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index66, 74–77, 82–85, 87, 97, 99, 100, 136,157, 225; in historical memory, 250,253; and Indian labor, 97–99, 145;Indian resistance to, 99–107, 141–43;Indians’ perceptions of, 83–87; inNew Mexico, 66–68, 70–74, 77, 79,81–85, 87, 146; seek French help forTexas missions, 119–20Francis I (King of France), 32, 53Freeman, Thomas, 213Freitas, Nicolás de (fray), 69French and Indian War. See SevenYears’ WarFronteras presidio, 155Frontier (Spanish North American), 52;control of, as subject to Europeanevents, 148–52, 168, 202–3, 210–12,216–17; cultural transformation along,11, 85, 110, 221–42; different officialpolicies for different parts of, 208; hindrancesto expansion of, 55–56, 131,141–43, 146, 194, 263; in historicalmemory, 243–64; Indian labor as foundationof colonies on, 91; military conquestof, prohibited by monarchs, 82;missionaries as primary agents forexploration and pacification on, 60, 61,72, 81–83, 113, 191, 206, 226; official corruptionon, 96–97, 162; as opportunityfor social mobility, 236–39; as a placeof contention for power and resources,11; presidios’ ascendency over missionson, 157–59, 166, 174, 177; as a process ofexpansion and contraction, 9–10, 137,148–51, 155, 163, 165, 175, 177, 196–97,200, 210–12; sovereignty over, onlyguaranteed by occupation, 211; astranscontinental, 176–98. See alsoContention; Indian labor; Indians;Missionaries; Settlements; SoldiersFuentes, Francisco de, 99Fur trade, 106, 134, 137–39, 141, 147, 151,188, 206, 207, 210Gálvez, Bernardo de, 153, 169, 170, 174,196–97, 221, 239Gálvez, José de, 163, 167–71, 174, 177,180–82, 184, 189, 191, 194, 196, 202Garcés, Francisco (fray), 185, 187–90, 194Gassiot, Juan, 199Gayoso, Manuel de, 208, 239Genízaros, 226Georgia: English in, 135–37, 137; Indiansin, 205; memories of Spanish past in,254–56, 259; Spaniards in, 31–32, 41,74, 75Gibraltar, 133, 195, 198Gifts, 41; to Indians from Spaniards, 78,83, 86, 121, 169–71, 173–75, 187, 208,216. See also Trade goodsGodoy, Manuel, 202, 211, 212Gold, 14, 21–22, 28–29, 41, 44, 92, 132,144; absence of, as deterrent toSpanish expansion, 55, 133, 134Goliad (Texas), 246Gomes, Estevâo, 32González, Manuel, 226Grand Canyon, 37–38Great Northern Revolt, 102Greene, Jack, 202Grimaldi, marqués de, 179Guale mission (Florida), 74, 75, 85, 100,106, 107, 109, 135Guns. See WeaponsGutiérrez, Ramón, 7, 84Haiti. See Santo Domingo islandHapsburg monarchy, 108, 117. See alsoSpecific monarchsHarte, Bret, 248285

indexHasinai people, 113, 115, 119–21, 141, 142Havana. See CubaHavasupai Indians, 187Hawikku, 13–16, 15, 23, 37Henry, Patrick, 197Hezeta, Bruno de, 194Hidalgo, Francisco fray, 109, 119, 120Hispanophobia, 6, 244–47, 258, 263History: recreating, on its own terms,7–9; versions of Spain’s New World,243–64History of Florida (Fairbanks), 253Hohokam peoples, 17–18Holland, 118, 123, 177Hopi Pueblo, 37, 73, 104, 187, 224Horses: in California, 190; Indians’raids on, 157, 161; Indians’ uses of, 82,158, 222, 225; Spanish, as trade item,131, 147; Spanish introduction of, 5,10, 23–24, 37, 40, 46, 77, 222, 228Hoxie, Frederick, 18Huguenots. See ProtestantsHunting, fishing, and gathering, 17, 75,85, 232I’berville, Pierre LeMoyne, Sieur d’, 116Illinois country, 139, 147, 151, 197Immigration policies (Spanish), 206,207–8, 216Indian labor, 10–11, 28, 45, 66, 234; andassimilation, 94, 226; difficulty ofexploiting, 56, 97, 131, 133, 137; Englishrationalization of, 107; Indian resistancelinked to, 90, 91, 99–105; andmissionaries, 67, 71, 86, 90–99, 107,165; Spanish colonies’ dependenceon, 91–94, 97–99, 233. See alsoSlavery; SlavesIndians: alleged benefits of submissionto Spain by, 58; Anglo-Americans asthreat to, 208, 212; Cabeza de Vacaamong, 36; in California, 183, 192,226; captive, 28, 41, 94–95; “civilizing”(Hispanicizing) of, 76–78, 81, 