperation betweenCanada and the United States are Project North Star, amechanism for law enforcement coordination, and thejoint Integrated Border Enforcement Team initiative.Canada is also cooperating with the United Statesagainst illicit drug trafficking along the route leadingfrom South America to North America and hasdeployed “Maritime Patrol Assets” in support of theJoint Interagency Task Force South. The IntegratedMarine Security Operations programme known asShiprider facilitates effective maritime lawenforcement. It allows law enforcement officers fromone country to operate from the vessels or aircraft ofanother country, so that a single vessel can patrol bothCanadian and United States waters and pursue suspectvessels.National legislation, policy and action377. In the United States, demand reduction strategiestargeting youth continue to be monitored in the annualsurvey “Monitoring the Future”. There has been areduction in the demand for drugs that has been61

E/INCB/2007/1attributed to the increasing perception of the risks ofdrug abuse by youth, strong parental disapproval andeffective prevention messages delivered in schools.The National Youth Anti-Drug Media Campaign usestelevision, radio, printed matter and onlinecommunications to enhance young people’s ability toperceive the harm caused by drug abuse.378. The growing problem of abuse of prescriptiondrugs in the United States is being addressed throughthe cooperation of government offices, researchinstitutes, pharmaceutical companies, medicalassociations, schools and communities. Activitiesinclude educational outreach strategies covering a widerange of groups (including physicians, pharmacists andpatients), as well as education, screening, interventionand treatment for persons who abuse prescriptiondrugs, the surveillance of distribution chain integrityand research by the private and public sectors. In spiteof those activities, the purchase and abuse of Vicodin ®(containing hydrocodone) and OxyContin ® (containingoxycodone), particularly by youth, and the illegal saleof those and other drugs over the Internet have becomemajor problems in the United States.379. In the United States, the CombatMethamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005 became fullyeffective in September 2006. The Act establishes anationwide standard for precursor control and providesfor severe penalties for precursor-related offences andprovisions for enhanced international enforcement oflaws to prevent the diversion of chemicals. Efforts arebeing carried out at the national and state levels toregulate more closely the sale of ephedrine andpseudoephedrine in retail outlets.380. In response to the smuggling of drugs across theborder with Mexico, the United States Administrationhas developed the National Southwest BorderCounternarcotics Strategy and Implementation Plan,which was adopted by Congress in December 2006.The Implementation Plan has identified the major goalsand objectives and resource requirements for closinggaps in drug control capabilities along the south-westborder of the United States.381. The President of Mexico has identified the fightagainst drug trafficking and organized crime as themost important tasks of his Government. TheGovernment of Mexico has initiated plans to introduceinnovations in law enforcement efforts to combat drugtrafficking, through the reform of the justice system,the creation of a unified federal police force under asingle command and the establishment of a unifiedcriminal information system. The Government has alsoimproved the investigative and analytical capabilitiesof the Federal Investigative Agency of Mexico and theNational Centre for Analysis, Planning and Intelligenceagainst Organized Crime of the Attorney General’sOffice of Mexico. While progress appears to have beenachieved during 2007 in the fight against drugtraffickers and corruption, the Government hasconfirmed its commitment to adopting furthercountermeasures. The presidential veto of the plannedchanges to the national law, which would have allowedpersonal possession of drugs, was approved in April2007 by the commissions of justice, health andlegislative studies of the Senate.382. In Mexico, the clandestine manufacture of andtrafficking in methamphetamine have increased in thepast few years. Legislative and administrativemeasures in Mexico have significantly reduced importsof ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, substances requiredfor the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine (seealso the 2007 report of the International NarcoticsControl Board on the implementation of article 12 ofthe 1988 Convention). 89 Criminal organizations havereacted to that development by smuggling ephedrineand pseudoephedrine from Central American countriesinto Mexico, to compensate for the reduced availabilityof those precursors on the Mexican market.383. The Board encourages the Government of Canadato implement as soon as possible the new NationalAnti-Drug Strategy, for combating illicit drugproduction, preventing illicit drug use and treatingillicit drug dependence. The Board notes that the MethWatch Program, implemented by the NonprescriptionDrug Manufacturers Association of Canada, includesthe training of retailers to identify suspicious orders forprecursors of methamphetamine.384. In Canada, a bill that received final parliamentaryapproval in December 2006 will make the nationallegislation against money-laundering consistent withthe recommendations of the Financial Action TaskForce on Money Laundering by expanding the__________________89 Precursors and Chemicals Frequently Used in the IllicitManufacture of Narcotic Drugs and PsychotropicSubstances: Report of the International NarcoticsControl Board for 2007 … .62

E/INCB/2007/1coverage of the legislation to include lawyers anddealers in precious metal and stones.Cultivation, production, manufacture,trafficking and abuseNarcotic drugs385. North America is one of the main regions usedfor the production of cannabis. The United States,Mexico and Canada produce about 5,000 tons,4,000 tons and 800 tons of cannabis, respectively.Some of the cannabis produced in the United States isgrown under hydroponic conditions, so as to increasethe yield and the potency.386. The illicit market for cannabis in Canada ismostly supplied by domestic production. Canadiancannabis with high potency is grown indoors on a largescale under laboratory conditions using specializedequipment and fertilizers. The large-scale illicitcultivation of cannabis in Canada appears to be drivenby the lack of strict punishment for cannabis growers.387. In the United States, efforts to eradicate cannabishave increased in recent years; in 2006, a record levelof about 6 million cannabis plants were eradicated. Theeradication of illicit crops remains a priority of theMexican army, which eradicated nearly 30,000hectares of cannabis in 2006 (at least 80 per cent of thetotal cannabis crop).388. Cannabis is the most common illicitly used drugin the region. The prevalence of lifetime cannabis usersis 40.1 per cent in the United States (according to the2005 national survey on drug use and health) and44.5 per cent in Canada (according to the 2004 reporton the drug situation). The last survey of prevalence oflifetime cannabis users in Mexico (conducted in 2003)showed a much lower number of cannabis users(prevalence of 4.7 per cent).389. The sharp increase in cannabis potency in theregion is a cause for serious concern. The increase hasbeen attributed to the production of high-potencycannabis in Canada and the United States by criminalgroups. The average potency of samples of seizedcannabis nearly doubled from 2000 to 2005. Comparedwith the average tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) contentof cannabis in the 1960s, the potency of cannabis hasincreased by nearly 10-fold. Mexican criminal groupshave also started to produce higher-potency cannabis,derived from cannabis cultivated on outdoor plots onthe western coast of the United States.390. According to the Potency Monitoring Project ofthe University of Mississippi, cannabis with higherpotency accounts for an increasing percentage ofsamples of seized cannabis in the United States. Thepercentage of samples containing higher-potencycannabis (THC content of at least 5.0 per cent)increased from 15.8 per cent in 1989 to 60 per cent in2005. The highest THC content in an analysed samplewas 32.3 per cent. According to the Treatment EpisodeData Set, 20.1 per cent of drug abusers admitted fortreatment in 2005 reported cannabis to be their primarydrug of abuse (compared with 6 per cent in 1992).391. About 1.5 per cent of the population of theUnited States and 0.9 per cent of the population ofCanada reported having abused heroin at least once intheir lifetime. While heroin abuse in Mexico still seemsto be concentrated in areas along that country’s borderwith the United States, recent surveys indicate thatheroin abuse has expanded to other areas in Mexicothough the prevalence rate is still quite low. In theUnited States, heroin abuse among youth has decreasedonly slightly, and no significant changes in the rate ofheroin abuse and the number of first-time heroinabusers have been observed among the generalpopulation.392. Most of the heroin abused in the United Statescomes from Colombia and Mexico. While SouthAmerican “white heroin” remains the predominantheroin in use in the United States, Mexican drugtrafficking organizations have introduced “black tar”and “brown powder” heroin from Mexico in some ofthe south-eastern states, as well as in the Midwest, inthe United States. A mixture of “black tar” heroin andTylenol ® PM (paracetamol) is increasingly beingabused in some parts of the United States, where morethan a dozen deaths have been reported from suchabuse.393. In 2006, the Government of Mexico reportedhaving eradicated opium poppy covering over16,831 hectares, less than the more than20,000 hectares reported for two of the previous threeyears.394. Each year, between 1 and 2 tons of heroin aresmuggled into Canada, mostly from South-East Asiaand South-West Asia and, to a lesser extent, Latin63

E/INCB/2007/1America. According to a report from Canada, a mixtureof heroin and ketamine is being smuggled intoVictoria, Canada. The Board requests the Governmentof Canada to verify the authenticity of that report.395. In Mexico, cocaine is the second most commonlyabused drug: lifetime prevalence of cocaine abuse (useof cocaine at least once in a person’s lifetime) iscurrently 1.45 per cent in that country. In Canada,cocaine is reported to be the third most widely abuseddrug, according to a 2004 survey; lifetime prevalenceof cocaine abuse is 10.6 per cent in that country. In theUnited States, lifetime prevalence of cocaine abuse isreported to be 13.8 per cent, according toa 2005 survey.396. According to a 2005 survey, the rate of pastmonthabuse of cocaine among youth in the UnitedStates has been stable in recent years, at about 0.6 percent, which is significantly below the peak level of1.9 per cent in 1982. Cocaine abuse among the generalpopulation in the United States has also been stable.About 2.4 million persons have abused cocaine in thepast month.397. Most of the cocaine transported to the UnitedStates is from countries in South America, particularlyColombia, which supplies about 90 per cent of thecocaine entering the United States, using routes thatpass through the Mexico-Central America corridor.Mexican drug trafficking organizations and criminalgroups control most of the wholesale distribution ofcocaine in the United States. Mexican authoritiesseized more than 48 tons of cocaine between1 December 2006, when the new Administration tookoffice, and late October 2007. That is more than doublethe amount of cocaine seized in the previous year.398. It is estimated that 15-25 tons of cocaine enterCanada every year; Colombia continues to be thepredominant source country. Cocaine enters Canadalargely through that country’s border with the UnitedStates or in shipments from the Caribbean. Canadiancriminal organizations are involved in large-scaleinternational networks facilitating the importation ofcocaine into Canada and other countries.399. The abuse of prescription drugs in the UnitedStates is higher than the abuse of heroin, cocaine andmethamphetamine and second only to the abuse ofcannabis. Approximately 6.4 million people in theUnited States abuse prescription drugs containingcontrolled substances, mostly pain relievers(4.7 million). Nearly 10 per cent of students in theirfinal year of secondary school (17-18 years old)reported having abused prescription drugs in the pastyear (9.7 per cent abused Vicodin ® and 4.3 per centabused OxyContin ® ). One third of all new abusers ofprescription drugs in that country are 12-17 years old,and prescription drugs are the drug of choice amongpersons 12-13 years old. The Board is concerned aboutthose developments.400. In some states in the United States, the abuse ofprescription drugs is considered to represent a seriousthreat to the health and safety of the population. InMaryland, the number of deaths caused by methadoneabuse increased by more than 25 per cent between2005 and 2006. Moreover, the cases involving fentanyloverdose and death increased significantly in 2006.Most of the cases involving death were not related tothe abuse of diverted licitly manufactured fentanylpreparations but to the abuse of heroin or cocaine thathad been mixed with clandestinely manufactured ordiverted fentanyl. In May 2006, a laboratory in Mexicoused for the clandestine manufacture of fentanyl wasseized after having been identified as one of the mainsources for the fentanyl that had been used as anadulterant for the heroin involved in the drug-relateddeaths in Maryland.401. The diversion and abuse of OxyContin ® continueto take place in Canada, particularly in Nova Scotiaand Ontario, where an increase in the number of deathslinked to the abuse of that drug has been noted. Theincrease in trafficking in OxyContin ® is reflected in theincrease in the samples of OxyContin ® seized andanalysed by the Public Health Agency of Canada.402. The increasing abuse of prescription drugs in theregion is the result of several developments, includingthe sharply increased legitimate sale, availability andaccessibility of such drugs, for example throughillegally operating Internet pharmacies. From 2000 to2004, the sale of pharmaceuticals increased by 109 percent (the sale of drugs containing oxycodone increasedby nearly 90 per cent and the sale of drugs containinghydrocodone increased by nearly 70 per cent). In 2006,34 known or suspected illegal Internet pharmaciesdispensed 98,566,711 dosage units of drug productscontaining hydrocodone. Individuals ordering fromillegal Internet pharmacies have been able to obtain100-200 prescription drug tablets per order, much64

E/INCB/2007/1larger orders than they would be able to obtain legally,and that has contributed significantly to the increasedavailability of prescription drugs for abuse.Psychotropic substances403. In the United States, the rate of abuse ofmethamphetamine among persons aged 12 and abovedeclined from 0.7 per cent in 2002 to 0.5 per cent in2005. The decline was even more pronounced amongschoolchildren aged 13-18: from 4.2 per cent in 1999to 2.4 per cent in 2005 and 2.0 per cent in 2006. Thus,the number of first-time abusers of methamphetamineamong youth in that country also decreased in 2005,compared with the three previous years. In Mexico,however, methamphetamine abuse has been rising,particularly along the border of that country with theUnited States. In Canada, there has also been aresurgence in the popularity of methamphetamine.Methamphetamine tablets also continue to be one ofthe main ingredients in tablets marketed as “ecstasy”.It is also used by traffickers to enhance the effects ofcannabis, cocaine, heroin and ketamine (a substancenot under international control), possibly to accelerateaddiction among persons abusing those substances.404. Reduced illicit manufacture of methamphetaminein the United States has been partially offset byincreased manufacture of the drug in Mexico. About80 per cent of the methamphetamine in the UnitedStates is from larger laboratories, increasingly inMexico, while the remaining 20 per cent comes fromsmall home laboratories. Mexican criminal groups arealso the main wholesale distributors in the UnitedStates of methamphetamine, including powdermethamphetamine and, increasingly, “crystal”methamphetamine (commonly known as “ice”).405. Methamphetamine seizures at the border betweenMexico and the United States increased from 777 kg in2000 to 2,790 kg in 2006. In 2006, Mexican authoritiesseized four clandestine laboratories capable ofmanufacturing 0.6 ton of methamphetamine. Seizuredata indicate that extensive infrastructure for the illicitmanufacture of methamphetamine is in place inMexico and that the number of methamphetaminelaboratories dismantled and the quantities ofmethamphetamine seized may reflect only a fraction ofthe actual illicit activity involving that drug.406. In Canada, methamphetamine is illicitlymanufactured mainly in clandestine laboratories in thatcountry. The involvement of organized crime inmethamphetamine trafficking has increased the numberof methamphetamine “super labs”, laboratories capableof manufacturing 5 kg or more in one 24-hourmanufacturing cycle. 90 While the quantities ofmethamphetamine smuggled out of Canada into theUnited States are considerably lower than thequantities of “ecstasy” smuggled in that direction,United States authorities fear an increase in the flow ofmethamphetamine from Canada. One growing problemis the smuggling of methamphetamine from Canadainto countries overseas, mostly Japan. Seizures ofmethamphetamine of Canadian origin have also beenreported in Australia and the Republic of Korea.407. In the United States, the abuse of LSD andMDMA by the teenage population has been decliningsince 2001, the level of abuse of MDMA decreasing byone half and that of LSD by nearly two thirds in theperiod 2005-2006.408. In Canada, illicit drug manufacturers andtraffickers are marketing as “ecstasy” a mixture ofMDMA and methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) intablet, capsule or powder form. The tablets also containmethamphetamine, ketamine, caffeine,pseudoephedrine and ephedrine.Substances not under international control409. The abuse of inhalants by young persons remainsa problem in Mexico and the United States. In Mexico,inhalants, which are the third most commonly abusedgroup of substances, continue to be the preferredsubstance of abuse among child workers. In the UnitedStates, adolescents represent the main group ofinhalant abusers: the average age at first use ofinhalants among recent initiates is 16 years.410. United States authorities are concerned about thegrowing abuse by adolescents of dextromethorphan, asubstance commonly found in over-the-counter coughand cold remedies. According to the Drug AbuseWarning Network, adolescents accounted for nearlyone half of all emergency room visits related to theabuse of that substance.411. In Canada, ketamine and GHB continue to beabused at rave parties and clubs, sometimes in__________________90 Ecstasy and Amphetamines: Global Survey 2003 (UnitedNations publication, Sales No. E.03.XI.15), p. 89.65

E/INCB/2007/1combination with other illicit synthetic drugs.Ketamine found on the illicit market is obtainedthrough either domestic or international channels ofdiversion. Clandestine manufacture supplies theCanadian market for GHB. GBL, required for themanufacture of GHB, is obtained from domestic orforeign sources in “GHB manufacturing kits” orderedvia the Internet.412. Khat is smuggled mainly through the UnitedKingdom into Canada, where its abuse is mostlylimited to groups with origins in the eastern part ofAfrica.413. A recently discovered drug of abuse in Canadahas BZP as its active ingredient. The drug called “funkpills” has effects similar to MDMA and amphetamine.The Board requests the authorities of Canada toprovide any information they may have about the abusepotential and prevalence of abuse of BZP to WHO, asthat substance is under consideration for future review.South AmericaMajor developments414. The region of South America is suffering fromthe illicit cultivation, on a large scale, of coca bush,opium poppy and cannabis plant, as well as themanufacture and production of and trafficking in theillicit drugs stemming from that cultivation. During thepast four years, the total area under illicit coca bushcultivation in South America was stable. In 2006, thattotal area decreased slightly compared with theprevious year, to 156,900 hectares. In 2006, Colombiawas the world’s leader in illicit coca bush cultivation,accounting for 50 per cent of global coca bushcultivation; it was followed by Peru (33 per cent) andBolivia (17 per cent). Contrary to the situation in 2005,the decreased illicit cultivation of coca bush inColombia in 2006 was partly offset by increased illicitcultivation in Bolivia and Peru. Areas under illicit cocabush cultivation measuring less than 100 hectares werefound in Ecuador. Marginal illicit coca bush cultivationwas also detected in the Bolivarian Republic ofVenezuela.415. The total area of illicit coca bush cultivationeradicated in the three main countries producing cocaleaf increased by 23 per cent to 231,313 hectares in2006, compared with 2005. In Colombia alone, thetotal area eradicated in 2006 (213,555 hectares) wasalmost three times the total area under coca bushcultivation (78,000 hectares), which is a reflection ofthe intensity of the eradication activity in that country.Priority was also given to eradicating illicit opiumpoppy cultivation. In 2006, the total area under illicitopium poppy cultivation in Colombia decreased to1,023 hectares, 48 per cent less than the level of theprevious year and about 18 times less than the level of15 years ago.416. The continued positive developments in theeradication of illicit coca bush cultivation in the regionwere offset by the growers’ improved cultivationtechniques, the planting of new varieties of coca bushand increased efficiency in clandestine laboratoriesprocessing coca leaf. As a result, potential manufactureof cocaine in South America remained at800-1,000 tons annually in the period 1997-2006. In2006, potential manufacture of cocaine in the regionwas 984 tons, about the same as in 2005.417. Although virtually all of the illicit manufacture ofcocaine occurs in the three main countries in whichcoca bush is cultivated, all countries in South Americaare affected by trafficking in those drugs. Thestrengthened cooperation and the sharing ofintelligence among law enforcement authoritiescontributed to an improvement of the global cocaineinterception rate, which had risen sharply in previousyears. According to the latest data provided byGovernments, the amount of cocaine seized representsabout 40 per cent of global cocaine manufacture. Morethan half of the cocaine seized worldwide was seized inSouth America.418. The nexus between drug trafficking, drug-relatedorganized crime and violence continued to plagueseveral South American countries. For example, inBrazil, drug-related organized crime has in recent yearsresulted in increased gang violence and murder in largeurban areas.419. The primary drugs of abuse among personstreated for drug problems in South America arecocaine-type drugs (accounting for almost 50 per cent),followed by cannabis (26 per cent). The demand fortreatment for the abuse of ATS and opiates is lower,accounting for about 1 per cent of those seekingtreatment for abuse. Cocaine abuse continued to rise inall the countries covered in the latest surveys.66

E/INCB/2007/1Regional cooperation420. Representatives of 10 countries and territories,including Brazil, Colombia, Guyana, Suriname andVenezuela (Bolivarian Republic of), and sixinternational organizations participated in theInternational Anti-Narcotics Conference held inParamaribo in October 2006. The Conference adoptedthe Paramaribo Declaration, which contains measuresaimed at strengthening coordination and cooperationamong participating countries in efforts to fight drugand precursor trafficking and small arms traffickingand the criminal organizations associated with thoseactivities.421. The sustainability and further improvement of theregional and international cooperation among lawenforcement and intelligence services, as well asjudicial authorities, of South American countriescontinued to be discussed at various meetings in SouthAmerica. In October 2006, South American countries,including Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia,Guyana, Paraguay, Suriname, Uruguay and Venezuela(Bolivarian Republic of), as well as member States ofthe European Union, Europol and Interpol were amongthose represented at the European Union-LatinAmerican and Caribbean Drugs Intelligence SharingWorking Group, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.Participants reported on progress made in exchangeprogrammes for law enforcement officers andpresented results of recent joint operations. States wereinvited to participate in the Europol Cocaine LogoSystem, aimed at identifying links between the drugsseized and the organized crime networks involved.422. Representatives at the Sixteenth Meeting ofHeads of National Drug Law Enforcement Agencies,Latin America and the Caribbean, held in Buenos Airesin October 2006, reported on regional cooperation,including the exchange of information on themovement of small vessels at the international level,which has proved to be an effective measure againstmaritime trafficking in cocaine and other illicit drugs.The Meeting recommended that Governmentsorganizing campaigns to eradicate illicit coca bushcultivation should ensure that those campaigns areaccompanied by programmes offering viablecommercial alternative livelihoods to assist ruralcommunities in supporting themselves without havingto return to illicit crop cultivation.423. At the fortieth regular session of CICAD, held inSanta Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia, from 29 November to1 December 2006, experts reported on issues ofcommon interest, including the control of precursorchemicals and pharmaceutical preparations, the use ofthe Internet to sell drugs and money-laundering.Representatives of participating countries reported ondrug policy issues, including new drug controllegislation (Brazil), national policy on the eradicationof illicit crop cultivation (Colombia) and the strategyagainst drug trafficking and for the evaluation of cocaleaf, covering the period 2007-2010 (Bolivia).424. During the Third Ibero-American Meeting ofNational Drug Observatories, held in Cartagena deIndias, Colombia, in December 2006, the subregionalsystem for drug abuse information and investigation,linking Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Peru andUruguay, as well as CICAD and UNODC, waspresented as an example of best practice in the region.425. In 2006, Paraguay built an operational base at itsborder with Brazil to respond to an increase inorganized criminal activities and the presence of drugtrafficking groups in the area. During 2006, Argentina,Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay,Peru, Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) and theUnited States launched the seventh phase of theoperation Seis Fronteras, a regional initiative to controlchemicals used in the illicit manufacture of cocaineand heroine.426. In February 2007, Colombia hosted theextraordinary meeting of the European Union/LatinAmerica and the Caribbean Coordination andCooperation Mechanism on Drugs. The meetingrecommended the promotion and financing ofinitiatives, including preventive alternativedevelopment programmes, to assist in generatingprofitable and long-lasting structural changes in areasaffected by illicit drug crop cultivation.427. In 2007, under the Subregional System for DrugAbuse Information and Investigation, anepidemiological study on the extent of drug abuseamong the population was conducted simultaneously inArgentina, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Peru and Uruguay,with a view to obtaining information to be used insupport of public policies and drug demand reductionprogrammes. The countries participating in the studyreviewed the progress made at the Technical Meeting67

E/INCB/2007/1of the Subregional System for Drug Abuse Informationand Investigation, held in Lima in March 2007.428. In May 2007, CICAD approved The MultilateralEvaluation Mechanism (MEM) Achievements: 1997-2007, a report evaluating the main accomplishments inthe Americas in the area of drug control. According toCICAD, treatment, rehabilitation and aftercare servicesfor drug abusers in many countries in the region needto be further improved. In 2007, OAS and theEuropean Commission launched an initiative to pair upcities in Europe with cities in Latin America and theCaribbean, forming partnerships to improve thetreatment and rehabilitation of problematic drugabusers and address other aspects of drug dependencyat the municipal level. The initiative will bring togethermayors, medical and treatment personnel and judgesfrom cities in both regions in a sustained program ofexchanges aimed at sharing best practices, establishinglong-term partnerships and developing new approachesto improving the treatment and rehabilitation of drugabusers.429. The Board noted that in 2007 the Governments ofArgentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Paraguayand Peru participated in Operation Crystal Flow, whichfocused on the trade in ephedrine and pseudoephedrine,two key precursors of ATS.National legislation, policy and action430. In December 2006, the Government of Boliviaapproved the new drug policy, the strategy against drugtrafficking and for the evaluation of coca leaf, coveringthe period 2007-2010. The goals of the strategyinclude: to reform the present legislative frameworkthrough the introduction of two new legal instruments,the regime applicable to coca and the regimeapplicable to controlled substances; to increase up to20,000 hectares the total area under coca bushcultivation permitted by Bolivian law; to industrializecoca leaf; and to strengthen the interdiction capacityand efficacy of measures to fight the drug problem.431. In December 2006, the Government of Bolivia, inline with its drug control strategy, opened one of thethree plants envisaged for the production of coca leaffor industrial purposes. The Board notes with concernthat the use of coca leaf for industrial purposes, such asthe production of coca tea or flour, is in breach of theinternational drug control conventions. The Boardreminds the Government of Bolivia and theGovernments of the other countries concerned that theuse and the importation of coca leaf, from whichcocaine has not been extracted, for purposes other thanthose allowed under the 1961 Convention violates theprovisions of the international drug controlconventions.432. According to the Government of Bolivia, theabuse of illicit drugs in the country increased between1992 and 2005. The new drug control strategy includesa number of remedial measures, such as programmesfor the prevention of drug abuse and the treatment ofdrug abusers.433. In Brazil, there has been an increase in drugtrafficking and in criminal acts committed incombination with other serious types of crime,including kidnapping, extortion and arms traffickingorganized by criminal groups, mainly in large cities. Totackle those serious problems, the Government ofBrazil prepared in 2007 a new plan against crime andviolence, focusing on the social security of policeofficers and the integration of traditional lawenforcement action with current social policies. Forexample, in Brazil, the State of Rio de Janeiro haslaunched activities to reduce drug trafficking andrelated crime in slum areas, with a view to makingpublic places safer and providing health services,education and safety for the local population. Theprivate sector has joined forces with the local publicinstitutions in Brazil to prevent drug abuse in thefamily and the community.434. In late 2006, Brazil promulgated decree 5.912,which further defines competencies of the nationalsystem of public policy on drugs. In Chile, a number ofdrug-related legislative instruments were adoptedduring 2006, including supreme decree No. 539 of18 May 2006, the regulation on the distribution of theMinistry of the Interior’s special fund to financeprogrammes for the prevention of drug abuse and thetreatment and rehabilitation of drug addicts. Inaddition, the special register of users of controlledchemical substances, which will assist in furtherstrengthening the control of precursor chemicals in thecountry, became operational in April 2007.435. In 2007, the Government of Colombia launchedthe Strategy for Strengthening Democracy andPromoting Social Development 2007-2013, also knownas Plan Colombia Phase II, aimed at consolidating theresults achieved during the completed Plan Colombia.68

E/INCB/2007/1The Plan foresees maintaining supply reductioncomponents and also emphasizes the importance ofincluding social elements.436. In 2006, Colombia adopted resolution 15 of12 May 2006, establishing further measures to controlfast boats and fishing boats in order to prevent suchboats from being used in maritime drug trafficking.Following the entry into force of ministerialresolution 1478/2006 of 10 May 2006, Colombiamodified regulations to improve systems for thecontrol of narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances andprecursors. The regulation extended the medicalprescription of opioids for 30 days to facilitate thetreatment of chronic pain. In addition, a nationalsurvey on the availability of opioids has been carriedout and a programme to train doctors in palliative carehas been launched.437. Following the positive results achieved by a jointcustoms and police port control unit in Guayaquil,Ecuador, that became operational in March 2006, asimilar unit was established in Manta. The abuse ofpharmaceutical preparations containing controlledsubstances is considered to be a major problem inEcuador. In November 2006, the Government ofEcuador enacted a regulation defining procedures fortrading in and selling pharmaceutical preparationscontaining controlled substances.438. In Peru, there were continued resistance andattacks by groups of guerrillas, as well as armed drugtraffickers and coca growers, at the end of 2006,following the announcement by the Government of itsintention to carry out a peace and development planaimed at combating the remaining guerrillas anderadicating illicit coca bush cultivation. TheGovernment responded to the attacks by expanding itspresence in coca-growing areas. In March 2007, theprotests against coca bush eradication efforts led to acontroversial agreement with the coca growers on atemporary suspension of eradication until the growersregistered with the national coca enterprise. The Boardis concerned that that development may lead to afurther increase in the number of the registered cocaleaf producers in the country.439. On 22 November 2006, Peru promulgatedsupreme decree No. 84-2006-PCM to regulate the useof chemicals and certain finished products by retailers.In addition, law No. 28305 entered into force in March2007, providing measures for the monitoring andcontrol of chemicals used in the illicit manufacture ofdrugs.440. In Peru, in December 2006, the NationalCommission for Development and Life without Drugs(DEVIDA) presented the rapid impact plan 2007,aimed at strengthening drug control activities in thecountry. The plan is a part of the national strategy forcombating drugs covering the period 2007-2011, thegoals of which include a reduction of 40 per cent in thetotal area under illicit coca bush cultivation, anincrease in the seizures of illicit drugs and a decreaseof 10 per cent in the rate of drug abuse (past-yearprevalence of) among the school-age population.Cultivation, production, manufacture,trafficking and abuseNarcotic drugs441. Cannabis production takes place in practically allcountries in South America. The largest producer in theregion is Paraguay, followed (at a much lower level) byColombia and Brazil. Decreases in cannabis productionin Colombia in recent years appear to have been offsetby increases in cannabis production in other countriesin the region, notably Paraguay.442. Although Brazil is an important producer ofcannabis, it does not produce enough to meet thedemand on its illicit markets. In Brazil, most of thecultivation of cannabis plants takes place in fieldsresembling the fields of plantations. The Brazilianauthorities estimate that 60 per cent of cannabis abusedin the country is from Paraguay. In the BolivarianRepublic of Venezuela, the total amount of cannabisseized increased gradually after 2003, reaching over21 tons in 2006. The total amount of cannabis seized in2006 increased in Ecuador and Peru, but decreased inChile. Almost 60 per cent of the 5 tons of cannabisseized in Chile originated in Paraguay.443. The annual prevalence of cannabis abuse amongthe general population in South America was estimatedat 2.3 per cent, which is less than the global average.The results of a recent comparative study of drug abuseconfirm that cannabis is the illicit drug of choiceamong students in secondary schools in all countries inSouth America, except Brazil, where inhalants are themost widely abused substance. The highest past-yearprevalence for cannabis abuse was found in Chile(12.7 per cent), followed by Uruguay (8.5 per cent). In69

