UIAA-Handbook_FLIP__

Introduction 

A handbook for field use 

I have met many climbers from around the world 

who told me that they acquired their basic technical 

knowledge by studying the drawings in Petzl catalogues. 

These catalogues have always offered a wealth 

of information. 

When Jean-Jacques Eleouet, first secretary 

general of the Petzl Foundation (established in 

2005), approached me to develop a handbook 

based on these illustrations, I was immediately on 

board. The text would be secondary. Ideally anyone, 

regardless of his or her origins, education or level of 

literacy, could use the handbook. Thus we created a 

first draft. It was put to the test during sessions in 

Nepal, organized in collaboration with the Nepal 

Mountaineering Association, the Petzl Foundation 

and the International Mountaineering and Climbing 

Federation (UIAA). 

The handbook was very well received, and the 

child has since grown into an adolescent. Fueled 

by the enthusiasm of the Petzl Foundation, which 

secured the motivated collaboration of the UIAA’s 

Mountaineering Commission, the handbook has 

evolved and attracted input from other organizations 

with first-rate “know-how.” The current Englishlanguage 

version is the most elaborate to date, but it 

is still a work in progress. The document will continue 

evolving and expanding to cover other aspects of the 

alpine world. 

This handbook is a compendium of the essential 

skills one must acquire in order to become a 

hiking, climbing or mountaineering volunteer leader. 

This is by no means a bible! This work is neither 

exhaustive nor compulsory. A number of prominent 

UIAA-member climbing federations have produced 

more detailed, more complex and more advanced 

manuals. It is not the intent of this handbook to 

I

supplant these works. Of course, there is more than 

one way to do things, and every person has his or 

her preferred method. One could discuss the merits 

of one technique over another, but that is not the 

intent of this handbook. There is no one sole UIAAapproved 

technique. 

This handbook is designed for practical applications. 

It is a field guide intended to reinforce lessons 

already learned yet not fully assimilated. It is offered 

as one reference among many to any federation 

wishing to follow the “Training Standards” we have 

developed in the UIAA Mountaineering Commission. 

These standards target primarily member-organization 

volunteers who are eager to increase their 

technical knowledge and skills, and reduce the 

risks inherent to mountaineering. The commission’s 

founding text uses the term “voluntary leaders.” 

This is part of the framework that also includes the 

handbook. 

The handbook’s diagrams combined with its 

simplicity make it an invaluable and readily accessible 

tool for use on all continents. Consequently, it facilitates 

technical communication between climbers 

and mountaineers of all origins and from all walks of 

life. 

To all of you who use the handbook, whatever 

your home country, I wish you grand mountain 

adventures. May we undertake them in perfect 

command of the dangers we so willingly court, 

accepting these dangers without naiveté, but above 

all never imposing them upon those not fully aware 

of their existence. 

Pierre Humblet 

President of the Mountaineering Commission 

The International Mountaineering 

and Climbing Federation (UIAA) 

II

Warning 

The practice of alpine activities and the 

use of technical equipment are inherently 

dangerous and may result in severe injury 

or death. Specific training by a qualified 

instructor on the use of technical equipment 

is essential. You are responsible for your own 

actions and decisions. 

This handbook is intended for hikers, climbers 

and mountaineers who wish to expand the 

practice of their favourite activity by acquiring 

additional skills and knowledge. It has been 

developed specifically as a reference for 

instructors and future trip leaders in clubs and 

mountain organizations within the International 

Mountaineering and Climbing Federation. To 

name the trainees or the mountaineers, the 

pronouns «he» or «she» will be used alternately 

throughout the book randomly without gender 

stereotype. 

The handbook does not pretend to provide 

the only acceptable, nor the best, techniques. 

Techniques other than those recommended 

here may be equally valid or required at some 

future date. Individual practitioners’ physical 

skills and coordination also have their limits, 

potentially requiring more complete risk 

analyses in certain cases. The purpose of 

this handbook is to present tried-and-true 

techniques that can be learned and mastered 

Caution! 

only through formal training. Despite the care 

with which this handbook has been compiled, 

it may contain errors or inaccuracies, making 

a critical eye and professional mentoring 

indispensable. 

In the margins beside the illustrations, 

the danger sign draws the reader’s attention 

to any maneuver or incorrect equipment 

usage that could result in injurious or fatal 

consequences. 

The information provided is not exhaustive. 

Consult each manufacturer’s product manual 

for any recommended piece of equipment. 

Everyone is responsible for his or her 

actions and decisions. Before heading into the 

mountains and using technical equipment, 

each participant must: 

– Read and understand all instructions pertaining 

to proper equipment use; 

– Receive proper training on how to use the 

equipment; 

– Familiarize him- or herself with the 

equipment; know its performance capabilities 

and limitations; and, 

– Understand and accept all risks associated 

with the use of this equipment. 