88, 94;converted, as Spain’s responsibility,66; disease as killing, 5, 8–9, 24–25,28, 46, 71, 86–88, 115, 143, 192, 222–23,225, 228–29; efforts to re-make, astax-paying town-dwellers, 72, 78, 81,189, 226; English relations with, 10,86, 91, 92, 106, 109, 118, 134, 136, 139;European trade with, as key to NewWorld control, 131, 135, 141; Frenchrelations with, 110, 111–12, 118, 134, 139;humane treatment of, urged bySpanish monarchs, 7, 56, 59–60, 63,72, 92, 95–96, 159; as influence onSpanish institutions, 10–11, 241;memory of historical past of, 261,263; as outnumbering Spaniards inNorth America, 70, 200–201, 205;relations of, with other tribes, 84–86,91, 93, 94, 100, 105, 106, 126–27, 142 ,146, 156–58, 163, 168, 170–75, 208–9,212, 215–16; relations with Spaniards,as deterrent to Spanish expansion,55–56, 141–43, 194, 263; as resistingEnglish colonists, 92; as resistingSpanish missionaries and soldiers, 10,12, 15, 16, 39, 41, 47, 54–57, 55, 63–64,74, 77, 83–89, 99–105, 115, 120, 137,141–43, 157, 158, 179, 183–84, 189; asslaves, 56, 57, 94–97, 106, 107, 157,225; Spain’s attempts to win over,through trade, 168–71, 196, 200;Spain’s authorization of force against,56–57, 159–63, 166, 167–68, 170–73;Spaniards’ early dependence on,10–12, 39–40, 49, 58–59, 63, 74, 76, 78,91–94, 97–99, 119, 131, 183, 233;286

indexSpanish gifts to, 78, 83, 86, 121,169–71, 173–75, 187, 208, 216; Spanishhunters of slaves among, 16, 28–32,36, 41, 95, 157, 188; Spanish influenceon,5,10, 75–77, 221–24; in Spanishsocial order, 236–37; Spanish treatmentof, 6–8, 16, 39, 41, 56, 59, 63–64,83, 90–99, 157, 163, 173, 174, 183–84,189, 192, 238–40, 253; at their initialencounters with Spaniards, 16–18. Seealso Agriculture; Indian labor; Land;Languages; Missionaries; Missions;Pagans; Population; Soldiers;Women (Indian); Specific IndiangroupsIndies, 65, 81, 112, 177, 179, 191Indios bárbaros, 158, 159, 168, 173. Seealso Apache Indians; ComancheIndiansIndios de depósito, 94–95Inquisition, 99Instructions of 1786, 168Ipai Indians, 184Irving, Washington, 247Isabel (Queen of Spain), 18–20Iturbide, Agustín de, 218, 219Jackson, Andew, 218Jackson, Helen Hunt, 248Jamaica, 28Jamestown (Virginia), 64, 65, 74, 92Jefferson, Thomas, 213, 215Jekyll Island, 106Jémez Pueblo, 100, 223Jesuits, 54, 55, 74, 132, 224, 232; expulsionof, 180, 181, 185Jiménez, Fortún, 34José (King of Spain: Joseph Bonaparte),203, 216Juárez (Mexico). See Ciudad JuárezKadohadacho confederacy, 113Kansas City, 257, 258Karankawa Indians, 111–12, 115Kentucky, 201, 206Key Indians, 225Key West (Florida), 5King George’s War, 136King William’s War, 115Kiowa Indians, 226Kubler, George, 249Lafora, Nicolás de, 155, 156, 161Land: Anglo-Americans’ threats toSpanish, 199–203, 211–19; availabilityof, to Europeans due to Indians’ diseases,47, 228–29; encomenderos’seizure of Indians’, 93, 236; Europeanrituals for claiming, 29, 58; Indianviews of, 17; missionaries’, 98; questionof pope’s authority to distribute,53; royal permission needed toexplore and settle, 59–60; Spain’sacquisition of New World, comparedto imperial rivals’, 134; Spanishimpact on New World’s, 227–29, 241;threats to Indian, 212, 221–23. See alsoEnvironment; Indians; Missionaries;Settlements; SoldiersLanguages: Spaniards’ learning ofIndian, 44–45, 79, 120; variety of, inSpain, 18; variety of Indian, 17, 74,100, 101. See also Spanish languageLaredo (Texas), 145La Salle, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieurde, 29, 110–13, 115, 124–26León, Alonso de, 111–13, 115Leslie, John, 209, 216Leturiondo, Alonso de, 130Lewis, Meriwether, 213, 215Linares, duque de, 120287