E/INCB/2007/1those two countries, more than 60 per cent of studentsabuse only cannabis. The lowest abuse rates werefound among students in Bolivia, Paraguay and Peru.444. In 2006, the total area under coca bushcultivation in South America was 156,900 hectares,29 per cent less than the total in 2000, which was thehighest level in the previous 10 years. Potential illicitproduction of cocaine in 2006 was 984 tons, about thesame amount as a year earlier.445. In Bolivia, the total area under coca bushcultivation in 2006 increased by 8 per cent, comparedwith 2005, to 27,500 hectares. In the same year, thetotal cultivated area in which coca bush was eradicatedin that country decreased by 17 per cent, to5,070 hectares. That represents the smallest areaeradicated in the previous 10 years. Due to increasedcoca bush cultivation, in particular in the Chapare area,where the coca leaf yields are higher than in theYungas area, in the department of La Paz, potentialproduction of cocaine hydrochloride in Boliviaincreased in 2006 over the previous year by 14 tons, to94 tons.446. In Colombia, the estimated total area under illicitcoca bush cultivation decreased in 2006 to78,000 hectares, which is about half of the peak levelof 163,000 hectares reached in 2000. However, in thedepartments of Nariño and Putumayo, in a belt about10 km wide along the border of Colombia withEcuador, total area under illicit coca bush cultivationincreased by about 70 per cent in 2006, compared with2005. A record total of 213,555 hectares of illicitlycultivated coca bush were eradicated in Colombia in2006 (41,530 hectares manually and 172,025 hectaresby aerial spraying), 26 per cent more than in 2005.447. According to recent estimates, about half of thetotal area in Colombia in which coca bush waseradicated has been replanted. Improved cultivationmethods and intensified use of a variety ofagrochemical products developed by growers over theyears have contributed to a significant increase in cocaleaf yields. In some areas, coca leaf can be harvestedup to eight times per year. A recent coca leaf surveyrevealed that coca bush farmers in Colombia processthree quarters of the total coca leaf production intococa paste or cocaine base.448. According to the Government of Peru,approximately 90 per cent of the coca leaf produced inthe country is destined for illicit markets. After 1999,the total area under coca bush cultivation increased inPeru from a minimum of 38,700 hectares to51,400 hectares in 2006. The Apurimac-Ene area wasamong the areas mostly affected by the increasedcultivation. In addition, a new coca bush cultivationarea was identified between Brazil, Colombia and Peruin the Amazon basin. Based on the results of a surveyon coca leaf and cocaine yields conducted in Peru in2006, potential cocaine production was estimated to be280 tons.449. In Peru, 10,136 hectares of illicitly cultivatedcoca bush were eradicated in 2006 through forcederadication programmes and an additional2,550 hectares of coca bush were eradicated as part ofa voluntary programme. The eradication process in thatcountry has been hampered by the activities of drugtraffickers, who ambushed law enforcement officersand hid explosives among illicit crops to detereradication efforts. The governments of the variousregions in Peru are preparing an intervention strategyto address social instability, subversive action andcrime, which have increased in recent years.450. According to a national illicit crop monitoringsystem, the total area under illicit coca bush cultivationin Ecuador was estimated at less than 100 hectares in2006. The illicit coca bush cultivation sites, eachcovering less than a hectare, were located mainly in theprovinces of Esmeraldas and Sucumbíos, in the northof the country, not far from illicit coca bush cultivationareas in neighbouring Colombia. In the past five years,the illicit crops in the affected areas have beenmanually eradicated. In the Bolivarian Republic ofVenezuela, 40 hectares of coca bush were eradicatedand 18 clandestine laboratories were destroyed duringOperation Sierra XVII.451. In 2006, cocaine seizures increased in Bolivia,Chile, Guyana, Peru and Uruguay and decreased inColombia and Ecuador.452. In 2006, the amounts of cocaine hydrochlorideand cocaine base seized in Bolivia increased by 22 percent, to 14.1 tons. According to UNODC, betweenJanuary and August 2007, the amount of drugs andprecursors seized, as well as the number of destroyedlaboratories illicitly manufacturing drugs, hasincreased, supposedly as a result of intensified drugcontrol activities and increased illicit production ofdrugs in the country. The total area of illicitly70

E/INCB/2007/1cultivated coca bush eradicated during the first eightmonths of 2007 was 25 per cent larger than the totalarea eradicated during the same period in 2006.453. The National Police of Peru reported a sharpincrease in the total amount of coca paste and cocainehydrochloride seized in 2006. The total amount ofseized cocaine hydrochloride increased from 2.1 tonsin 2005 to 14.7 tons in 2006. In Ecuador, a decline inthe total amount of cocaine hydrochloride seized in2006 was partly offset by an increase in the totalamount of coca paste seized.454. In 2006, Colombia seized 170.1 tons of cocainehydrochloride and cocaine base. Though the totalamount of those drugs seized was significantly lowerthan the amount seized in 2005, it was neverthelesshigher than the average for the five-year period 2001-2005. According to the Colombian authorities, thedecline in the total amount of cocaine seized in 2006could be attributed to changes in trafficking patterns:in 2005, over 40 per cent of the cocaine seizures weremade at sea; in 2006, however, cocaine traffickers inColombia made increased use of land routes leading tothe Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela and Ecuador andfrom there to countries in the Southern Cone, andCentral America and the Caribbean, using differenttrafficking methods, before the cocaine consignmentsreached their final destination, mainly the UnitedStates and countries in Europe.455. Illicit cocaine shipments leaving the coasts ofSouth American and Central American countries werealso stockpiled in West African countries and traffickedthrough Africa by land before being smuggled on smallairplanes or boats from North Africa into countries inEurope, in particular Spain. Commercial sea containerscontinue to be one of the main means of transport usedto smuggle drugs. In the past few years, traffickershave also used submersible and semi-submersiblevessels, constructed using the latest technologyavailable in naval engineering to enable them to carrylarge cocaine consignments.456. In 2007, the Colombian police carried out anumber of successful operations against drugtraffickers. In January 2007, in Operation Mercaderes,the national police dismantled a major criminalorganization, responsible for smuggling cocaine andheroin from Colombia into the United States, throughArgentina, Brazil, Costa Rica, the DominicanRepublic, Ecuador, Mexico, Nicaragua and Panama.Members of the organizations were arrested inColombia and other countries in the Americas. During2007, cooperation among the law enforcement agenciesin the region resulted in the capture, in Brazil andColombia, of the two most wanted Colombian drugtraffickers.457. The trafficking organizations supplying thegrowing illicit drug market in Brazil continued takingadvantage of the geographical position of the country,as well as sparsely inhabited areas of the Amazonforest, to transport coca paste and cocaine from theAndean subregion through the territory of Brazil toAfrica, Europe and North America. In particular, thesmuggling of coca paste from Bolivia through Brazilincreased significantly in 2006, while the smuggling ofheroin of Colombian origin through Surinamedecreased. The Brazilian authorities estimate that70 per cent of the cocaine manufactured in Bolivia issmuggled through the Brazilian border.458. Although cocaine seizures declined in Ecuador in2006, that country continued to be used as an importantstorage and trans-shipment area for multi-tonconsignments of cocaine destined for illicit markets inEurope and North America. Cocaine and heroin aresmuggled by sea, on fishing vessels flying the flag ofEcuador, as well as by air, using couriers on boardflights passing through the international airports inEcuador.459. According to statistics compiled by theGovernment, between 2003 and 2006, the total amountof cocaine seized in the Bolivarian Republic ofVenezuela ranged from 31 to 58 tons. In mid-September 2007, the authorities of that country seizedanother 17 tons of cocaine. Over 70 per cent of thecocaine consignments seized in 2006 in the BolivarianRepublic of Venezuela were destined for countries inEurope, above all, Spain, the United Kingdom and theNetherlands in that order.460. In recent years, cocaine trafficking has increasedin Chile and Uruguay. In Uruguay, the total amount ofcocaine seized in 2006 (471 kg) was eight times morethan in the previous year; furthermore, by August2007, the amount of cocaine seized in that country hadalready exceeded the figure for the entire year 2006.According to the Government of Chile, the northernpart of that country, which borders drug-producingcountries, continues to be the main point of entry forthe cocaine and cocaine base smuggled into the71

E/INCB/2007/1country, mainly through areas outside the officialcrossing points.461. Suriname is used as a transit country for largeshipments of cocaine and cannabis smuggled on boardsmall aircraft flying from Colombia and Peru. Largeamounts of MDMA (“ecstasy”) are smuggled in cargofrom the Netherlands into the United States viaSuriname.462. According to UNODC, between 2004 and 2005,laboratories illicitly manufacturing coca paste andcocaine were found in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile,Colombia, Peru and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republicof). In Bolivia, the number of coca paste and cocainelaboratories destroyed in 2006 increased over theprevious year by more than 50 per cent, to 4,070; inaddition, two precursor laboratories were destroyed inthe country. The number of clandestine laboratoriesprocessing coca paste from Bolivia also increased inBrazil in 2006.463. In Colombia, about 2,000 of the over2,200 clandestine laboratories destroyed in the countryin 2006 had been processing coca paste or cocaine baseand the rest had been manufacturing cocainehydrochloride. In 2006, the number of potassiumpermanganate laboratories destroyed in Colombia (15)was similar to the figure for 2005. The destruction of11 clandestine laboratories manufacturing cocainehydrochloride and over 700 laboratories processingcoca paste and cocaine base was reported in Peru.Eighteen illicit drug laboratories were found duringOperation Sierra XVII in the Bolivarian Republic ofVenezuela in 2006. Smaller laboratories manufacturingcocaine hydrochloride for personal use were found inChile.464. In November 2006, law enforcement authoritiesin Ecuador dismantled a laboratory estimated to becapable of illicitly manufacturing 2-3 tons of cocaine amonth. Ecuador is also an important source of theessential chemicals that sustain illicit drug manufacturein neighbouring Colombia. The Board notes withconcern that the theft of petroleum ether (a chemicalthat can be misused for processing coca leaf intococaine) from pipelines of the State-owned oil refineryin the northern province of Sucumbíos in Ecuadorcontinued to be on the increase in 2005 and 2006. TheBoard urges the Government of Ecuador to adoptmeasures to prevent that negative development.465. In late 2006, UNODC and the Inter-AmericanObservatory on Drugs (OID) of CICAD published thefirst comparative study of drug abuse in the secondaryschool student population in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil,Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru andUruguay. According to the study, among students 14-17 years old, the past-year prevalence of drug abusewas the highest in Chile for cannabis abuse (12.7 percent); in Argentina for cocaine abuse (2.5 per cent); inColombia for MDMA (“ecstasy”) abuse (3 per cent)and in Paraguay for the abuse of benzodiazepine-typetranquillizers (7.1 per cent).466. The age of initiation of drug abuse decreased insome countries in South America, including Argentinaand Brazil. In Argentina, the abuse of “paco” (cocapaste), a highly addictive form of cocaine, hasincreased significantly during the past two years.“Paco” is often abused by young people, includingchildren as young as 8 or 9 years old, in the poorneighbourhoods of Buenos Aires. The municipalauthorities of Buenos Aires are planning to establishspecialized centres to provide treatment for addicts lessthan 18 years old. In Brazil, the use of “crack” cocainehas grown, especially among persons with low incomein urban areas, contributing to the already high level ofdrug-related violence and health problems.467. The abuse of cocaine base in Chile has notchanged significantly in the past 12 years. Accordingto an epidemiological study published in July 2007, theabuse of cocaine hydrochloride among the generalpopulation in that country has remained stable and isestimated at 1.2 per cent. While the annual prevalenceof cannabis abuse increased from 5.3 per cent in 2004to 7 per cent in 2006, the perception of the risk of suchabuse decreased.468. In Colombia, as a result of the continued decreasein the illicit opium poppy cultivation, opiumproduction decreased in 2006 to 31 tons (equivalent to1.3 tons of heroin). During that year, law enforcementagencies destroyed seven laboratories manufacturingheroin in the region of Colombia bordering Ecuadorand seized over 500 kg of heroin. The price of heroinin Colombia in 2006 was five times higher than that ofcocaine hydrochloride. In Ecuador, more than 200 kgof heroin were seized in 2006, about the same amountas in 2005. According to the Government of Peru,illicit opium poppy cultivation in that country in 2006did not exceed 100 hectares. In 2006, 88 hectares of72

E/INCB/2007/1illicit opium poppy were eradicated in Peru, 8 per centless than in 2005. In 2006, a programme for monitoringcrops by satellite was used to support OperationSierra XVII in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela,during which 215 hectares of illicit crops, including154 hectares of opium poppy, were eradicated.Psychotropic substances469. The abuse of sedatives and tranquillizers, themost widely abused drugs among the generalpopulation in Colombia, increased slightly in thatcountry in 2006. According to a 2006 survey ofsecondary school students in nine countries in SouthAmerica, past-year prevalence of the abuse ofbenzodiazepines, such as diazepam and alprazolam,was highest in Paraguay (7.1 per cent), Bolivia (7.0 percent) and Colombia (6.4 per cent).470. In Brazil, the rate of consumption of stimulants,mainly as anorectics, is among the highest in theworld. Internationally controlled substances continueto be diverted from licit channels and are availablewithout prescription. Pharmaceutical preparations,including counterfeit preparations from Asiancountries, are also smuggled into Brazil, as evidencedby a case involving oxycodone originating in China. InFebruary 2007, the Brazilian authorities dismantled alaboratory used for the illicit production of tablets ofphenproporex, a psychotropic substance in Schedule IVof the 1971 Convention. The Board urges theGovernment of Brazil to expedite the adoption of theplanned measures to address the diversion and abuse ofcontrolled substances, in particular stimulants.471. The latest data indicate that the annual prevalenceof the abuse of MDMA (“ecstasy”) among the generalpopulation in South America, estimated at 0.2 per cent,is among the lowest in the world. The lower seizures ofATS in the region, compared with other types of drugs,corroborate those data. In 2006, the Colombianauthorities seized 18 kg of MDMA (“ecstasy”).Amounts smaller than 1 kg were also seized in Chile,Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)in 2006. According to the latest UNODC data, nolaboratories illicitly manufacturing synthetic drugswere reported in the period 2004-2005 in SouthAmerica.472. Between 2001 and 2006, smaller amounts of LSDwere seized in Brazil, Chile, Colombia and Uruguay.The latest data on seizures of precursors indicate thatthe illicit manufacture of LSD in South America cannotbe ruled out.Precursors473. South American countries have in placelegislative and administrative control measures for thecontrol of precursor chemicals, yet their lawenforcement agencies continued seizing large amountsof solid and liquid chemicals. Moreover, there is noindication that those chemicals are not reachingclandestine cocaine laboratories. In Colombia alone,100-170 tons of potassium permanganate were seizedannually between 2004 and 2006, whereas about 120-130 tons of the substance is needed for potential annualmanufacture of cocaine hydrochloride in the country.That indicates that drug traffickers have found a way tocircumvent existing controls. The Board encouragesthe Governments concerned to initiate regionalactivities to control precursors, in particular to preventthe smuggling of precursors, as well as the diversion ofprecursors from licit distribution channels.Missions474. In September 2007, a mission of the Boardvisited Bolivia to review the drug control situation inthat country and the Government’s compliance with theinternational drug control treaties.475. The Board notes that the Government of Boliviahas adopted a national drug control strategy coveringthe period 2007-2010, which marks a significant shiftin the political will and commitment of theGovernment to the objectives of the international drugcontrol treaties. The Board appreciates that the strategyreaffirms the strong stand of the Government againstthe illicit manufacture of and trafficking in cocaine andthe criminal organizations involved. The Board alsowelcomes the decision of the Government tostrengthen the mechanism for the monitoring andcontrol of coca bush cultivation.476. The Board notes with concern, however, that thestrategy addresses the issue of coca leaf chewing in amanner that is not in line with the obligations ofBolivia under the international drug control treaties, towhich Bolivia is a party. The Board requests theGovernment of Bolivia to comply with its treatyobligations by taking measures to prohibit the sale, useand attempts to export coca leaf for purposes which are73

E/INCB/2007/1considered not in line with the international drugcontrol treaties.477. The Government of Bolivia may wish to requestassistance from its international development partnersto put in place alternative development programmes totackle the problems of poverty and hunger that prevailin the coca-producing areas of the country. The Boardcalls on Bolivia’s development partners to ensure thatassistance provided to the Government of Bolivia isalways in line with the international drug controltreaties.478. The Board notes that the Government of Boliviahas introduced the so-called “social control” policy,whereby coca bush growers are in charge oferadication programmes. The Board notes the relativepeaceful environment that prevails in the coca bushgrowing areas. The Board requests the Government tomonitor closely its new policy of getting the farmers tocooperate in voluntary eradication efforts. However,consideration should be given to devising alternativemeasures where the policy does not succeed.479. The Board notes that the Government of Boliviahas established commissions to review Law 1008, thebasic law governing drug control in the country. Thecommissions are working on two separate laws, one toregulate coca leaf and one to regulate controlledsubstances. The Board requests the Government toensure that the laws conform with the internationaldrug control treaties.480. The Board notes with concern that drug abuseamong the general population, as well as among thestudent population, in Bolivia is on the rise while, atthe same time, the age of first use of illicit drugs isdeclining. The Board requests the Government ofBolivia to formulate and implement educationprogrammes aimed at eliminating coca leaf chewing, aswell as other non-medical uses of coca leaf.481. The short-term objective of such educationprogrammes should be to discourage the practice ofcoca leaf chewing while preventing the expansion ofthe practice among students and youth, drivers ofpublic transport vehicles and other vulnerable groupsin Bolivia. Such education programmes should beevaluated taking into account the extent and trends ofcoca leaf chewing, as well as the role that it plays inthe progression of drug dependence.482. The Board notes that the existing mechanism forthe monitoring and control of internationally controlledsubstances is not functioning adequately in Bolivia.The Board requests the Government of Bolivia to takemeasures to implement the recommendations madeduring its 2001 mission to that country, including therecommendation on providing adequate resources andtrained personnel to all drug regulatory authorities,especially the Ministry of Health, to enable them toperform their control functions.483. The Board sent a mission to Brazil in December2006. The Board noted with concern that drug abusehas increased and medical overprescription ofstimulants continue despite the recommendations ofthe Board following its previous mission to Brazil, in2003. The Board is also concerned about the continuedlack of cooperation between agencies at the state leveland those at the national level, the low level ofresources at the national level, the slowness of thejudicial system and reports of corruption in the policeand the judiciary. The Board urges the Government totake measures to strengthen interdiction activities inthe whole country, particularly in the border areas andto make every effort to ensure the expeditious and fairprosecution of drug-related offences. In view of theinvolvement of African criminal organizations in drugtrafficking in Brazil, cooperation with law enforcementagencies in African countries should be strengthened toenhance the investigation and prosecution of allcriminals involved in drug trafficking. The Board notesthe efforts of the Government of Brazil in recent yearsto expand drug demand reduction facilities.Nevertheless, with regard to the new law on drugcontrol, the Board is of the opinion that the provisionsrelated to the treatment of drug abuse cannot beimplemented, as services for the treatment of drugabusers are not yet fully available throughout thecountry. Moreover, the new law may make theinvestigation and prosecution of illicit drug activitiesmore difficult and may send the message to the publicthat drug trafficking is being treated more leniently bythe Government.484. The Board urges the Government of Brazil toenhance the inspection of domestic drug distributionchannels and the monitoring of transport of precursorchemicals, particularly in areas close to sites used forthe illicit manufacture of coca paste or cocaine, and tostrengthen the existing control over the licitdistribution of narcotic drugs and psychotropic74

E/INCB/2007/1substances, in view of the diversions to illicit channels.In addition, the Government should enforce thecontrols applicable to stimulants and strengthen themfurther, if necessary, to address overconsumption. Thelevel of consumption of opiates used for the treatmentof pain in Brazil continues to be low; however, theabuse of synthetic opioids is high, according to thelatest household survey. The Board calls upon theGovernment of Brazil to take further steps to removeany perceived obstacles to the adequate treatment ofpain in the country and to improve the rational use ofmedicines.485. The Board sent a mission to Colombia in April2007. The Board acknowledges the commitment andefforts of the Government of Colombia in the fightagainst illicit coca bush cultivation, drug traffickingand abuse. The Board notes the significant resultsachieved in the continued reduction of illicit crops andthe significant seizures of controlled substances,laboratories and assets derived from drug trafficking.The Board appreciates that the legal frameworkcurrently in force in Colombia covers all areas relatingto drug control treaties and that good coordinationamong the competent authorities concerned hasresulted in more effective implementation of drugcontrol strategies.486. The Board notes the difficulties encountered bythe Government of Colombia in combating drugproduction and drug trafficking by the guerrillas andparamilitary groups that exist in many parts of thecountry. The Board encourages the Government tocontinue its efforts to eradicate illicitly cultivated cocabush and effectively introduce alternative sources oflegitimate livelihood. In this regard, the Boardcommends the Government for the policies adopted toprotect the forests and national parks and welcomes the“forest-ranger families” initiative, where familiesvoluntarily become involved in the eradication of illicitcrops, the production of economic crops and theprotection of the forest. The Board is of the opinionthat the Government should be assisted in its illicitcrop eradication efforts by the internationalcommunity, with a view to protecting the ecosystemfrom further deterioration caused by the numerouschemicals used to increase the coca leaf yield, as wellas with a view to preventing deforestation, in particularin the Amazon area.487. While the mechanisms for control over the licitmovement of narcotic drugs and psychotropicsubstances are effective, the Government of Colombianeeds assistance to gain control over the situation withregard to the smuggling of precursor chemicals into thecountry. There is a need to improve regional andinternational cooperation with the Government ofColombia aimed at preventing the smuggling anddiversion of chemicals used for the illicit manufactureof cocaine, as well as a need to draw the attention ofGovernments to the investigation and identification ofthe sources of the chemicals being smuggled intoColombia and the smuggling routes used. The Boardnotes that, despite the investment in controlling seatransportation and in aerial surveillance by theGovernment of Colombia, significant amounts ofsubstitute chemicals continue to reach the country,replacing those currently under control. The Board isof the view that the authorities of Colombia and itsneighbouring countries should work together toimprove measures to prevent unwanted chemicals fromreaching the Andean subregion. In addition, theexchange of information among those countries shouldbe improved.488. Drug abuse surveys are being conducted andprevention campaigns are being organized regularly inColombia. The Board encourages the Government ofColombia to continue improving the methodologiesused to assess the extent of drug abuse in the country.The Board hopes that a comprehensive demandreduction policy, firmly implemented with a widerange of treatment and rehabilitation programmes,including extensive counselling and psychosocialassistance, will benefit the increasing number of drugabusers in Colombia.489. The Board sent a mission to Peru inDecember 2006. The Board notes with appreciationthat the Government adopted a comprehensive andbalanced national drug policy for the period 2007-2011, with a view to combating drug trafficking andabuse, strengthened control over the licit distributionof narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances andenacted a new law for the control of precursorchemicals. However, the Board notes with concern thatthe vast majority of the coca leaf produced in Peru isdiverted into illicit manufacture and that the provisionsof the 1961 Convention concerning licit cultivation ofcoca bush and the production and use of coca leaf arenot being implemented. The Board wishes to remind75

E/INCB/2007/1the Government that the only legal uses of coca leafforeseen in the 1961 Convention are for medical orscientific purposes or for the manufacturing of aflavouring agent from which all alkaloids have beenremoved. The Board requests the Government of Peruto take steps to abolish as soon as possible activitiesthat are not in line with those provisions.490. The Board was impressed by the effortsundertaken to address the low availability of analgesicsin Peru. The Board notes that mandatory reporting onthe licit movement of narcotic drugs, psychotropicsubstances and precursors in Peru has improved.However, the Government should increase its capacityfor inspection, in order to prevent the diversion ofnarcotic drugs and psychotropic substances from licitsources and improve the control of precursor chemicalsfurther, in view of the continued availability of thosesubstances for the illicit manufacture of drugs. Withregard to interdiction efforts, coordination between theagencies involved should be strengthened. The Boardencourages the Government to strengthen thecooperation of its national law enforcement agencywith its counterparts in Africa and Europe, in view ofthe current trafficking routes and links with criminalorganizations in those regions. With respect to demandreduction, the Board notes with satisfaction the actiontaken to assess the extent and type of drug abuse, toprevent such abuse and to treat drug abusers andreintegrate them into society. The Government shouldcontinue expanding its efforts to reverse the increasingtrend in drug abuse, including by offering treatmentservices to the affected segments of society.C. AsiaEast and South-East AsiaMajor developments491. The region of East and South-East Asia is nolonger a major source of illicit opium poppycultivation. However, some illicit manufacture ofheroin remains in the region, and several laboratoriesinvolved in the clandestine conversion of cocainehydrochloride to “crack” have been dismantled. Illicitmanufacture of and trafficking in ATS is increasing incountries throughout the region, such as Cambodia,China and Myanmar. Large amounts of precursorchemicals used in the illicit manufacture ofmethamphetamine have been seized in the region.492. The abuse of ATS, methamphetamine inparticular, is also increasing throughout East andSouth-East Asia. The increasing rate of abuse of heroinand methamphetamine by injection is contributing tothe spread of HIV/AIDS in the region. In severalcountries in the region, a large percentage of the HIVinfections has been attributed to drug abuse byinjection. In order to combat the spread of HIV/AIDSthrough drug abuse by injection, Governments aretaking action at both the national level and the regionallevel.Regional cooperation493. The countries in East and South-East Asiacontinued to work together in the area of drug controlthrough regional organizations such as the Associationof Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), as well asthrough bilateral and multilateral channels.494. The twelfth ASEAN Summit was held in Cebu,Philippines, in January 2007. Participating countriesagreed to continue to take collective action to addressthe challenges posed by regional and internationalissues such as transnational crime, including drugcontrol.495. Task Forces of the ASEAN and ChinaCooperative Operations in Response to DangerousDrugs (ACCORD) held a number of meetings in 2007:the Task Force on Civic Awareness and the Task Forceon Demand Reduction held meetings in Bandar SeriBegawan, Brunei Darussalam, from 30 July to1 August; and the Task Force on Law Enforcement andthe Task Force on Alternative Development heldmeetings in Yangon in July. The annual meetings bringtogether the ASEAN member States and China, as wellas UNODC and the ASEAN secretariat, to shareinformation, monitor progress and prioritize areas forfuture activities.496. Critical issues addressed at the meetings in 2007included ways to improve the evaluation of the impactof public awareness campaigns; the emergence of ATSas a major drug of addiction; substitution therapy foropioid addicts; priority issues related to drug abuse byinjection and HIV; treatment modalities for ATS abuseas well as regional intelligence-sharing; clandestine76

E/INCB/2007/1drug laboratory seizure and clean-up issues; and thecultivation of cannabis plants.497. The twenty-seventh annual ASEAN Chiefs ofPolice (ASEANAPOL) Conference was held inSingapore in June 2007. The ASEANAPOLConference is the regional platform used by policechiefs from ASEAN member States for interaction,discussion, exchanging views and bringing each otherup to date on the latest developments in lawenforcement issues. The issues discussed during theConference included drug trafficking, cybercrime, theprovision of training, the exchange of personnel andthe launching of the Electronic ASEANAPOL DatabaseSystem, to facilitate the sharing of intelligence amongthe police forces of ASEAN member States. Thosepolice forces signed a joint communiqué that includedresolutions on cooperation in regional securityconcerns such as drug trafficking. In addition, in orderto foster greater cooperation between ASEANAPOLand Interpol, the two organizations agreed to formalizecollaboration involving the Electronic ASEANAPOLDatabase System and the secure global policecommunications system (I-24/7) of Interpol, whichoperates 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.498. Thailand hosted the 27th Meeting of ASEANSenior Officials on Drug Matters in Chiang Mai inAugust 2006. Senior officials from ASEAN memberStates exchanged information on drug seizures, recenttrends in drug trafficking, the treatment andrehabilitation of drug abusers, the use of alternativedevelopment to address the problem of illicit cropcultivation and progress related to the implementationof drug control. Participants noted with concern theincreasing abuse of and trafficking in ketamine inSouth-East Asia and agreed to strengthen their effortsto control ketamine through national legislation.499. The seventh Ministerial Meeting of SignatoryCountries of the 1993 Memorandum of Understandingon Drug Control was held in Beijing in May 2007. Atthe meeting, representatives of Cambodia, China, theLao People’s Democratic Republic, Myanmar,Thailand and Viet Nam pledged to strengthen existingpartnerships and commitments related to drug control.The importance of broadening their resource base wasalso underlined. Moreover, the sixth revisedsubregional action plan was adopted, including twonew thematic areas: “International cooperation onjudicial matters” and “Drugs and HIV/AIDS”.500. The annual study programme on drug abuse andnarcotics control was held in Tokyo in June 2007.Participants from a number of countries, includingIndonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines,Thailand and Viet Nam, exchanged information onrecent developments in drug control in their countries.A study programme for drug control officials from theDemocratic People’s Republic of Korea was organizedby the National Narcotics Control Commission ofChina in Beijing in June 2007. Six Governmentofficials from the Democratic People’s Republic ofKorea involved in drug control were trained in variousaspects of drug control to facilitate compliance withthe provisions of the international drug control treaties,to which the Democratic People’s Republic of Koreahad recently acceded.501. Japan is providing training to national andprovincial authorities in Cambodia in matters related todrug control, through a project to be implemented fromJanuary 2007 to January 2009; the training includes theidentification, analysis and control of drugs. Moreover,Japan, through its project for the period 2005-2009, isproviding assistance in the form of improvinginfrastructure, agriculture, health and education in theareas of Cambodia most affected by the eradication ofillicit opium poppy cultivation. China is supportingalternative development in Myanmar by providing10,000 tons of rice in September 2006 to farmers in thenorthern part of that country who were formerlyinvolved in the illicit cultivation of opium poppy.Thailand continued to provide technical training inareas such as drug interdiction and investigation forlaw enforcement officers in Cambodia, the LaoPeople’s Democratic Republic and Myanmar.502. The second meeting of the Asian CollaborativeGroup on Local Precursor Control and the thirdInternational Forum on Control of Precursors forAmphetamine-type Stimulants were held in Tokyo inFebruary 2007. The meetings were organized jointly bythe Attorney-General’s Department of Australia and theMinistry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan. Theobjective of the Asian Collaborative Group is topromote the adoption of best practices in nationalregulatory, administrative and legislative policies andpractices that address the threat of diversion ofprecursor chemicals in East and South-East Asia. In theframework of regional cooperation, the InternationalForum aims to identify and adopt measures for moreeffective control of precursors used in the illicit77