Ignoring any of the above warnings may 

result in severe or fatal injuries. 

© UIAA - Petzl Foundation 

First English Edition – Legal registration, Septembre 2013 

ISBN 978-0-920330-69-2 

Rights: All rights reserved by UIAA and Petzl Foundation. 

Partial or complete reproduction of this work via printing, electronic or mechanical 

duplication of any kind is strictly prohibited. Authorization for the reproduction or 

use of the text or illustration is provided by the Petzl Foundation. 

Contributor on page 330. 

Printed in Canada by McCallum Printing Group Inc. 

Cover photo: Jean-François Hagenmuller. 

Alpinists climbing the Aiguille D’Argentière, Mont-Blanc, France. 

V

Priority to education 

It has long been my desire to establish a foundation 

to give back to the climbing and mountaineering 

community that for so long has sustained us. 

Through the Petzl Foundation, established in 2005, 

we now do tangible work for the benefit of our 

community. 

In concert with the development of our equipment, 

Petzl has always focused on education and the 

mitigation of risk inherent to vertical activities. Since 

the beginning, we have established a well-defined 

process that summarizes essential user information 

through our iconic technical illustrations. 

Today, the Petzl Foundation breaks new ground 

by supporting the creation of this handbook and 

ensuring its widespread distribution. This handson, 

user-friendly document represents knowledge 

collected by Petzl over more than 30 years, and is 

supplemented by tried-and-true techniques from 

mountaineering clubs and organizations around the 

world. It also builds on work previously performed 

by CNISAG (Centre national d’instruction au ski et 

à l’alpinisme de la gendarmerie) instructors. We 

wish to recognize and thank all the instructors 

and volunteers whose efforts have gone into this 

important reference book. 

We’re excited about helping those who wish to 

expand their knowledge of the mountain world, 

to better face its risks. 

I wish you all a lifetime of amazing adventures! 

Preface 

Paul Petzl 

President 

The Petzl Foundation 

To learn more about the foundation: 

www.petzl-foundation.org 

VI

Basic 

Basic knowledge 

Over the last two centuries, the mountains have become 

a playground, where city dwellers come to reconnect with 

the wildness of nature. A fragile, dynamic and sometimes 

dangerous environment, the mountains are an endless source 

of wonder. Apart from learning alpine skills, our enjoyment 

of and safety in this environment grow through the close 

relationship that we cultivate with it. This first section provides 

the knowledge foundation necessary to better understand 

and respect the mountain environment. Before becoming a 

hiker, mountaineer or climber, it is important that you first 

understand the mountains. 

Do not use withou 

knowledge

A Environment 

B 

Leading a Group 

t prior agreement 

C 

to 

Adapting 

the Environment 

D 

Rescue

A.1.1 

Altitudinal Zonation 

In the mountains, the distribution of 

animal and plant life is delineated by 

climate. At higher altitudes, the air 

pressure diminishes and it is colder; 

meanwhile, vegetation and animal 

species differ with both altitude and 

slope exposure (shade or sunlight). 

This is known as “altitudinal zonation.” 

Geographers distinguish among five 

different levels or zones in the Alps and 

also in the Himalayas (see below). 

As we gain elevation, the trees become 

shorter. They adapt to colder and 

harsher conditions. However, depending 

on the latitude, zones do not begin at 

the same altitude from one mountain to 

the next, and might even be inhabited 

by different wildlife species. This can 

be explained by differences in climate, 

mountain features and each mountain’s 

geographical location. 

Alps 

(Mont Blanc 4,807 m) 

Snow Line 

> Evergreen forest 

> Evergreen and deciduous forests 

> Deciduous forest, cultivation, permanent habitation 

Snow 

Zone 

3,000 m 

> Alpine tundra 

Alpine Zone 

2,200 m 

Subalpine Zone 

1,600 m 

Mountain Zone 

900 m 


Foothill Zone 

8 -

Gaining altitude is comparable to crossing 

one of the earth’s parallels. In the 

Alps, if you start in cultivated hills at 

900 meters and summit a glaciated peak 

topping 3,500 meters, you will have 

crossed all of Europe’s climatic zones: 

from the Mediterranean to the arctic 

climate of Northern Europe. 

Himalayas 

(Mount Everest 8,850 m) 

Snow Zone 

5,000 m 

To simplify: every 100 meters you gain 

in altitude is equivalent to traveling 

100 km north in the northern hemisphere, 

or 100 km south in the southern 

hemisphere. 