indexLittle Ice Age, 8Livestock. See Domesticated animalsLong, James, 218–19López de Cárdenas, García, 37–39López de Mendizábal, Bernardo, 90Loreto (California), 191Los Adaes. See Nuestra Señora delPilar de Los Adaes presidio(Louisiana)Los Angeles (California), 34, 188, 190,191, 194, 226, 234, 237Louisiana, 140; Anglo-Americans in,207, 245; boundary issues concerning,213, 215–16; as consuming revenuefrom Spain, 151; France’s ownershipof, 212; French in, 117, 118–21, 124, 129,130–31, 138–41, 150–52, 169; missionsin, 120, 124; population in, 139, 151–52,202, 207; presidios in, 120, 124, 125,130–33, 145, 146, 155–56, 165, 215;Spain’s efforts to reclaim, 212–13;Spanish claims to, 110, 138; Spanishin, 29, 113, 124, 196, 215, 237; Spanishownership of, 148–51, 165, 196–97,200; United States buys, fromFrance, 212. See also MississippiRiver; New OrleansLouis XIV (King of France), 110, 118, 119Louis XVI (King of France), 202, 211Lowenthal, David, 7, 243Luján, Juana, 228, 229, 233Lummis, Charles, 251Madison, James, 217Magellan, Ferdinand, 33Maine, 30, 32Malaspina, Alejandro, 210Mallet, Pierre and Paul, 147–48Manchac fort, 197Manifest destiny, 201, 242Manso Indians, 67–68Maps: lack of Spanish, 44, 62, 111María Luisa (Queen of Spain), 202Marques Cabrera, Juan, 98Marriage, 238–40. See also SexualbehaviorMartínez, Esteban José, 210Martínez, Oscar, 240Martyr, Peter, 32Matagorda Bay, 111, 115, 124Matanzas (Florida), 49Mazanet, Damián, 113, 115, 119McWilliams, Carey, 260Melons, 10, 77, 113, 222, 227, 232Mendoza, Antonio de, 13, 34, 36–37,83–84Menéndez de Avilés, Pedro, 48–50, 50,53–58, 60, 61, 64–66, 68, 74, 79, 92,236, 245Mercantilism. See TradeMestizos, 5–6, 46, 81, 236–37, 244, 260Metal (Spanish): chains of, 41; clothingof, 13, 14, 16; introduction of, toIndians, 10, 77, 223; tools of, 208, 226;weapons of, 13, 14, 23, 28. See alsoGold; SilverMexican Americans, 260–63, 262Mexican-American War, 220, 245–46,262–63Mexico: civilizations in, 25, 33, 35, 41;Franciscans in, 70–71; French relationswith, 110, 119; independence of,from Spain, 3, 218–20, 245; Indianrebellions in, 102; Indians in, 56; roadsfrom North America to, 54; Spanishexploration from, 32–35, 39; U.S. invasionof, 220, 245–46, 262, 263. See alsoNew Spain; Specific places inMexico City, 36, 37, 39, 54, 61, 123, 132,146, 185, 187288

indexNatchez Indians, 113Natchitoches, 113, 119, 120–21, 124, 130,138, 139Nations of the North, 157, 163, 165, 168,171Navajo Indians, 10, 94, 100, 105, 146,171–73, 175Neah Bay (Washington), 211Neutral Ground Agreement, 216Neve, Felipe de, 168, 191–92New Mexico: Anglo-American explorationof, 215; as colony of theCrown, 65, 68; as consuming Spanishrevenue, 65–66, 81, 133, 155; efforts toreconquer Pueblos in, 102–5, 115, 126;farming and ranching in, 175; Frenchas threat to Spanish, 110, 125–28;Indian labor in, 91–99; Indian landin, 221–22; Indian resistance in,100–105, 109; memories of Spanishpast in, 252–53; missions and missionariesin, 66–74, 77, 79, 81–85, 87,98, 99, 146, 157; presidios in, 67,153–57, 154, 155, 158, 160, 161, 164; slaveryin, 95, 98; Spanish colonies’demise in, 90–91, 99–105; Spanishexploration of, 14, 17, 39; Spanish settlementof, 50, 57–64, 67, 158; tradein, 147–48; United States seizes, fromMexico, 245. See also Pueblo IndiansNew Orleans (Louisiana), 2, 131, 139;Spanish landmarks in, 1–2, 233, 234,247, 256; Spanish ownership of,149–51, 196, 198New Spain: and administration of interiorprovinces of North America, 65,156, 157, 163, 166–68, 174, 177, 189, 200,219–20; defenses of, 155–57, 212, 216;explorations from, 60; French interestin, 110, 116, 120; immigrants from,230; mining in, 59, 95, 110, 111, 116,144–45, 202; northern boundary disputesof, 211–13, 214, 215–16, 218,219–20; population of, 146, 201; proposalsto exterminate Indians in, 56;as prosperous Spanish colony, 202;1810 rebellion in, 219; repartimientoin, 94; Spanish opportunities in, 236;trade goods for, 132New World: first encounters in, 26–47;missionaries as primary agents forexploration and pacification in, 60,61, 72, 81–83, 113, 191, 