E/INCB/2007/1manufacture of ATS. The meetings resulted in theadoption of a joint work programme of the AsianCollaborative Group and the International Forumcalling for a regional response to precursor diversion,including the implementation of effective regulationsand controls, the exchange of intelligence, cooperationwith industry and the development of relevant nationaltechnical capacities.503. Cooperation among law enforcement authoritiesfrom China, Myanmar and Thailand, which began in2005, resulted in major seizures and an arrest inApril 2006. Acting on intelligence from theircounterparts in Thailand, the authorities in Myanmarseized approximately 15 million methamphetaminetablets, 1 ton of heroin and a significant amount ofprecursor chemicals, including 1,727 litres of aceticanhydride and 721 kg of ephedrine. Based oninformation provided by law enforcement authorities inMyanmar, the authorities in China arrested a personwho had been under surveillance for suspectedinvolvement in drug trafficking. As a result of theRegional Joint Action against ATS-Related Crimesinitiative, an investigation conducted jointly byauthorities from China and the Philippines, aclandestine ATS laboratory was uncovered in thePhilippines in December 2006. Under the initiative,ASEAN member States and China identify ongoingtransnational ATS-related cases, syndicates andfugitives for joint follow-up action. The investigationled to five arrests and the seizure of 30 kg of processedmethamphetamine and 200 litres of liquidmethamphetamine, along with a large amount ofprecursor chemicals and laboratory equipment.504. Although forensic laboratories in East and South-East Asia are collaborating to some extent to improvethe use of laboratory data for law enforcement andjudicial purposes and for the work of regulatory andhealth authorities, there is a need for improvement ofcollaboration among the laboratories, as well as withregulatory and health authorities.National legislation, policy and action505. China continued to enforce its fight against drugsthrough the implementation of national campaignsincluding components such as the prevention of drugabuse, the education, treatment, rehabilitation of drugabusers and the control of narcotic drugs, psychotropicsubstances and precursor chemicals. The Governmentof China has placed emphasis on preventing heroinabuse. The Government has established treatment andrehabilitation centres for drug abusers, including320 clinics that are currently providing methadonemaintenance treatment for 38,000 patients. While theBoard notes the efforts by the Government to providetreatment for drug abusers, it calls on the Governmentto ensure that such activities are comprehensive,evidence-based and carried out in compliance with theprovisions of the international drug control treaties.506. In Cambodia, the drug control master plan for theperiod 2006-2010 is currently being implemented. Theplan is aimed at eliminating illicit drug abuse,trafficking and production and the cultivation of illicitdrug crops, improving the control of precursorchemicals and strengthening law enforcement. Areascovered by the plan include supply and demandreduction, law enforcement, the reduction of riskscaused by drug abuse through a comprehensiveapproach to HIV/AIDS and the strengthening ofinternational cooperation.507. Following the decision by the Government ofCambodia to strengthen and reform its drug controlsystem, a new royal decree was issued on 23 June 2006to replace the decree of 7 September 1995, on theestablishment of the National Authority for CombatingDrugs of Cambodia. With the new decree, thesecretariat of the National Authority was established asan entity in the Ministry of the Interior with its ownbudget and staff. Since then, the resources allocated tothe secretariat have increased considerably. In 2006,the Government initiated the Community CompetitivePlan against Drug Offences. The objectives of the planinclude: raising the capacity of law enforcement toprevent drug abuse by providing training to lawenforcement officers; and disseminating information toraise the awareness of the community about thedangers of drug abuse.508. In 2006, the Department of Health of thePhilippines approved approximately 1,300 drug-testinglaboratories, which have been utilized to analyse theresults of random drug testing for employees ofGovernment agencies, as well as students.509. Several countries in East and South-East Asia,including Viet Nam, strengthened their activitiesrelated to precursor control. Following the examplesset by other countries in the region, such as Cambodia,China, Indonesia, the Lao People’s Democratic78

E/INCB/2007/1Republic, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines andThailand, Viet Nam has drafted a national action planon precursor control to identify and address precursorcontrol issues in a more systematic manner. Lawenforcement agencies in Thailand worked at thenational and regional levels to control the diversion ofprecursor chemicals, including by becoming involvedin regional training on precursor control. Since 2004,Thailand, in collaboration with the Drug AdvisoryProgramme of the Colombo Plan, has hosted andconducted an annual training course on precursorcontrol for drug law enforcement officers from ASEANmember States, as well as China and India. The Boardencourages China and India to continue to strengthencontrols over the illicit manufacture of and traffickingin precursor chemicals.510. Several countries in East and South-East Asia,including Malaysia and Viet Nam, introduced measuresto combat HIV/AIDS. In order to face the problem ofthe growing rate of HIV/AIDS in Malaysia, in 2006,the National Strategic Plan on HIV/AIDS 2006-2010was launched to provide a framework for the country’sresponse to that threat. The Plan is to integrateprevention, treatment and care, with a view to reducingthe impact of the high prevalence of HIV infection.One of the priority areas is reducing HIV infectionamong persons who abuse drugs through the provisionof education, counselling, testing, medically superviseddrug substitution, treatment and care programmes forsuch persons. In Viet Nam, the Law on HIV/AIDSPrevention and Control, which includes provisions onneedle exchange programmes and drug substitutiontherapy, entered into effect in January 2007.511. In 2007, the Government of Malaysia announcedits plans to expand its needle exchange programme andmethadone maintenance therapy to include all states inthe country. Under the expanded programme,15,000 drug abusers would receive methadonemaintenance therapy and 15,000-25,000 persons whoabused drugs by injection would be participating in theneedle exchange programme by 2010. In Viet Nam, theMinistry of Health approved a pilot project to providemethadone substitution therapy for 700 drug abusers.The project is to be completed by the end of 2008.512. In 2006, Malaysia strengthened its regulations torestrict the number of wholesale outlets selling tabletsor capsules containing buprenorphine, midazolam,zolpidem and zopiclone.513. In October 2006, the Financial Action Task Forceon Money Laundering removed Myanmar from the listof countries and territories considered to be notcooperating in the efforts to counter money-launderingor to have critical deficiencies in their systems forcountering money-laundering, as the Financial ActionTask Force had determined that Myanmar had madegood progress in implementing its system forcountering money-laundering.Cultivation, production, manufacture,trafficking and abuseNarcotic drugs514. Cannabis plants continued to be illicitlycultivated in countries throughout East and South-EastAsia, including in Cambodia, Indonesia, thePhilippines and Thailand. In the Lao People’sDemocratic Republic, the illicit cultivation of cannabisplants remains a problem mainly in the centralprovinces. Such cultivation continued to decline inCambodia. Cannabis plants are illicitly cultivatedalong the borders of Cambodia with the Lao People’sDemocratic Republic and Thailand. Such plants arealso illicitly cultivated in some parts of Indonesia,particularly in Aceh and, to a lesser extent, Sumatraand Java. In the Philippines, over 100 illicit cannabiscultivation sites have been identified, including innorthern Luzon and central and southern Mindanao.515. In Indonesia, law enforcement authoritieseradicated cannabis plants covering 290 hectares ofland in 2006; over 1 million cannabis plants wereeradicated, a considerable increase over the figure forthe previous two years (215,000 cannabis plants in2004 and 188,000 in 2005). In many countries,significant seizures of cannabis were reported during2006. In Malaysia, 2.2 tons of cannabis were seized in2006, almost twice the amount seized in 2005. InIndonesia over 11.7 tons of cannabis were seized in2006. Viet Nam reported having seized more than0.6 ton of cannabis in 2006.516. Illicit opium poppy cultivation remained at a lowlevel throughout East and South-East Asia in 2007.Myanmar continued to be the country with the largesttotal area under illicit opium poppy cultivation in theregion; it was followed by the Lao People’sDemocratic Republic.79

E/INCB/2007/1517. In Myanmar, 90 per cent of the illicit cultivationof opium poppy takes place in Shan State. The totalarea under illicit opium poppy cultivation in Myanmardecreased from 130,000 hectares in 1998 to21,500 hectares in 2006, but increased to27,700 hectares in 2007. That is the first increaserecorded after several consecutive years of decline.The area under illicit opium poppy cultivation in theLao People’s Democratic Republic decreased from2,500 hectares in 2006 to 1,500 hectares in 2007, thelowest level recorded since 1992.518. In 2006, over 2 tons of opium were seized inMyanmar, the largest total amount of the substanceseized in the country in recent years. Viet Namreported the seizure of a total of 184 kg of opium in2006, more than triple the amount seized in 2005; themajority of the seizures occurred in 25 borderprovinces. Japan seized a total of 28 kg of opium in2006, the largest total amount of the substance seizedin that country in recent years.519. In the Hong Kong SAR of China, two illicitheroin laboratories were dismantled in 2006. A numberof States in East and South-East Asia continued toreport a large total amount of seized heroin. In 2006,law enforcement authorities in Viet Nam seized a totalof 277 kg of heroin. In Cambodia, a total of 21 kg ofheroin were seized in 2006, almost double the figurefor 2005 (12 kg). Law enforcement authorities inMyanmar detected a new development in trafficking inheroin: between April and October 2006, theyidentified four cases of trafficking in heroin by air. Inthe Macao SAR of China, there was an increase in thetotal amount of heroin seized during 2006. The IslamicRepublic of Iran was the source of 16 of 26 heroinconsignments seized at their destination, the HongKong SAR of China. In China, the total amount ofheroin seized decreased from 11 tons in 2004 and9 tons in 2005 to 6 tons in 2006, the lowest level inseven years.520. Law enforcement authorities in the Hong KongSAR of China uncovered five clandestine laboratoriesinvolved in the conversion of cocaine hydrochloride to“crack” in 2006. In the Republic of Korea,approximately 5 kg of cocaine were seized during2006, the largest amount seized in four years.521. In China (including the Hong Kong SAR and theMacao SAR), Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar andViet Nam heroin is reported to be the most widelyabused drug. Of the 800,000 registered drug abusers inChina, 600,000 abuse heroin.522. HIV/AIDS continued to pose a major threat inmany countries in East and South-East Asia. Of the183,733 registered cases of HIV/AIDS in China, 39 percent are attributed to drug abuse. In Viet Nam, over12,900 cases of HIV infections in 2006 were attributedto drug abuse, 52 per cent of newly detected cases ofHIV infection were attributed to drug abuse byinjection and HIV prevalence among drug abusers was23 per cent.Psychotropic substances523. An increase in the illicit manufacture of ATS wasreported in countries throughout East and South-EastAsia, including in Cambodia, China and Myanmar.China dismantled 51 clandestine ATS laboratories inthe first half of 2006. Laboratories involved in theclandestine manufacture of methamphetaminecontinued to be uncovered in countries in East andSouth-East Asia.524. In April 2007, for the first time, a laboratoryinvolved in the clandestine manufacture ofmethamphetamine was dismantled in Cambodia: anestimated 5 tons of precursor chemicals, includingmore than 3 tons of thionyl chloride (a substancecurrently not under international control) and acetoneand some equipment, were seized at the site, and about1 ton of chemicals were uncovered in a warehouse inPhnom Penh and 18 suspects were arrested inconnection with the seizure; the Cambodian authoritiessafely disposed of the seized chemicals with theassistance of UNODC. In addition, eight laboratoriesinvolved in the clandestine manufacture ofmethamphetamine were dismantled in Cambodiaduring 2006. In August 2007, a clandestinemethamphetamine laboratory was dismantled in PhnomPenh; the processing equipment included a machinewith the capacity to produce 10,000 methamphetaminetablets per hour.525. In the Philippines, four clandestinemethamphetamine laboratories were dismantled during2006. Law enforcement authorities in Myanmar raidedtwo clandestine laboratories in the eastern part of ShanState in May 2006 and seized 400,000 tablets ofmethamphetamine, 380 kg of ephedrine, 115 kg ofphenylacetic acid and some equipment. In Malaysia,the authorities dismantled the largest clandestine80

E/INCB/2007/1methamphetamine laboratory ever uncovered in thecountry in April 2007; the first part of the drugsynthesis had been carried out on an oil palmplantation in the southern tip of the country, while thefinishing stages had taken place in a town west ofKuala Lumpur; law enforcement authorities seized123 kg of liquid methamphetamine and some cash. InJuly 2006, a clandestine laboratory purportedlyinvolved in the illicit manufacture ofmethamphetamine was dismantled in Malaysia; 160 kgof methamphetamine were seized at the site.526. In several countries in East and South-East Asia,the total amount of seized ATS continued to be large.During 2006, a total of 1,755,989 tablets of ATS,mostly methamphetamine, were seized in the LaoPeople’s Democratic Republic. The smuggling of ATSin the form of tablets from Myanmar into China andViet Nam through the Lao People’s DemocraticRepublic remains a problem. Indonesia seizedapproximately 467,000 amphetamine tablets during2006, considerably more than the 255,000 tabletsseized in 2005. In 2006, Viet Nam reported havingseized a total of 62,870 tablets of ATS. Myanmarseized 1.1 million methamphetamine tablets inFebruary 2007 alone. Law enforcement authoritiesin Cambodia continued to report increasingseizures of methamphetamine tablets: a total of428,553 methamphetamine tablets was seized in 2006,compared with 338,655 in 2005. In Indonesia, 1,214 kgof methamphetamine were seized in 2006, a significantincrease compared with the 368 kg seized in 2005 andthe largest total annual amount of seizedmethamphetamine recorded in the country in sevenyears. In the Republic of Korea, the total number ofseizures of methamphetamine has been steadilyincreasing, nearly doubling between 2005 and 2006.Smuggling methamphetamine through the postalsystem was identified as the main method used in theRepublic of Korea. Law enforcement authorities in theRepublic of Korea detected 36 cases of trafficking inmethamphetamine via the Internet in 2006, comparedwith only 10 in 2005.527. Countries in East and South-East Asia continuedto seize large amounts of MDMA. In Indonesia,approximately 350,000 MDMA tablets were seized in2006, compared with 255,000 in 2005. Over242,730 MDMA tablets were seized in Malaysia during2006, the largest total annual amount of the substanceseized in the country in seven years. In Japan,approximately 195,300 MDMA tablets were seized in2006, a sharp decrease compared with the515,483 tablets seized in that country in 2005. Lawenforcement authorities in Japan seized over20,000 tablets of MDMA in December 2006 at NaritaInternational Airport. The Republic of Korea seized3,000 MDMA tablets in December 2006. In 2006,tablets containing alprazolam and lorazepam wereseized in Myanmar; the tablets originated in Pakistanand had been concealed in hand luggage.528. In Cambodia, Japan, the Lao People’s DemocraticRepublic, the Philippines and Thailand,methamphetamine is the most common drug of abuse.Methamphetamine accounts for approximately 80 percent of the drugs abused in Cambodia. The abuse ofmethamphetamine increased in China in 2006. Therewere an estimated 40,000 methamphetamine abusers inthe Lao People’s Democratic Republic in 2006. Theabuse of MDMA increased in 2006 in China andViet Nam.Precursors529. Cambodia reported a significant increase in itsseizures of safrole and safrole-rich oils, which arefrequently used in the illicit manufacture of MDMA,from 570 litres in 2006 to 1,260 litres in 2007.Substances not under international control530. Trafficking in substances not under internationalcontrol continued to be a matter of concern to theGovernments of several countries in East and South-East Asia. Approximately 2 tons of ketamine wereseized in China during 2006. Law enforcementauthorities in the Hong Kong SAR of China seized1 ton of ketamine during 2006. Seizures of ketaminealso increased in Cambodia during 2006. Lawenforcement authorities in Myanmar seized over3 litres of ketamine hydrochloride in October 2006. Anincrease in seizures of ketamine hydrochloride during2006 was reported in the Philippines. A total of 16 kgof ketamine from India was seized in Myanmar in June2006. Brunei Darussalam reported an increase inseizures of dimethylamphetamine, ketamine andnimetazepam in 2006.531. Countries in East and South-East Asia, includingCambodia, China and Japan, continued to note withconcern the abuse of substances not under internationalcontrol. Non-governmental organizations working with81

E/INCB/2007/1drug abusers in Phnom Penh reported a notableincrease in ketamine abuse in 2006. During 2006,China reported an increase in the abuse of ketamine; inparticular, the Hong Kong SAR of China noted asignificant increase in the abuse of ketamine byinjection. Japan placed ketamine and methylone undernational control as narcotic drugs in 2007.Missions532. The Board sent a mission to the Republic ofKorea in October 2007. Through effective drug lawenforcement, the Government of the Republic of Koreahas achieved some success in reducing the illicitmanufacture of methamphetamine on its territory.533. Drug abuse is reported to be very limited in theRepublic of Korea; however, it appears that theGovernment has not recently undertaken a systematicand comprehensive assessment of drug abuse andinstead uses the number of drug-related offenders as anindication of the size of the drug abuse problem. TheBoard stresses that the number of drug offenders is animperfect proxy in estimating the extent of theproblem. Therefore, the Board urges the Governmentto carry out an assessment of drug abuse, involving thecollection and analysis of data on the incidence,prevalence and other characteristics of drug abuse.Such an objective assessment will assist theGovernment in developing more targeted drug abuseprevention policies and further improve the efficiencyof programmes for the treatment and rehabilitation ofdrug abusers.534. The Republic of Korea has one of the highestrates of prescribed stimulants used as anorectics, suchas phendimetrazine, in the world. The reason for thathigh consumption level has not been established. TheBoard therefore strongly encourages the Governmentto learn more about the reason behind theextraordinarily high consumption of stimulants, by,inter alia, monitoring and analysing prescriptionpatterns more closely. The Government should take theinitiative in educating the medical profession, as wellas the public, on the rational use of narcotic drugs andpsychotropic substances and in promoting soundmedical prescription practices.535. The Government of the Republic of Korea hasintroduced an electronic system for drug importauthorization with a validation website that, because itis not in an official language of the United Nations, isof little use to the majority of countries exportinginternationally controlled drugs to that country. Thesystem is also deficient in several other essentialaspects. The Board urges the Government to suspendthe electronic system for drug import authorizationuntil the problems are resolved.536. Precursor chemicals frequently transit theRepublic of Korea, which is situated close to countrieswhere methamphetamine is illegally manufactured.There are some indications that the Republic of Koreahas already been targeted by traffickers of precursors.The Board therefore calls on the Government toincrease its vigilance with regard to precursors,particularly those used in the manufacture ofmethamphetamine and other ATS. More efforts shouldbe made to examine the legitimate requirements forprecursors in the country, to seize suspicious shipmentsof precursors and to prosecute traffickers of precursors.537. The Board sent a mission to Viet Nam in October2007. The Board notes the continued commitment ofthe Government to the eradication of illicit opiumpoppy cultivation. The Board encourages theGovernment to continue its efforts to achieve the goalof complete eradication of illicit opium poppycultivation, in order to contribute to the ongoing effortsto make ASEAN free of illicit drugs by 2015.538. The Board is concerned that the compliance ofthe Government of Viet Nam with its mandatoryreporting obligations pursuant to the international drugcontrol treaties has not been satisfactory, particularlywith respect to narcotic drugs and psychotropicsubstances. The Board urges the Government to takeall the steps necessary to enhance coordination andcooperation among the institutions and agencies, bothregulatory and law enforcement, that are responsiblefor drug control issues and to ensure fullimplementation of its treaty obligations and to givethat matter the highest priority.539. The Board notes with concern the high rate ofrelapse among drug abusers in Viet Nam who haveundergone treatment. The Board reminds theGovernment of the importance of evaluating differentmodalities for the treatment of drug dependence andensuring that the treatment addresses all types of drugs.The Board recommends the Government to explore thepossibility of entering into partnerships with nongovernmentalorganizations and self-help groupsworking in the field of drug addiction in East and82

E/INCB/2007/1South-East Asia, as such work may be particularlyeffective at the local level, targeting voluntary patients.540. The Board urges the Government of Viet Nam tocontinue to cooperate with the Governments ofneighbouring countries in strengthening regional lawenforcement activities targeting drug trafficking andmoney-laundering. In that connection, the Board notesthat in 2005, a decree on money-laundering enteredinto force in Viet Nam. The Board encourages theGovernment to draft and implement legislation againstmoney-laundering as soon as possible, with theassistance of UNODC and other international entities.South AsiaMajor developments541. During the past few years, the Board has notedthat South Asia has been targeted as an area for cocainetrafficking. The smuggling of cocaine into India, whileremaining at a modest level, seems to be organized byWest African traffickers who exchange South Americancocaine for South-West Asian heroin destined for illicitmarkets in Europe or North America. Internationaldrug trafficking syndicates, mostly involving WestAfrican organized criminal groups, have been usingIndia as a major transit country for Europe-bound drugconsignments and also as a destination country.Cocaine seizures in 2007 continued to occur withregularity (usually about 1 kg per month).542. Trafficking in and abuse of cannabis and heroinhave increased in countries in South Asia. The porousborders between Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepalcontribute to the cross-border smuggling andconsequent increased availability of illicit drugs in theregion. The quantity of heroin entering India fromPakistan has increased. Law enforcement agencies inthe north-western part of India are seizing everincreasingquantities of heroin originating inAfghanistan and Pakistan and en route to Europe viaPakistan and India.543. There is evidence that heroin consignmentsdestined for Europe are increasingly passing throughBangladesh. The most common methods and routesused for smuggling heroin into Bangladesh are asfollows: by courier along a route leading from Pakistanto Bangladesh; by commercial vehicle or train along aroute leading from India to Bangladesh; and by sea viathe Bay of Bengal or overland by truck or publictransport along a route leading from Myanmar toBangladesh. It has been reported that Indian heroin isincreasingly becoming available in Bangladesh.544. According to the Maldives-European CommunityStrategy Paper 2007-2013, drug abuse has become aserious problem in Maldives, where three quarters ofthe prison inmates are serving sentences for drugoffences. Unemployed young people are the groupmost vulnerable to drug abuse.545. In South Asia, the abuse of heroin andpharmaceutical preparations by injection is one of themain factors contributing to the spread of HIV/AIDSinfection. In India, the areas most affected by drugrelatedHIV/AIDS infection continue to be the northeastern part of the country bordering Myanmar andlarge urban areas; in those areas, there is an extremelyhigh incidence of HIV/AIDS among the population.The HIV/AIDS situation analysis done in Maldivesrevealed rising levels of drug abuse and addiction. Ofthe persons who abuse drugs in that country, 20-25 percent abuse drugs by injection. Of the persons whoabuse drugs by injection in Maldives, the majority(90 per cent) are male and about 20 per cent are lessthan 20 years of age. The percentage of Maldivian drugabusers who have injected drugs increased from 8 percent in 2003 to 29 per cent in 2006.546. The smuggling of licitly manufacturedpharmaceutical preparations, such as codeine-basedsyrups, benzodiazepines and buprenorphine, from Indiainto neighbouring countries such as Bangladesh,Bhutan, Nepal and Sri Lanka remains a major concern.547. Internationally controlled pharmaceuticalpreparations manufactured locally in India areincreasingly being diverted to some Europeancountries and the United States. Each year, the UnitedStates Customs and Border Protection intercepts in themail system thousands of illegal parcels containingpharmaceutical preparations and marked “for personaluse”. Most of those pharmaceutical preparations appearto have been sold illegally over the Internet.Regional cooperation548. A workshop on capacity-building for lawenforcement officials responsible for investigatingcases involving money-laundering was held inColombo in January 2007. Senior officials from83

E/INCB/2007/1various investigative agencies in Bangladesh, India,Malaysia, Maldives, Pakistan and Sri Lankaparticipated in the workshop.549. The fourteenth summit of the South AsianAssociation for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), heldin New Delhi in April 2007, admitted Afghanistan as anew member of SAARC. The Heads of State orGovernment participating in the summit agreed towork towards the implementation of the provisions ofthe SAARC conventions to combat transnationalcrimes, counter trafficking in narcotics andpsychotropic substances and counter trafficking inwomen.550. In South Asia, bilateral efforts to combat drugtrafficking continued. The fourth round of talks at theHome/Interior Secretary level between India andPakistan on Terrorism and Drug Trafficking was heldin New Delhi in July 2007. It was agreed that bothcountries would enhance mutual cooperation toeffectively combat drug trafficking. They also agreedthat a memorandum of understanding between theirdrug control agencies would be signed soon.551. Bangladesh and Myanmar have signed a bilateralagreement to address the problem of trafficking,including trafficking in precursors. The agreementdeals mainly with information exchange andintelligence-sharing.National legislation, policy and action552. Under the current drug control legislation inSri Lanka, not all the substances under internationalcontrol are controlled. For example, the currentlegislation does not contain any provision that allowsfor the monitoring of precursors and somepsychotropic substances to prevent their diversion. TheBoard notes with satisfaction that, in February 2007,the Sri Lankan Cabinet ordered the drafting oflegislation to control precursors. The Board encouragesthe Government of Sri Lanka to ensure thatthe amended legislation will also take intoaccount provisions of the 1971 Convention, the1988 Convention and the 1961 Convention.553. The national drug control agency of Sri Lankaannounced in June 2007 that a rehabilitationprogramme would be in place for drug-dependentprison inmates. The announcement came after over400 inmates demanded key reforms, including theintroduction of rehabilitation services at a prison.Around 12,000 Sri Lankans are currently servingprison sentences for drug-related offences.554. In order to involve the population inapprehending drug smugglers, the Maldives CustomsService decided to give cash awards to those whoprovide assistance in apprehending persons trying tosmuggle drugs and other contraband into Maldives.555. In Bangladesh, a Financial Intelligence Unit wasformed in March 2007 with technical assistance fromthe United States to combat financial crimes.Established within the framework of the amendedmoney-laundering prevention ordinance of 2007, theUnit will operate as part of the Anti-Money LaunderingDepartment of the Bangladesh Bank.556. The implementation of the national drug controlstrategy in Bangladesh involves various partners suchas non-governmental organizations and lawenforcement agencies; however, proper implementationof the drug control strategy is hampered by the lack ofresources and training. The Board encourages theGovernment of Bangladesh to continue to attach highpriority to drug control issues and to ensure that allpartners involved in the implementation of the nationaldrug control strategy have the support and resourcesnecessary to enable them to carry out their activities.557. In Nepal, a comprehensive national narcoticscontrol policy drafted by the Ministry of Home Affairswas adopted by the Cabinet in 2006. The policyconsists of strategies for supply control, demandreduction, risk reduction, research and development,and collaboration and resource mobilization. Thepolicy includes provisions for controlling drugproduction, abuse and trafficking. However, there isstill no legislation in place for the control ofprecursors.558. In India, the national policy on demand reductionmainly consists of building awareness and educatingpeople about the ill effects of drug abuse, taking intoaccount the culture-specific aspects of the problem.Drug addicts are dealt with through programmesinvolving motivational counselling, treatment, followupand social reintegration. Training in the preventionof drug abuse and the rehabilitation of drug addicts ismade available to service providers. There arecurrently 428 centres that provide counselling,detoxification and rehabilitation services for drug84

E/INCB/2007/1addicts; those centres are run by non-governmentalorganizations and funded by the Government.559. Drug control officials of the SAARC DrugOffences Monitoring Desk based in India and Pakistanregularly share information with their counterparts inSri Lanka. The Ministry of Home Affairs of Nepal hasrecently set up a SAARC Drug Offences MonitoringDesk at the international airport at Kathmandu. TheBoard encourages the SAARC Drug OffencesMonitoring Desk in Nepal to increase cooperation withits counterparts in India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka and toshare information on drug control efforts.Cultivation, production, manufacture,trafficking and abuseNarcotic drugs560. Cannabis continues to be illicitly cultivated andabused in most of the countries in South Asia. InSri Lanka, cannabis grows wild and is also illicitlycultivated on a total of 500 hectares, mostly in dryareas in the eastern and southern provinces of thecountry; the illicitly cultivated cannabis is for use inthe country. Small quantities of cannabis are alsocultivated in Bangladesh for local use. About 1-2 tonsof cannabis are seized yearly in Bangladesh.561. In India, large areas of illicitly cultivated opiumpoppy were destroyed in May 2007. Illicit opiumpoppy cultivation is reported to cover thousands ofhectares in some remote areas of India, including alongthe border with Bangladesh.562. In a joint operation conducted in July 2007, theDrug Enforcement Unit and the Internal IntelligenceDepartment of Maldives, with the assistance of DEA ofthe United States, the Anti-Narcotics Force of Pakistanand the Narcotic Bureau of Sri Lanka, seized 7.8 kg ofheroin.563. The geographical nature of Bangladesh, inparticular its long borders with India and Myanmar,makes it particularly suitable for heroin trafficking.The Bangladeshi police believe that drugs aresmuggled out of the country via the provincial airportsat Sylhet and Chittagong; the seaport of Chittagongseems to be the main exit point for drugs leaving thecountry. It was reported that a number of individualshave attempted to carry heroin through theinternational airport at Dhaka, on their way fromPakistan to Europe. Drug abuse has spread to ruralareas in Bangladesh. The most frequently abused drugis heroin, followed by codeine based cough syrup andcannabis.564. Pharmaceutical preparations containing narcoticdrugs, mainly codeine, are widely trafficked andabused in South Asia. Codeine-based syrups arediverted from the licit market in India and smuggledinto Bangladesh, where they are abused.565. According to research conducted in Sri Lanka in2006, people from rural areas seeking jobs in the citiesare vulnerable to drug abuse. In 2006, 12,551 drugrelatedarrests took place; 4 per cent of the personsarrested were women. Drug-related arrests increasedby 6 per cent in 2006, compared with 2005; most ofthose arrested in the western province of the countrywere aged 30 or younger. The drug abuse situation inSri Lanka continues to be stable: it is estimated that200,000 persons abuse cannabis and 45,000 personsabuse heroin.Psychotropic substances566. The smuggling into Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepaland Sri Lanka of pharmaceutical preparationscontaining psychotropic substances such asbuprenorphine originating in India continues to be amajor problem in the countries concerned. The Boardagain calls on the Government of India to reinforce itscontrol over the national and international trade inpsychotropic substances.567. In Bangladesh, prescription controls are notadequately enforced at the retail level. In addition,pharmaceutical preparations are stolen from hospitalsand pharmacies. The Board urges the Government ofBangladesh to strengthen controls over the distributionof pharmaceutical preparations at all levels.568. In Bangladesh, “Yaba”, a tablet containingmethamphetamine and caffeine that is widely availablein South-East Asia, is reported to be gaining popularityamong young people from middle-class and uppermiddle-classfamilies and in areas near the border withMyanmar.569. Organized criminal groups are involved intrafficking in ATS in India. In 2006, the NarcoticsControl Bureau and the Central Bureau of Narcotics ofIndia dismantled a clandestine ATS laboratory in thevicinity of New Delhi. In February 2007, OperationPharma resulted in the dismantling in India of an85