6,000 m : Last sign of vegetation 


5,200 m : Limit of permanent Snow line 

> Herding 

Alpine Zone 

3,900 m 

Subalpine Zone 

3,200 m 

2,600 m 

> Evergreen forest 

> Oak forest 

Temperate forest formation 

2,000 m 

> Hygrophilous oak grove 

900 m 

> Subtropical rainforest 

Rainforest Tropical and subtropical formations 

> Rainforest Tropical 

Handbook > Basic Knowledge > Environment > Natural Environment — 9

A.1.5 

Objective Hazards 

Mountain travel involves several types of hazards. Namely: 

Dangers related to the incorrect use of equipment, improper technique, or the 

mountaineer’s lacking the requisite skill level for the desired climb. 

Dangers inherent to the natural environment, aka objective hazards, over which we 

have little control. 

This chapter focuses on the dangers associated with objective hazards. By first learning 

to recognize these dangers, you can significantly reduce your exposure to them. 

Then, taking these dangers into account, you can work to reduce the risk level and 

potential consequences during your itinerary. 

Rockfall 

Rockfall may occur on walls/faces as well 

as on low-angle terrain. Falling rocks can 

threaten mountaineers and climbers 

as well as hikers. Certain places and 

certain conditions are more conducive to 

rockfall. 

Unstable boulders (moraines) or cliffs 

and walls composed of brittle or more 

fractured rock (e.g., weathered limestone). 

Natural features favouring the channelling 

of stones (ravines, couloirs, gorges or 

canyons). 

Areas of loose or poor-quality rock where 

the snow cover has recently melted. 

High temperatures at altitude, causing 

ice or permafrost to melt. 

Presence of climbers, hikers and 

wildlife uphill, higher on the slope. 

High winds or rain during an intense 

thunderstorm. 

Falling seracs 

Seracs can fall at any time, as it’s glacial 

movement that causes them to calve off 

and topple. Wherever possible, avoid 

travelling under seracs. If you must travel 

under seracs, minimize your exposure by 

taking the following precautions: 

Carefully observe the fall line and 

deposit area. Evaluate possible escape 

routes that let you evade or turn back 

from a falling serac. 

Don the proper gear/equipment before 

continuing (are crampons or adjustments 

to your tie-ins needed?). 

Move quickly and calmly without stopping, 

and set a sustainable pace. 

Move one rope team at a time, maintaining 

distance between teams to limit 

the number of people exposed to serac 

fall at any one time. 

Cornices 

Like seracs, cornices can break off at 

any time. They can also collapse under a 

mountaineer’s weight. To reduce the risk: 

Avoid travelling under the potential 

trajectory of a falling cornice. 

Assess the cornice’s size from a safe location 

off to the side (e.g., a rock summit). 

When traveling along a corniced 

ridge, maintain a healthy distance from 

the edge. Depending on the size of 

the overhang, cornices can sometimes 

collapse several meters behind the crest. 

Do not blindly follow footprints venturing 

too close to the cornice edge. 

If necessary, protect yourself using 

snow anchors and a rope (refer to 

“Equipment for glacier travel” in the 

Alpinism Module). 


18 -

Avalanches 

Crevasses 

In winter, avalanches are a major 

concern for mountaineers, climbers and 

hikers alike. They also remain a considerable 

risk throughout the summer. 

High in the mountains—above 3,500 

meters in the Alps—winter conditions 

become common in midsummer after 

a prolonged period of bad weather. As 

in winter, a passing mountaineer may 

trigger an avalanche that causes an 

accident. Specifically, a small snow slide 

during the day’s warmest hours may 

be enough to destabilize a roped party. 

Basic precautions include: 

A night departure when attempting a 

snow climb. Verify the altitude of the 0° 

isotherm. 

Increased vigilance in the high mountains 

after a period of bad weather. Allow 

enough time for the snowpack to stabilize—a 

few warm days should suffice in 

summer. 

Snow can conceal glacial crevasses. 

Adopt proper rope technique (refer to 

“Roping up” in the Alpinism Module, 

chapter 2). In case of a fall, be proficient 

with crevasse-rescue technique to rescue 

yourself or a friend (refer to “Glaciers,” 

earlier in this module; and “Crevasse 

rescue,” in the Alpinism Module). 

Bad Weather 

In the mountains, bad weather can 

have serious consequences. Refer to 

the “Meteorology,” “Orientation” and 

“Adapting to the Environment” sections 

in this module to learn how to avoid or 

deal with problematic situations relating 

to the weather. 


Handbook > Basic Knowledge > Environment > Natural Environment — 19

A.2.13 

How do you assess changing weather conditions 

in the field? 

The arrival of bad weather always alters the sky’s appearance. Recognizing the first 

signs of a change in the weather often enables you to take shelter before the arrival 

of a disturbance or thunderstorm. 

Cirrus, filament-like clouds, indicate 

an increase in humidity at altitude. They 

may indicate a potential disturbance. 

A saucer-shaped cloud forms over the 

high peaks. These altocumulus lenticular 

clouds indicate strong winds at 

altitude. If these clouds extend to other 

peaks, the weather will likely deteriorate 

within hours. 