206, 226; socialstatus in Spanish, 236–40; Spain’sclaims to, 10, 18–20, 44, 53, 81, 106,112; Spanish influence on, 221–24, 259.See also Frontier; North AmericaNixoras, 226Niza, Marcos de (fray), 36–37Nogales presidio (Vicksburg), 235Nootka Convention, 210–11Nootka Sound, 185, 210North America: defined, 6; Spain’sempire in, 3, 243. See also Explorers;Frontier; Indians; Missionaries; NewWorld; Soldiers; Specific places inNorthwest Passage, 54. See also Asia:Spain’s search for new way toNovick, Peter, 264Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe mission(Ciudad Juárez), 68, 73, 102Nuestra Señora de la Bahía de EspírituSanto presidio (Texas), 125, 145, 146,160, 164, 239Nuestra Señora de la Luz deOrcoquisac mission (Texas), 138Nuestra Señora del Pilar de Los Adaespresidio (Louisiana), 124, 125, 130–33,145, 146, 155–56, 165, 215Nuevo Santander, 145290

indexObregón, Baltasar, 69O’Conor, Hugo, 164–68Oglethorpe, James, 136Oklahoma, 140Oñate, Juan de, 48, 50, 57–66, 68, 70, 92,227, 231, 236O’Neill, Arturo, 203Onís, Luis de, 218O’odham Indians. See Pima IndiansOpata Indians, 173Oraibi, 187, 188Orders for New Discoveries (1573), 59,60, 63, 72, 78, 82, 159, 233–34Ordóñez de Montalvo, García, 34Oregon country, 218O’Reilly, Alejandro, 150–51, 164Orista Indians, 57Ortiz Parrilla, Diego, 130, 142–43Otermín, Antonio de, 102, 104Oto Indians, 127Pacific Coast: California presidios forprotection of, 164; Oñate’s efforts toreach, 62–63; Spanish claims to, 177,194, 210; Spanish exploration of,32–36, 44, 210–11Pagans: Spanish view of, as inferiorbeings, 19, 20, 70, 76–77, 159, 192. Seealso IndiansPalma, Salvador, 189Panama-California Exposition (1915), 256Panton, William, 209, 216Pardo, Juan, 54Paul III (Pope), 70Pawnee Indians, 126, 127Pearls, 41, 42Pecos Pueblo, 38, 39, 73, 104, 221–23Peninsulares, 236Pensacola (Florida): founding of, 67,234; French attack on, 123–24, 126,128–29; Indians in, 123; population of,145; presidios in, 158; Spaniards in, 1,112, 115–17, 117, 118, 129, 197, 197, 205,256; trade in, 133, 209; United Statestakes, 218; West Florida governedfrom, 203, 205, 208Peralta, Pedro de, 67Perea, Estevan de (fray), 69–70, 72, 82Pérez, Ignacio, 218Pérez, Juan, 184, 185Peru, 35, 44, 236Philippines, 33, 62–63, 66, 149Pigs, 24, 40, 46, 77, 232Pike, Zebulon, 215Pima Indians (O’odham Indians), 2,107, 158, 165, 173, 179, 225–26Pimería Alta (Arizona), 132, 185, 192Pinckney’s Treaty, 211–12Pirates, 50, 60, 62, 66, 123, 131Pius V (Pope), 79Pizarro, Francisco, 22Polygamy, 54, 87Pomeroy, Earl, 259Ponce de León, Antonio, 90Ponce de León, Juan, 3, 28–29, 35, 43,254, 255, 264Popé, 101Popes, 15, 19, 20, 53, 70, 79, 81, 112Population: in California, 194; English,in the New World, 135, 137, 201; inFlorida, 136–37; Indian, compared toSpanish, 70, 200–201, 205; Indian, inNew Spain, 201; in Louisiana, 139,151–52, 202, 207; of mission Indians,143, 192–93; in New Mexico, 145, 146;in Nuevo Santander, 145; of PimaIndians, 225; of Pueblo Indians, 86,104, 222–23; in Texas, 144, 145; ofUnited States, 201Portolá, Gaspar de, 180–84291

indexPortugal, 19, 180Posada, Alfonso de (fray), 153Powhatan (Indian chief ), 54Prescott, William H., 247Presidios, 4; in Arizona, 158, 164–65;ascendency of, over missions onSpain’s North American frontier,157–63, 166, 174, 177; in California, 164,179–83, 187, 189–91, 194, 208, 235, 238;financial support for, 98; in Florida, 1,2, 49, 90–91, 106, 117, 118, 123, 136,137–38, 158, 200, 205, 209, 218, 237–38;haphazard development of, 12, 157,158–59, 234–35; impracticality of, 206;in Louisiana, 120, 124, 125, 130–33, 145,146, 155–56, 215; in New Mexico, 67,153–57, 154, 155, 158, 160, 161, 164; newregulations for, 159–63; in Texas, 107,121, 122, 124–25, 125, 138, 142–43, 145,146, 155, 156, 158, 160, 162, 164–66, 189,239. See also SoldiersProtector of Indians Office (Spain), 96Protestants, 49–50, 53, 54, 207Pueblo Indians: and Coronado, 16–17, 37,38–39; and Franciscans, 66, 67, 72–73,76, 81, 84, 87, 88, 99–100; locations of,71, 72–73; and Oñate, 58–59, 62, 63–64,236; population of, 46, 86, 104, 222–23;and Rodríguez, 60; sexual views of, 84,87; as Spanish allies, 126–27, 146, 171;Spanish efforts to reconquer, 102–5,115; Spanish influence on, 73, 221–23,227; tribute collected from, 92–93. Seealso Pueblo Revolt; Specific pueblosPueblo Revolt, 90, 100–102, 104–5, 109,146, 158, 187Puerto Rico, 28, 29Quapaw Indians, 139Quarai Pueblo, 223Quebec (Canada), 65, 111Quechan Indians. See Yuma IndiansQueen Anne’s War, 106, 118Quivera, 39, 59, 61, 64Ramón, Domingo, 119, 120–21, 124, 144Ranching, 144–45, 157, 173, 228Rancho de San Antonio (NewMexico), 229Rebolledo, Diego de, 98Reconquista, 19, 20, 22Regulations of 1729, 159Regulations of 1772, 159–68, 170, 191Religion: of Indians, 17, 20–21, 227; missionaries’disparaging of Indians’, 70,79, 82–83, 87, 88, 99, 100–101, 104, 134;of Spaniards, 14–15, 19; tolerance ofdifferences in, 208. See alsoCatholicism; ProtestantsRengel, José Antonio, 168Repartimiento de indios, 94–96Requerimiento, 5, 16, 20, 58Rescate, 94, 95Reservations, 173–74Residencias, 96–97Revillagigedo (Viceroy), 159Ribero, Diego, 32, 33Ricard, Robert, 72Rivera, Pedro de, 159Rivera y Moncada, Fernando, 189–91Roanoke (Virginia), 61, 92Rodríguez, Agustín, 59–60Romances (novels), 22, 34Rosas, Luis de, 99Rubí, Marqués de, 153, 155, 156–61,163–68, 177, 179Russia, 10, 108, 177, 179, 181–83St.Augustine (Florida), 129, 198; Anglo-Americans in, 200–201; East Florida292

indexgoverned from, 203; English attackson, 106, 107, 118, 123; Indians in, 123,208; memories of Spanish past in, 254,260; population of, in 18th century,145, 191; Spanish landmarks in, 1, 200,256; Spanish settlement of, 48–50,53–55, 57, 67, 68, 81, 136, 137–38, 158, 232,234, 236–38; trade in, 109, 131, 133,206–7. See also San Marcos castilloSaint-Denis, Louis Juchereau de,119–20, 138, 139, 141Ste. Genevieve, 139, 151St.Louis (Missouri), 139, 151, 197Salazar, Antonio, 237Salcedo, Nemesio, 215–16San Agustín de Ahumada presidio(Texas), 138, 165San Antonio (brigantine), 181, 182, 184San Antonio (Texas), 2, 142, 143, 165, 175,234, 241; Canary Islanders in, 144–45,236; missions near, 115, 121, 122, 124,132, 141–43; names for, 144; presidionear, 121, 122, 124, 146, 160, 164San Antonio de Béjar presidio (SanAntonio), 121, 122, 124, 146, 160, 164San Antonio de Valero mission (SanAntonio), 121, 122, 143San Carlos (brigantine), 181, 184San Carlos de Borromeo de Carmelomission (California), 250–51San Carlos mission (Monterey,California), 182Sánchez Navarro, Manuela, 120San Diego (California), 34, 62–63, 179,181, 182; presidio at, 164, 181, 183, 190,191, 194, 235; Spanish settlements at,177, 241San Diego de Alcalá mission (SanDiego, California), 182, 184San Felipe fort (South Carolina), 54San Fernando de las Barrancas fort, 209San Fernando presidio (Memphis),209, 235San Francisco (California), 62, 177, 182,237; presidio at, 187, 190, 191, 194, 235San Francisco de Asís mission (SanFrancisco, California), 190San Francisco de los Dolores presidio(Louisiana), 120San Gabriel (New Mexico), 59, 64, 67San Gabriel mission (California), 185,187, 190San Ildefonso Pueblo, 229San Ildefonso Treaty, 212San Jacinto (Texas), 246San José (California), 190, 191, 194, 226,234, 237San José (ship), 181–82, 184San José mission (San Antonio), 237San Juan Bautista (Mexico), 119, 120,124San Juan Pueblo (New Mexico), 58–59,62San Luis de Amarillas presidio (Texas),142San Marcos castillo (near St.Augustine), 1, 2, 90–91, 106, 118, 136,158, 200, 205San Marcos de Apalachee fort(Florida), 123, 205, 209, 218, 238San Mateo fort (Florida), 49San Miguel de Gualdape (Georgia),31–32San Miguel de los Adaes mission(Louisiana), 120, 124San Sabá presidio (Texas), 107, 142–43,160, 162, 166, 189Santa Bárbara (Mexico), 59Santa Barbara presidio (California),190–91, 194, 235, 238293