E/INCB/2007/1international drug trafficking operation that had beeninvolved in distributing psychotropic substances,primarily phentermine, and money-laundering throughInternet pharmacies.570. According to recent seizure data reported by bothBangladesh and India, the use of courier services fordrug trafficking seems to be on the rise. In 2007, drugtraffickers used Bangladeshi and Indian courierservices to ship illicit drugs to Canada and SouthAfrica. In February 2007, a parcel containing 550 kg ofephedrine was seized in a Bangladeshi companyproviding courier services; the parcel was destined forCanada. In July 2007, the Narcotics Control Bureau ofIndia stopped two parcels containing more than 1 kg ofheroin in a courier office in New Delhi; one parcel wasdestined for Canada and the other was destined forSouth Africa.Missions571. In February 2007, the Board sent, for the firsttime ever, a mission to Bhutan. For many years,information on the drug control situation in Bhutan hadbeen lacking. The purpose of the mission was to obtaininformation on how the Government of Bhutan wasmeeting its obligations under the international drugcontrol treaties.572. The Government of Bhutan has adoptedcomprehensive drug control legislation and hasestablished an administrative structure for drug control.The Board encourages the Government to continuestrengthening its administrative structure for drugcontrol and ensuring the proper functioning of thestructure through the provision of adequate human andmaterial resources. The Board recommends that theGovernment make the prevention of drug traffickingone of the key priorities of law enforcement agencies.573. The Board notes that, in Bhutan, there are nofacilities to provide adequate treatment for drugaddiction and no reliable data on drug abuse in thecountry. The Board encourages the Government to takethe necessary measures to address and remedy thesituation. Those measures should be taken in fullcollaboration with the medical professionals in thecountry. The measures could include the expansion ofthe current facilities in the national hospital for thetreatment of alcohol abuse so that those facilities couldbe used for the treatment of drug abuse as well.574. The Board notes with concern the considerabledifficulties that Bhutan is facing in controlling the licittrade in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substancesfrom India. The Board recommends that urgentmeasures be taken to establish control mechanisms inthat area.575. The Board sent a mission to Nepal in March 2007to discuss with the Government progress inimplementing the Board’s recommendations pursuantto its previous mission to the country, in 1992. TheBoard notes that Nepal has taken several positive stepsin recent years to strengthen drug control, includingacceding to the 1971 Convention in February 2007.The Government of Nepal has also made considerableeffort in the areas of law enforcement and supplyreduction, for example by the establishment of aspecialized unit dealing with drug-related offences.576. The Board is concerned that, despite the fact thatNepal has been a party to the 1988 Convention since1991, legislative provisions for the control ofprecursors have yet to be adopted by the Government.In view of the geographical location of Nepal, which isparticularly vulnerable to trafficking in precursors, theBoard urges the Government to take such measures asa matter of priority. The Board is also concerned aboutthe lack of legislation to ensure the full implementationof the 1971 Convention. The Board urges theGovernment to remedy that situation as well.577. The Board, noting the lack of adequate data onthe abuse of drugs in Nepal, encourages theGovernment to collect such data on a regular basis,with the assistance of UNODC, as appropriate.West AsiaMajor developments578. The illicit cultivation of opium poppy inAfghanistan has continued to increase at an alarminglevel, despite the Government’s efforts and theassistance provided to the Government by theinternational community over the past five years. In2006, the total area under illicit opium poppycultivation in Afghanistan reached 165,000 hectares, anincrease of 59 per cent compared with 2005. In 2007,that figure increased by 17 per cent, to193,000 hectares. The estimated crop yield reached arecord 8,200 tons in 2007, an increase of 34 per cent86

E/INCB/2007/1over the figure for 2006 (6,100 tons). Given that sharpincrease in potential opium production, the Board isseriously concerned that precursor chemicals, aceticanhydride in particular, continue to be available for theillicit manufacture of heroin in Afghanistan. AllGovernments are reminded that Afghanistan has nolegitimate need for the substance.579. Afghan opiates are smuggled predominantlythrough Iran (Islamic Republic of) and Pakistan andcountries in Central Asia. Those countries are facedwith a wide range of problems related to large-scaledrug trafficking, such as organized crime, corruptionand relatively high illicit demand for opiates. Forexample, the Islamic Republic of Iran has the highestrate of abuse of opiates in the world.580. The Board once again urges the Government ofAfghanistan, as well as the international community, totake effective measures to eradicate illicit opium poppycultivation and to ensure that opium poppy growers areprovided with sustainable, legitimate livelihoods. TheBoard wishes to emphasize that eradication of opiumpoppy cultivation in Afghanistan will require a strongpolitical will and determination by the Government ofAfghanistan and by all the major donors andneighbouring countries.581. Trafficking in narcotic drugs along the northernroute, through Central Asia, persists: an estimated21 per cent of heroin and morphine of Afghan originpassed through Central Asia in 2006. The total amountof opium seized in the subregion doubled, mostlybecause of a large increase in the amount of opiumseized in Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan,countries that share a border 2,300 km long withAfghanistan. The increased availability of opiates inCentral Asia, with its population totalling 60 million,resulted in an alarming rise in drug-related crime, theabuse of narcotic drugs and the spread of HIV/AIDS.582. The southern Caucasus is increasingly being usedas a transit area for consignments of opiates fromAfghanistan and, as a result, drug abuse is on the risein that subregion. In view of their long borders withIran (Islamic Republic of), the Russian Federation andTurkey and their access to the Black Sea and theCaspian Sea, the Board remains concerned that thesituation with regard to drug trafficking and abuse inArmenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia will deterioratefurther unless increased attention is given toinformation-sharing, more efficient border control andregional and national coordination of drug controlactivities.583. The abuse of ATS continues to spread in variouscountries in West Asia, including Iran (IslamicRepublic of), Turkey and several countries on theArabian peninsula.Regional cooperation584. The Governments of Afghanistan, Iran (IslamicRepublic of) and Pakistan are intensifying theirregional cooperation. The Governments of Afghanistanand Iran (Islamic Republic of) signed a memorandumof understanding on counter-narcotics cooperation at ameeting held in Kabul in June 2006, pursuant to theKabul Declaration on Good-neighbourly Relations. 91During a meeting held in June 2007 on strengtheningborder control and activities to deal with the drugproblem, the Inter-Governmental Technical Committeewas re-established.585. A trilateral ministerial meeting held in Vienna inJune 2007 brought together high-level officials fromAfghanistan, Iran (Islamic Republic of) and Pakistan.The Board notes with appreciation that therepresentatives of all three countries expressed theirfull commitment to stepping up regional cooperation inthe form of the Triangular Initiative. The TriangularInitiative will lead to the implementation of thestrategic policy outline, developed by UNODC,through joint border projects in Afghanistan, Iran(Islamic Republic of) and Pakistan, other exchanges atthe technical level and regular meetings on policycoordination.586. The twenty-first conference on anti-narcoticspolicy and strengthening Arab cooperation was held inTunis in June 2007. Representatives of members of theLeague of Arab States attended the conference, whichwas organized by the secretariat of the Council of ArabMinisters of the Interior. Participants discussed theneed to improve efforts to control drugs and countervarious types of drug-related crime, such as the illegalsale of drugs via the Internet and the smuggling ofdrugs by couriers, which had emerged in recent yearsin several Arab countries. The participants adopted__________________91 “Letter dated 24 December 2002 from the PermanentRepresentative of Afghanistan to the United Nationsaddressed to the President of the Security Council”(S/2002/1416, annex).87

E/INCB/2007/1recommendations on, among other things, actionagainst money-laundering and the financing ofterrorism and on the creation of additionalrehabilitation centres for drug abusers.587. The Government of Kuwait has intensified itsparticipation in regional and international cooperationmechanisms in recent years. Representatives of Kuwaitparticipated in the Arab Conference for ProtectingYouth from Drug Abuse, held in Cairo in June 2005,the nineteenth Arab conference on combating drugs,held in Tunis in July 2005, and the eighth meeting ofthe neighbouring countries of Iraq, held in Istanbul,Turkey, in April 2005, which concluded with thesigning of security cooperation agreements on thesharing of information and cooperation to counter drugtrafficking and organized crime.588. Governments of countries in Central Asia areincreasing their bilateral and multilateral cooperationin areas such as reduction of illicit drug supply anddemand, precursor control, border management,countering spread of HIV/AIDS and fighting organizedcrime and money-laundering. They have also beenparticipating in various regional projects andinternational operations under the auspices of theCommonwealth of Independent States (CIS), theCollective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO), theShanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) and thesignatories to the 1996 Memorandum of Understandingon Subregional Drug Control Cooperation (Azerbaijan,Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, the Russian Federation,Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan). Similarly,an increasing number of joint programmes are beingimplemented and supported by the United Nations, theEuropean Union, the Organization for Security andCooperation in Europe, the World Bank, the WorldCustoms Organization, Interpol, the Paris Pact 92 PolicyConsultative Group, the North Atlantic TreatyOrganization (NATO)-Russia Council, mini-Dublingroups and individual Governments.589. At a coordination conference held in Astana inApril 2007, competent national authorities of CISmember States adopted a cooperation programme oncountering organized crime and illicit drug and__________________92 The Paris Pact initiative emerged from the ParisStatement (S/2003/641, annex), which had been issued atthe end of the Conference on Drug Routes from CentralAsia to Europe, held in Paris on 21 and 22 May 2003.precursor trafficking for the period 2008-2010. At theShanghai Cooperation Organization summit held inBishkek in August 2007, heads of SCO member Statesdiscussed regional security matters and commonthreats, including border control concerns and jointaction against drug trafficking; the Heads of State ofAfghanistan, India, Iran (Islamic Republic of),Pakistan and Turkmenistan also attended the summit.The drug trafficking situation and possible ways toexpand cooperation among CSTO member States werediscussed at several high-level meetings and workingsessions organized by the secretariat of CSTO in 2007.590. CSTO member States (Armenia, Belarus,Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russian Federation,Tajikistan and Uzbekistan) are actively involvingAfghanistan, as well as Interpol and the Governmentsof Azerbaijan, China, Estonia, Finland, Iran (IslamicRepublic of), Latvia, Lithuania, Mongolia, Poland,Ukraine and the United States, in intergovernmentaloperations such as operation Channel, which in 2006resulted in the detection of over 9,000 cases related todrug trafficking and the seizure of 24 tons of illicitdrugs, including 774 kg of heroin, 838 kg of “hashish”(cannabis resin) and 165 tons of precursors. In 2007,the operation resulted in seizures of illicit drugstotalling 10.8 tons, including 194 kg of heroin, 4.3 tonsof opium, 4.8 tons of cannabis and cannabis resin andover 223 tons of precursors.591. The Governments of Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan, the Russian Federation, Tajikistan,Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan continued to cooperatein subregional drug control initiatives within theframework of the 1996 Memorandum ofUnderstanding. The necessary legal and institutionalbasis for establishment of the Central Asia regionalinformation and coordination centre has already beendeveloped and finalized. All but one of theGovernments (the Russian Federation) have signed theagreement on the establishment of the centre. Whilethe centre is expected to be fully operational as soon asthe agreement is ratified by the parliaments of at leastfour of the countries, a pilot phase of the operation ofthe centre will commence soon. The Board urges theGovernments involved to support the pilot phase andexpedite the process of ratification of the agreementand to consider including other countries in West Asiaand the Caucasus, in order to ensure greatercooperation in collecting, exchanging and analysingdrug-related intelligence, organizing and coordinating88

E/INCB/2007/1joint international operations and carrying out othersupply reduction efforts and training in West Asia.592. Under the auspices of the Paris Pact PolicyConsultative Group, several round-table meetings ofexperts, focusing on drug trafficking routes in CentralAsia, were held in 2006. The meeting held in Vienna inMay 2007 focused on the control of precursors used inthe manufacture of heroin and on the evaluation ofvarious international initiatives, such as OperationTrans-shipment and Operation Containment. Themeeting resulted in, among other things, theendorsement of the UNODC action plan targetingprecursors used in heroin manufacture. As follow-up tothe meeting held in May 2007, a meeting on operationstargeting the smuggling of acetic anhydride in andaround Afghanistan was held in Vienna in October2007. Under the auspices of the NATO-Russia Councilpilot project on counter-narcotics training for lawenforcement personnel from Afghanistan and countriesin Central Asia, training is being provided by mobileteams travelling to those countries, as well as attraining facilities in the Russian Federation and Turkey.593. The European Union continues to implementvarious programmes in Central Asia, such as theCentral Asian Drug Action Programme, the BorderManagement Programme in Central Asia, and theCentral Asian Regional Drug Information Network(CARDIN), focusing on strengthening capacities atmain airports and border crossings, improving theeffectiveness of border control and supporting forensictraining, HIV prevention in prisons, research into drugtrafficking, awareness-raising campaigns and thetraining of sniffer dogs. The fifth annual reviewmeeting of CARDIN, held in Tashkent in March 2007,was attended by national focal points andrepresentatives of services for the treatment of abusefrom Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Tajikistan andUzbekistan.National legislation, policy and action594. The Counter-Narcotics Trust Fund (CNTF),established by the Government of Afghanistan toprovide funding for drug control, continues to havedifficulties. As at 30 June 2007, 22.3 million UnitedStates dollars have been allocated to 27 projectsin 29 provinces, and US$ 42.3 million (of theUS$ 74.6 million in pledges) have been received forCNTF. The approved projects include 21 projects in thearea of alternative livelihoods and 2 projects in each ofthe following areas: drug demand reduction,institution-building and raising public awareness.595. According to the Ministry of Counter Narcoticsof Afghanistan, the main reasons behind the slowprogress in the implementation of CNTF projects arethe limited capacity and resources in the Governmentministries, conflicting procurement proceduresbetween the ministries and the United NationsDevelopment Programme and lack of knowledgeregarding new rules of procurement. In response,CNTF launched a project to enhance the capacity ofthe ministries, to fast-track the procurement processand to increase the quality and coordination of CNTFproject proposals.596. The Government of Afghanistan implementedmeasures, such as the Good Performance Initiative,under which each province that is free of opium poppyreceives US$ 500,000 in funding for developmentprojects and an additional US$ 500,000 if the poppyfreestatus is maintained. Provinces in which only asmall amount of opium poppy is cultivated also receivefunding. In addition to being compensated for havingreduced opium poppy cultivation, provincialgovernments are rewarded for having increased theireradication efforts. For example, Balkh province hasbeen awarded a total of US$ 3 million in recognition ofits outstanding performance and for maintaining itspoppy-free status.597. In 2006, in a move to strengthen provincialinstitutions, the Ministry of Counter Narcotics ofAfghanistan established five provincial offices tohandle all areas of counter-narcotics at the local level.Those new provincial offices will implement pilotprogrammes for the development of alternativelivelihood projects. Within the framework of theAfghanistan National Development Strategy, 93 anational regulatory body was created to supervise theimport and export of licit drugs. The Government ofAfghanistan also created, within the IntelligenceDepartment of the Counter-Narcotics Police, a unitspecializing in precursor control.__________________93 “Letter dated 14 February 2006 from the PermanentRepresentative of Afghanistan to the United Nationsaddressed to the President of the Security Council”(S/2006/105, annex).89

E/INCB/2007/1598. The Government of Afghanistan has also beentaking measures to deal with the growing problem ofdrug abuse. By May 2007, the Government hadestablished facilities for the treatment of drug abuse in17 of the 34 provinces in the country, and another8 further centres were being planned for the same year.Campaigns for the prevention of drug abuse areconducted by religious organizations in Afghanistan,and drug abuse prevention has been incorporated in thecurricula of primary schools.599. The Government of the Islamic Republic of Iranhas adopted general policies on the fight againstnarcotic drugs and, in addition to special treatmentprogrammes designed for male drug addicts, has beenstrengthening measures for the provision of treatmentfor female drug addicts. In late 2006, the Governmentopened the first rehabilitation centre for femaledrug addicts in Tehran, providing facilities for3,000 addicts; the centre also includes a kindergarten.Two other provinces in the country have similarfacilities. A drop-in centre for female addicts wasestablished in Tehran in March 2007, and theGovernment has announced that it is consideringproposals for conducting research on the situation offemale drug addicts in the country.600. The Board is concerned that, in Pakistan, thePolicy Review Board, a committee responsible for thecoordination of national drug control policy, bringingtogether all the relevant agencies, is not functioningproperly. A mission of the Board to Pakistan in 2004identified the need for improving coordination amongGovernment agencies involved in drug control.Subsequent to those findings, the Board recommendedthat the Policy Review Board be strengthenedaccordingly. In September 2007, Pakistan promulgatedlegislation against money-laundering in the form of anordinance providing for the establishment of anindependent financial monitoring unit and a nationalexecutive committee to combat money-laundering. TheGovernment of Pakistan is preparing a draft of thenational drug control master plan for the period 2008-2012, which is to be submitted to the Federal Cabinet.601. Drug trafficking and abuse are deteriorating onthe Arabian peninsula. In particular, the Board notesthat drug control legislation in Palestine needs to beexamined and updated, with the assistance of UNODC.602. Governments of countries in Central Asia havecontinued to improve their national laws, bringingthem in line with the provisions of the internationaldrug control treaties. The parliament of Kyrgyzstan isreviewing a draft law that would amend the NarcoticDrugs, Psychotropic Substances and Precursors Act ofthe Kyrgyz Republic of 24 April 1998. The amendmentwould enhance the provisions of the Act relating tolicit drug control, drug abuse prevention and thetreatment of drug abusers.603. In 2006, Kyrgyzstan adopted legislation oncountering money-laundering and on confiscatingassets derived from criminal activity; in addition,financial intelligence units were established in thecountry. In Uzbekistan, in accordance with thepresidential decrees issued in 2007, the implementationof the main provisions of the law against moneylaundering,which had entered into force in 2005, hasbeen suspended until 2013. The Office of the Presidentof Tajikistan is preparing a draft law against moneylaundering.604. National strategies aimed at preventing the spreadof HIV/AIDS have been drafted and are in the processof being adopted by the Governments of countries inCentral Asia. Following the adoption of a similarprogramme in Tajikistan in 2006, the Government ofUzbekistan is expected to adopt in 2007 a nationalprogramme for the period 2008-2010 addressingHIV/AIDS and the problem of drug abuse.605. While implementation of its national programmeagainst drug abuse and trafficking in narcotic drugsand psychotropic substances, covering the period 2001-2006, continues, the Government of Azerbaijan is inthe process of adopting a new programme, covering theperiod 2007-2012.606. In 2006, the Government of Georgia created aconsultative council for drug control policy. Thecouncil, which includes representatives of the Ministryof Health and the Ministry of Internal Affairs, as wellas non-governmental organizations and medicalpractitioners, has developed a national drug controlstrategy and an action plan, to be implemented in 2007.Cultivation, production, manufacture,trafficking and abuseNarcotic drugs607. According to the Afghanistan Opium Survey2007, in Afghanistan opium poppy cultivation covered193,000 hectares in 2007, an increase of 17 per cent90

E/INCB/2007/1over 2006. A larger share of opium production inprovinces where yields have traditionally been higherresulted in a proportionally larger increase in opiumproduction compared with the increase in the totalcultivated area. As a result, the average opium yields inall areas of Afghanistan (42.5 kg per hectare) in 2007were also higher than in 2006 (37.0 kg per hectare).Given the increase in the total area under illicit opiumpoppy cultivation and the favourable weatherconditions, Afghanistan produced an extraordinary8,200 tons of opium in 2007 (34 per cent more than in2006), supplying 93 per cent of the global market foropiates.608. In south-western Afghanistan, opium poppycultivation has reached an unprecedented level. In2007, 70 per cent of the opium poppy cultivation inAfghanistan took place in five provinces along thatcountry’s border with Pakistan. The province ofHelmand currently accounts for more than 50 per centof the entire opium production in Afghanistan.609. In some areas of Afghanistan opium cultivationhas diminished. In the northern and central parts of thecountry, illicit opium poppy cultivation was almostbrought to a halt; in Balkh province, for example, thearea under opium poppy cultivation fell from7,200 hectares in 2006 to nil in 2007. However, theBoard continues to be concerned that in some areas,such as Balkh province, illicit opium poppy cultivationis being replaced by the illicit cultivation of cannabisplants, which reached 68,850 hectares in 2007. Inaddition, the Board urges the Government to ensurethat farmers are provided with means for alternativelivelihoods, which should contribute to the eliminationof poverty and discourage the illicit cultivation of drugcrops.610. There is a strong link between security conditionsand illicit opium poppy cultivation in the southernprovinces of Afghanistan. Information collected byUNODC indicates that the overwhelming majority ofvillages with poor security are involved in opiumpoppy cultivation. Drug traffickers and criminal groupsencourage villagers to grow opium poppy,guaranteeing the protection of their opium poppy fieldsand, in some cases, using threats and intimidation toforce the villagers to engage in illicit opium poppycultivation.611. Information released by UNODC in August 2007indicates that some 19,000 hectares of opium poppyhave been eradicated in Afghanistan, 24 per cent morethan the area eradicated in 2006 (15,300 hectares) and280 per cent more than the area eradicated in 2005(5,000 hectares). However, taking into account thelarge scale of opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistanin 2007, the area eradicated represents only 9 per centof the total area cultivated with opium poppy(compared with 8 per cent in 2006). In Helmand, themain province in which opium poppy is cultivated, theofficial target set for the eradication of opium poppycultivation was 50 per cent; only a fraction of that areawas eradicated.612. Though eradication efforts in Afghanistan weremuch more intense in 2007 than in 2006, resistance toeradication was much more severe. Several securityincidents, including violent incidents involving armedresistance, took place, resulting in over a dozen deaths.In areas of the country controlled by the Taliban,eradication efforts have had little chance of success.613. In the Islamic Republic of Iran, no significantillicit cultivation of opium poppy takes place and nomanufacture of illicit drugs was reported in 2006. Asthe Islamic Republic of Iran has not reported seizuresof precursor chemicals since 2002 and acetic anhydrideis manufactured in the country, the Board urges theGovernment to ensure that mechanisms for the controlof domestic distribution of such chemicals aresufficient to prevent their diversion.614. The Islamic Republic of Iran continues to seizemore opiates than any other country in the world. Inthe first half of 2007, a total of 180 tons of opium wereseized in the Islamic Republic of Iran (an increase of37 per cent over the first half of 2006), mainly on thatcountry’s eastern border with Afghanistan. Whileopium accounts for 71 per cent of the total amount ofopiates seized in the Islamic Republic of Iran, in 2007heroin seizures almost doubled, seizures of morphineincreased by 51 per cent and seizures of cannabisincreased by 22 per cent. Over 50 per cent of theinmates in the country’s prisons are reported to havebeen convicted for drug-related crimes.615. Pakistan continues to be used as a major transitarea for Afghan opiates, but to a lesser extent than theIslamic Republic of Iran. According to Pakistanofficials, 35 per cent of illicit opiates of Afghan originare smuggled through Pakistan.91

E/INCB/2007/1616. Government data show a dramatic increase inAfghan opiates seized in Pakistan in 2006, the last yearfor which data are available. The total amount ofseized opiates increased from 25 tons of heroinequivalent in 2005 to 36.4 tons of heroin equivalent in2006, an increase of 46 per cent. Analysis of seizuredata suggests that there is increased smuggling ofAfghan opiates through Pakistan into China. The totalamount of cannabis resin seized in Pakistan alsoincreased, from 93.5 tons in 2005 to 115.4 tons in2006, an increase of 23 per cent, partly reflecting anincrease in cannabis production in Afghanistan.617. Until recently, Iraq had been used as a transit areafor smuggling Afghan heroin through the IslamicRepublic of Iran into Saudi Arabia and other countriesin the area of the Persian Gulf. Illicit drug traffickingand the risk of illicit cultivation of opium poppy havebeen increasing in some areas with grave securityproblems. Though official data are lacking, it appearsthat drug abuse in Iraq has increased dramatically,including among children from relatively affluentfamilies.618. Some cultivation of opium poppy and cannabistakes place in Lebanon, mainly for local use.According to the Internal Security Forces of Lebanon,approximately 27 hectares of opium and 64 hectares ofcannabis were eradicated in 2005. In 2006, theGovernment’s eradication efforts resulted in thedestruction of 380 hectares of illicitly cultivated crops.Despite some successes achieved in curtailing drugtrafficking, heroin, cocaine and psychotropicsubstances, such as MDMA and counterfeit Captagontablets (which nowadays contain mainly amphetamineand caffeine instead of fenetylline), are reportedlybeing smuggled through Lebanon into Kuwait, SaudiArabia and the United Arab Emirates, out of Jordan,the Syrian Arab Republic and Turkey, as well as fromcountries in Europe and South America.619. According to law enforcement authorities inIsrael, there is a high demand for cannabis, “hashish”(cannabis resin), opium, heroin, cocaine and MDMA(“ecstasy”) in that country. Police data indicate that,while the total amount of cannabis seized is declining,the total amount of heroin and cocaine seized isincreasing and there continues to be a significantamount of “ecstasy” seized. In 2005, 12.5 tons ofcannabis, over 1 ton of cannabis resin, 145 kg ofheroin, 161 kg of cocaine and 245,000 MDMA tabletswere seized in Israel.620. According to officials in Palestine, cannabis isillicitly cultivated both on the West Bank and in theGaza Strip. Drug trafficking is increasing in Palestine,as evidenced by the fact that 1 out of 10 casesinvolving serious crime is drug-related. In 2005,1.2 tons of opium, 12.9 tons of cannabis and over10 kg of heroin and various heroin mixtures wereseized.621. The Syrian Arab Republic is used as a transitcountry for illicit consignments of cannabis, cocaineand heroin (mainly from Lebanon and Turkey),morphine (from Afghanistan, Iran (Islamic Republicof) and Turkey) destined for Jordan and Lebanon, aswell as counterfeit Captagon tablets (containing mainlyamphetamine) destined for countries in the area of thePersian Gulf. The total amount of drugs seized hasbeen increasing in recent years in the Syrian ArabRepublic.622. Cannabis grows wild in Kazakhstan andKyrgyzstan, and small-scale cultivation of opiumpoppy continues to take place in several countries inCentral Asia and the southern Caucasus. The opiumproduced is mostly used locally or smuggled, on asmall scale, into the Russian Federation. TheGovernments of those countries should continue theirefforts aimed at identifying and eradicating illicitlycultivated drug crops.623. A total of 36.4 tons of drugs were seized inCentral Asian countries in 2006. That total includes27 tons of cannabis, 84 per cent of which was seized inKazakhstan. Opium seizures more than doubled, from2.7 tons in 2005 to 5.7 tons in 2006, and a significantchange in the incidence of seizures of opiates wasnoted throughout Central Asia. While, from 2005 to2006, there was a decrease in the share of the opiumseized in Kazakhstan (from 24 to 11 per cent) and inTajikistan (from 40 to 24 per cent), there was anincrease in the share of the opium seized inTurkmenistan (from 27 to 46 per cent) and Uzbekistan(from 4 to 13 per cent).624. In 2006, the quantity of heroin seized in CentralAsia decreased from 3.8 to 3.7 tons. Compared with2005, there was a decrease of 11 per cent in thequantity of heroin seized in Kazakhstan (from 626 to555 kg) and Tajikistan (from 2.3 to 2.1 tons), although92

E/INCB/2007/1those two countries still accounted for 73 per cent ofthe total quantity of heroin seized in countries inCentral Asia. The quantity of seized heroin increased inKyrgyzstan (by 29 per cent), Turkmenistan (by 11 percent) and Uzbekistan (by 15 per cent).625. Turkmenistan, with its extensive borders withAfghanistan (745 km), Iran (Islamic Republic of)(992 km), Kazakhstan (379 km) and Uzbekistan(1,621 km), continues to be used as a transit countryfor Afghan opium and heroin destined for illicitmarkets in the Russian Federation and countries inWestern Europe. Afghan opiates are smuggled in trucksand automobiles, in maritime shipments (on theCaspian Sea) and in air cargo through Azerbaijan andTurkey. Official statistics released by the Governmentof Turkmenistan indicate that, in 2006, the totalquantity of seized heroin, opium and cannabisexceeded 3 tons, almost tripling the figure for the yearbefore. That sharp increase was attributed mainly to anincrease of 255 per cent in the quantity of opiumseized.626. Uzbekistan continues to be used as a transitcountry for Afghan opiates that are being smuggledinto the Russian Federation, mainly by road and rail,out of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, as well as directlyout of Afghanistan. In 2006, the total quantity of drugsseized in Uzbekistan increased by 70 per cent, mostlyas a result of an extraordinary increase of 605 per centin the quantity of opium seized, which increasedsignificantly from 108 kg in 2005 to 759 kg in 2006.The combined quantity of cannabis, opium and heroinseized in Kyrgyzstan increased from 2.3 tons in 2005to 3 tons in 2006.627. The available data suggest that, while thequantity of cannabis trafficked through the southernCaucasus remains stable, the combined quantity ofheroin, opium and cocaine is increasing. In 2006,531 kg of drugs were seized in Azerbaijan, including141 kg of cannabis (down from 150 kg in 2005) and49 kg of heroin (up from 13 kg in 2005). However,according to some estimates, the total quantity of drugsbeing smuggled through Azerbaijan is approaching1,000 tons per year, and Afghan opiates are enteringthe country from the Islamic republic of Iran andcountries in Central Asia on their way to Georgia, theRussian Federation and countries in Western Europe.628. The quantity of drugs seized in Armenia, whileremaining low, has increased. In 2006, a total of26.3 kg of narcotic drugs (mostly cannabis) wereseized, representing an increase of 33 per centcompared with the previous year. Due to weak bordercontrol, drugs appear to be entering Armenia from itsneighbouring countries: cannabis is entering Armeniafrom Georgia; opium, mainly from the IslamicRepublic of Iran; heroin, from Iran (Islamic Republicof) and Turkey; and buprenorphine (Subutex ® ), fromFrance.629. In 2006, drug-related crime increased by 31 percent in Georgia. In addition, trafficking in heroinincreased (from 2.59 kg in 2005 to 4.8 kg in 2006),while the quantity of seized cannabis declined (from23.3 kg in 2005 to 11 kg in 2006). The quantity ofseized buprenorphine (Subutex ® ) continued to rise inGeorgia.630. The abuse of opiates continues to pose a majorproblem in countries neighbouring Afghanistan andeven in countries near Afghanistan. Nearly all thosecountries have high rates of drug abuse; the IslamicRepublic of Iran, for example, has the world’s highestabuse rate for opiates: an estimated prevalence rate of2.8 per cent. Drug addiction continues to be a growingproblem in the Islamic Republic of Iran: reportedlyover 2 million people in the country abuse drugs.Pakistan also has a high abuse rate for opiates: theestimated prevalence rate among the populationaged 15-64 in 2006 was 0.7 per cent. Many countriesin Central Asia have similar levels of drug abuse, withheroin abuse having replaced cannabis and opiumabuse as the main drug problem. In Central Asia, theincidence of heroin dependence among registered drugabusers ranges from 50 to 80 per cent, the highest ratesbeing recorded in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.631. Despite their high estimates of drug abuse, manycountries in West Asia, including the Islamic Republicof Iran, have not collected comprehensive data on drugabuse for some years. The Board notes that someGovernments are taking measures in that area; forexample, the results of a national drug abuseassessment survey carried out in Pakistan in 2006 havebeen recently released. The survey suggests that 77 percent of the 628,000 opioid users in that country abuseheroin. The prevalence of drug abuse by injection(125,000 persons) was estimated to be about 0.14 percent of the adult population in 2006, which is twice therate in 2002. The Board encourages other Governmentsto follow suit and conduct comprehensive surveys and93

