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! ...;c>:1 1 lniroductionCELLS FORM TISSUES, TISSUES FORM ORGANSTHISIS A CELL\ nuclearmembraneCELLS JOIN TOGETHER TOFORM TISSUESTISSUES OF VARIOUS KINDSARE JOINED TOGETHER TOFORMORGANSSOME CELLSFROM OUR BODIESLYMPHOCYTEPlate 6cell membraneEPITHELIAL CELL(from the bladder)Plate 56RED CELLPlate 1-...,,THE TRACHEA-CELLSDIVIDINGone cellha IS divided ..the cytoplasm ’has divided.SOME MICRO-ORGANISMSEntamoeba histolytica &ytop’asmcoccusbacillusP @ Q Plate 103membraneENTAMOEBA HISTOLYTICAprotozoa1 trophozoitePlate 87\cellcocciRLsporesw a /Plate 43Plate 102SOME BACTERIAFig. l-3 Cells
Micro-organisms 1 1 .l 1made from the protein foods we eat, such as beans orfish. These proteins help to form the cell membranes andthe nucleus. They are also some of the many importantthings in the water of the cytoplasm. Proteins also formthe enzymes inside the cell which make the cell work.Enzymes are special proteins for making the things thatcells need. If you like, you can think of enzymes as beingthe machines of the cell which make the cell alive. InSection 7.41 you will read about the enzyme callednrease (all enzymes end with the word ‘-a&-forexample, lactase, amylase). Urease turns a substancecalled urea into other substances called ammonia, carbondioxide, and water. It is only one of the many thousandsof enzymes that cells have with which to make the substancesthat they need to live and grow.Most of the protein of the body is in its cells, but someproteins are outside the cells and are dissolved in theblood plasma (see Section 1.17). These are the plasmaproteins. There is no protein in normal urine, but, whenthe kidneys are diseased, the plasma goes into the urine.In Section 8.3 you will learn how to test the urine forprotein.1.11 Micro-organismsIn the world around us there are many other living thingsbesides men, women, and children. Living things arecalled organisms. Cows and dogs and trees and grass areorganisms, so are birds and snakes. Some of these organismsare very big, like elephants or big trees, and some ofthem are very small, like small insects. But, as well as theliving things we can see, there are many more livingthings which are so small that we cannot see them. Thesevery small living things are called micro-organisms(micro means small). They are so small that they canonly be seen with a microscope. The smallest microorganismsare made of one cell only. Micro-organismsare also called germs or microbes. A micro-organismcan grow and divide into two micro-organisms in asshort a time as twenty minutes. If it has the right food,one micro-organism can grow into millions of microorganismsin a few hours. Most micro-organisms live inthe soil or in water where they do no harm. Many microorganismsare useful and some help the soil. There aremicro-organisms almost everywhere. They are on thisbook, on your hands, in your nose, on tables, on floors,and on the equipment in your laboratory. There are alsomicro-organisms in the air. Most micro-organisms areharmless.1.12 Parasites, commensals, and infectionMany organisms live on or inside man and animals.Those which cause no harm are called commensals.Those which cause harm are called parasites. One of thereasons why parasites are harmful is that one parasitemay grow into millions. When someone has many harm-ful parasites inside him, he becomes sick and may die.When a person has a parasite of a certain kind livinginside him he is said to be infected by that parasite, andto be the host for it. People can be infected by dangerousmicro-organisms, and so can things such as loops (seeSection 3. lo), test tubes, and specimen containers. If aloop or specimen container has micro-organisms on it,we say that it too is infected.Each parasite has its own way of getting into the body.Some go through the skin, some get into food, and someuse other ways. Parasites can spread from one perscn toanother. When this happens, one person is said to infectanother. For example, when someone is sick with thedisease called tuberculosis, he is sick because a parasiticmicro-organism called Mycobacterium tuberculosis isgrowing inside him and infecting him. Some patientswith tuberculosis of the lungs cough sputum containingMycobacterium tuberculosis out of their lungs into theair. Sputum is the thick white or yellow substance thatpeople cough up. A healthy person may breathe in theMycobacterium tuberculosis from the little drops ofinfected sputum in the air and become infected. He mightbecome sick and die.Many of the patients coming to a health centre orhospital are diseased because there are parasites growinginside them. Most of these patients will have beeninfected by another person. A few will have got theirparasites from animals. Diseases caused by parasiteswhich can be caught from other people or animals arecalled infectious diseases. These include leprosy, tubcrculosis,ancylostomiasis (hookworm infection), schistosomiasis(bilharzia), malaria, trypanosomiasis(sleeping sickness), and onchocerciasis (river blindness).You will see that many infectious diseases end with theword ‘Gasis’. If you see a word ending in this way, youcan be sure it is