indexSanta Catalina Island, 34, 106Santa Cruz de la Cañada (NewMexico), 146, 229Santa Cruz de San Sabá mission(Texas), 142–43Santa Cruz mission (California), 194Santa Elena (South Carolina), 53–55, 57,67, 232, 236Santa Fe (New Mexico), 215, 248;French traders near, 126–27; Indiansin, 102, 104; missionaries in, 69–72,81, 98; presidio at, 155, 158, 160, 161,164; Spanish landmarks in, 2, 3, 233,252; Spanish settlement of, 59, 67, 68,146, 235; trade in, 132, 147–48; trails to,61, 148, 175, 187–88, 215Santa Fe Festival, 253, 254Santa Fe Railroad, 252Santa Fe Trail, 61, 148, 175, 215Santo Domingo island (later, Haiti),111, 116, 152Santo Domingo Pueblo (New Mexico),58San Xavier del Bac mission (Arizona),2, 4, 185, 233, 236Seloy (Florida Indian village), 49Seminole Indians. See Creek IndiansLas Serges de Esplandián (Ordóñez deMontalvo), 34Seri Indians, 179Serra, Junípero (fray), 181–83, 192Settlements (towns): in California, 190,193; civilian, and Indian labor, 11–12;French trading posts in Indian, 139;Indian, 13–17, 40, 48–49, 58–59, 70,74–76, 76, 113; segregation in Spanish,81, 142, 191–92, 226; Spaniards asmoving into Indian, 49, 58–59, 74, 76,78, 92; Spanish, 10–12, 31–32, 121, 131,233–34; transformation of Apachesinto dwellers of, 173; transformationof Indian, due to disease, 46–47, 83.See also Missions; Villa(s); Specifictowns and pueblosSeven Years’ War, 149, 155, 159, 195, 200Sexual behavior: of Indians, 54, 69, 79,84, 87; of missionaries, 70, 79, 84, 87,99; of soldiers, 82, 142, 183, 192,238–40Shawnee Indians, 205, 216Sheep, 5, 10, 77, 222, 228, 232Ships and boats: American, 207; bountyfrom sunken, 51, 53; California as usefulto, from Philippines, 62; French,49; pirate attacks on, 51, 62; Spanish,23, 24, 31, 33–35, 40, 43, 61, 65, 110, 118,132, 133, 181–82, 194, 206; Spanish,forbidden to land in Gulf ports, 132,141Silver, 14, 21–22, 41, 54, 59, 92, 110, 133,134, 144, 147Slavery, 8, 20, 91, 95. See also Indianlabor; SlavesSlaves: black, 16, 31, 67, 95, 135–37, 139,198, 201; English hunters of Indian,86, 106; Esteban as, 16, 36; European,36; fugitive, 205, 216; Indians as,94–96, 107, 157, 225; Indians’ use of,95; selling of Indians as, 56, 57, 95, 97,106; Spanish hunters of Indian, 16,28–32, 36, 41, 95, 157, 188; trade in, inNew Mexico, 147. See also IndianlaborSmallpox, 24, 25, 86, 115Smuggling. See Trade: illegalSola, Vicente, 219Soldados de cuera, 161, 162, 167, 195Soldiers (Spanish): in California, 190;clothing of, 13, 14, 16, 161, 162, 167,195; dissatisfaction among, 63, 66–67,294

index162; in Florida, 93, 116–17, 158, 205,237–38; as helpless against Apaches,155; about horses, 24; Indians asresisting missionaries and, 10, 12, 15,16, 39, 41, 47, 54–57, 55, 63–64, 74, 77,83–89, 99–105, 115, 120, 137, 141–43,157, 158, 179, 183–84, 189; inefficiencyand reform of, 158–59, 162, 164,167–68, 174, 177, 179, 202; missionariesand, 81–84, 115, 180; in New Mexico,147; requests for more, 167, 168; socialmobility of, 237–38; in Texas, 146;treatment of Indians by, 10, 16, 39, 41,56, 59, 63–64, 99, 157, 163, 173, 174,183–84, 192, 253. See also PresidiosSouth Carolina, 139; English raiders onFlorida from, 105–7, 109, 118, 129, 131;expansion of, 108, 135, 137; French settlementsin, 53, 54; Indian attacks on,123; missions and missionaries in, 74,75; Spanish exploration of, 31, 41;Spanish settlement of, 53–55, 57, 67,232, 236Spain: animals, grasses, and diseasesintroduced by, 5, 10, 23–25, 86; architecturalevidence of, in NorthAmerica, 1–4, 233–35, 249–52, 253,254–56; benefits to Indians of submittingto, 58; and Catholic Church,15, 81, 97–99, 180; claims of, to NorthAmerica, 10, 18–20, 44, 53, 65, 81, 106,112; considers abandoning