E/INCB/2007/1rapid assessments of the drug abuse situation in theircountries.632. Drug-related crime and drug abuse are growing inPalestine. While the smoking of cannabis and theinjection of heroin have increased significantly inrecent years, polydrug use and the abuse of over-thecountermedicines are also spreading. According to theavailable data, 10,000 people in the Gaza Strip and theWest Bank are registered as drug abusers, and theremay be another 15,000 drug abusers in Jerusalem.There are currently no rehabilitation facilities for drugabusers in the West Bank or the Gaza Strip.633. Oman is increasingly being used as a transitcountry for illicit drug consignments. Because of theporous land borders, cannabis, opium and heroinshipments from Afghanistan, Iran (Islamic Republic of)and Pakistan are smuggled through Oman. The lateststatistics indicate that there are over 1,000 individualsregistered as drug abusers and receiving free treatmentfor drug abuse in Oman.634. Cannabis, ephedra, opiates and synthetic drugsare abused in Central Asia. Increasing drug addictionand a shift from cannabis and opium abuse to heroinabuse are common to all countries in the subregion.635. In 2006, the number of officially registereddrug addicts in Kazakhstan increased by 834 to54,411 persons (or 0.5 per cent of the populationaged 15-64); there has been a continued shift fromcannabis abuse to opium and heroin abuse. A total of7,842 persons in Kyrgyzstan (or 0.2 per cent of theadult population) were officially registered drugabusers in 2006, an increase of 8 per cent over 2005.The number of persons abusing illicit drugs isincreasing in Tajikistan as well; according to officialstatistics, in 2006, there were 7,865 registered drugabusers in the country (or 0.2 per cent of the adultpopulation), of which 91 per cent were abusingopioids. In Uzbekistan, 19,964 persons (or 0.1 per centof the adult population) were officially registered asdrug addicts in 2006; according to some estimates,80,000 persons in the country abuse heroin byinjection. No statistics on drug abuse or the spread ofHIV/AIDS are available for Turkmenistan.636. Drug abuse by injection is increasing in manycountries in West Asia, often contributing to a growingHIV problem. It is a major factor behind the spread ofHIV in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, the two countriesin the region in which the virus has spread the fastest.Up to 93 per cent of new cases of HIV infection inTajikistan are related to drug abuse. The samephenomenon has been noted in Pakistan and countriesin the southern Caucasus.637. The number of officially registered cases ofHIV/AIDS in Central Asia increased by 30 per cent,from 14,799 cases in 2005 to 19,197 in 2006, drugabuse by injection being a major factor contributing tothat increase. That total includes an increase of 31 percent in Kazakhstan (from 5,657 to 7,402 cases), anincrease of 30 per cent in Kyrgyzstan (from 826 to1,070 cases), an increase of 40 per cent in Tajikistan(from 506 to 710 cases) and an increase of 28 per centin Uzbekistan (from 7,810 to 10,015 cases).Psychotropic substances638. In Turkey, the quantity of seized synthetic drugs,predominantly MDMA and Captagon (mainlyamphetamine), increased in 2006 to the highest levelever (an increase of 71.6 per cent, compared with2005). The quantity of MDMA seized in the countrycontinued to increase rapidly, from 94,027 units in2002 to 1,457,698 units in 2006. In 2006, the amountof Captagon seized also reached the highest level:19,971,625 units. According to the Government,Turkey is used as a transit country for illicitconsignments of Captagon, while MDMA is smuggledinto the country largely to be sold on its growing illicitmarket.Precursors639. The amount of acetic anhydride seized in Turkeyhas increased in recent years, but it remains at a lowlevel compared with the large amount of seizuresbefore. A total of 5.2 million litres of acetic anhydridewere seized in 2006, compared with over 18.0 millionlitres in 2002. Although the number of illicit heroinlaboratories dismantled in the country is decreasingand there are indications that Afghan morphine base islargely being transformed into heroin before it reachesTurkey, the Board calls on the Government of Turkeyto continue its supply reduction and border controlmeasures in order to ensure that no illicit manufactureof heroin takes place on its territory.94

E/INCB/2007/1D. EuropeMajor developments640. After a decade of significant increases, cannabisuse appears to have stabilized or even declined in mostWestern European countries. However, cannabiscontinues to be the most commonly abused drug inEurope. Western Europe remains the largest market forcannabis resin in the world. Seizures of cannabis resinhave decreased in some countries in Europe, adevelopment that may be linked to the decline incannabis resin production in Morocco.641. Europe is the second largest illicit market forcocaine in the world. In most countries in WesternEurope, particularly those on the Iberian peninsula, asignificant increase in cocaine seizures has beenreported. In Portugal, for example, cocaine seizures,which were already at a high level, have almostdoubled. Cocaine is increasingly being smuggled intoEurope via countries in Western Africa. The abuse ofcocaine has increased in Western Europe but hasremained stable in Central and Eastern Europe. TheBoard welcomes the launching of an action plan inSpain to address the increasing level of cocaine abuseand encourages other States in Europe with highprevalence rates to adopt similar measures.642. Increased seizures of opiates of Afghan origin inthe Russian Federation reflect the rise in trafficking inopiates in the region. The southern branch of theBalkan route, which passes through Istanbul, Sofia,Belgrade and Zagreb, is being increasingly used. Theabuse of opiates has remained stable or declined inWestern and Central Europe but has reportedly beenincreasing in the Russian Federation and in countries inEastern Europe, as well as in some countries in South-Eastern Europe along the Balkan route. In Europe, thedemand for treatment for the abuse of opiates is higherin Eastern Europe (61 per cent) than in Western Europe(55 per cent).643. Europe remains an important source of ATS. Theillicit manufacture of ATS in South-Eastern andEastern Europe continues to rise. The dismantling oflaboratories illicitly manufacturing such stimulants hasbeen frequently reported in Moldova and Slovakia andoccasionally reported in Bulgaria, Lithuania andUkraine. The level of MDMA abuse is stable ordeclining in most countries in Western Europe. Theillicit manufacture and abuse of methamphetaminecontinue to be limited to only a few countries inWestern and Central Europe (the Czech Republic,Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and parts of Germany).644. Over the past few years, the increased drugtrafficking and abuse in Eastern Europe has contributedto an increase in the spread of HIV/AIDS. A significantnumber of new cases of HIV infection are attributableto the sharing of drug-injecting equipment or riskysexual behaviour resulting from the effects of thedrugs. One of the fastest-growing HIV epidemics in theworld is taking place in Eastern Europe.Regional cooperation645. A ministerial conference on the theme newsignals for drug policies across Europe was organizedby the Pompidou Group of the Council of Europe inStrasbourg, France, in November 2006. The conferenceadopted a six-platform programme against drug abusethat focuses on young people. Activities will beundertaken under each of the following six platformsin the fight against drug abuse and trafficking:prevention, treatment, ethics, airports, research andcriminal justice. One such activity is the MedNETNetwork, initiated by France and the Netherlands,which is aimed at facilitating and supporting dialogue,cooperation and the exchange and transfer ofknowledge and experiences between Europe and NorthAfrica. As a follow-up to the ministerial conference, anonline database of European research on drugs waslaunched in January 2007.646. An operational body to tackle the smuggling ofdrugs into Europe by sea has been set up within theframework of the European Union. In September 2007,Ministers of seven European Union member States(France, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Portugal, Spainand United Kingdom) signed an agreement to establishthe Maritime Analysis and Operation Centre-Narcotics(MAOC-N). The mission of MAOC-N is to enhancecriminal intelligence and coordinate police action onthe high seas, with a view to intercepting vesselscarrying cocaine and cannabis. Naval and lawenforcement bodies will participate in MAOC-N.647. In Poland, the 18th International Conference onthe Reduction of Drug Related Harm was held inWarsaw in May 2007. The Conference was organizedby WHO, UNODC, UNAIDS, the World Bank and theGovernment of Poland. Some 1,200 persons95

E/INCB/2007/1participated in the Conference, representingGovernments, governmental and non-governmentalorganizations and other institutions from civil society.Some of the themes covered at the Conference werethe provision of training to raise awareness ofHIV/AIDS, HIV prevention and HIV/AIDS in prisonsin Central Asia and Eastern Europe.648. Representatives of 29 countries participated inthe Seventh Meeting of Heads of National Drug LawEnforcement Agencies, Europe, held in Vienna in June2007. The participants examined the current situationwith respect to regional and subregional cooperationaimed at countering drug trafficking and adoptedrecommendations relating to cocaine trafficking inEurope, transnational law enforcement investigationtechniques, criminal groups operating illicit drugtrafficking networks within Europe and moneylaundering.649. The Collaborative Harmonised AmphetamineInitiative on amphetamine profiling has been launchedin the European Union. This initiative aims atidentifying links between seizures and criminal groupsthrough forensic profiling of ATS in differentlaboratories in various member States of the EuropeanUnion.650. The customs authorities of the Russian Federationregularly participate in the joint international operation“Baltic Strike”, aimed at detecting and closing routesused for smuggling cocaine on cargo ships travellingfrom Latin American countries to the RussianFederation and other countries in Europe. The partnersof the Russian Federation in the operation are the lawenforcement and customs authorities of Germany,Latvia, Lithuania, Sweden, the United Kingdom andthe United States.651. The Russian Federation, together with Armenia,Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan,participated in several large-scale interdictionoperations called “Channel” between 2003 and 2006.The main goal of the operations was to build anenhanced system of collective security to prevent drugtrafficking in drugs from Afghanistan. The operationsresulted in substantial seizures of drugs, including774 kg of heroin in 2006.National legislation, policy and action652. Results of a Eurobarometer survey published inJanuary 2007 indicate that the majority of youngpeople in Europe are against the legalization ofcannabis use. Only one quarter of the citizens ofEuropean Union member States agree that personalconsumption of cannabis should be legalizedthroughout Europe, while more than two thirds (68 percent) disagree. 57 per cent of respondents aged 15 to24 years expressed their opposition to the legalizationof personal use of cannabis. It must be noted, however,that opinions varied from country to country. InFinland (8 per cent), Romania (9 per cent) and Sweden(9 per cent), the idea of legalizing personal use ofcannabis was strongly rejected, whereas 40 per cent ofrespondents in Spain and 49 per cent of respondents inthe Netherlands felt that personal use of cannabisshould be legalized throughout Europe.653. A report by the European Commission publishedin April 2007 shows that programmes for the exchangeof needles and syringes are available to drug abusers in24 European Union member States; in 15 of thosemember States, such programmes are availablenationwide. Programmes using methadone andbuprenorphine for substitution treatments are availablein all European Union member States, and theavailability of such programmes has increased over thepast decade.654. UNODC continues to support law enforcementoperations in Europe. In Albania, UNODC provided in2007 examination facilities at the border crossing atQafe Thane, a primary gateway between Albania andthe former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. The newrefurbished vehicle examination facility at the bordercrossing at Qafe Thane was opened on 26 June 2007.655. In March 2007, regulations for drug substitutiontreatment were strengthened in Austria with a view to,among other things, limiting the diversion of slowreleasemorphine into illicit channels. The number ofpeople registered for drug substitution treatment inAustria increased continuously in the 10-year period1996-2005, from 2,941 to 7,554. The rise in thenumber of drug abusers undergoing substitutiontreatment reflects both an increase in the availability oftreatment and a possible increase in the abuse ofopiates.96

E/INCB/2007/1656. In 2006, the Government of Belarus approved itsnational programme against crime for the period 2006-2010, which includes programmes for the prevention ofdrug abuse and the rehabilitation of drug abusers.Under the new national programme, the State SecurityCommittee, the State Customs Committee and theMinistry of Internal Affairs, the Ministry of PublicHealth and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs will conducttheir own activities against trafficking in narcotic drugsand psychotropic substances.657. In Bulgaria, UNODC supports a project aimed atstrengthening the Anti-Drugs Intelligence Capacity ofthe National Customs Agency of Bulgaria. The projectbegan in 2007.658. In France, the Ministry of Health adopted inNovember 2006 a plan for the treatment and preventionof all forms of addiction for the period 2007-2011.About 77 million euros will be spent annually for fiveyears to strengthen and coordinate existing facilitiesand further increase resources for the prevention andtreatment of not only addiction to drugs, but alsoaddiction to tobacco, alcohol and gambling.659. In Greece, the National Strategy on Drugs 2006-2012 and the action plan on drugs for the period 2006-2008 address both demand and supply reduction, withspecial emphasis on preventing and combatingorganized crime. The main goals of the Strategyinclude improving the effectiveness of demandreduction activities, increasing access to treatment fordrug dependence, decreasing drug-related deaths anddeveloping alternatives to imprisonment for drugdependentoffenders. The action plan on drugs sets outmeasures to be taken to achieve the objectives of theStrategy.660. In Ireland, the Criminal Justice Act 2007 wassigned into law by the President in May 2007. The Actcontains a number of changes to the criminal justicesystem, including increased detention powers for theIrish police and the introduction of mandatorysentencing for a range of offences. Many of thechanges have been introduced in the context ofgrowing concern about drug-related crime.661. The Board notes the publication in March 2007 ofthe results of the first survey of prevalence of the useof sedatives, tranquillizers and anti-depressants in theperiod 2002-2003 in the Republic of Ireland andNorthern Ireland of the United Kingdom. The surveyfound that the lifetime prevalence rate of personsaged 35-64 (16 per cent) was double that of personsaged 15-34 years (8 per cent). A higher prevalence ratewas found among female respondents than among malerespondents. In addition, the survey found correlationsbetween various indicators of deprivation and higherprevalence rates.662. In May 2007, the Government of the Netherlandssubmitted to the lower house of Parliament a documenton the continuation of the policy on synthetic drugs.The policy focuses on tighter law enforcement of thetrade in and production of synthetic drugs, a vigorousprevention and information policy and closerinternational cooperation. The policy targets the entirechain of criminal activities, starting from theproduction of raw materials to trading in the endproduct. The policy was introduced in 2001; in thefive-year period that followed, more than 20 milliontablets of MDMA and thousands of litres of precursorswere seized by law enforcement agencies in theNetherlands. The Government has reported that theillicit manufacture of ATS in the Netherlands appearsto have decreased.663. In October 2007, a State Drug Control Committeeon Additional Measures to Counter Illicit Trade inNarcotic Drugs, Psychotropic Substances andPrecursor Chemicals was established by PresidentialDecree in the Russian Federation. While the FederalDrug Control Service maintains its responsibility ofcoordinating law enforcement activities against illicitdrug trafficking, the Committee has the mandate tomonitor and coordinate the decision-making processand implementation of executing agencies at all levelsof the Government.664. In the Russian Federation, the Government isconsidering drafting legislation on compulsorytreatment for drug addicts. The Federal Drug ControlService expects that, once adopted, the new law willlead to the establishment of special medical centreswhere drug addicts will undergo treatment on the basisof a court decision.665. In Spain, the number of indictments forpossession and use of drugs in public places hasincreased steadily since 1997, virtually tripling from1996 to 2004. In 2006, there was a record number of218,656 indictments, exceeding the total for theprevious year by 26.3 per cent. Indictments for97

E/INCB/2007/1possession or use of cannabis accounted for more thanthree quarters (77.32 per cent) of the total for 2006.666. In June 2007, an action plan against cocaine forthe period 2007-2010 was introduced by the Ministerfor Health of Spain. The plan is being implemented asa response to the significant increase in cocaine abusein that country. Over the past few years, annualprevalence of cocaine abuse in Spain has quadrupledamong teenagers and has doubled among the generalpopulation. The action plan is aimed at, inter alia,reducing cocaine abuse, increasing awareness of therisks associated with cocaine abuse and improvingassistance provided to cocaine abusers. One of thecentral elements of the plan is to dispel wrongperceptions about cocaine and to raise awareness of thedangers of cocaine abuse. Implementation of the planhas already started. The annual cost of the plan isestimated at about 7 million euros.667. In Sweden, the national action plan on narcoticdrugs for the period 2006-2010 emphasizes the need toidentify political priorities and mobilize local resourcesin order to deal with drug-related issues, and itunderscores the fact that it is important to maintain abalance between efforts to reduce both the supply ofand demand for drugs. The national action plan alsohighlights the importance of involving children andtheir parents in drug abuse prevention activities.Surveys carried out by the Swedish National Instituteof Public Health show that Sweden is one of thecountries with the lowest lifetime and monthlyprevalence rates in Europe.668. In the United Kingdom, the largest ever publicconsultation on the national drug control strategy waslaunched in July 2007. The consultation is aimed atstimulating fresh and constructive ideas on how best toreduce the harm caused by drugs. The Government hasrequested the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugsto review the classification of cannabis, which wasdowngraded some years ago, and to examine nationalpolicies regarding cannabis in the light of theincreasing potency of the drug. The consultationprocess will include a series of workshops and eventsin communities, inviting families and current andformer drug abusers to discuss ways in which the harmcaused by drug abuse can be reduced further. Inaddition, the Government plans to distribute200,000 leaflets about the consultation to policestations, libraries and community groups throughoutthe country, in order to spread the word and involvepeople further in what should be a national discussion.669. In July 2007, in the United Kingdom, the AllParty Parliamentary Group on Drug Misuse, a crosspartygroup of parliamentarians, launched an inquiryinto the scale and nature of the abuse of prescriptionand over-the-counter drugs. The inquiry will include anin-depth study of an area of drug abuse that is oftenunrecognized, although it affects a large number ofpeople. The findings of the inquiry will be published ina report in 2008.670. In the United Kingdom, an action plan to reducedrug-related harm was published in May 2007. Theaction plan sets out the broad streams of action to betaken in England to enhance harm reduction activitiesin the area of treatment for drug abuse, with a view toreducing the number of drug-related deaths or bloodbornevirus infections among drug abusers. Theapproach to harm reduction combines work aimeddirectly at reducing the number of drug-related deathsand blood-borne virus infections with the wider goalsof preventing drug abuse and encouraging stabilizationin the treatment and support provided for drug abusers.Activities will include a health promotion campaign,improving delivery of services and surveillance-relatedactivity such as improving the quality of available dataon drug-related deaths and blood-borne infections.Activities will be supported by a dedicated fundingprogramme of about 2 million pounds. The action planwill be delivered using an integrated approach at thenational, subnational and local levels.Cultivation, production, manufacture,trafficking and abuseNarcotic drugs671. Cannabis remains the most prevalent drug inEurope. In addition, the region is the largest market inthe world for cannabis resin. Cultivation of cannabisplants is reported in many countries in Western Europe.Some 2,000 kg of cannabis grown in the Netherlands(“Nederwiet”) were seized in that country in 2005.According to the Federal Criminal Police Office(BKA) of Germany, the illicit cultivation of cannabisplants in professionally equipped indoor sites isgaining importance in Germany, where the number ofconfiscated cannabis plants has increased since 2002.While initially, the area of Germany near its borderwith the Netherlands played a dominant role, the98

E/INCB/2007/1phenomenon of indoor cultivation of cannabis plantsappears to have spread to other areas. The FederalPolice of Belgium reported an increase in seizedcannabis plants, from 74,140 seized plants in 2005 to107,249 in 2006. Cannabis is also cultivated in theUnited Kingdom but the extent of such cultivation isunknown.672. The illicit cultivation of cannabis plants has alsobeen reported in Bulgaria. About one half of thecannabis illicitly produced in Bulgaria is destined forthe illicit market in that country. Polish authoritieshave reported the illicit cultivation of cannabis plantsin central, south-eastern and western Poland, hidden ingrain fields, in gardens and in greenhouses; about45 per cent of the cannabis produced locally isexported, mainly to Western Europe. Albania continuesto be a major exporter of cannabis. Albanian cannabisis smuggled by road through the former YugoslavRepublic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to Turkey, as wellas to Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia,Montenegro, Slovenia and countries in WesternEurope.673. The quantity of cannabis resin seized in Europehas decreased, a development that may be linked to adecline in cannabis resin production in Morocco. InSpain, the country that seizes by far the most cannabisresin in the world, the quantity of seized cannabis resindeclined by 31 per cent from 2005 (669 tons) to 2006(459 tons). The drop in seized cannabis resin was evenmore marked in Portugal (70 per cent), where 8 tonswere seized in 2006, compared with 28 tons in 2005. Alower volume of seized cannabis resin was alsoreported in France. In Belgium, however, the FederalPolice reported a single seizure of 45 tons of cannabisresin in February 2007.674. According to the French Monitoring Centre forDrugs and Drug Addiction (OFDT), cannabis use inFrance has seen a general increase over the past15 years. More 18- to 25-year-olds are currently usingcannabis on a monthly basis than was the case in 2002.In addition, the regular use of cannabis (at least10 times in the preceding 30 days) saw a significantincrease from 2000 to 2005 (from 1.7 to 2.7 per cent)among persons aged 18 to 64, both men and women. InGermany, however, the regular use of cannabis among18- and 19-year-olds declined from 6.4 per cent in1993 to 4.3 per cent in 2007.675. In the UNODC publication World Drug Report2007, 94 it is noted that Italy and Spain have the highestannual prevalence rate for cannabis use in WesternEurope. Annual prevalence of cannabis use amongyouth and adults in Italy has increased steadily, from6.2 per cent in 2001 to 7.1 per cent in 2003 and11.2 per cent in 2005. In Spain, however, cannabis useremained almost unchanged between 2003 (11.3 percent) and 2005 (11.2 per cent).676. In the United Kingdom, both the annual andmonthly prevalence rates for cannabis are dropping inEngland and Wales. The annual prevalence rate forcannabis use among persons aged 16-59 fell from10.3 per cent in 1998 to 8.7 per cent in theperiod 2005-2006 and the monthly prevalence ratedeclined from 6.1 per cent to 5.2 per cent over thesame period. The lowest annual prevalence rates forcannabis are reported from Malta, Romania, Bulgariaand Greece.677. Europe remains the second most commondestination for cocaine consignments. Already in 2005,the quantity of cocaine seized in the region reached anall-time high of almost 107 tons, an increase of 48 percent compared with 2004. In 2006, that figureincreased even further and the trend appears to havecontinued throughout 2007. The quantity of seizedcocaine has increased significantly in many parts of theregion. In Spain, the country in which most of thecocaine in Europe is seized, the volume of cocaineseizures increased (by 2.52 per cent) to 49.6 tons in2006. In Portugal, seizures of cocaine increasedsignificantly, from 18 tons in 2005 to 34 tons in 2006;as a result, Portugal is currently considered to be amajor European gateway for cocaine. In Ireland,cocaine seizures also rose considerably from 2002 to2006, from only 17 kg to about 270 kg. The quantity ofcocaine seized in Germany increased by 59 per centfrom 2005 (1,079 kg) to 2006 (1,717 kg). Cocaineseizures in Switzerland increased significantly (by25 per cent) in 2006, to 354 kg, compared with 2005(283 kg). Increased cocaine seizures were also reportedin Finland in 2006, while cocaine seizures declined inAustria.678. The abuse of “crack” cocaine continues to bemarginal in all countries in Western Europe, with thepossible exception of the United Kingdom. Less than__________________94 United Nations publication, Sales No. E.07.XI.5.99

E/INCB/2007/14 kg of “crack” were seized in Germany in 2006.About 98 per cent of the total quantity seized wasconfiscated in Hamburg and Hessen. The cities ofHamburg and Frankfurt are used as focal points for thetraffic in “crack” in Germany.679. Over the past few years, cocaine abuse hassignificantly increased in Western and South-EasternEurope and remained stable in Central and EasternEurope. The highest annual prevalence rates forcocaine abuse are in Spain (3 per cent), the UnitedKingdom (2.4 per cent) and Italy (2.1 per cent). 95 InSpain, cocaine abuse has increased significantly overthe period 1995-2005. According to a household surveyconducted in Spain in the period 2005-2006, the annualprevalence rate for the abuse of cocaine powder amongthe general population increased from 1.8 per cent in1995 to 3 per cent in 2005; and the annual prevalencefor cocaine abuse among minors quadrupled from 1994(1.8 percent) to 2004 (7.2 per cent). The Governmentof Spain has taken action to address the problem.680. In the United Kingdom, the abuse of cocainepowder in England and Wales increased from 2.0 percent in the period 2004-2005 to 2.4 per cent in theperiod 2005-2006. There were 421 drug-related deathsin Scotland in 2006, 85 (25 per cent) more than in2005. In Italy, the annual prevalence rate for cocaineabuse among youth and adults increased steadily from1.1 per cent in 2001 to 1.2 per cent in 2003 and 2.1 percent in 2005, reaching a level well above the Europeanaverage of 0.8 per cent. The countries in WesternEurope with the lowest annual prevalence rates forcocaine abuse are Greece (0.1 per cent) and Sweden(0.2 per cent).681. Virtually all of the heroin on the illicit drugmarkets in Europe originates in Afghanistan. Due to itsgeographical location, Turkey continues to be used asthe main corridor for heroin consignments destined forEurope, serving as a starting point for the Balkan route.In addition, heroin continues to be smuggled along theso-called “silk route” through Central Asia into theRussian Federation, where it is abused locally ortransported further to European Union member States.Heroin is also smuggled along a southern route leading__________________95 The data for the various countries are for different yearsand therefore may not necessarily be comparable in allcases.from Afghanistan to Pakistan and from there, by air orsea, to Europe.682. In most countries in Western Europe, the quantityof heroin seizures appears to have declined. InPortugal, for example, the quantity of seized heroindeclined by 21 per cent from 2005 (182 kg) to 2006(144 kg). In Switzerland, heroin seizures decreased by10 per cent from 2005 (256 kg) to 2006 (231 kg). InSpain, 471 kg of heroin were seized in 2006,representing a significant increase compared with 2002(71.57 per cent) and 2005 (170.74 per cent). Increasingheroin seizures were also reported in Germany, where879 kg of heroin were seized in 2006, 12 per cent morethan in 2005 (787 kg).683. The total number of heroin abusers in Europe isestimated at 3.3 million people. Heroin abuse hasremained largely stable or even declined in Westernand Central Europe. In France, for example, lifetimeprevalence of heroin abuse among persons aged 18-44remained stable between 1995 and 2005, atapproximately 1 per cent. In Germany, the number ofproblematic heroin abusers ranges between 78,000 and158,000. Heroin is increasingly being smoked inGermany. Increasing abuse of opiates has beenreported in countries in Eastern Europe, particularly inmember States of the Commonwealth of IndependentStates (CIS) and in countries in South-Eastern Europesituated along the Balkan route. In Eastern Europe,the number of heroin abusers is estimated atabout 1.75 million, or 1.2 per cent of the populationaged 15-64.684. According to the Government of the RussianFederation, the total number of registered drug abuserswas 350,267 as of 1 January 2007. The majority ofdrug abusers (87.7 percent) abuse opiates. In 2006,from the total number of patients in treatment for drugabuse, 12 percent were infected with HIV. Drug abuseby injection continues to be the main route oftransmission of HIV infection in the RussianFederation.Psychotropic substances685. Europe continues to be a major source ofamphetamines. In Western Europe, the country with thehighest volume of seizures of amphetamines is theNetherlands, followed by the United Kingdom andGermany. Seizures of amphetamines have increasedsteadily in Germany; in 2006, they increased by 8 per100

E/INCB/2007/1cent, totalling 723 kg. ATS are also manufactured inthe Russian Federation, as evidenced by the fact that in2006 Russian authorities detected 1,700 facilities usedto illicitly manufacture synthetic drugs, including 136chemical laboratories.686. Seizures of MDMA appear to be on the decline inEurope. In Spain, the amount of MDMA seized in 2006was 16 per cent less than in 2005 and 66 per cent lessthan in 2002, when the amount reached a peak. A totalof 481,583 units of MDMA were seized in Spain in2006, compared with 572,871 units in 2005. InGermany, the amount of seized MDMA decreased by32 per cent between 2005 and 2006.687. Of the seized MDMA tablets for which the originor transit route could be established, by far the largestportion came from the Netherlands. As in the case ofamphetamine, many of the MDMA tablets were ontheir way to Southern and Eastern Europe when theywere seized.688. In the United Kingdom, the largest amphetaminemarket in Europe, annual prevalence of amphetamineabuse among the general population has been decliningsteadily since 2000, reflecting intensified preventionefforts and supply reduction measures. In WesternEurope, the abuse of MDMA is highest in an area inthe United Kingdom (Northern Ireland), where theannual prevalence rate is 1.6 per cent; however, thatrate has declined by 46 per cent since 2000. MDMAabuse has also reportedly declined elsewhere in theUnited Kingdom (in England and Wales), as well as inSpain.Missions689. A mission of the Board visited Albania inNovember 2007. The Board notes that there has beensome improvement in the political will andcommitment of the Government to the objectives of theinternational drug control treaties. The Government’sefforts to address the drug problem in the country haveshown progress and its cooperation with the Board hasimproved since the 2002 mission of the Board to thatcountry. The Board notes that Albania has taken somesteps in recent years to strengthen its drug controlefforts, but a number of problems continue to exist inthat area. A national drug control strategy covering theperiod 2004-2010 has been drafted, but its statusremains unclear.690. Over the past few years, Albania has emerged asan important segment of the Balkan route. The Boardnotes the efforts made by the Government incombating illicit drug production and trafficking.However, the Board is concerned that, despitesuccessful law enforcement efforts, such as the recentmoratorium on speedboat traffic along the Albaniancoast, drug trafficking organizations remain powerfuland continue to impede drug control efforts in Albaniaand in other countries in Europe. The Board urges theGovernment to curb the influence and activities ofcriminal organizations, including those run byAlbanian nationals, and to fight corruption at all levels.The Board recommends that the Government furtherstrengthen its efforts to eliminate the cultivation ofcannabis plants and drug trafficking in the region.691. The Board encourages the competent nationalauthorities of Albania to carry out, if necessary withassistance from WHO and UNODC, an assessment ofthe drug abuse situation in the country, in order to beable to plan and implement appropriate drug controlmeasures and to provide a comprehensive drug abuseprevention and treatment programme. The Board urgesthe Government of Albania to take all steps necessaryto enhance coordination and cooperation amonginstitutions and agencies that are responsible for drugcontrol and to establish and maintain an appropriatedrug control mechanism in compliance with therequirements of the international drug control treaties.692. The Board sent a mission to Bosnia andHerzegovina in June 2007 to discuss with theGovernment the implementation of the internationaldrug control treaties and comprehensive drug controllegislation, in particular the law on the prevention andsuppression of the abuse of narcotic drugs, adopted inthat country in February 2006. The Board notes thatmeasures to implement the new legislation have stillnot been adopted by the Government. In particular, theimplementation of the provisions on creating a nationalinter-ministerial commission for drug controlcoordination, as well as a drug regulatory agency, asrequired under the new legislation, were pending. TheBoard is of the opinion that additional efforts in thearea of demand reduction are necessary, particularlywith regard to data collection, as there is currently nocomprehensive, reliable information regarding the drugabuse situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina.101