If cirrus clouds multiply and form a veil 

covering the sun or the moon, the disturbance 

is confirmed. 

Cirrus clouds followed by a wall of 

clouds often indicate the rapid arrival of 

a cold front, with a violent disturbance 

accompanied by a sharp drop in temperature 

likely. Take immediate shelter. 

Small cumulus in a blue sky early in 

the day may signal potential afternoon 

thunderstorms. 

Cumulonimbus clouds indicate an 

imminent thunderstorm. 


40 -

Aircraft contrails stretch horizontally: 

increasing humidity at altitude 

Deterioration in the weather is possible. 

A red sunrise: bad weather is coming 

from the west. Possible worsening. 

Aircraft contrails dissipate, leaving no 

trace: the air is dry. The weather will 

remain good. 

A red sunset: bad weather is moving 

east. Probable improvement. 


Visibility decreases: the air becomes 

humid. Worsening weather is possible. 

Mountain visibility improves: the air is 

dry. The weather is stable. 

The altimeter rises 

even though you have 

not gained altitude, 

indicating a pressure 

drop: the weather 

may deteriorate. 

The altimeter falls 

even though you 

have not lost altitude, 

indicating a pressure 

increase: the weather 

will improve. 

Training Manual > Basic Knowledge > Environment > Meteorology — 41

W 

N 

N 

S 

70 

E 

A.3.22 

How to lead a hike using a compass 

Reduced visibility 

Simply aim for a recognizable feature 

(e.g., a tree, boulder, corner of a building, 

etc.) and reach it; repeat until your target 

destination. With sufficient practice, this 

is the safest and most efficient technique 

even in very poor visibility. 

Very poor visibility 

Choose a levelheaded group member 

who can identify potential hazards, and 

send this “rabbit” up ahead. 

The rabbit goes as far as visibility allows 

(sometimes no more than 20 meters) 

while the group leader takes a bearing. 

The leader directs the rabbit by telling 

him or her to move right or left in order 

to stay on the bearing. Note: for safety 

W 

S 

N 

N 

70 

E 

70 ° Bearing 

in winter conditions, the rabbit should be 

attached to the party by a rope, to avoid 

subjecting him to snow hazards such as 

cornices. 

When the rabbit reaches the visibility 

threshold, she waits for the rest of 

the group. Two people at ease with this 

technique can move forward together, 

provided they do not lose sight of each 

other. You can also use two rabbits at 

once to save time. 

To verify the bearing’s accuracy, especially 

in key sections, the rabbit can take 

a reverse-bearing in the direction of the 

leader using the same bearing less 180°. 

Depending on the circumstances (wind, 

darkness, etc.), it helps if each participant 

has a headlamp and a whistle with 

a predetermined code, such as: two 

short blows, more to the left; three short 

blows, more to the right; one long blow, 

straight ahead. 


66 -

A.3.23 

Ensuring you don’t miss your target 

It’s better to make an intentional offset 

(“aiming off”) or deviation than to be 

confronted by an involuntary mistake. For 

example, as per the diagram below, you 

might choose to stray slightly westward. 

You do this because you know that you 

will encounter a recognizable landmark 

(here, the ridge; though it can be any landmark, 

like a forest boundary) along which 

you then navigate to your destination. 

Intentional offset 

Objective 

Once you’ve confirmed the accuracy of 

your altimeter, aim just left or right of 

your objective along the same contour 

line. Once at the specified altitude, follow 

the contour line away from your intentional 

offset to reach the objective. 

If the terrain permits, it can also be 

helpful to advance side by side and within 

each other’s sight, to ensure you do not 

miss the target. 

Target 


Training Manual > Basic Knowledge > Environment > Orientation — 67

C.2.1 

How is heat distributed in the body? 

Core at 37 degrees (vital organs) 

Exterior (outer body) at 33 degrees, 

decreasing as you reach the extremities 

Thermal exchange between the core 

and the rest of the body is facilitated by 

blood flow. 

To keep the core’s blood warm in cold 

temperatures, the body limits heat loss 

by reducing blood flow to the extremities 

(resulting in the risk of frostbite to the 

hands, feet and nose). 

External temperature 

(outer body) 

33°C 

Internal temperature 

37°C 

How to generate and retain heat 

Your body absorbs nutrients (e.g., 

carbohydrates, fats, proteins) that 

contribute to the chemical reactions 

which maintain a normal body temperature 

of 37° C. This requires good 

nutrition and proper hydration (refer 

to the “Nutrition and Hydration” 

section). 

• Physical exercise is another good way 

to generate heat. 

• Shivering is a muscular reflex that 

produces heat as the body cools. A fit, 

well-trained person produces muscular 

activity for a longer period of time. To 

conserve body heat, aim to stay dry 

and protected from the wind. 