its colonizationefforts, 65, 66; Crown of, asadministering interior provinces ofNew Spain, 167–68, 174; differentpolicies of, for different NorthAmerican regions, 166; expenses ofNorth American empire of, 65, 81,133, 135, 137, 144, 146, 149, 151; geographicnames from, 4–5, 241, 247,257; Indian policies of, 7, 15, 19–20, 54,56–57, 63, 70–72, 81, 82, 92, 95–96,159–63, 166–73, 191, 192, 196, 200,208–9, 222, 226; Indian visitors to, 31,54; influence of, on Indians, 5, 10, 73,75–77, 94, 221–27; legacy of, as lingeringin American historical memory,243–64; length of time and extent ofits North American empire, 3; loss ofNorth American empire by, 3,199–220, 264; maps of exploration by,44, 62, 111; policies of, toward imperialrivals, 112–17; religious conversionas a New World goal of, 15, 19–20, 54,56, 59, 70–71, 81, 191, 192, 226; asrequiring missionaries to learnIndian languages, 79; restrictive commercialpolicies of, 131–33, 141, 145,150, 151, 202, 211, 216; as seeking toinclude Indians in settlements establishedby, 10; strengthening of NorthAmerican presidios by, 153–75; trialsin, for crimes against Indians, 39, 98;unification of, 18–19; war of, withEngland, 168, 189, 194, 195–97, 202–3;war of, with United States, 247, 249.See also England; Explorers; France;Missionaries; New Spain; NewWorld; Soldiers; Spaniards; Specificmonarchs and representatives ofSpaniards: alleged racial superiority of,19, 20, 70, 76–77, 159, 192, 237; as badinfluence on Indians, 79, 81, 82, 87, 99,142, 173, 183, 192, 238; culture of, attheir first encounter with Indians,18–22, 24; English and Anglo-American views of, 244; Indian influenceon, 229–36; as a term, 5. See alsoCatholicism; Explorers; Missionaries;Soldiers; Specific individuals295

indexSpanish-American War (1898), 247, 249Spanish language (Castilian), 15, 16, 79,101, 120, 151, 221, 222, 225Spanish revival architecture, 256–58Squash (gourds), 17, 40, 63, 113, 232Strait of Anián, 54Taos Pueblo, 67, 100, 101, 132Taovaya Indians, 143Tarabal, Sebastián, 185, 187Tascaloosa (Choctaw chief ), 42Technology, 22–23. See also Metal;WeaponsTennessee, 41, 206Tenochtitlán, 25, 33Terrenate presidio, 155, 164–65Tewa villages (New Mexico), 100Texas, 140; as failing to attract Spanishcolonists, 144; farming and ranching’sexpansion in, 175; French in, 109–12,124–26, 130–31, 141; memories ofSpanish past in, 244–47; missionariesin, 113, 115, 119–20, 141–43, 158; missionsin, 115, 121, 122, 124, 132, 138, 141–43, 192,237; naming of, 113; presidios in, 107,121, 122, 124–25, 125, 138, 142–43, 145,146, 155, 156, 158, 160, 162, 164–66, 189,239; Spanish explorers in, 26, 30, 36,39, 43, 236; Spanish outposts in, 112–13,114, 119–21; Spanish reclaiming of, 124;and Spanish trade, 132; United States’claims to, 213, 215–16, 218–19, 245–47.See also Specific places inTexas and the Texians (Foote), 246–47Thomas, Alfred Barnaby, 259Timucuan Indians, 41, 42, 49, 56, 74, 75,76, 80, 86, 100Timucuan mission (Florida), 74, 100,106, 107Tonkawa Indians, 142Tovar, Pedro de, 37Towns. See SettlementsTrade: Anglo-American, 202, 242; controlof, as more important than territory,134; English, in New World, 131,133–36, 165–66, 207, 209; French, inNew World, 107, 108, 119, 121, 126–27,130–31, 133–35, 138–43, 147–48, 206–7;illegal, 66, 119, 131–33, 147, 150, 151,165, 196, 206–7, 216, 219; with Indiansas key to New World control, during18th century, 131, 135, 141; Spanish,with French, 206–7; Spanish, withIndians, 135, 147, 168–71, 174, 175, 196,200, 205, 216, 225; Spanish restrictionson, 131–33, 141, 145, 150, 151, 202,211, 216. See also Fur trade; TradegoodsTrade goods: English use of, withIndians, 106–8, 130; French use of,with Indians, 107, 108, 121, 126, 130,131, 134, 141–43, 148; Spain’s lack of,131–33, 141, 175; Spain’s use of, withIndians, 172, 208–9. See also Gifts;Specific trade goodsTrade routes: to California, 107, 165,184, 185, 186, 187; development of new,175; of fur trade, 139, 141; Indian, 17,23; official Spanish overland, 132, 141,148, 155. See also Santa Fe TrailTreaties: as cornerstone of new Indianpolicy, 170–71, 208, 209Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, 136Treaty of Fontainebleau, 148–49Treaty of Nogales, 209Treaty of Paris (1763), 149, 150, 205Treaty of Paris (1783), 205Treaty of Ryswick, 115–16Treaty of San Lorenzo del Escorial,211–12296