E/INCB/2007/1693. The Board encourages the Government of Bosniaand Herzegovina to implement the new drug controllegislation without further delay. Such action wouldclarify the respective roles and responsibilities ofvarious competent national authorities involved in theimplementation of the international drug controltreaties and would allow for effective cooperation withthe Board, including the submission of reports, inaccordance with the treaties. The Government isinvited to create a drug regulatory agency, to prepare acomprehensive national strategy on drug abuse and toprovide adequate resources and training to thecompetent national authorities involved in drugcontrol.694. In November 2006, a mission of the Board visitedLithuania. The Board notes that the Government ofLithuania has shown the political commitment and thewill to deal with drug abuse, drug trafficking andorganized crime. Apart from the ministries responsiblefor specific areas of drug control, such as the ministriesof the interior, health, justice, social security andeducation, drug control matters are also handled by theparliamentary drug addiction prevention commission.The drug control department directly under theGovernment of Lithuania is the main body responsiblefor the implementation of prevention and drug controlpolicies. In addition, 60 municipal drug controlcommissions have been established.695. In addition to cannabis, the most widespreaddrugs of abuse in Lithuania are amphetamines and“ecstasy”. Significant drug abuse is reported to betaking place in nightclubs, discos and otherrecreational settings. The main drug problem inLithuania is the increasing abuse of synthetic drugs.The illicit market is supplied by clandestinemanufacture of amphetamines in the country, as well asby the smuggling of “ecstasy” into the country, mostlyfrom the Netherlands. Amphetamines illicitlymanufactured in Lithuania are smuggled into Norwayand Sweden, as well as, more recently, Iceland. TheBoard notes the efforts by the Government to establishcomprehensive treatment programmes for the treatmentof drug abuse.696. Lithuanian authorities have reported a probleminvolving the use of prescription drugs. The drugcontrol department estimates that about 20 per cent ofthe adult population is misusing or abusingprescription drugs. The smuggling of flunitrazepam byLithuanian organized criminal groups intoScandinavian countries continues. As the diversion offlunitrazepam from licit markets has been closed down,genuine flunitrazepam tablets have been replaced bycounterfeit flunitrazepam smuggled through Lithuania.With regard to trafficking in precursors, Lithuanian lawenforcement officers seized significant amounts ofprecursors in 2006, most of which had been smuggledout of Belarus and Ukraine (PMK and BMK) anddestined to be used in the illicit manufacture ofamphetamines in Lithuania or to be smuggled intoother countries for the illicit manufacture of MDMA(“ecstasy”). The Board recognizes the importance ofcollaboration among neighbouring countries incounteracting drug trafficking and the smuggling ofprecursors.697. The Board sent a mission to the United Kingdomin October 2007, to discuss with the Government, interalia, cooperation in maintaining a global balancebetween the licit supply of and demand for opiate rawmaterials. The mission also examined with theauthorities steps to be taken to ensure full reporting tothe Board by the United Kingdom on narcotic drugsand psychotropic substances, in accordance with theinternational drug control treaties. The Board truststhat the Government will strengthen the humanresources of the Home Office responsible for collectingdata and furnishing statistical information to the Board.The Government should also ensure adequatefunctioning of the inspection system for licit activitieswith narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances.698. The Board welcomes the strong commitment ofthe Government to address the drug problem throughcomprehensive measures against drug abuse and illicitdrug trafficking. The Government will announce itsnew drug control strategy in early 2008. The Boardnotes that the Government puts major emphasis on theprevention of drug abuse and the provision oftreatment for young drug abusers. The drug controlpolicy of the United Kingdom includes harm reductionactivities. The Board appreciates the commitment ofthe Government to ensuring that such activities are inline with the provisions of the international drugcontrol treaties and that no facilities where drugabusers could abuse with impunity drugs acquired onthe illicit market would be allowed to operate in theUnited Kingdom.102

E/INCB/2007/1699. The Board notes the vigorous actions taken by thelaw enforcement authorities of the United Kingdom toprevent illicit trafficking in narcotic drugs andpsychotropic substances. The Serious Organised CrimeAgency, which became operational in 2006,endeavours to apply an intelligence-led, holisticapproach to tackling all forms of organized crime,including drug trafficking. The Board invites theGovernment of the United Kingdom to shareexperiences from the work of the Agency with otherGovernments, the Board and relevant internationalorganizations.700. The United Kingdom participates in the efforts ofthe international community to stop the flow ofprecursors, in particular acetic anhydride, toAfghanistan. The Board invites the Government toshare pertinent information with the Board and tosupport the relevant international initiatives, such asthe activities under Project Cohesion.E. OceaniaMajor developments701. The clandestine manufacture of ATS, includingmethamphetamine, continues in Oceania. The islandStates in Oceania, because of their geographicalremoteness, porous maritime borders and relativelyweak control measures, are extremely vulnerable toexploitation by drug traffickers. In addition, astransportation links to Asia, North America and SouthAmerica expand, the countries in Oceania areincreasingly being used as trans-shipment areas for thesmuggling of ATS and other illicit drugs of abuse.Recent seizures of pseudoephedrine and ephedrine,precursor chemicals frequently used in the illicitmanufacture of ATS, suggest that criminals may beturning to smuggling pharmaceutical preparationscontaining precursor chemicals for use in theclandestine manufacture of ATS in the region,particularly in Australia and New Zealand. The postalsystems of countries in the region are increasinglybeing used to smuggle psychotropic substances inparticular and, to a lesser extent, precursor chemicals.Trafficking in substances not under internationalcontrol, such as GBL and ketamine, continues to be aproblem in the region.702. The prevalence of abuse of cannabis and ATS inOceania continues to rate among the highest in theworld, and cannabis continues to be the most abuseddrug in the region. Abuse of cannabis is particularlyprevalent in Australia, Micronesia (Federated Statesof), New Zealand and Papua New Guinea. A high rateof abuse of ATS was reported in countries of theregion, including Australia and New Zealand.Regional cooperation703. Australia and New Zealand continue to provideother countries in Oceania with technical assistance toenhance border security. The two countries support thePacific Regional Policing Initiative, which aims toimprove the effectiveness of policing in small islandStates in Oceania so that they can contribute more toregional security. Australian law enforcementauthorities provided training on the detection,dismantling and disruption of syndicates engaged inorganized transnational crime to police, customs andimmigration officers from Kiribati, Papua New Guinea,Samoa, Tonga and Vanuatu in Apia, Samoa, inJune 2007. New Zealand, as part of the steeringcommittee, has continued to assist in the developmentand promotion of the Customs Asia PacificEnforcement Reporting System, a regional customsreporting system and database. Australia launched theSouth Pacific Precursor Control Forum, a regionalinitiative aimed at strengthening cooperation inresponding to issues related to the diversion ofprecursors and the manufacture of ATS. The Forum,which comprises 13 members (countries and regionalorganizations), held a meeting in Sydney, Australia, inFebruary 2007 to discuss a strategic plan for theregion.704. In October 2006, law enforcement authorities ofNew Zealand worked with Australian authorities touncover a regional smuggling syndicate, purportedlyinvolved in smuggling cocaine from South Americathrough New Zealand into Australia. The teamworkbegan in June 2006, when more than 18 kg of cocainewere found hidden in a sea cargo shipment destined forAustralia. In September 2006, authorities in NewZealand found another 8 kg of cocaine hidden in a seacargo shipment bound for Australia. Those seizuresresulted in the identification and arrest of members ofthe syndicate in Australia.103

E/INCB/2007/1National legislation, policy and action705. Australia has further strengthened its legislationto combat the illicit manufacture of controlledsubstances. In June 2006, the Drug Misuse andTrafficking Amendment (Hydroponic Cultivation) Act2006 of New South Wales, Australia, made it anoffence to expose children under the age of 16 to themanufacture of illicit drugs or to substances beingstored for use in such manufacture. In November 2006,the Parliament of New South Wales criminalized thepossession of tabletting machines for the manufactureof MDMA under the Crimes and Courts LegislationAmendment Act 2006. Similar legislation wasapproved by the Parliament of Queensland in April2006 and the Parliament of Victoria in August 2006.The Board encourages the other states of Australia toreview existing legislation and strengthen it, asnecessary.706. In September 2006, the Drug Misuse andTrafficking Regulation 2006 of New South Walesamended the existing legislation to allow persons whoabuse drugs by injection to be supplied with sterilehypodermic syringes and associated equipment in orderto prevent the spread of contagious diseases andminimize health risks associated with drug abuse byinjection. The revised regulation also provides for thedissemination of information concerning hygienicpractices in the use of hypodermic syringes to preventthe spread of contagious diseases. The Board calls onAustralia to ensure that such activities are carried outin compliance with the provisions of the internationaldrug control conventions.707. The Drug Misuse and Trafficking Regulation2006 of New South Wales gave greater powers topolice to monitor the diversion of precursor chemicalsand take action against individuals and companies thatare not complying with relevant regulations.708. In December 2006, the Parliament of New SouthWales amended existing legislation on the prescriptionof internationally controlled substances. The Poisonsand Therapeutic Goods Amendment Regulation 2006enables the Director-General of the Department ofHealth to allow for electronic prescriptions; enablespharmacists to supply restricted medications, includinginternationally controlled substances, to nursing homesfor use in emergencies; and provides that doctors donot require authorization to prescribe buprenorphine ifit is in the form of transdermal patches.709. Following the introduction of more restrictivenational controls on pseudoephedrine in January 2006,Australia enacted further legislation to control the saleof that substance. Since April 2006, all medicationscontaining pseudoephedrine, such as liquidformulations containing more than 800 milligrams ofpseudoephedrine, and all combination and singleingredient products, such as capsules and tabletscontaining more than 720 mg of pseudoephedrine, havebeen rescheduled and can be sold only with a doctor’sprescription.710. In Australia, the State of Queensland introducedin 2006 Project Stop, an online intelligence and salesmonitoring system. The system enables real-timemonitoring of sales of pseudoephedrine-basedmedications at retail pharmacy outlets. It helpspharmacists to determine, on the basis of recentpurchases, whether a customer has a legitimate medicalneed for the medication being sought, in addition toproviding police with intelligence on illicit activities.The database, which is currently being usedsuccessfully in Queensland, will be implemented at thenational level in 2007. The Board appreciates theinitiative taken in Queensland and encourages otherstates in Australia to implement the system.711. In 2006, the Australian Customs Service openedan improved postal screening facility in Melbourne.The facility screens all international mail for illicitgoods, including drugs, using a combination of X-raymachines, detector dogs and physical examination.712. Other countries in the region have introducedadditional control measures. In August 2006, theSenate of Palau passed a law requiring all electedofficials to undergo testing for the abuse of illicitdrugs.Cultivation, production, manufacture,trafficking and abuseNarcotic drugs713. Cannabis is illicitly cultivated throughoutOceania. Although some cannabis from the highlandsin Papua New Guinea has been smuggled into Australiaand cannabis seeds have been purchased online fromthe Netherlands through the postal system, most of thecannabis found in Australia continues to be from illicitcultivation sites in the country. The illicit cultivation of104

E/INCB/2007/1cannabis also continues to be widespread in NewZealand.714. In Fiji, law enforcement authorities have beenengaging local communities in the fight against drugs.In 2006, several areas of Fiji joined an ongoing effortto eradicate the illicit cultivation of cannabis plants. Intwo earlier operations in 2003, law enforcementauthorities had worked with local communities todestroy 6,280 cannabis plants.715. In the period 2005-2006, Australian customsauthorities seized more than 47 kg of cannabis, most ofwhich had originated in Papua New Guinea and, to alesser extent, in Canada and the United States. Thatrepresents a considerable increase compared with thetotal of less than 5 kg seized in the period 2004-2005.Most seizures of cannabis in Australia involved smallquantities of the drug.716. South-East Asia remains the main source of theheroin that is smuggled into Australia, and demand forheroin remained stable in 2006, at a level significantlylower than the levels reported prior to 2001. The mostcommon method of smuggling heroin into Australia isusing air couriers from Cambodia and Viet Nam.However, in April and May 2006, almost 8 kg of heroinfrom India were intercepted in the postal system in164 envelopes, each containing a small quantity of thedrug. In 2006, four clandestine laboratories used forthe illicit manufacture of heroin were dismantled inAustralia, and eight clandestine laboratories used toextract morphine from opium poppy seeds weredismantled in New Zealand.717. In March 2007, Australian law enforcementauthorities in Sydney seized 141 kg of cocaine that hadbeen concealed in an airfreight shipment originating inthe Hong Kong SAR of China; that was the fifth largestseizure of cocaine ever made in Australia. In December2006, authorities in New Zealand seized at AucklandInternational Airport approximately 4 kg of cocainefrom South America; the cocaine was purportedlybeing shipped to Australia via the Cook Islands.718. Cannabis remains the most abused drug incountries in Oceania, in particular in Australia andNew Zealand, and the level of cannabis abuse isparticularly high in Micronesia (Federated States of)and Papua New Guinea, each of which has a rate ofabuse of over 29 per cent. In Australia, however, theannual prevalence rate for cannabis abuse decreased by37 per cent between 1998 and 2004; currently, 11 percent of the population aged 14 years and older abusecannabis. No significant increase in cannabis abuse hasbeen observed in Australia in recent years.Psychotropic substances719. In Australia, the supply of ATS is dominated byclandestine manufacture within the country, most ofwhich appears to be based in Queensland. Australianauthorities have linked motorcycle gangs to the illicitmanufacture of ATS in several states, including NewSouth Wales and Queensland. During the period 2005-2006, 280 clandestine laboratories used for the illicitmanufacture of ATS were dismantled in Australia. InNew Zealand, 211 clandestine laboratories purportedlyused in the illicit manufacture of methamphetaminewere dismantled in 2006. The number of laboratoriesdismantled in New Zealand has increased for threeconsecutive years, 2006 being the year with the highestnumber ever. Most of the ATS tablets (excludingMDMA) that were smuggled into Australia and seizedin the period 2005-2006 originated in the Netherlandsand India. Methamphetamine imports originatedmainly, in descending order, in Canada, the Hong KongSAR of China, mainland China, the Netherlands, theUnited States, Japan, South Africa, Malaysia andThailand. In 2006, 111 kg of methamphetamine wereseized in New Zealand, 10 times more than the amountseized in 2005; most of the seized methamphetamineoriginated in China.720. In the period 2005-2006, seven laboratoriesinvolved in the illicit manufacture of MDMA weredismantled in Australia. The main methods used forsmuggling MDMA into Australia continue to be misuseof the postal system and concealment in sea cargoshipments. The countries of origin of the seizedMDMA included Belgium, Canada, France and theUnited Kingdom. In April 2007, law enforcementauthorities in Sydney, Australia, seized 113 kg ofMDMA concealed in a shipment of solar hot watersystems originating in Israel. In 2006, 350 kg ofMDMA were found in a shipping container of inkoriginating in Canada.721. More than 440 seizures of benzodiazepine-basedsedatives and tranquillizers, most of which wasdetected in the postal system, were reported inAustralia in the period 2005-2006. The countries of105

E/INCB/2007/1origin included Argentina, India, Pakistan, thePhilippines and Thailand.722. In 2007, the National Drug Law EnforcementResearch Fund released the results of a study 96 that ithad conducted on the illicit drug markets in Australia,focusing on illicit markets for benzodiazepine andpharmaceutical preparations containing opioids, theirabuse and their impact on crime. The study targetedthree jurisdictions (Melbourne, Hobart and Darwin) inwhich there was evidence of illicit markets forprescription drugs. The study found that Melbourneappears to have illicit markets for benzodiazepines,buprenorphine and morphine. The emergence of thoseillicit markets may be partly attributable to thereduction in the supply of heroin, the main illicit drugof abuse in that city. The findings suggested that, inHobart and Darwin, there were illicit drug markets,primarily for methadone and morphine. The study alsofound that the illicit markets for benzodiazepine andpharmaceutical opioids appeared to be supplied mainlyby small-scale diversion from a number of sources,including legitimate prescriptions and forgedprescriptions, rather than being supplied through theftfrom pharmacies or by diversion from wholesale andmanufacturing locations, or by other sources such asInternet pharmacies and smuggling. The Board noteswith concern the abuse of prescription pharmaceuticaldrugs in Australia and urges the Government to takethe necessary steps to address the problem.723. The level of abuse of ATS in Australia and NewZealand is among the highest in the world. ATScontinued to be the second most abused drug inAustralia. New Zealand has reported a recent increasein the abuse of methamphetamine and MDMA. Thereis also evidence of the abuse of drugs, including ATS,in Fiji and Samoa.Precursors724. In the period 2005-2006, 22 laboratories used forthe illicit manufacture of precursor chemicals weredismantled in Australia, mostly in the state of SouthAustralia.__________________96 Craig Fry and others, Benzodiazepine andPharmaceutical Opioid Misuse and Their Relationshipto Crime: an Examination of Illicit Prescription DrugMarkets in Melbourne, Hobart and Darwin (Hobart,Tasmania, National Drug Law Enforcement ResearchFund, 2007).725. Countries in Oceania continue to reportsignificant seizures of pseudoephedrine and ephedrine,which are precursor chemicals frequently used in theillicit manufacture of ATS. In June 2006, Australiareported the seizure of over 2 million tabletscontaining a total of 120 kg of pseudoephedrine, in asea cargo container originating in Indonesia. In 2006,seizures of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine continuedto be reported in Australia. Many of the smugglingcases involved the use of the postal system. In May2006, 150 kg of pseudoephedrine were seized in NewZealand from shipping containers originating in China.In addition, several pharmaceutical preparationsavailable without prescription and containingpseudoephedrine were seized in New Zealand inclandestine laboratories purportedly used for the illicitmanufacture of methamphetamine. In April 2006, 7 kgof ephedrine were found in Australia in an air cargoshipment originating in South Africa.726. In April 2007, Australian law enforcementauthorities seized in Melbourne 125 kg of phenylaceticacid, a precursor chemical frequently used in the illicitmanufacture of amphetamine. That was among thelargest seizures of the substance to date in Australia.Substances not under international control727. In 2006, Australian customs authorities seized40 shipments of GBL, a precursor of GHB. Themajority of the shipments were detected in the postalsystem, while a few were concealed in air cargo. Forexample, two consignments of GBL, each containing20 litres of the substance, were intercepted in Sydneyin March 2006 after they had been hidden in air cargofrom China; the countries of origin of the seized GBLincluded China, Japan, Singapore, South Africa,Thailand, the United Kingdom and the United States.In addition, eight seizures of ketamine were reportedfor the period 2005-2006, compared with three seizuresin the period 2004-2005; all eight of the consignmentsof ketamine had been sent using the postal system.Countries in the region, including Australia and NewZealand, continued to report seizures of smallquantities of khat in 2006.106

E/INCB/2007/1IV. Recommendations to Governments, the United Nations and otherrelevant international and regional organizations728. In exercising its mandate to monitor theapplication of the international drug control treaties,the Board, on an ongoing basis, examines thefunctioning of the international drug control regime atboth the national and international levels and makesrecommendations to Governments and internationaland regional organizations. In the present chapter, theBoard highlights key recommendations. The Boardinvites all those concerned to examine therecommendations and to implement them, asappropriate.729. Governments and relevant organisations shouldkeep the Board informed of the implementation ofthese and other recommendations, as well asdevelopments in drug control in their respectivejurisdictions.730. The Board reminds Governments and relevantorganizations that the recommendations contained inchapter I of its annual reports are generally notincluded in chapter IV. The recommendations in bothchapters should be considered for implementation, asappropriate.A. Recommendations to Governments731. The recommendations to Governments aregrouped according to the following subject areas:treaty adherence; treaty implementation and controlmeasures; prevention of illicit drug trafficking andabuse; availability and rational use of narcotic drugsand psychotropic substances for medical purposes; theInternet and smuggling by postal and courier services;and smuggling and abuse of counterfeit preparationscontaining narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances.Treaty adherence732. The international drug control treaties, namelythe 1961 Convention, the 1961 Convention as amendedby the 1972 Protocol, the 1971 Convention and the1988 Convention form the basis of the internationaldrug control system. The accession of all States tothose treaties is a fundamental prerequisite foreffective drug control worldwide.Recommendation 1: There are a few Stateswhich are not yet parties to one or more of theinternational drug control treaties. The Boardreiterates its request to States that are notparties to the international drug controltreaties to take the necessary action to accedeto those treaties. 97Treaty implementation and control measures733. Universal treaty adherence will, however, not besufficient without effective and universalimplementation of all the provisions of theinternational drug control treaties and the applicationof the necessary control measures by all Governments.Recommendation 2: Timely provision to theBoard of information required under theinternational drug control conventions is one ofthe key elements of the international drug controlmechanism. The Board reiterates its request toall Governments to furnish in a timely mannerall statistical reports required under theconventions. All Governments are encouragedto seek from the Board any information thatwill help them in meeting their reportingobligations under the conventions.__________________97 The following States are not parties to the internationaldrug control treaties and/or the 1972 Protocol amendingthe 1961 Convention:(a) States not parties to the 1961 Convention asamended by the 1972 Protocol or to the1961 Convention in its unamended form: Cook Islands,Equatorial Guinea, Kiribati, Nauru, Samoa, Timor-Leste,Tuvalu and Vanuatu.(b) States not parties to the 1972 Protocolamending the 1961 Convention: Afghanistan, Chad andLao People’s Democratic Republic.(c) States not parties to the Convention of1971: Cook Islands, Equatorial Guinea, Haiti, Kiribati,Liberia, Nauru, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste,Tuvalu and Vanuatu.(d) States not parties to the 1988 Convention:Equatorial Guinea, Holy See, Kiribati, Marshall Islands,Namibia, Nauru, Palau, Papua New Guinea, SolomonIslands, Somalia, Timor-Leste and Tuvalu.107

E/INCB/2007/1Recommendation 3: In some countries, thedelay in the submission of statistical data to theBoard is partly the result of Governmentsproviding insufficient resources to the authoritiesresponsible for the collection and reporting ofdata on licit activities related to narcotic drugs,psychotropic substances and precursors. TheBoard urges all Governments to allocateadequate resources to their national competentauthorities to meet their treaty obligations bysubmitting complete statistical data to theBoard in a timely manner.Recommendation 4: The system of controlmeasures laid down in the 1961 Conventionprovides effective protection against attempts atthe diversion of narcotic drugs from internationaltrade into illicit channels. The Board urges allGovernments to implement fully the system ofestimates and export authorizations and toensure that exports of narcotic drugs are notin excess of the total of the importing country’sestimates for those narcotic drugs.Recommendation 5: For Governments thatdid not provide estimates for narcotic drugs for2008, the estimates have been established by theBoard. The Board urges the Governmentsconcerned to examine their requirements fornarcotic drugs for 2008 and furnish their ownestimates to the Board for confirmation, inorder to prevent any possible difficulties inimporting the quantities of narcotic drugsrequired for medical and scientific use in theircountries.Recommendation 6: In accordance witharticle 19, paragraph 3, of the 1961 Convention,Governments may submit supplementaryestimates for narcotic drugs during the year forwhich the estimates apply. The Board requestsall Governments to determine their annualestimates of requirements for narcotic drugs asaccurately as possible, so that resort tosupplementary estimates is reserved forunforeseen circumstances or whendevelopments in medical treatment, includingthe use of new medications and scientificresearch, result in additional requirements fornarcotic drugs.Recommendation 7: The practice ofchewing coca leaves continues in Bolivia andPeru. The countries in the region are sufferingfrom the illicit manufacture of and trafficking incocaine. The Board calls upon theGovernments of Bolivia and Peru to initiateaction without delay with a view to eliminatinguses of coca leaf, including coca leaf chewing,that are contrary to the 1961 Convention. TheGovernments of those countries and Colombiashould strengthen their efforts against theillicit manufacture of and trafficking incocaine. The Board calls on the internationalcommunity to provide assistance to thosecountries towards achieving those objectives.Recommendation 8: The Commission onNarcotic Drugs decided in March 2007 to includeoripavine in Schedule I of the 1961 Convention.That decision became effective on the date ofreceipt by each State party of the note verbale ofthe Secretary-General on this matter, dated27 June 2007. The Board requests allGovernments to implement without delay theprovisions of the 1961 Convention with respectto oripavine, including by complying with thesystem of estimates and providing statisticalreports to the Board.Recommendation 9: A number ofGovernments have for several years not updatedthe assessments of their requirements forpsychotropic substances. Those earlierassessments may no longer reflect their actualmedical and scientific requirements forpsychotropic substances, as evidenced by the factthat several importing countries continue to issueimport authorizations for psychotropic substancesin absence or in excess of the correspondingassessments. The Board encourages allGovernments to ensure that their assessmentscorrespond to their actual legitimate needs andthat no imports exceeding the assessments areauthorized.Recommendation 10: The system of importauthorizations for all psychotropic substances hasproved particularly effective in the identificationof diversion attempts. The Board reiterates itsrequest to all Governments that have not yetdone so to introduce a system of import and108

E/INCB/2007/1export authorizations for substances inSchedules III and IV of the 1971 Convention,in accordance with Economic and SocialCouncil resolutions 1985/15, 1987/30, 1991/44,1993/38 of 27 July 1993 and 1996/30 of 24 July1996.Recommendation 11: Diversions ofpsychotropic substances from international tradeare often attempted using falsified importauthorizations. The Board invites allGovernments to continue to pay attention tothe legitimacy of orders for psychotropicsubstances and, if necessary, to consult withthe Governments of the importing countries onany suspect order prior to approving theexports. The Board encourages the nationalcompetent authorities of exporting countries toregularly check import orders against theassessments of the actual requirements forpsychotropic substances of the relevantimporting countries before authorizing theexports.Recommendation 12: Information obtainedin investigations into seizures or interceptedshipments of precursors is important for theidentification of new trends in illicit drugmanufacture and trafficking in precursors. TheBoard therefore calls upon all competentauthorities effecting seizures or interceptingshipments of precursors to investigate thosecases and to inform the Board of the results ofthose investigations.Recommendation 13: The PEN Onlinesystem has facilitated communication amongGovernments and has been instrumental inidentifying suspicious transactions andpreventing diversion. The Board encourages allGovernments that have not yet done so toregister for and use the PEN Online system.Recommendation 14: The annual legitimaterequirements of ephedrine, pseudoephedrine,3,4-MDP-2-P and P-2-P have been published inthe 2006 98 and 2007 99 reports of the Board on the__________________98 Precursors and Chemicals Frequently Used in the IllicitManufacture of Narcotic Drugs and PsychotropicSubstances: Report of the International NarcoticsControl Board for 2006 …, annex V.implementation of article 12 of the1988 Convention. In addition, a table showing thereported annual legitimate requirements forsubstances frequently used in the manufacture ofATS is available on the website of the Board(www.incb.org); the table is updated regularly.The Board again requests all competentauthorities to provide information on annuallegitimate requirements of the abovementionedprecursor chemicals, to review thereported information and to amend it asnecessary. The Board also invites competentauthorities to inform the Board of anymethodologies that they have found useful forestimating their national requirements forthose precursor chemicals.Recommendation 15: Due to inadequateprecursor control legislation and weakermonitoring and control mechanisms in manyAfrican countries, traffickers have been placingorders for precursor chemicals to be delivered tocountries in Africa, from where the consignmentsare smuggled to the Americas. Moreover, theauthorities of many African countries do notrespond to pre-export notifications and toinquiries about the legitimacy of shipments ofprecursors in a timely manner. The Board urgesthe Governments of the African countriesaffected by such transit traffic to put in place,as a matter of priority, the necessarylegislative and institutional framework toeffectively combat the smuggling of precursorsthrough their territory. In addition,Governments should allocate adequateresources for staff development to enable thecompetent authorities to perform theirregulatory and enforcement roles efficiently.In particular, the Board calls on theGovernments of all countries in Africa tostrengthen their controls over the import ofprecursors of ATS and the movement of suchprecursors within their territory. Countriesand territories exporting ephedrine andpseudoephedrine are urged to confirm the__________________99 Precursors and Chemicals Frequently Used in the IllicitManufacture of Narcotic Drugs and PsychotropicSubstances: Report of the International NarcoticsControl Board for 2007 …, annex V.109

E/INCB/2007/1legitimacy of shipments of ephedrine,pseudoephedrine or preparations containingthose substances to any country beforeapproving such shipments.Recommendation 16: The problem ofdiversion of precursor chemicals from domesticdistribution channels for smuggling to areaswhere drugs are illicitly manufactured continuesto exist. In order to address the problem, theBoard recommends that Governments shouldtake additional measures to monitor moreclosely the manufacture and domesticdistribution of precursor chemicals.Recommendation 17: Activities undertakenwithin the framework of Project Prism haveconfirmed that, in most parts of the world,traffickers are increasingly trying to obtain largeamounts of pharmaceutical preparationscontaining ephedrine or pseudoephedrine fromlicit trade at the national and international levels.The Board recommends that all Governmentscontrol pharmaceutical preparationscontaining ephedrine or pseudoephedrine thesame way as they control the raw chemicalsephedrine and pseudoephedrine. At the veryleast, pre-export notifications for shipments ofsuch preparations should be sent.Recommendation 18: It is important that theBoard is provided with detailed information onthe use of non-scheduled substances in the illicitmanufacture of ATS so that it may alert allrelevant competent authorities of the latest trendsin diversion and trafficking. The Boardencourages Governments to put in placeeffective mechanisms for identifying andinvestigating suspicious transactions involvingsuch non-scheduled substances.Prevention of illicit drug trafficking and abuse734. One of the fundamental objectives of theinternational drug control treaties is to limit tolegitimate purposes the production, manufacture,export, import and distribution of, trade in and use ofcontrolled substances and to prevent their diversionand abuse.Recommendation 19: The diversion fromdomestic distribution channels and abuse ofpharmaceutical preparations containing narcoticdrugs or psychotropic substances pose problemsin many countries. The Board invites allGovernments concerned to examine the issueof diversion of pharmaceutical preparationscontaining internationally controlledsubstances and to adopt adequatecountermeasures, as appropriate. TheGovernments are invited to raise awareness intheir countries about the consequences of theabuse of such preparations.Recommendation 20: The diversion fromlicit distribution channels of pharmaceuticalpreparations containing buprenorphine, an opioidwhich is used as analgesic and for the treatmentof opioid addicts, has become a matter ofgrowing concern. The Board calls on allGovernments to increase their vigilance withregard to the diversion and abuse of andtrafficking in buprenorphine and to inform theBoard of new developments. The Boardencourages all Governments concerned toconsider enhancing existing mechanisms forcontrol over that substance, as necessary.Recommendation 21: The Board notes thatworldwide consumption of methadone hassignificantly increased mostly as a result of thegrowing use of methadone for substitutiontreatment. At the same time, there has been anincreasing number of reports on the abuse anddiversion of methadone. The Board requests theauthorities of countries where methadone isused for medical purposes to prevent itsdiversion from licit sources into illicitchannels.Recommendation 22: Trafficking in andabuse of fentanyl and its analogues continue topose a problem in some countries. The Boardcalls upon Governments that reported seizuresof fentanyl or its analogues to systematicallycollect data on the extent of the problem andto adopt measures to counter trafficking inand abuse of those drugs, as necessary. TheBoard encourages Governments to ensure thatforensic laboratories include in theirprogrammes the analysis of fentanyl and itsanalogues seized in their countries and to110