• Invest in clothing made of breathable 

fabrics to avoid getting soaked in sweat. 

• Remove layers of clothing before you 

overheat; add layers of clothing before 

getting cold. 

• Protect sensitive extremities (hands, 

feet, face, nose) from cooling by 

wearing appropriate clothing. 

• Protect yourself from the wind with 

appropriate clothing or shelter. 


92 -

C.2.2 

How wind increases the cold’s effects 

(i.e., wind chill) 

The sensation of cold increases when wind hits dry unprotected skin. 

With their notoriously cold weather, Canadians have developed a wind-chill index 

that expresses how cold feels on exposed skin. For example, a temperature of -15° C 

combined with 60 km/h wind will feel like -30° C without any wind. 

Wind 

speed 

(km/h) 

10 

What to look for when estimating 

wind speed 

Wind perceptible on face; 

wind vane begins to move. 

Wind Chill Factor / Index 

Temperature measured in ° C (first row) 

and perceived temperature (other rows) 

0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40 -45 

-3 -9 -15 -21 -27 -33 -39 -45 -51 -57 

20 Small flags flap in the breeze. -5 -12 -18 -24 -30 -37 -43 -49 -56 -62 

30 

40 

50 

Wind blows loose paper, 

large flags flap and small tree 

branches wave. 

Small trees begin to sway, 

and large flags extend and flap 

strongly. 

Large tree branches move, telephone 

lines whistle and it is hard 

to use an umbrella. 

-6 -13 -20 -26 -33 -39 -45 -52 -59 -65 

-7 -14 -21 -27 -34 -41 -48 -54 -61 -68 


60 

Trees bend, and walking against 

the wind is difficult. 

Source: Environment Canada 

-8 -15 -22 -29 -35 -42 -49 -56 -63 -69 

-9 -16 -23 -30 -36 -43 -50 -57 -64 -71 

Recommendations 

Slight increase in discomfort. Dress warmly. Stay dry. 

Uncomfortable. Risk of hypothermia if outside for long periods without adequate protection. 

Dress in layers of warm clothing, adding an outer wind-resistant layer. Wear a hat, mittens or insulated 

gloves, a scarf and insulated, waterproof footwear. Stay dry. Keep active. 

Risk of frostnip or frostbite: check face and extremities for numbness or whiteness. 

Risk of hypothermia if outside for long periods without adequate clothing or shelter from wind and cold. 

Dress in layers of warm clothing, with a wind-resistant outer layer. 

Cover exposed skin. Wear a hat, mittens or insulated gloves, a scarf, neck warmer or face mask, and 

insulated, waterproof footwear. Stay dry. Keep active. 

High risk of frostbite: check face and extremities for numbness or whiteness. 

Risk of hypothermia if outside for long periods without adequate clothing or shelter from wind and cold. 

Dress in layers of warm clothing, with a wind-resistant outer layer. Cover all exposed skin. 

Wear a hat, mittens or insulated gloves, a scarf, neck warmer or face mask, and insulated, waterproof 

footwear. Stay dry. Keep active. 

Very high risk of frostbite: check face and extremities frequently for numbness or whiteness. 

Serious risk of hypothermia if outside for long periods without adequate clothing or shelter from wind 

and cold. Be careful. Dress very warmly in layers of clothing, with a wind-resistant outer layer. Cover all 

exposed skin. Wear a hat, mittens or insulated gloves, a scarf, neck warmer or face mask, and insulated, 

waterproof footwear. Be ready to curtail or cancel outdoor activities. Stay dry. Keep active. 

DANGER! Outdoor conditions are hazardous. Stay indoors. 

Note: see http://www.ec.gc.ca/meteo-weather/default.asp?lang=En&n=5FBF816A-1 

Handbook > Basic Knowledge > Adapting to the Environment > Cold — 93

D.1.5 

Caring for a victim before medical help arrives 

After you’re done PROTECTING and CALLING, the victim now needs CARE. In order to 

take the correct action, conduct an initial assessment by following the tried-and-true 

ABCDE method used by North American first responders. 

The order goes thusly: 

● A (Airway): make sure no foreign 

objects are obstructing the mouth or 

throat. 

● B (Breathing): check if the victim is 

breathing by placing your ear near his 

nose, and assessing whether his chest is 

rising and falling. 

ASSESSMENT 

AirwayA 

Breathing 

B 

Could y 

ear me 

● C (Circulation): check the pulse at the 

wrist or carotid (neck), and note heart 

rate over one minute. Look for severe 

bleeding. 

● D (Disability): assess the victim’s 

level of consciousness. Does he obey 

commands? (“Take my hand.”) Is he disoriented? 

Unconscious? If the victim is 

fully conscious, ascertain whether he can 

move all four limbs. 