indexTribute (from Indians), 92–94, 97, 98,101. See also Encomienda systemTubac presidio, 155, 158, 160, 165, 185Tucson (Arizona), 2, 157, 165, 175, 235–36Tumacácori mission, 228“The Turk,” 39Turkeys, 16Ugarte, Jacobo de, 169, 173Ulloa, Antonio de, 150, 151, 155Ulloa, Francisco de, 34, 36United States: acquires Louisiana andFlorida, 207–8, 212–13; advantages of,over Spain as imperial power, 242;annexes Texas and California, 220;frontier linked to national identity of,10; Indian reservations of, 174; invasionof Mexico by, 220, 245–46,262–63; Spain’s disputed boundarywith, 204, 211–16, 218; as Spain’s imperialrival, 10, 108, 199, 201, 242;Spanish forts strengthened against,156; Spanish Louisiana and Florida asdependent on, 207; takes Mobile, 217;Texas and Florida ceded to, 213,217–18; as threat to Indians, 208,212. See also American Revolution;Anglo-Americans; Atlantic Coast;Pacific Coast; Spanish-AmericanWarUniversity of California (Berkeley), 258Urdaneta, Andrés de, 62Utah, 188Ute Indians, 94, 105, 126, 146Valero, marqués de (Viceroy), 121, 126Valverde y Cosío, Antonio, 126Vargas, Diego de, 102–4, 103, 126, 158Velasco, Luis de (Algonquian), 54Velasco, Luis de (Captain), 231Velasco, Luis de (Viceroy), 60, 61, 91,237Vélez Cachupín, Tomás, 169Vélez de Escalante, Silvestre (fray), 188,194Venice (California), 249Veracruz (Mexico), 132, 167Verrazzano, Giovanni da, 32Vial, Pedro, 175, 215Villa(s), 121, 144, 146, 194, 234Villasur, Pedro de, 126–27, 128Virginia, 65, 74Visitas, 78Vizcaíno, Sebastián, 62–63, 179, 182War of 1812, 217War of Austrian Succession, 136War of Jenkins’ Ear, 136, 137, 138War of the Quadruple Alliance, 123, 125,126, 128, 133, 138War of the Spanish Succession, 118, 119,123Weapons: of Indians, 15, 82, 134, 152, 157,158, 165–66, 208, 223, 226; missionariesas not having, 70, 141; selling of, toIndians by English, 106–8, 134, 135,165–66; selling of, to Indians byFrench, 126, 131, 134, 141, 142–43, 148;Spain’s allowing, to be sold toIndians, 169, 170, 172; of Spaniards,15–16, 23, 28, 68, 131; Spaniards as selling,to Indians, 135, 147, 165–66, 169,170, 172, 189; Spanish policy of notselling, to Indians, 134; Spanishsmuggling of, to Anglo-Americans,196. See also MetalWebb, Walter Prescott, 260White Legend, 6Whitman, Walt, 1, 248Wichita Indians, 39, 61, 143, 157297

index“Wild Geese,” 164Wilkinson, James, 215Winyah Bay (South Carolina), 31Wolf, Eric, 10Women (Indian): assimilation of, intoSpanish society, 226, 238; Spaniards’treatment of, 16, 39, 41, 42, 93, 95, 99,163, 183, 192, 238–40; in Spanishromance, 34; work done by, 72, 226,232Women (Spanish): property of, 229–30,239; with Spanish explorers, 37, 40,43; with Spanish settlers, 61, 231,238World Columbian Exposition (1893), 250Yamasee Indians, 106, 123, 135, 205Yamasee War, 123, 135Yamparika Indians, 171Yavapai Indians, 187Yuchi Indians, 205Yuma Indians (Quechan Indians), 17,107, 185, 188–90Yuma rebellion (1781), 188–90, 194Yúngé Pueblo, 59Yupe Indians, 171Zacatecas (Mexico), 54, 59, 60Zaldívar, Juan de, 63Zaldívar, Vicente, 63Zelinsky, Wilbur, 241Zéspedes, Vicente Manuel de, 199–200,203, 208, 209, 238Zúñiga, José de, 175, 235–36Zúñiga y Cerda, Joseph de, 109, 129Zuni Pueblo: initial encountersbetween Indians and Spaniards at,13–16, 20, 21, 37, 38; missions among,73, 73, 100, 188; and Pueblo rebellions,104298