E/INCB/2007/1report to the Board on the prevalence offentanyl abuse.Recommendation 23: Abuse of divertedpharmaceutical preparations containing fentanyl,including used and discarded fentanyl patches,has been reported in some countries. The Boardcalls upon the Governments of countries inwhich fentanyl patches are manufactured toexamine, in cooperation with thepharmaceutical industry, possible ways toaddress the issue of the residue of fentanyl inused patches without impeding access to anotherwise useful medicine. The Board requeststhe Governments of all countries in whichfentanyl patches are used to adopt measuresfor the disposal of used patches, in order toprevent their diversion for abuse.Recommendation 24: The Board notes withconcern that drug injection rooms continue tooperate in a small number of countries, mainly inEurope. The Board reiterates its position thatfacilities where persons can abuse with impunitydrugs illegally acquired, contravene the mostfundamental principle of the international drugcontrol conventions: drugs should be used onlyfor medical and scientific purposes. The Boardurges the Governments of countries wheredrug injection rooms are operated for thepurpose of administering illicitly obtaineddrugs, to close those facilities and to provideappropriate evidence-based medical servicesand facilities for the treatment of drugabusers.Recommendation 25: In accordance witharticle 38 of the 1961 Convention and article 20of the 1971 Convention, parties are required totake all practicable measures for the preventionof abuse of narcotic drugs and psychotropicsubstances. The Board calls upon allGovernments that have not yet done so toestablish a system to regularly assess trends indrug abuse in their territory and to establishdrug demand reduction programmes tocounter those trends, as necessary. The Boardalso encourages Governments of countrieswith existing drug demand reductionprogrammes, whenever possible andappropriate, to share national and localexperiences with Governments of othercountries.Recommendation 26: Under the “Data forAfrica” initiative, UNODC is working withGovernments of countries in Africa to strengthentheir data collection and reporting capacities, inorder to remedy the inadequacy of information ondrugs and crime in the region. The Boardencourages the Governments concerned tocooperate with UNODC in implementing the“Data for Africa” initiative.Recommendation 27: In Commission onNarcotic Drugs resolution 50/3, entitled“Responding to the threat posed by the abuse anddiversion of ketamine”, the Commissionencouraged Member States to consider adopting asystem of precautionary measures for use by theirgovernment agencies to facilitate the timelydetection of the diversion of ketamine. TheBoard calls on all Governments to implementCommission resolution 50/3 without delay, toinform the Board of their national regulatorycontrol measures for ketamine and to provideto the Board and to WHO all availableinformation on the abuse of ketamine in orderto assist WHO in its evaluation ofketamine for possible scheduling under the1971 Convention.Recommendation 28: During the pastseveral years, the abuse of and trafficking inpiperazine-derived compounds have been noted.In a number of countries, some of thosesubstances have already been placed undernational control. The Board requested WHO inMarch 2007 to consider reviewing piperazinederivedcompounds for possible scheduling underthe 1971 Convention. The Board urges allGovernments to provide to WHO and theBoard any information on the abuse of andtrafficking in piperazine-derived compounds.Recommendation 29: Rising levels ofcocaine abuse have been reported in manyEuropean Countries. The Board encourages theGovernments concerned to adoptcomprehensive measures to prevent traffickingin and abuse of cocaine.111

E/INCB/2007/1Recommendation 30: There is a continuedtrend to use Africa for trans-shipment of largeconsignments of cocaine illicitly manufactured inSouth America. The Board encouragesGovernments of countries in Africa and SouthAmerica to further strengthen measuresagainst trafficking in cocaine and to improvetheir cooperation in that regard.Recommendation 31: The Board notes withgrave concern that the level of illicit opiumpoppy cultivation in Afghanistan reached a newpeak in 2007. The Board wishes to emphasize theserious short-term and long-term consequences ofsuch cultivation in Afghanistan and elsewhere,including the large number of drug-related deathsthat are occurring in many countries. The Boardonce again urges the Government ofAfghanistan to meet the commitments made tothe Board as part of the consultations underarticle 14 of the 1961 Convention and to takeimmediate measures to ensure a significantand sustainable reduction in illicit opiumpoppy cultivation. The Board urges theinternational community to increase theassistance provided to the Government ofAfghanistan to address its drug problem,particularly with regard to the illicitcultivation of opium poppy.Recommendation 32: The Board notes withgrave concern that corruption is hindering effortsto eradicate illicit opium poppy cultivation and tostrengthen drug control in Afghanistan. TheBoard urges the Government of Afghanistan totake appropriate action against corruption andto ensure accountability at all levels ofGovernment.Recommendation 33: In the light of theincreased illicit manufacture of heroin inAfghanistan, the Board urges theGovernments of Afghanistan and itsneighbouring countries to implement measuresto counter the smuggling of precursorchemicals, in particular acetic anhydride, intoAfghanistan. The Governments of Afghanistanand its neighbouring countries should alsocooperate fully with the Project Cohesion TaskForce in taking measures to interceptconsignments of acetic anhydride that arebeing smuggled into Afghanistan.Availability and rational use of narcotic drugsand psychotropic substances for medicalpurposes735. A core objective of the international drug controltreaties is to ensure the availability of narcotic drugsand psychotropic substances for medical purposes andto promote the rational use of controlled drugs.Recommendation 34: The consumptionlevels of narcotic drugs and psychotropicsubstances continue to differ widely dependingon the country and region. While such differencescan sometimes be explained by cultural diversityin medical practice and variations in prescriptionpatterns, the issue of excessively high or lowlevels of drug consumption merits specialattention. The Board requests all Governmentsto identify unusual trends in the consumptionof internationally controlled substances and topromote rational use of those substances,including the use of opioids for the treatmentof pain, in accordance with the pertinentrecommendations of WHO.Recommendation 35: In cooperation withthe Board, WHO prepared the Access toControlled Medications Programme, whichaddresses, inter alia, causes for underuse ofopioid analgesics in some countries. The Boardencourages all Governments concerned tocooperate with WHO in the implementation ofthe Access to Controlled MedicationsProgramme, with a view to promoting rationaluse of controlled substances by health-careprofessionals, in compliance with current bestpractices and scientific evidence. The Boardcalls on Governments to provide resources toWHO for the implementation of theProgramme.Recommendation 36: Pursuant toCommission on Narcotic Drugsresolutions 44/15, 45/5, 46/6 and 50/2, the Boardurges Governments to notify the Board ofrestrictions in their national jurisdictionsapplicable to travellers under medical treatmentwith internationally controlled drugs. The Boardwill disseminate such information on a regular112

E/INCB/2007/1basis. The Board calls on all Governments thathave not yet done so to inform the Board oftheir current national regulations andrestrictions applicable to travellers carryingmedical preparations containinginternationally controlled substances forpersonal use. Governments should notify theBoard of any changes in their scope of controlof narcotic drugs and psychotropic substancesrelevant to travellers under medical treatmentcarrying preparations containinginternationally controlled substances.The Internet and smuggling involving postaland courier services736. In view of the global nature of the problems ofthe illegal sale of pharmaceutical preparationscontaining internationally controlled substancesthrough the Internet and the misuse of postal andcourier services for such smuggling, concerted actionby the international community is required. Inparticular, there is a need to establish a mechanism thatwill ensure the sharing of experiences and the rapidexchange of information on specific cases, as well asthe standardization of data.Recommendation 37: There is a growingnumber of cases involving the illegal sale byInternet pharmacies of pharmaceuticalpreparations containing narcotic drugs orpsychotropic substances. The Board calls on allGovernments to accord adequate importanceto the detection and investigation of such casesand to undertake all measures necessary toensure that legislative and regulatoryprovisions are in force in their territory toeffectively counteract such illegal transactions.Governments should also ensure thatcustomers of Internet pharmacies are madeaware of the potential health risk associatedwith consuming pharmaceutical preparationsobtained from illegal Internet pharmacies. Inaddition, Governments should seek thecooperation of professional and consumerinterest groups in identifying andimplementing measures to counteract illegalactivities of Internet pharmacies.Recommendation 38: The Board continuesto collect information on the activities undertakenby Governments to counteract illegal sales ofpharmaceutical preparations containingcontrolled substances. All Governments areencouraged to provide the Board withinformation on national legislation related toInternet services and sites, nationalcooperation mechanisms, practical experiencein the control and investigation of illegalInternet pharmacies and contact details ofnational focal points for activities related tothe issue of illegal Internet pharmacies.Recommendation 39: Some Governmentshave reported to the Board cases involving themisuse of courier services for drug smuggling.The Board invites all Governments to provideit with pertinent information on the smugglingof controlled drugs involving the misuse ofcourier services.Smuggling and abuse of counterfeitpreparations containing narcotic drugs andpsychotropic substances737. Pharmaceutical preparations containing narcoticdrugs or psychotropic substances found in the illicittraffic are not necessarily always diverted from licitmanufacture or trade. In some cases, increased demandfor a specific pharmaceutical preparation containing acontrolled substance has led to the manufacture ofcounterfeit preparations.Recommendation 40: While the diversion offlunitrazepam from both international trade anddomestic distribution channels continues to exist,it appears that the majority of the Rohypnoltablets seized nowadays are counterfeit products.To accurately assess illicit drug manufactureand trafficking trends, the Board encouragesall Governments that experience problemswith abuse of Rohypnol tablets to test theseized tablets, whenever possible, in order todetermine if they are counterfeit. The Boardalso encourages those Governments to shareinformation on the physical appearance ofseized tablets with other concernedGovernments through a profiling network andto report their findings to the Board.113

E/INCB/2007/1B. Recommendations to the UnitedNations Office on Drugs and Crimeand to the World Health Organization738. UNODC is the primary United Nations entityresponsible for the provision of technical assistance indrug control issues, as well as the coordination of suchassistance provided by Governments and otherorganizations. The treaty-based function of WHO is toprovide recommendations, based on medical andscientific assessments, regarding changes in the scopeof control of narcotic drugs under the 1961 Conventionand the scope of control of psychotropic substancesunder the 1971 Convention. Furthermore, WHO playsa key role in supporting the rational use of narcoticdrugs and psychotropic substances worldwide.Recommendation 41: The Board notes thatthe control of licit activities related to narcoticdrugs, psychotropic substances and precursors ina number of countries remains weak. The Boardinvites UNODC to increase its support toGovernments in their efforts to implement theprovisions of the international drug controltreaties regarding the control of licit activitiesinvolving internationally controlledsubstances.Recommendation 42: The Board isconcerned about the steadily increasing trend inthe diversion and abuse of pharmaceuticalpreparations containing internationally controlledsubstances. The Board invites UNODC tosupport Governments in their efforts tomonitor consumption trends and prevent thediversion and abuse of pharmaceuticalpreparations containing narcotic drugs orpsychotropic substances (see also thecorresponding request addressed toGovernments in recommendation 19 above).Recommendation 43: The Board notes theincrease in the abuse of and trafficking infentanyl and its analogues and concerned thatmany Governments are still not in a position tocounteract that problem due to, inter alia,inadequate laboratory analysis. The Boardrequests UNODC to support Governments intheir efforts to include the analysis of fentanyland fentanyl analogues in the programmes oftheir forensic laboratories (see also thecorresponding request addressed toGovernments in recommendation 22 above).Recommendation 44: Misuse of the Internetand postal and courier services has become animportant method of obtaining drugs for abuse.The Board invites UNODC to developprogrammes to address the problem ofillegally operating Internet pharmacies andthe smuggling of internationally controlledsubstances by mail and to share its experiencesin the implementation of those programmeswith the Board.Recommendation 45: Abuse of andtrafficking in some piperazine-derivedcompounds, such as N-benzylpiperazine (BZP)and 1-(3-chlorophenyl)piperazine (mCPP), havebeen reported in many countries. There appear tobe no current therapeutic uses for thosecompounds. The Board invites WHO to takethe necessary measures to assess piperazinederivedcompounds in order to determinewhether to recommend that they be placedunder international control (see thecorresponding request addressed toGovernments in recommendation 28 above).C. Recommendations to other relevantinternational organizations739. In cases where States require additionaloperational support in specific areas, such as drug lawenforcement, the Board addresses relevantrecommendations pertaining to the specific spheres ofcompetence of the relevant international and regionalorganizations, including Interpol, UPU, the WorldCustoms Organization and the European Union.Recommendation 46: An increase in theclandestine manufacture of and trafficking insynthetic opioids, such as fentanyl, has beennoted in some regions. Similarly, reports onincreasing seizures of ketamine and piperazinederivedcompounds have been received from anumber of countries. The Board requestsInterpol and the World Customs Organizationto share with the Board and with theinternational organizations concerned, such asWHO and UNODC, any information they may114

E/INCB/2007/1have on new developments regarding theclandestine manufacture of and trafficking insynthetic opioids, such as fentanyl, andseizures of ketamine and piperazine-derivedcompounds.Recommendation 47: The Board reiteratesthe need to address the problems of illegallyoperating Internet pharmacies and the smugglingof controlled substances by mail. The Boardinvites international organizations, inparticular UPU, Interpol and the WorldCustoms Organization, to share with theBoard relevant experiences gained from anyprogrammes they are implementing to addressthe problems of illegally operating Internetpharmacies and the smuggling of controlledsubstances by mail (a similar request isaddressed to UNODC in recommendation 44above).Recommendation 48: Technical assistancewould be required for Bosnia and Herzegovinato prepare a comprehensive national strategyon drug abuse and to assess the extent andnature of the drug problem in the country.Such assistance would help the Government tofully implement the provisions of theinternational drug control treaties. The Boarddraws the attention of the European Union tothe need to offer assistance to Bosnia andHerzegovina in institution- andcapacity-building, including the training ofpersonnel of the competent authoritiesinvolved in drug control.(Signed)Philip O. EmafoPresident(Signed)Koli KouameSecretaryVienna, 16 November 2007(Signed)Sevil AtasoyRapporteur115

E/INCB/2007/1Annex IRegional groupings used in the report of the InternationalNarcotics Control Board for 2007The regional groupings used in the report of the International NarcoticsControl Board for 2007, together with the States in each of those groupings, arelisted below.AlgeriaAngolaBeninBotswanaBurkina FasoBurundiCameroonCape VerdeCentral African RepublicChadComorosCongoCôte d’IvoireDemocratic Republic of the CongoDjiboutiEgyptEquatorial GuineaEritreaEthiopiaGabonGambiaGhanaGuineaGuinea-BissauKenyaLesothoLiberiaAntigua and BarbudaBahamasBarbadosBelizeCosta RicaCubaDominicaDominican RepublicEl SalvadorGrenadaAfricaCentral America and the CaribbeanLibyan Arab JamahiriyaMadagascarMalawiMaliMauritaniaMauritiusMoroccoMozambiqueNamibiaNigerNigeriaRwandaSao Tome and PrincipeSenegalSeychellesSierra LeoneSomaliaSouth AfricaSudanSwazilandTogoTunisiaUgandaUnited Republic of TanzaniaZambiaZimbabweGuatemalaHaitiHondurasJamaicaNicaraguaPanamaSaint Kitts and NevisSaint LuciaSaint Vincent and the GrenadinesTrinidad and Tobago116

E/INCB/2007/1North AmericaCanadaMexicoUnited States of AmericaSouth AmericaArgentinaBoliviaBrazilChileColombiaEcuadorGuyanaParaguayPeruSurinameUruguayVenezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)East and South-East AsiaBrunei DarussalamCambodiaChinaDemocratic People’s Republic of KoreaIndonesiaJapanLao People’s Democratic RepublicMalaysiaMongoliaMyanmarPhilippinesRepublic of KoreaSingaporeThailandTimor-LesteViet NamSouth AsiaBangladeshBhutanIndiaMaldivesNepalSri LankaWest AsiaAfghanistanArmeniaAzerbaijanBahrainGeorgiaIran (Islamic Republic of)IraqIsraelJordanKazakhstanKuwaitKyrgyzstanLebanonOmanPakistanQatarSaudi ArabiaSyrian Arab RepublicTajikistanTurkeyTurkmenistanUnited Arab EmiratesUzbekistanYemen117

E/INCB/2007/1EuropeAlbaniaAndorraAustriaBelarusBelgiumBosnia and HerzegovinaBulgariaCroatiaCyprusCzech RepublicDenmarkEstoniaFinlandFranceGermanyGreeceHoly SeeHungaryIcelandIrelandItalyLatviaLiechtensteinLithuaniaLuxembourgMaltaMoldovaMonacoMontenegroNetherlandsNorwayPolandPortugalRomaniaRussian FederationSan MarinoSerbiaSlovakiaSloveniaSpainSwedenSwitzerlandThe former Yugoslav Republic ofMacedoniaUkraineUnited Kingdom of Great Britainand Northern IrelandOceaniaAustraliaCook IslandsFijiKiribatiMarshall IslandsMicronesia (Federated States of)NauruNew ZealandNiuePalauPapua New GuineaSamoaSolomon IslandsTongaTuvaluVanuatu118

E/INCB/2007/1Annex IICurrent membership of the International Narcotics ControlBoardJoseph Bediako AsareBorn in 1942. National of Ghana. PrivateConsultant and Psychiatrist.Medical Academy of Krakow, Poland (1965-1971); postgraduate training at Graylands andSwanbourne Psychiatric Hospitals, Perth, Australia(1976-1977); Leicestershire Area Health Authority(1977-1980). Senior Registrar in Psychiatry, WestBerkshire and South Oxford Area Health Authority(1981-1982); Chief Psychiatrist, Ghana Health Service;specialist in charge at Accra Psychiatric Hospital;Chairman, Ghana Chapter, West African College ofPhysicians; Vice-President, West African College ofPhysicians (2000-2004); Advisor to the Ministry ofHealth of Ghana (1984-2004); member of the NarcoticsControl Board of Ghana (1990-2004); Chairman,Subcommittee on Demand Reduction, NarcoticsControl Board of Ghana (since 1991). Part-timelecturer in psychiatry, University of Ghana medicalschool (1991-2004). Faculty Fellow of theInternational Council on Alcohol and Addictionstraining programme on alcohol and drug abuse inBenin City, Nigeria (1986 and 1987); President,Psychiatric Association of Ghana (1999-2002).Member, Royal College of Psychiatrists (1980);Fellow, West African College of Psychiatrists; Fellow,Ghana College of Physicians and Surgeons. Author ofnumerous works, including: Substance Abuse inGhana; The Problem of Drug Abuse in Ghana: a Guideto Parents and Youth (1989); Alcohol Use, Sale andProduction in Ghana: a Health Perspective (1999);Alcohol and Tobacco Abuse in Deheer (1997);“Psychiatric co-morbidity of drug abuse”, AssessingStandards of Drug Abuse (1993); “Baseline survey ofthe relationship between HIV and substance abuse inGhana” (2004). Recipient of the Grand Medal (CivilDivision) of Ghana (1997). Participant in numerousmeetings, including: consultative group that developedthe manual on assessment standards of care in drugabuse treatment (1990-1992); NGO World Forum onDrug Demand Reduction, Bangkok (1994); drugprogramme expert meeting, Cleveland, United Statesof America (1995); Drug Expert Forum for Westernand Central Africa, Cameroon (1995); local expertmeeting for Western Africa, Dakar (2003). Member ofthe local expert network in West Africa (LENwest)(2002-2004).Member of the International Narcotics ControlBoard (since 2005). Member of the StandingCommittee on Estimates (2006). Chairman of theCommittee on Finance and Administration (2007).Sevil AtasoyBorn in 1949. National of Turkey. Professor ofBiochemistry and Forensic Science, IstanbulUniversity (since 1988).Bachelor of Science in Chemistry (1972), Masterof Science in Biochemistry (1976) and Doctor ofPhilosophy (Ph.D.) in Biochemistry (1979), IstanbulUniversity. Hubert H. Humphrey Fellow, United StatesInformation Agency (1995-1996); German AcademicExchange Service (DAAD) Fellow (1976, 1978 and1994); European Molecular Biology OrganizationFellow (1985); North Atlantic Treaty OrganizationFellow (1978). Expert witness in civil and criminalcourts (since 1980). Director, Institute of ForensicScience, Istanbul University (1988-2005). Director,Department of Narcotics and Toxicology, Ministry ofJustice of Turkey (1980-1993). Chairperson,Department of Forensic Basic Sciences, IstanbulUniversity (1983-1987); Professor of Biochemistry,Cerrahpasa School of Medicine, Istanbul University(1988-2005); Educational Counsellor, TurkishInternational Academy against Drugs and OrganizedCrime (2000-2005). Guest scientist, School of PublicHealth, University of California, Berkeley, and DrugAbuse Research Center, University of California,Los Angeles; Department of Genetics, StanfordUniversity; Department of Genetics, Emory University;California Criminalistics Institute; Federal Bureau ofInvestigation, Virginia; Crime Laboratories,Los Angeles Sheriff’s Department; Federal CriminalPolice (BKA), Wiesbaden, Germany; United Nations119

E/INCB/2007/1Drug Laboratory, Vienna; Ludwig-MaximilianUniversity; Munich Institute for Physical Biochemistryand Institute of Legal Medicine; Center of HumanGenetics, Bremen University; Institute of LegalMedicine, Muenster University. Recipient of numerousawards, including: Rotary International (1993 and2001), for the improvement of investigative techniquesin Turkey. Chairperson, first Regional Symposium onCriminalistics (2000); and Chairperson, third EuropeanAcademy of Forensic Science Meeting (2003).Member of the Istanbul University Senate (1987-2005)and Research Foundation (1987-2002); member of theExperts Group on Technical Challenges to the DrugCommunity, United Nations Office on Drugs andCrime (UNODC) and Office of National Drug ControlPolicy of the United States (2003 and 2004); memberof the expert group on risk reduction linked tosubstance use other than by injection, Pompidou Groupof the Council of Europe (2002); member of theMediterranean Network of the Pompidou Group(2001). Member of the Turkish delegation to theCommission of Narcotic Drugs (2001 and 2002); thespecial commissions on the improvement of judiciaryand security affairs, Prime Ministry, VIII.Development Plan for the Years 2001-2005, theRepublic of Turkey Higher Commission on HumanRights (1997-1998). Adviser on improvinginvestigations and protecting child victims, GeneralCommand of Gendarmerie Internal Security Units(2001-2003); adviser on prevention of violence, suicideand drug abuse, Land Forces Command (2000-2004);adviser on driving under influence of controlledsubstances, Traffic Accidents Prevention Commission,Turkish Grand National Assembly (2000); adviser onpreventing drug abuse and violence in schools,Ministry of National Education (since 1999); adviseron drug testing and the improvement of treatment ofoffenders, General Directorate of CorrectionalFacilities, Ministry of Justice (since 1999). Foundingeditor, Turkish Journal of Legal Medicine (1982-1993).Member of the scientific board of national andinternational journals, including the InternationalCriminal Justice Review, the Turkish Journal onAddiction, the Turkish Journal of Forensic Sciencesand the Croatian Journal of Legal Medicine. FoundingPresident, Turkish Society of Forensic Sciences (since1998); Honorary Member of the MediterraneanAcademy of Forensic Sciences (since 2003); memberof the Standing Committee, European Academy ofForensic Sciences (1999-2003). Member of theInternational Society of Forensic Toxicology; the Indo-Pacific Association of Law, Medicine and Science; theEuropean Network of Forensic Science Institutes; theInternational Association of Forensic Toxicologists; theAmerican Academy of Forensic Sciences; theAmerican Society of Crime Laboratory Directors; theForensic Science Society, United Kingdom of GreatBritain and Northern Ireland; the American Society ofCriminology; the Interagency Council on Child Abuseand Neglect; and the United Nations AcademicCouncil. Participant in projects on illicit drug issues,including: Crime Mapping of Drug Offences for theMinistry of Home Affairs (1998-2000); Global Studyof Illicit Drug Markets: Istanbul, Turkey, for the UnitedNations Interregional Crime and Justice ResearchInstitute (2000-2001); National Assessment of Natureand Extent of Drug Problems in Turkey, for UNODC(2002-2003); European School Survey on Alcohol andOther Drugs (2002-2003); Modeling the World HeroinMarket, for the RAND Drug Policy Research Centerand the Max Planck Institute (2003). Author of over130 scientific papers, including papers on drug testing,drug chemistry, drug markets, drug-related and druginducedcrime, drug abuse prevention, clinical andforensic toxicology, neuropharmacology, crime sceneinvestigation and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)analysis, including “Excavating Y-chromosomehaplotype strata in Anatolia”, Human Genetics (2004);“DNA fingerprinting of cannabis sativa, accessionsusing RAPD and AFLP markers”, Forensic ScienceInternational (2003); “H. gamma-vinyl-GABApotentiates the severity of naloxone-precipitatedabstinence signs in morphine-dependent rats”,Pharmacological Research (1998).Member of the International Narcotics ControlBoard (since 2005). Member of the Committee onFinance and Administration (2006). Second Vice-President of the Board (2006). Chairman (2006) andMember (2007) of the Standing Committee onEstimates. Rapporteur of the Board (2007).Tatyana Borisovna DmitrievaBorn in 1951. National of the Russian Federation.Director, V. P. Serbsky State Research Centre forSocial and Forensic Psychiatry (since 1998). ChiefExpert Psychiatrist, Ministry of Health and SocialDevelopment of the Russian Federation (2005).120

E/INCB/2007/1Graduate of the Ivanovskii State Medical Institute(1975). Master of Science (1981) and Doctor ofMedical Sciences (M.D.) (1990). Professor ofMedicine (since 1993). Head of the Department ofPsychiatry (1986-1989), Deputy Director of Research(1989-1990) and Director (1990-1996), V. P. SerbskyState Research Centre for Social and ForensicPsychiatry. Minister of Health of the RussianFederation (1996-1998). Chairman, Russian SecurityCouncil Commission on Health Protection (1996-2000).Member of the Presidium of the RussianAcademy of Medical Sciences (since 2001); Vice-Chairman, Russian Society of Psychiatrists (since1995); Vice-President, World Association for SocialPsychiatry Academician; Corresponding Member ofthe Russian Academy of Medical Sciences (since1997); member of the Russian Academy of MedicalSciences (since 1999). Author of over 350 scientificworks, recipient of five authors’ certificates forinventions and author of three books on drug abusetherapy, including Abuse of Psychoactive Substances(General and Forensic Psychiatric Practice) (2000)and Abuse of Psychoactive Substances: Clinical andLegal Aspects (2003). Editor-in-Chief, RussianPsychiatric Journal. Editor-in-Chief, Clinical Researchon Medication in Russia. Member of the editorialboards of several Russian and foreign medical journals,including the journal Narcology. Member of theeditorial council, International Medical Journal; andmember of the editorial council, Siberian Journal ofPsychiatry and Narcology. Recipient of the Order forServices to the Country, fourth class (2001) and thirdclass (2006); and the Order of Honour (1995).Participant and speaker on psychiatry and drug abusetherapy at national and international congresses andconferences, including those organized by the WorldHealth Organization (WHO), the European Union, theCouncil of Europe, the World Psychiatric Congress andthe World Psychiatric Association.Member of the International Narcotics ControlBoard (since 2005). Rapporteur of the Board (2006).Member (2006) and Chairman (2007) of the StandingCommittee on Estimates. Second Vice-President of theBoard (2007).Philip Onagwele EmafoBorn in 1936. National of Nigeria.Lecturer, Biochemistry, University of Ibadan(1969-1971). Lecturer and Senior Lecturer,Pharmaceutical Microbiology and Biochemistry,University of Benin, Nigeria (1971-1977). ChiefPharmacist and Director, Pharmaceutical Services,Federal Ministry of Health of Nigeria (1977-1988).Chairman, Pharmacists Board of Nigeria (1977-1988).Member of the WHO Expert Advisory Panel on theInternational Pharmacopoeia and PharmaceuticalPreparations (1979-2003). Rapporteur-General,International Conference on Drug Abuse and IllicitTrafficking, Vienna (1987). Chairman, Commission onNarcotic Drugs at its tenth special session (1988).Member of the Secretary-General’s Group of Expertson the United Nations Structure for Drug AbuseControl (1990). Member of the WHO ExpertCommittee on Drug Dependence (1992, 1994 and1998). Consultant to the United Nations InternationalDrug Control Programme (1993-1995). Member of thead hoc intergovernmental advisory group establishedby the Commission on Narcotic Drugs to assessstrengths and weaknesses of global drug control efforts(1994). Member of the expert group convened by theSecretary-General pursuant to Economic and SocialCouncil resolution 1997/37 to review the UnitedNations machinery for drug control (1997-1998).Member of the Advisory Group of the InternationalNarcotics Control Board to review substances forcontrol under article 12 of the United NationsConvention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs andPsychotropic Substances of 1988 (1998-1999).Consultant to the Organization of African Unity, AddisAbaba (1998-1999).Member of the International Narcotics ControlBoard (since 2000). Member of the StandingCommittee on Estimates (2000-2004). Rapporteur ofthe Board (2001). First Vice-President of the Board(2005). President of the Board (2002, 2003, 2006 and2007).Hamid GhodseBorn in 1938. National of the Islamic Republic ofIran. Professor of Psychiatry and of International DrugPolicy, University of London (since 1987). Director,121