● E (Environment): re-examine your 

surroundings and the weather, to prepare 

for a helicopter evacuation (Is visibility 

good? Are there power lines nearby?). 

Once you’ve conducted your ABCDE, 

determine which first-aid actions to take. 

Proficiency with these actions requires 

instruction and training. 

Circulation 

Disability 

Could you 

ear me ? 

Environment 

C 

Could you 

ear me ? 

D 

E 


Could you 

ear me ? 

First Aid 

116 -

D.1.6 

Clearing the airway 

ou 

e ? 

This is step one for an unconscious victim. With an avalanche victim, carefully remove 

any snow from his mouth. If there are no foreign objects, the tongue might be blocking 

the airway. 

Could you 

ear me ? 

Avoid tilting the victim’s head back if you suspect a spinal injury 

(e.g., following a fall). Try the jaw-thrust technique first: only resort 

to tilting the head if the casualty is still not breathing. 

1 2 


Open the victim’s mouth. 

Remove any foreign 

objects with your fingers. 

Handbook > Basic Knowledge > Rescue > Protect, Call, Care — 117

D.2.1 

Carrying an injured person 

You can carry an injured person on your back using an improvised litter. However, 

because this technique is exhausting for both victim and rescuer, it should be reserved 

for special situations: 

The victim is well enough to be transported; 

that is, he has no major injuries, 

is conscious and is not too weak. 

You can reach a village or roadway in an 

acceptable amount of time. 

Helicopter rescue is not an option. 

1 – Tie off long loops 

of rope with a double 

bowline. 

2 – Cross the loops 

behind you. 

3 – Place the injured 

person’s legs though 

the loops, such that rope 

supports him. 


You can also fashion an 

improvised stretcher using 

poles and clothing or fabric. 

126 -

D.2.2 

Choosing and preparing a landing zone 

Choose a flat or relatively flat area free 

of obstacles and that sits on high rather 

than low-lying ground. 

Avoid dusty areas if possible. 

On snow-covered areas, pack down 

any powder snow. 

Avoid nearby obstacles such as trees, 

power lines, logging cables, tram cables, 

etc. 

Clear the area of any objects that might 

hit the rotor blades or fly off in the rotor 

wash (skis, poles, clothing, packs, firstaid 

equipment, blankets, etc.). 

If necessary, such as at a ski area, establish 

a security perimeter to keep out 

those not involved in the rescue. 

If you can’t avoid one of these 

hazards, inform the helicopter 

crew via radio or hand signals. 


© O. Moret 

Handbook > Basic Knowledge > Rescue > Evacuating an injured person — 127

130 - 

Do not use withou

3 

First-aid kit 

While not quite assuming the mantle of physician, the trip leader always carries the 

first-aid kit for his or her group. Its contents will vary according to the chosen activity 

and venue, as well as the duration of the outing. A good first-aid kit should not be 

too bulky, or you might omit it from your backpack. Maintain your kit by regularly 

replenishing its various items, including replacing any expired medications. 

One-day trek 

£ £ light survival blanket 

£ £ pressure bandage 

£ £ antiseptic dosettes (Betadine) 

£ £ adhesive bandages, various sizes 

£ £ sterile pads 

£ £ adhesive elastic bandage (6 cm wide) 

£ £ non-adhesive elastic bandage (6 cm 

wide) 

£ £ robust medical tape 

£ £ one Steri-Strip packet (butterfly 

stitches for minor wounds) 

£ £ Second Skin (for disinfected open 

blisters) 

£ £ acetaminophen 

£ £ whistle 

£ £ tweezers + mini-scissors 

£ £ one pair of latex gloves 

One-week trip 

£ £ light survival blanket 

£ £ pressure dressing 

£ £ antiseptic dosettes (Betadine) 

£ £ robust medical tape 

£ £ adhesive bandages, various sizes 

£ £ sterile pads 

£ £ adhesive elastic bandage (6 cm wide) 

£ £ non-adhesive elastic bandage (6 cm 

wide) 

£ £ one Steri-Strip packet (butterfly 

stitches for minor wounds) 

£ £ Second Skin (for disinfected open 

blisters) 

£ £ acetaminophen 

£ £ aspirin 

£ £ powerful painkiller (tramadol) 

£ £ antidiarrheal (Ioperamide) + intestinal 

antiseptic (nifuroxazide) 

£ £ broad-spectrum antibiotic 

(amoxicillin) 

£ £ one tube of vitamin C 

£ £ eyewash in dosette form (eye 

treatment) 

£ £ relief cream (for sunburn) 

£ £ whistle 

£ £ tweezers + mini-scissors 

£ £ one pair of latex gloves 

£ £ small mouldable splint (SAM SPLINT®) 

£ £ spare pair of sunglasses 

£ £ mini-emergency headlamp 


Handbook > Basic Knowledge > Rescue > First-aid kit — 131

Alpine 


hiking

Alpine hiking 

While hiking does not require the same level of 

stamina or technical skill as other alpine activities, 

it does demand a greater awareness of the ecosystem. 

