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International Journal of Contemporary Business StudiesVol: 4, No: 2. February, 2013 ISSN 2156-7506Available online at http://www.akpinsight.webs.comwork. Life satisfaction is influenced only by whether or not they have a job. For women hours satisfactionand job satisfaction indicate that women prefer part-time jobs irrespective of whether these are small orlarge. In contrast, female life satisfaction is virtually unaffected by hours of work. Women withoutchildren do not care about their hours of work at all, while women with children are significantly happierif they have a job regardless of how many hours it entails. (Ayres & Malouff, 2007) have also highlightedthe importance of a brief problem-solving training in the workplace that can increase problem-solvingskills and problem solving self-efficacy in the course of improving positive affect, job satisfaction, andlife satisfaction.5.2 Relationship between Life Satisfaction & Work/Family DemandsKossek, Noe, DeMarr (1999) in their study have attributed the increased worker and family demands tosocial transformations. Work-Family role synthesis was recommended for greater positive selfmanagementof the roles. Employed women should adopt higher care-giving role embracement and lowerwork-family boundaries. Employed women are expected to strategize better than employed men increating a work-family role synthesis. In a unique study conducted by (Bhave & Kramer, 2001) examinedthe relationship between the pay satisfaction and work-family conflict. It was observed that a change inglobal pay satisfaction and facet pay satisfaction (pay rise, pay level, benefits and pay structure) arenegatively related to a change in Work Family Conflict. (Takeuchi, Yun & Tesluk, 2002) collected datafrom a sample of Japanese expatriates, their spouses, and their superiors, strongly supported bothspillover and crossover effects between expatriate and spousal cross-cultural adjustment. In addition,expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment was found to be related to satisfaction, which, in turn, was found tobe negatively related to expatriates’ intention to return to their homeland early. In the same lines,(Hummer, Cullen, Neal, Sinclair & Shafiro, 2005) assessed longitudinal and cross-sectional relationshipsbetween work–family conflict, positive spillover, and depression in dual-earner couples. The findings ofthe study suggest that (a) positive spillover has a stronger impact on depression than on work–familyconflict, and (b) the effects of spouses’ positive spillover were more strongly related to decreaseddepression than were the effects of one’s own positive spillover. Significant longitudinal effects wererelated to the crossover of positive spillover on decreased spouse depression. Moving away from workimpacts on life satisfaction, (Perrone, Webb & Jackson,2007) found that satisfaction with work andmarriage was significantly related to life satisfaction. (Schaer, Bodenmann & Klink, 2008) also stressedon Couples Coping Enhancement Training to increase dyadic competencies which can have positiveeffects on the general well-being, life satisfaction and other workplace variables like less burnout and lesswork stress.5.3 Relationship between Life Satisfaction & Education effectsCoronel, Moreno & Carssco (2010) in a survey of women administrators in schools, found that womenface several perceived barriers, lack of support from the governing educational authority, insufficientpreparation and in-service training and an absence of equity-based support policies from the governmentand reconciliation policies to make the dual roles of mother–professional compatible. The study furtherfound that role conflict and certain features of the organizational work culture, particularly themanagement culture, was generally strongly masculine, and showed scant appreciation of administrativework. In a similar study on the association between education and work-family conflict (Scheiman &Glavin,2011) concluded that the well-educated tend to occupy professional jobs with more incomes andpressures, and therefore experience greater work-family role blurring activities. These conditionscontribute to greater conflict among the well-educated. In addition, people with less than a high schooldegree report more conflict because of their experience in precarious work with variable shifts.2013©Academy of Knowledge Process34
International Journal of Contemporary Business StudiesVol: 4, No: 2. February, 2013 ISSN 2156-7506Available online at http://www.akpinsight.webs.com5.4 Relationship between Life Satisfaction & Gender effectsMortazavi et. al (2009) in their study tried to understand the individual experiences of work familyconflict across three different countries and cultures i.e. Ukraine, Iran, and the US. The relationshipbetween gender, nationality, and cultural values of horizontal individualism and collectivism measured atthe national and individual levels revealed no differences in the amount of conflict experienced acrossUkraine, Iran, and the US. This research showed that there is a negative relationship between work-tofamilyconflict and horizontal allocentrism (collectivism) at work and family. Idiocentric (Individualistic)employees reported less family-to-work conflict at work. In another study aimed at addressing theimportance of work-life balance and the associated gender differences therewith, (Smith, Smith &Brower, 2010) found that work-life balance is very important in career decisions. Their findings alsorevealed that a healthy work-life balance is associated with job satisfaction, job performance, and ethicaldecision-making. (Ergeneli, Ilsev & Karaapinar, 2010) investigated the effects of gender and interpretivehabits (deficiency, /necessitating, skill recognition) on the relationship between work–family conflict(WFC) and job satisfaction. The results suggest that interpretive habits moderate the relationship betweenWFC and job satisfaction such that the negative effect of WFC and job satisfaction is stronger foremployees focusing highly on deficiency, with high necessitating, and low skill recognition, referred to asstress-predisposing interpretive habits. Furthermore, WFC had a negative association with job satisfactionfor stress-predisposed male employees while no relationship was found between WFC and jobsatisfaction for men with a low focus on deficiency, low necessitating and high skill recognition namely,stress-resilient interpretive habits. Moreover, although WFC had a negative association with jobsatisfaction for female employees, this relationship was even stronger for stress-resilient females. In a rareand interesting study, (Powell & Greenhaus, 2010) examined whether gender, identity, boundary, and roletheories explained effects of sex on work-to-family conflict and positive spillover for full-time managersand professionals. Women were found to experience higher positive spillover than men, primarilybecause of higher femininity. Although women did not experience different levels of conflict than men,individuals who scored higher on measured family role salience, which was positively related tofemininity, experienced lower levels of conflict. Role segmentation not only reduced conflict but also hadthe unintended consequence of reducing positive spillover.5.5 Relationship between Life Satisfaction & Time effectsIn a study by (Karimi Leila, 2008) on Iranian employees from a variety of organizations, using a sixdimensionalmodel of work-family conflict (Time, Strain & Behavior based WFC & FWC), supported thegeneralizability of the six dimensional model of work-family conflict across cultures. The results alsoshowed that the experience of time-based work-to-family conflict was greater than the others. In a similarstudy on the interaction of managerial workload with time flexibility and task autonomy to predict thedivision of household labor (division of housework activities) and its influence on family satisfaction,Mayo, Pastor & Sanz (2008) found that time flexibility and task autonomy at work moderated therelationship between managers work demands and their spousal ratings of housework overload. As timedemands increased, managers with low time flexibility contributed less than their spouses in householdwork (as reported by the spouse) than managers with high flexibility. A similar pattern emerges regardingtravel and task autonomy. In turn, spousal housework overload had a negative impact on familysatisfaction. In a rare study by Mitchelson K. Jacqueline (2009) on the relationship between perfectionismand perceptions of work family conflict established that perfectionism predicts work-family conflict,beyond the effects of the Big Five, trait affectivity and achievement. Further, findings indicate those withadaptive perfectionism (AP; work and home) tend to have lower strain and time-based family interferingwith work and lower behavior-based work interfering with family, compared with maladaptiveperfectionists (home) and non-perfectionists (work and home).2013©Academy of Knowledge Process35
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