E/INCB/2007/1International Centre for Drug Policy, St. George’sUniversity of London (since 2003); Medical Director,National Clinical Excellence Awards (2006); President,European Collaborating Centres for Addiction Studies(since 1992); member of the Executive Committee ofthe Federation of Clinical Professors, United Kingdom(since 1994); member of the Scientific Committee onTobacco and Health, United Kingdom (since 2000);Director of the Board of International Affairs andMember of the Council, Royal College of Psychiatrists(since 2000); Non-Executive Director, NationalClinical Assessment Authority of England andsubsequently patients safety agency (since 2001);Chairman, Higher Degrees in Psychiatry, University ofLondon (since 2003); member of the Medical StudiesCommittee, University of London (since 2003).Recipient of the following degrees: Doctor ofMedicine (M.D.), Islamic Republic of Iran (1965);Diploma Psychological Medicine (D.P.M.), UnitedKingdom (1974); Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.),University of London (1976); and Doctor of Science(D.Sc.), University of London (2002). Fellow of theRoyal College of Psychiatrists (F.R.C.Psych.), UnitedKingdom (1985); Fellow of the Royal College ofPhysicians (F.R.C.P.), London (1992); Fellow of theRoyal College of Physicians of Edinburgh (F.R.C.P.E.),Edinburgh (1997); Fellow of the Faculty of PublicHealth Medicine (F.F.P.H.), United Kingdom (1997).Member of the WHO Expert Advisory Panel onAlcohol and Drug Dependence (since 1979); Adviser,Joint Formulary Committee, British NationalFormulary (since 1984); Honorary ConsultantPsychiatrist, St. George’s and Springfield UniversityHospitals, London (since 1978); Honorary ConsultantPublic Health, Wandsworth Primary Care Trust (since1997); Director, Regional Drug Dependence TreatmentTraining and Research Unit, London (1987-1993);Director of the Education and Training Unit and of theResearch, Evaluation and Monitoring Unit andChairman of the Department of Addictive Behaviourand Psychological Medicine, St. George’s HospitalMedical School, University of London, and JointFaculty of Health Sciences, Kingston University(1987-2003). Consultant Psychiatrist, St. Thomas’sTeaching Hospital and Medical School, London (1978-1987); member, rapporteur, chairman and convener ofvarious WHO and European Community expertcommittees, review groups and other working groupson drug and alcohol dependence; M. S. McLeodVisiting Professor, Southern Australia (1990);Honorary Professor, Peking University (since 1997).Visiting Professor, Keele University, United Kingdom(since 2002). Author or editor of over 300 scientificbooks and papers on drug-related issues andaddictions, including the following books: The Misuseof Psychotropic Drugs, London (1981); PsychoactiveDrugs and Health Problems, Helsinki (1987);Psychoactive Drugs: Improving Prescribing Practices,Geneva (1988); Substance Abuse and Dependence,Guildford (1990); Drug Misuse and Dependence: theBritish and Dutch Response, Lancashire, UnitedKingdom (1990); Misuse of Drugs (3rd ed.), London(1997); Drugs and Addictive Behaviour: a Guide toTreatment (3rd ed.), Cambridge (2002); Young Peopleand Substance Misuse, London (2004); Addiction atWorkplace, Aldershot (2005). Editor-in-Chief,International Psychiatry (since 2002); Editor,Substance Misuse Bulletin; member of the EditorialBoard, International Journal of Social Psychiatry.Convener of WHO expert groups on medical education(1986), pharmacy education (1987), nurse education(1989) and rational prescribing of psychoactive drugs.Member of the British Medical Association (since1995); member of the Executive Board, MedicalCouncil on Alcoholism (since 1997); HonorarySecretary/Chairman, Association of Professors ofPsychiatry of the British Isles (since 1991); Chairman,Association of European Professors of Psychiatry;Director, National Programme on Substance AbuseDeaths (since 1997); member of the InternationalAssociation of Epidemiology (since 1998); member ofthe Institute for Learning and Training in HigherEducation (since 2001).Member of the International Narcotics ControlBoard (since 1992). Member of the StandingCommittee on Estimates (1992). President of the Board(1993, 1994, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2004 and 2005).Carola LanderBorn in 1941. National of Germany. Former Headof the Federal Opium Agency of Germans (1992-2006).Pharmacist, University of Bonn (1968); doctoraldegree in natural science, University of Berlin (1974);Certified Specialist in Public Health (2001). Researchassistant (1970-1974) and assistant professor (1974-1979), University of Berlin; person in charge of122

E/INCB/2007/1pharmaceutical quality control of herbal drugs, FederalInstitute for Drugs and Medical Devices in Berlin(1979-1990); guest professor, Instituto Nacional deControle de Qualidade em Saúde, Rio de Janeiro,Brazil (1989); member of the German delegation to theChemical Action Task Force (1990-1991); head of thedivision for the control of manufacturers of narcoticdrugs, Federal Opium Agency of Germany (1990-1992); member of the German delegation to theCommission on Narcotic Drugs (1990-2006); personresponsible for submitting statistical returns forGermany to the International Narcotics Control Board(1992-2006); Chairperson of the federal expert groupon narcotic drugs (1992-2006); lecturer on drugregulatory affairs, University of Bonn (2003-2005).Invited speaker at numerous national and someinternational meetings: Conference on Herbal Drugs inthe Traditional Medicine, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil(1989); International Conference on ChemicalOperations, Rome (1993); International Conference onDrug Abuse, Taipei, Taiwan Province of China (2001);International Symposium for Scientific Approach onDrug Control Strategy, Seoul (2005). Author ofnumerous works including in the areas of research onactive lipophilic substances in Piper sanctum (threepublications); research in the field of herbal drugs withwidespread use in Germany (many lectures and16 publications). Co-author (since 1992) of DeutschesBetäubungsmittelrecht: Kommentar, an annualcommentary on German legislation regarding narcoticdrugs, psychotropic substances and precursors.Recipient of a certificate of appreciation foroutstanding contributions in the field of drug lawenforcement, awarded by Drug EnforcementAdministration of the United States of America (1993);recipient of a certificate of appreciation awarded by theformer Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (1995).Member of the International Narcotics ControlBoard (2007). Member of the Standing Committee onEstimates (2007).Melvyn LevitskyBorn in 1938. National of the United States.Retired Ambassador in the United States ForeignService. Lecturer in Public Policy and InternationalRelations and Senior Fellow, International PolicyCenter, Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy,University of Michigan (since 2006).United States diplomat for 35 years, serving as,inter alia, Ambassador of the United States to Brazil(1994-1998); Assistant Secretary of State forInternational Narcotics Matters (1989-1993);Executive Secretary and Special Assistant to theSecretary of the United States Department of State(1987-1989); Ambassador of the United States toBulgaria (1984-1987); Deputy Director, Voice ofAmerica (1983-1984); Deputy Assistant Secretary ofState for Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs(1982-1983); Officer-in-Charge for Bilateral Relations,Office of Soviet Union Affairs (1975-1978); PoliticalOfficer, United States Embassy in Moscow (1973-1975); Consul, United States consulates in Frankfurt,Germany (1963-1965), and Belem, Brazil (1965-1967).Professor of International Relations and PublicAdministration, Maxwell School of Citizenship andPublic Affairs, Syracuse University (1998-2006).Recipient of several United States Department of StateMeritorious and Superior Honor Awards, PresidentialMeritorious Service Awards and the United StatesSecretary of State’s Distinguished Service Award.Member of the Washington Institute of Foreign Affairs,the American Academy of Diplomacy and theAmerican Foreign Service Association. Member of theAdvisory Board, Drug Free America Foundation.Member of the Institute on Global Drug Policy.Member of the Board, Global Panel of the PragueSociety. Member of the Public-Private Working Groupon Sale of Controlled Substances via the Internet(Harvard University Law School). DistinguishedFellow, Daniel Patrick Moynihan Institute of GlobalAffairs, Maxwell School of Citizenship and PublicAffairs, Syracuse University. Member of the Universityof Michigan Substance Abuse Research Center. Listedin Who’s Who in American Politics, Who’s Who inAmerican Government and Who’s Who in AmericanEducation.Member of the International Narcotics ControlBoard (since 2003). Chairman of the Committee onFinance and Administration (2004). Chairman of theWorking Group on Strategy and Priorities (2005).Maria Elena Medina-MoraBorn in 1953, National of Mexico. Director,Division of Epidemiology and Psychosocial Research,National Institute of Psychiatry, Mexico City (since1999). Member of the Board of Adjudication and123

E/INCB/2007/1Researcher, National Institute of Health. Researcher,National System of Researchers. Member of theColegio Nacional (since 2006).Recipient of a Bachelor of Arts degree (withhonours) in Psychology (1976) and a Master of Artsdegree (with honours) in Clinical Psychology (1979),Ibero-American University, Mexico; recipient of adoctoral degree in Social Psychology, UniversidadNacional Autonoma de México (1992). Member of theBoard of Governors, Universidad Nacional Autonómade México (since 2003). Member of the WHO ExpertCommittee on Addictions (since 1986). Researchcollaborator, WHO project on increasing comparabilityof drug use surveys (1976-1980) Researcher withWHO, the International Labour Organization, theUnited Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), theAddiction Research Foundation, Toronto, Canada, andthe Alcohol Research Group, California, United States,as well as with the National Institute on Alcohol Abuseand Alcoholism and the National Institute on DrugAbuse of the National Institutes of Health, UnitedStates. Cooperated with the working group of theinternational board of drug surveillance in developingthe Lisbon consensus document for drug reporting(2000) and with the working group that developed thedraft Declaration on the Guiding Principles of DrugDemand Reduction (1997). Member of the ScientificAdvisory Committee, Inter-American Drug AbuseControl Commission (CICAD). Member of theNational Academy of Sciences (since 1992), NationalAssociation of Psychologists of Mexico (since 1991)and the National Academy of Medicine (since 1994).Member of the Board of Directors, National Institute ofPublic Health (1997-2005) and National Institute onNeurology and Neurosurgery (since 2006). Professor atthe undergraduate and graduate levels and adviser for67 Bachelor of Arts, Master of Arts and doctoral theses(since 1976). Member of the editorial board of Revistade Psicología Social y Personalidad, Salud Mental,Revista Mexicana de Psicología and Salud Pública deMéxico, Public Psychiatry, Addictions, HispanicJournal of Behavioral Sciences, Addiction Disordersand Their Treatment and Revista Brasileira dePsiquiatría. Recipient of the “Gerardo Varela” nationalaward in public health, for meritorious research (1986);the award for professional excellence, presented by theIbero-American University to distinguished formeralumni (1990); first prize for contributions to researchin the fields of psychology and health, presentedduring the International Congress on Psychology andHealth (1990); national prize in psychology, awardedby the National Association of Psychologists (1991);national prize in psychiatrics, presented by the CameloFoundation (1993); second prize for an article entitled“Gender and addictions”, awarded by the UnitedNations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganization, the United Nations International DrugControl Programme, the World Bank, WHO and theSpecial Programme for Research and Training inTropical Diseases (1997). Recognized as distinguishedhealth professional by the Mexican Society ofGeography and Statistics (2002) and as honorarymember by the Sociedad Mexicana de Psicología(2006). Recipient of the Woman of the Year Award(2006). Author of more than 163 research papers injournals and of four books.Member of the International Narcotics ControlBoard (2000-2004 and 2007). Rapporteur (2002) andSecond Vice-President (2003) of the Board. Member ofthe Standing Committee on Estimates (2000-2004 and2007). Chairman of the Standing Committee onEstimates (2004).Sri SuryawatiBorn in 1955. National of Indonesia. FormerHead of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine,Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia. Member of theExecutive Board of the International Network for theRational Use of Drugs (INRUD), WHO ExpertAdvisory Panel for Medicine Policy and Management.Director, Centre for Clinical Pharmacology andMedicines Policy Studies, Gadjah Mada University.Coordinator, Master Degree Program for MedicinePolicy and Management, Gadjah Mada University.Specialist in pharmacology (1985); doctoraldegree in clinical pharmacy (1994). Worked in clinicalpharmacokinetics and bioequivalence testing (since1984), drug evaluation and new drug application (since1987) and medicines policy and promoting the qualityuse of medicines (since 1990). Member of the WHOExpert Committee on Drug Dependence (2002 and2006). Member of the WHO Expert Committee on theSelection and Use of Essential Medicines (2002, 2003,2005 and 2007). Member of the United NationsMillennium Project Task Force on HIV/AIDS, Malariaand Tuberculosis and Access to Essential Medicines124

E/INCB/2007/1(Task Force 5) (2001-2005). Supervisor for over 100postgraduate theses and research works in the areas ofmedicine policy and management, improving qualityuse of medicines in health facilities, communityempowerment to improve self-medication, and clinicalpharmacokinetics (since 1996). International consultantin essential medicine programmes and promoting therational use of medicines in Bangladesh (2006-2007),Cambodia (2001-2005), China (2006-2007), the LaoPeople’s Democratic Republic (2001-2003), Mongolia(2006-2007) and the Philippines (2006-2007).International consultant in medicine policy and drugevaluation in Cambodia (2003, 2005 and 2007), China(2003), Indonesia (2005-2006) and Viet Nam (2003).Facilitator in various international training courses inmedicine policy and promoting the rational use ofmedicines, including: WHO and INRUD courses onpromoting the rational use of medicines, Yogyakarta,Indonesia (1994), Manila (1996), Dhaka (1997),New Delhi (1999), Padang, Indonesia (2000), Tehran(2002 and 2003), Islamabad and Bhurban, Pakistan(2004), and Brunei (2007); the WHO and ManagementSciences for Health international courses on drugs andtherapeutics committees, Penang, Malaysia (2001),Yogyakarta, Indonesia (2001), Mumbai, India (2002)and Brunei (2007); and WHO/Boston Universityinternational courses on drug policy issues fordeveloping countries, Yogyakarta, Indonesia (2002),and Tashkent and Samarkand, Uzbekistan (2003).Author of numerous lectures presented at internationalconferences, including the following: “Indicator-basedmonitoring strategies to improve drug use in healthfacilities”, Symposium on Rational Drug Use, WorldConference on Clinical Pharmacology andTherapeutics, Florence, Italy (2000); “The role ofclinical pharmacology in promoting rational drug usein developing countries”, World Conference onClinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Brisbane,Australia (2004); “Strategies to promote quality use ofmedicines: best mix of strategies for improvingmedicine use, case studies from developing countries”,National Medicines Symposium, Brisbane, Australia(2004); “Decentralization as a challenge to improve thequality use of medicine: Indonesia experience”, WorldConference on Clinical Pharmacology andTherapeutics, Brisbane, Australia (2004); “Innovativestrategies to improve prescribing: the pleasant journeyfrom field-test to institutional programs”, WorldConference on Improving Use of Medicines, ChiangMai, Thailand (2004); “Strategies to improve the use ofmedicines: what makes them effective andsustainable?”, EURO Conference: Mastering Anti-Infective Therapies, Paris (2005); “Irrational use ofmedicines damages health and wastes resources: whatcan we do about it?”, 58th World Health Assembly,Geneva (2005); “Problems of medicine use in theregion”, Asia Social Health Forum, Penang, Malaysia(2005).Member of the International Narcotics ControlBoard (2007).Camilo Uribe GranjaBorn in 1963. National of Colombia. MedicalDirector, Hospital of San Martín (Meta); toxicologist,Marly and Palermo clinics; General Director, NewClinic Fray Bartolomé de las Casas; consultant,National Drug Council. Numerous university teachingposts in forensics and clinical toxicology.Medical doctor, School of Medicine, Universityof Our Lady of the Rosary (1989); specialization intoxicology, School of Medicine, University ofBuenos Aires (1990); specialization in occupationaltoxicology (1997), University Teacher’s Certificate(1998), diplomas in hospital management (1998) andsocial security administration (1999), University ofOur Lady of the Rosary; diploma in toxicologicalemergencies, FUNDASALUD (1998); master in socialservices management, Alcala de Enares University(2002). Former forensic medical doctor, toxicologist,technical coordinator and manager in several hospitalsand institutions. Scientific Director, Toxicology Clinic,Uribe Cualla; Toxicological Assessment Centre;Director, Clinical Toxicology, Fray Bartolomé de LasCasas Clinic (until 1991); Vice-President, TropicalMedicine Institute Corporation “Luis Patiño Camargo”(until 1992); Medical Coordinator and Director,Emergency National Plan (1993); Director, HealthServices Management Programme, School of PublicAdministration, College of Public Administration (until2000); General Director, National Institute of Drugsand Food Administration (2001-2002). Vice-President(1988-1990 and 1995-1998) and President (2000-2003), Latin American Toxicology Association; Vice-President (2002-2003), International ToxicologyFederation. Member of the Colombian Association ofInternal Medicine. Member of the Spanish Associationof Toxicology. Executive Director, non-governmental125

E/INCB/2007/1organizations association (until 1998); member of theDirective Group of the Cundinamarca’s MedicalSchool; member of the Colombian Medical Academy.Author of numerous works, including: the chapter onbenzodiazepines in Therapeutic Compendium of theColombian Internal Medicine Association (1992);Criminal intoxication with scopolamine-likesubstances; Handbook on Toxicological EmergencyManagement; Manual on the Treatment of Intoxicationby Plaguicides (1995); Investigation Protocol “Traumaand Alcohol”, Hospital of Kennedy (1993); numerousresearch protocols. Recipient of numerous honours,including: honourable mention for services toColombian society in the field of toxicology, FirstInternational Congress of Toxicology, University ofAntioquia; distinction by the Latin AmericanAssociation of Toxicology for contributions to the fieldof toxicology (1998). Participant in numerousprofessional conferences and seminars, includingseveral meetings of the Latin American Congress ofToxicology; National Congress of Toxicology andEnvironmental Protection, Medellín (1999); SeventhColombian Congress of Pharmacology andTherapeutics and the first international symposium onthe theme “Biodiversity as source of new drugs”(2001); Congress of Aerial Security in the ColombianCaribbean Area (2001); Second National Congress,Investigation and Health (2002).Member of the International Narcotics ControlBoard (since 2005). Vice-Chairman of the StandingCommittee on Estimates (2006 and 2007). Member ofthe Committee on Finance and Administration (2007).Brian WattersBorn in 1935. National of Australia. Chairman,Australian National Council on Drugs (2005).Arts degree, majoring in medical sociology,University of Newcastle, Australia; trained in addictioncounselling at University of Newcastle; qualifiedpsychiatric chaplain. Major in the Salvation Army(1975-2000), including work as Commander of theSalvation Army’s addiction treatment programme ineastern Australia; consultant and media spokesman onaddiction issues; adviser to the Salvation Army’sHIV/AIDS services in eastern Australia; President ofthe Network of Alcohol and Drug Agencies in NewSouth Wales; member of New South Wales’ HealthMinister’s Drug Advisory Council. Patron, “Drug Arm,Australia”; Board member, “Drug Free Australia”;member of the Leadership Council, InternationalSubstance Abuse and Addiction Coalition. Member ofseveral Australian government committees, including:the expert advisory group on sustained releasenaltrexone; the state and national reference groups onthe Council of Australian Governments “Diversion ofOffenders” scheme; and the national “Tough on Drugs”reference group for non-governmental organizationtreatment grants. Frequent contributor to Australiannewspapers, magazines and journals, including thejournal of the National Drug and Alcohol ResearchCentre; several publications, including Drug Dilemma:a Way Forward, and contributor to “Prevention,demand reduction and treatment: a way forward forAustralia”, Heroin Crisis (1999). Officer of the Orderof Australia (2003), for outstanding services in antidrugpolicy development and drug treatment. Keynotespeaker at national and international conferences,including: International Council on Alcohol andAddictions, Vienna; European Cities against Drugs,Stockholm; Australian Conference on Drugs Strategy,Adelaide; International Substance Abuse and AddictionCoalition, Madrid. Participant, Commission onNarcotic Drugs (2003). Speaker of the NationalChemical Diversion Conference, Darwin, Australia(2005).Member of the International Narcotics ControlBoard (since 2005). Member of the StandingCommittee on Estimates (2006). First Vice-Presidentof the Board (2007).Raymond YansBorn in 1948. National of Belgium.Graduate in Germanic philology and inphilosophy (1972). Belgian Foreign Service: Attaché,Jakarta (1978-1981); Deputy-Mayor of Liège (1982-1989); Consul, Tokyo (1989-1994); Consul, Chargéd’affaires, Luxembourg (1999-2003); Head of the DrugUnit, Ministry of Foreign Affairs (1995-1999 and2003-2007); Chairman of the Dublin Group (2002-2006); Chairman of the European Union Drug PolicyCooperation Working Group during the BelgianPresidency of the European Union; charged with thenational coordination of the ratification andimplementation process of the Convention on126

E/INCB/2007/1Psychotropic Substances of 1971 and the UnitedNations Convention against Illicit Traffic in NarcoticDrugs and Psychotropic Substances of 1988 (1995-1998); liaison between the Ministry of Foreign Affairsand the National Police for drug liaison officers inBelgian embassies (2003-2005); participation in thelaunching by the European Union Joint Action on NewSynthetic Drugs of an early warning system to alertGovernments to the appearance of new synthetic drugs(1999); active in the creation of the CooperationMechanism on Drugs between the European Union,Latin America and the Caribbean (1997-1999). Authorof numerous articles, including: “The future of theDublin Group” (2004) and “Is there anything such as aEuropean Union Common Drug Policy” (2005).Member of the Belgian delegation to the Commissionon Narcotic Drugs (1995-2007); all the preparatorysessions (on amphetamine-type stimulants, precursors,judicial cooperation, money-laundering, drug demandreduction and alternative development) for thetwentieth special session of the General Assembly;representative of Belgium at the Meeting of Heads ofNational Drug Law Enforcement Agencies, Europe(1995-2005); Conference of the International NarcoticsControl Board on the Control of PsychotropicSubstances, Strasbourg (1995 and 1998); InternationalConference on Drugs, Dependence andInterdependence, Council of Europe, Lisbon (1996);European Union Seminar on Best Practices in DrugEnforcement by Law Enforcement Authorities,Helsinki (1999); Joint European Union/SouthernAfrican Development Community Conferences onDrug Control Cooperation, Mmabatho, South Africa(1995) and Gabarone (1998); European Perspectives onPolicies on Drugs, Oslo (2005); United Nations Officeon Drugs and Crime/Paris Pact round tables, Brussels(2003), Tehran and Istanbul (2005); meetings of theParis Pact Policy Consultative Group, Rome (2003)and Vienna (2005); meetings of the High-levelDialogue on Drugs between the Andean Communityand the European Union, the EuropeanCommunity/Andean Bilateral Drug PrecursorsAgreements and the European Union/Latin Americaand the Caribbean Coordination and CooperationMechanism, Lima (2005) and Vienna (2006).Member of the International Narcotics ControlBoard (2007). Member of the Standing Committee onEstimates (2007). Member of the Committee onFinance and Administration (2007).Yu XinBorn in 1965. National of China. ClinicalProfessor of Psychiatry, Institute of Mental Health,Peking University (since 2004). Licensed Psychiatrist,China Medical Association (since 1988). President,Chinese Psychiatrist Association (since 2005);Chairperson, Credential Committee for Psychiatrists,Ministry of Health of China; Vice-President, ChineseSociety of Psychiatry (since 2006); Vice-President,Management Association for Psychiatric Hospitals(since 2007); Vice-Chairman, Alzheimer’s Disease,China (since 2002).Bachelor of Medicine, Beijing MedicalUniversity (1988); Fellow in Psychiatry, University ofMelbourne, Australia (1996-1997); Fellow inSubstance Abuse, Johns Hopkins University (1998-1999); Doctor of Medicine (M.D.), Peking University(2000); Senior Fellow in Social Medicine, HarvardUniversity (2003). Residency in psychiatry (1988-1993) and Psychiatrist (1993-1998), Institute of MentalHealth, Beijing Medical University; Head, AssociateProfessor of Psychiatry, Geriatric Psychiatrist,Department of Geriatric Psychiatry, Institute of MentalHealth, Peking University (1999-2001); AssistantDirector (2000-2001) and Executive Director (2001-2004), Institute of Mental Health, Peking University.Author and co-author of numerous works on varioustopics in psychiatry, such as psychopharmacology,early intervention of schizophrenia, mental health andHIV/AIDS and drug use, mental health outcome ofharmful alcohol use, neuropsychology of mentaldisorders, neuroimaging of late life depression, lateonset psychosis, and assessment, treatment and care fordementia. Editor of several textbooks, includingGeriatric Psychiatry, Textbook of Psychiatry for Asiaand Psychiatry for Medical Students. Recipient of theOutstanding Clinician Award, Beijing MedicalUniversity, and the Innovation and Creation Award,Beijing Medical Professional Union (2004).Member of the International Narcotics ControlBoard (2007). Member of the Standing Committee onEstimates (2007).127

The role of the International Narcotics Control BoardThe International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) is an independent and quasi-judicial control organ,established by treaty, for monitoring the implementation of the international drug control treaties. It hadpredecessors under the former drug control treaties as far back as the time of the League of Nations.CompositionINCB consists of 13 members who are elected by the Economic and Social Council and who serve in theirpersonal capacity, not as government representatives (see annex II of the present publication for the currentmembership). Three members with medical, pharmacological or pharmaceutical experience are elected from a listof persons nominated by the World Health Organization (WHO) and 10 members are elected from a list ofpersons nominated by Governments. Members of the Board are persons who, by their competence, impartialityand disinterestedness, command general confidence. The Council, in consultation with INCB, makes allarrangements necessary to ensure the full technical independence of the Board in carrying out its functions. INCBhas a secretariat that assists it in the exercise of its treaty-related functions. The INCB secretariat is anadministrative entity of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, but it reports solely to the Board onmatters of substance. INCB closely collaborates with the Office in the framework of arrangements approved bythe Council in its resolution 1991/48. INCB also cooperates with other international bodies concerned with drugcontrol, including not only the Council and its Commission on Narcotic Drugs, but also the relevant specializedagencies of the United Nations, particularly WHO. It also cooperates with bodies outside the United Nationssystem, especially Interpol and the World Customs Organization.FunctionsThe functions of INCB are laid down in the following treaties: the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of1961 as amended by the 1972 Protocol; the Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971; and the UnitedNations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances of 1988. Broadlyspeaking, INCB deals with the following:(a) As regards the licit manufacture of, trade in and use of drugs, INCB endeavours, in cooperation withGovernments, to ensure that adequate supplies of drugs are available for medical and scientific uses and that thediversion of drugs from licit sources to illicit channels does not occur. INCB also monitors Governments’ controlover chemicals used in the illicit manufacture of drugs and assists them in preventing the diversion of thosechemicals into the illicit traffic;(b) As regards the illicit manufacture of, trafficking in and use of drugs, INCB identifies weaknesses innational and international control systems and contributes to correcting such situations. INCB is also responsiblefor assessing chemicals used in the illicit manufacture of drugs, in order to determine whether they should beplaced under international control.In the discharge of its responsibilities, INCB:(a) Administers a system of estimates for narcotic drugs and a voluntary assessment system forpsychotropic substances and monitors licit activities involving drugs through a statistical returns system, with aview to assisting Governments in achieving, inter alia, a balance between supply and demand;(b) Monitors and promotes measures taken by Governments to prevent the diversion of substancesfrequently used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances and assesses suchsubstances to determine whether there is a need for changes in the scope of control of Tables I and II of the1988 Convention;(c) Analyses information provided by Governments, United Nations bodies, specialized agencies or othercompetent international organizations, with a view to ensuring that the provisions of the international drugcontrol treaties are adequately carried out by Governments, and recommends remedial measures;(d) Maintains a permanent dialogue with Governments to assist them in complying with their obligationsunder the international drug control treaties and, to that end, recommends, where appropriate, technical orfinancial assistance to be provided.INCB is called upon to ask for explanations in the event of apparent violations of the treaties, to proposeappropriate remedial measures to Governments that are not fully applying the provisions of the treaties or areencountering difficulties in applying them and, where necessary, to assist Governments in overcoming such

difficulties. If, however, INCB notes that the measures necessary to remedy a serious situation have not beentaken, it may call the matter to the attention of the parties concerned, the Commission on Narcotic Drugs and theEconomic and Social Council. As a last resort, the treaties empower INCB to recommend to parties that they stopimporting drugs from a defaulting country, exporting drugs to it or both. In all cases, INCB acts in closecooperation with Governments.INCB assists national administrations in meeting their obligations under the conventions. To that end, itproposes and participates in regional training seminars and programmes for drug control administrators.ReportsThe international drug control treaties require INCB to prepare an annual report on its work. The annualreport contains an analysis of the drug control situation worldwide so that Governments are kept aware ofexisting and potential situations that may endanger the objectives of the international drug control treaties. INCBdraws the attention of Governments to gaps and weaknesses in national control and in treaty compliance; it alsomakes suggestions and recommendations for improvements at both the national and international levels. Theannual report is based on information provided by Governments to INCB, United Nations entities and otherorganizations. It also uses information provided through other international organizations, such as Interpol andthe World Customs Organization, as well as regional organizations.The annual report of INCB is supplemented by detailed technical reports. They contain data on the licitmovement of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances required for medical and scientific purposes, togetherwith an analysis of those data by INCB. Those data are required for the proper functioning of the system ofcontrol over the licit movement of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, including preventing theirdiversion to illicit channels. Moreover, under the provisions of article 12 of the 1988 Convention, INCB reportsannually to the Commission on Narcotic Drugs on the implementation of that article. That report, which gives anaccount of the results of the monitoring of precursors and of the chemicals frequently used in the illicitmanufacture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, is also published as a supplement to the annualreport.Since 1992, the first chapter of the annual report has been devoted to a specific drug control issue on whichINCB presents its conclusions and recommendations in order to contribute to policy-related discussions anddecisions in national, regional and international drug control. The following topics were covered in past annualreports:1992: Legalization of the non-medical use of drugs1993: The importance of demand reduction1994: Evaluation of the effectiveness of the international drug control treaties1995: Giving more priority to combating money-laundering1996: Drug abuse and the criminal justice system1997: Preventing drug abuse in an environment of illicit drug promotion1998: International control of drugs: past, present and future1999: Freedom from pain and suffering2000: Overconsumption of internationally controlled drugs2001: Globalization and new technologies: challenges to drug law enforcement in the twenty-firstcentury2002: Illicit drugs and economic development2003: Drugs, crime and violence: the microlevel impact2004: Integration of supply and demand reduction strategies: moving beyond a balanced approach2005: Alternative development and legitimate livelihoods2006: Internationally controlled drugs and the unregulated marketChapter I of the report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2007 is entitled “The principle ofproportionality and drug-related offences”.Chapter II presents an analysis of the operation of the international drug control system based primarily oninformation that Governments are required to submit directly to INCB in accordance with the international drugcontrol treaties. Its focus is on the worldwide control of all licit activities related to narcotic drugs andpsychotropic substances, as well as chemicals used in the illicit manufacture of such drugs.Chapter III presents some of the major developments in drug abuse and trafficking and measures byGovernments to implement the international drug control treaties by addressing those problems. Specificcomments are made on the drug control situation in each of the countries in which an INCB mission or technicalvisit took place.Chapter IV presents the main recommendations addressed by INCB to Governments, the United NationsOffice on Drugs and Crime, WHO and other relevant international and regional organizations.

United Nations publicationISBN 978-92-1-148224-9ISSN 0257-3717Sales No. E.08.XI.1E/INCB/2007/1V.07-88113—January 2008—5,790FOR UNITED NATIONS USE ONLY*0788113*