During a trip lasting several weeks, a hiking group will 

interact with a variety of environments as well as the 

unique culture of a country. The group leader also 

serves as interpreter for both the natural and human 

environments. 

1. Equipment 

2. Mountain travel 


3. Alpine trekking hygiene 

4. Alpine hiking grades 

5. Managing and leading a trek 

6. Evaluation 

p. 135 

p. 139 

p. 149 

p. 155 

p. 159 

p. 169

2.5. 

How to secure the crux of a route 

Assistance and gentle reassurance can be helpful when moving the group over an 

exposed section, where a fall would be serious; or you can install a safety line or fixed 

rope. In either case, do not hesitate to rope up less experienced or less skilled hikers 

if a fall would prove injurious or fatal. 

Safety Line 

A safety line is installed by fixing a rope to 

an existing anchor such as pitons or bolts, 

or by fixing (tying or girth-hitching) slings 

around natural anchors such as trees 

or rocks. A hiker uses the safety line for 

balance just like he would the handrail on 

a staircase. 

Fix the rope end with a figure 8 on a bight, 

and, if terrain dictates, use a butterfly 

knot or Munter knot for mid-line (horizontal 

redirect) anchor points. 

1 

2 3 

Butterfly knot 

Tying off a Munter knot 


144 -

Fixed rope 

You can employ a fixed rope to overcome 

short, steep sections without having to 

resort to technical climbing techniques. 

(Most hiking routes only rarely tackle 

terrain steep enough to require the use 

of your hands.) 

Fix the rope to a good anchor (e.g., a solid 

tree) using a sling, a locking carabiner and 

a figure 8 knot. If you doubt the anchor’s 

reliability—i.e., it consists of a single rock 

spike, small tree, questionable in situ 

pitons, etc.—back it up using all available 

protection options. 

Ideally, you’ll use a knot such as the double 

figure 8 that allows you to directly clip into 

two or three anchor points at once. 


Handbook > Alpine Hiking > Mountain travel — 145

3.1. 

Preventative measures against infectious diseases 

You can avoid most backcountry illnesses by drinking clean (treated) water, keeping 

your nails short, and washing your hands with soap each morning and before turning 

in, as well as after using the bathroom and before eating. 

Three types of germs are responsible 

for illness: 

Viruses 

Bacteria 

Parasites 

With the exception of certain parasites, 

germs are so small as to be invisible. 

They are present in the environment (air, 

water, land), and in humans and animals. 

Germs are transmitted: 

Through simple contact with the environment; 

through respiratory, digestive 

or sexual contact with another person 

or the environment; and from animals to 

people, as with a mosquito bite (malaria, 

Japanese encephalitis). 

There are means of prevention and 

treatment. 

Prevention: some examples 

Good personal hygiene and clothing 

care (e.g., avoid fleas and lice). 

Good hand and food-preparation 

hygiene (diarrhoea). 

Clean drinking water (diarrhoea, hepatitis 

A and E, polio, typhoid). 

Mosquito repellent (malaria). 

Condoms (hepatitis B, HIV/AIDS). 

Vaccinations. 

Treatments 

Antibiotics for bacteria. 

Anti-parasitics for parasites. 

No treatment for most viruses. 


150 -

3.2. 

Vaccinations for your destination country 

The only mandatory travel vaccine is for yellow fever, in approximately 15 African 

countries. For all other countries, vaccinations against certain diseases are only 

recommended. You must be vaccinated at least two months prior to travel. Some 

vaccines (yellow fever) are administered only in specialized centres, while others 

require several injections spread out over time. 

For all countries, you must be up to 

date on the following vaccines: 

Diphtheria (every 10 years). 

Tetanus (every 10 years). 

Polio (every 10 years). 

Hepatitis A (every 10 years). 

Typhoid, a rare disease in Europe, 

Russia, North America and Australia, but 

present everywhere else (every 3 years). 

In Asia, add: 

Rabies (every 5 years). 

In Nepal, add: 

Meningitis A and C (every 10 years). 

In Africa and Latin America: 

Yellow fever (every 10 years). 


Handbook > Alpine Hiking > Alpine trekking hygiene — 151

5.5. 

Topics to make participants aware of 

Local Populations 

Know and respect the local lifestyle, 

culture, traditions and habits—e.g., dress 

appropriately for the country. 

Respect the local heritage: no graffiti, 

flash photography, etc. 

Learn a few words/phrases in the 

national or regional tongue: “Hello,” 

“Goodbye,” “Thank you” and “How are 

you?” 

Wear suitable clothing: discreet, and 

not too revealing. 