an infectious disease. Many diseases arenot infectious, sickle-cell anaemia for example.Many of the methods in this book are for findingparasites in infected people. If we can find which parasitea patient has, we know what disease he is suffering from(why he is ill), and we can give him the right treatment. Ifa patient is given the right treatment, he will probably getwell.Many parasites and the infectious diseases they causeare common in almost all the warmer countries of theworld. Some of these diseases which are seen almosteverywhere are tuberculosis, leprosy, hookworm infection,Ascaris infection, gonorrhoea, and malaria. Otherdiseases are only seen in a few countries. For example,there is trypanosomiasis in Zambia but not in India. Askwhat parasites and what diseases are found in your countryand learn all you can about them. Don’t waste timelearning about diseases you will never see.1 .I 3 How organisms are namedYou may have asked yourself why we write the names ofmicro-organisms like this--Mycobacterium tuberculosis,
Page 1 and 2: AT MICROFICHEREFERENCELIBRARYA proj
Page 3 and 4: This book aims to bring the mini~mu
Page 5 and 6: To all those who might soeasily be
Page 7 and 8: Oxford University Press, E& House,
Page 9 and 10: PrefaceThere is believed to be a ne
Page 11 and 12: ContentsChapter1. INTRODUCTION1.1 H
Page 13 and 14: ContentsPAS. 8.10 Testing for sulph
Page 15 and 16: How to use this book 1 1.11 1 Intro
Page 17 and 18: Honesty and responsibility 1 1.2bes
Page 19 and 20: Some special words 1 1.3with. A row
Page 21 and 22: Centrifuging and filtering 1 1.5/th
Page 23: Cells 1 1.9the pH is about Il. At p
Page 27 and 28: Stains 1 1.16difficult to see. We u
Page 29 and 30: Stklization 1 1.20This kills all th
Page 31 and 32: The pressure cooker 1 1.21The 3-way
Page 33 and 34: Laboratory infection 1 1.23the plun
Page 35 and 36: 2 1 Equipment andChemicals2.1 The e
Page 37 and 38: Special equipment in the main list
Page 39 and 40: Special equipment in the main list
Page 41 and 42: .I‘:; ‘1 :....’ ;.,. . .I, _(
Page 43 and 44: Chemicals 1 2.4heating things on th
Page 45 and 46: Stock and spares 1 2.6chamber 0.1 m
Page 47 and 48: 3.1 Benches and shelvesThere are ma
Page 49 and 50: P,,,.” y- ,.* 9.; _, ,,.Bottled g
Page 51 and 52: The Bunsen burner 1 3.5the tin draw
Page 53 and 54: .,;-./I ,__( .if you have no diamon
Page 55 and 56: Making and using Pasteur pipettes 1
Page 57 and 58: Some practical details 1 3.11and in
Page 59 and 60: Washing equipment 1 3.12Find a piec
Page 61 and 62: Stains and reagents 1 3.15Keep all
Page 63 and 64: Buffers 1 3.20aa wash bottle and th
Page 65 and 66: Buffers 1 3.253.25 MAKING CRYSTAL V
Page 67 and 68: Buffers 1 3.37/fill the bottle with
Page 69 and 70: A description of Figure 3-11 1 3.46
Page 71 and 72: _.:;:;r- ^>,< ’ “- , _:’ , ,,
Page 73 and 74: 4 1 Records and Specimens4.1 Record
Page 75 and 76:
; -. . . _specimen is lahelled and
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“‘MAKING A SEQUESTRENEPOLYTUBEA
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Cross infection and syringe jaundic
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: 1 _;;:.,.“ -. y ‘, ;Send&g sp
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5 1 Weighing and MeasuringWEIGHT5.1
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The Ohaus triple beam balance 1 ‘
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: ,!“&;‘.: ; ), : IIPipettes a
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I’- >- Why and how we measure col
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The Lovibond comparator 1 5.10THE L
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The ‘Grey wedge’ 1 5.11The wedg
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Ii’ used for the blood urea. THE
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-Measuring colour with electricity
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Oxyhaemoglobin methods 1 5.2T arefr
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When an EEL goes wrong 1 5.22This i
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When an EEL goes wrong 1 5.22BEFORE
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6 1 The Microscope6.1 The pm your m
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How a microscope works 1 6.2may not
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FROM ON TOPTHE CONDENSERB FROM THE
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‘z:.! y,*. 4:f.‘> &&jg;y: -: r_
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The objectives j 6.7all these are t
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.i’i (. 1. ” .The eyepiece 1 6.
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., -.-Lights for the microscope 1 6
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Knowing your microscope 1 6.13foeos
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Specimens of poor contrast 1 6.15ey
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Troubles with microscopes 1 6.166.1
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Some ‘DOS’ and ‘Don’ts’ i
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.,:‘=--L&,??6;,* >.: -- ,I i .~:.
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The haematocrit 7.2If you do. you w
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z -.The haematocrit 1 7.2instrument
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An anaemia chart for the ‘Under F
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Causes of anaemia 1 7.5both the hae
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The thin blood film 1 7.11pale conj
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7 1 BloodA film is always too thick
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Faults in a thin blood film 1 7.13T
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Platelets 1 7.15NEUTROPHILMETAMYELO
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How blood cells are formed in the m
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The red cells of anaemic patients a
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The differential white cell count 1
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What ahaemoglobinopathy is 1 7.24ME
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Two solubility methods for haemoglo
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Sickle-cell anaemia and the sickle-
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THE TOTAL WHITE CELL COUNT7.29 Coun
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Counting white cells 1 7.29THESE AR
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What an abnormal total white cell c
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I1.‘.)?6),.I~_I/” ,1,~ Why a th
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Ilymphocyteb 0 ayoung trophozoites
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P.vivax P.malariae P.falciparum P.o
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Sleeping sickness or trypanosomiasi
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A concentration method ! 7.38for ex
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The ESR 1 7.39make several of these
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1”ig; I , _ :-!. * ip ’ _Make s
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,.,;+fi :_ . .2 The blood sugar 1 7
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,,:Measuring the plasma acetone wit
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8 1 Urine8.1 A clean specimen of ur
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“:. * -,y,: .&$.,i.:, .’ ; I 1
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;,‘-j_‘. ..‘I I: ^I .p-: 1.
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,- ;>. .-:I_. -.._). Jaundice and s
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p-7-- -~- -by’ ”I!$: ‘-/!& Ii
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Testingthe urine for sulphones1 8.1
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_/Looking at the centrifuged deposi
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aliSCH!STOSOME OVA 3deadSchistosoma
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Three kinds of movement 1 8.148.14
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Looking for the ova of Schistosoma
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Diagnosing meningitis 1 9.3IF THE P
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Equipment for lum’bar puncture 1
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Cells 1 9.9of CSF to flow out of th
Page 207 and 208:
Stained films 1 9.11protein that yo
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,(The CSF protein 1 9.1316 and 17.
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i r: .,_‘.,i, I,>‘,i,.2c:,, y-,
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Cerebral mil-aria 1 9.20blood has g
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The saline stool smear 1 10.2aent t
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,L- ;.:
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spin the suspensionfor about five m
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testtube-I piece ofSellotapelay the
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;: “,Some common ova1 10.5Trichur
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important thing about these organis
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E. histolytica and E. co/i 1 10.7E.
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.-.i- ; .>_; ,’ .:Identifying E.
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Measuring the pH of a stool and tes
Page 233 and 234:
,-?‘,C ,:-. 1,I”.&‘.;-,__,-_
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find a purulent(pus like) pieceof t
Page 237 and 238:
Examining the sputum for helminth o
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this is the centrifuged depositfrom
Page 241 and 242:
Classifying leprosy 1 11 .l laIn no
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Classifying leprosy 1 11.1 laThese
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‘,y,d+“,> &^-”,.,-:>. I -_’
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$i&i: :: -&ll _ ~*”ii’1~11’ 1
Page 249 and 250:
-.,‘&A, ,1 ’ .C’. ‘--Lymph
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‘ h-7 1‘, ,,.->$ ,’ .: 1,:. +
Page 253 and 254:
This chapter makes extensive use of
Page 255 and 256:
this is a tube of \anti-A serum, it
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.bthis is awash-IvlttlPof salinewit
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Cross-matching or compatibility tes
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Rhesus grouping 1 12.712.7 Rhesus g
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guard tubethis rubber discgoes insi
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B,>Sharpening needles 1 12.10Rubber
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The pilot bottle 1 12.11ment and st
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Taking blood 1 12.12this pair of fo
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The Uganda Mobile Team 1 12.13Red C
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I-;.~: : ,.,!r’-Storing blood: th
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13 1 For Pathologists, Stores Offic
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Upgrading peripheral laboratories 1
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,.‘. ,. .”Gelieral stores requi
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,h,,.-.ISpecialequipmentin the main
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,, . .ML 50ML5 1ML 52ML 53ML 54ML 5
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:~!16; ,z..: ;.,,,j, .,, ,I__ ,”F
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I
Page 289 and 290:
Choice 13. ‘Dextrostix’ 1 13.26
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p... ‘,( I’ ‘8a..:g& >,&Ii II
Page 293 and 294:
VocabularyIndexautoclave. A machine
Page 295 and 296:
Vocabulary Indexcy~toplasm. IIe com
Page 297 and 298:
VocabularyIndexGram’s method. A w
Page 299 and 300:
Vocabularyindexmeasuring qiinder (M
Page 301 and 302:
Vocabulary IndexPlasmodium, fatcipa
Page 303 and 304:
VocabularyIndexrelapse. When a pati
Page 305 and 306:
VocabularyIndextest rube (ML 48). A
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_.,,:,. I _. , ,( * , ),), OI.,I‘
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Haemoglobin g%increasinganaemiavery
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“-;
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10 11 12These are fresh unstained w
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30 31 32 33Plasmodium malariae. 30.
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51 and 52. These are the same speci
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65 66 67All the ova on this page ar
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,;^3ROTOZOA. ETC. IN THE STOOLS PLA
Page 323:
101 102101. This shows red staining
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