Before photographing anyone, ask his 

or her permission; prepare to take no for 

an answer, and do not offer cash. 

Do not make gifts or donations to 

people, including children, to avoid 

encouraging begging. Favour existing 

organizations: schools, associations, 

health centres, etc. 

Do not donate medications, except 

directly to medical organizations. 

Limit physical contact: do not stroke 

children’s hair or heads, or shake 

women’s hands; avoid kissing in public. 

Eschew all forms of sexual tourism. 

Be aware of the social reality of the 

country, the price of goods and services, 

and current local wages; respect human 

rights and accept supply difficulties. 

Environment 

Bring home any hazardous waste (e.g., 

batteries). 

Pack out or burn toilet paper. 

Treat water with tablets or filters instead 

of buying bottled water. Manage water 

consumption: limit showers, use sponge 

baths and biodegradable soaps, and wash 

downstream from any settlements and 

away from water-collection spots. Avoid 

picking flora, respect protected species 

and do not feed or disturb the animals. 

Do not purchase items made from 

endangered or protected species. 

Respect fields and crops. 

Avoid or minimise burning of trash (never 

the plastic), and carry out all remnants. 

Build fires only as needed, by safe 

means, without damaging the environment 

and while leaving no trace. 


164 -

Places of Worship 

Do not enter a place of worship without 

permission. 

Respect the beliefs, practices and practitioners 

of all religions. 

In general, remove your shoes when 

entering places of worship, and often 

also in private homes. 

Do not “take” or buy objects that are 

sacred or of local historical value. 

Adopt a cosmic (clockwise) direction of 

travel around Buddhist monasteries. 

Make a traditional offering (a few coins) 

in monasteries. 


Handbook > Alpine Hiking > Managing and leading a trek — 165


Climbing

Climbing 

The advent of sport climbing and the development 

of artificial climbing walls have broadened access to 

the sport, a pursuit once limited to a small number of 

traditional climbers and mountaineers. Now hugely 

popular, climbing remains an activity in which an 

error can still have serious consequences. To stay safe, 

you need a solid technical foundation. This module 

complements the skills acquired in the Basic Knowledge 

and Alpine Hiking modules. 


1. Equipment 

2. Tying in 

3. Single-pitch routes 

4. The belay station 

5. Multi-pitch routes 

6. Rappelling 

7. Tips and troubleshooting 

8. Rock-climbing grades 

9. Evaluation 

p. 173 

p. 187 

p. 201 

p. 213 

p. 225 

p. 231 

p. 241 

p. 259 

p. 261

1.11. 

How to carry slings 

Keeping slings accessible 

To ensure easy access to slings, loop 

them around your torso and clip them 

off with a carabiner. Now you can access 

them with one hand, even under your 

backpack straps. 

To attach a sling to your harness, fold and 

then twist it: 

Tip for extending a quickdraw 

This nifty trick results in an extendable 

quickdraw that can be easily lengthened 

depending on your needs. Having at 

least two extendable quickdraws on 

your rack lets you limit rope drag on 

wandering pitches and helps prevent 

protection from walking or pulling out. 

The sling must be able to move freely in 

the carabiners—do not attach elastic or 

“String” to this type of quickdraw. 


186 -

Tying in 

2 

Knowing how to properly tie in and belay your partner are fundamental skills for all 

climbers. For lead climbing, primary skills include choosing the right quickdraw to 

match the terrain and finding a good clipping stance. Meanwhile, understanding a 

fall’s impact on the belay chain helps foster good practices. 

Tying In 

2.1. Tie-in knots 

2.2. Properly tying in to the harness 

2.3. Why partners should double-check each other 

Clipping 

2.4. How to orient a quickdraw 

2.5. How to clip the rope into a carabiner 

2.6. Clipping stances and techniques 

Falling 

2.7. What a fall entails 

2.8. How to minimize impact force on the lead climber during a fall 

2.9. The pulley effect 


Handbook > Climbing > Tying in — 187

2.3. 

Why partners should double-check each other 

Habit, overconfidence, distraction and fatigue can cause us to make mistakes. Even 

the most experienced climber can tie an incomplete knot, incorrectly thread a belay 

device or forget to lock a locking carabiner. Such careless errors often have serious 

consequences. Before each and every pitch, you and your partner should doublecheck 

each other, much like parachutists do prior to each jump. This double vigilance, 

for yourself and your partner, can prevent many an accident. It is also the foundation 

of a solid partnership. 

Climber’s check of the belayer 

Belayer’s check of the climber 

Helmet properly fitted and buckled 

Harness properly fitted and buckles 

taut. 

Rope properly installed in the belay 

device (1). 

Carabiner locked (2). 

Stopper knot at the end of the rope (4). 

1 

2 4 

Yes 

Helmet properly fitted and buckled. 

Harness properly fitted and buckles 

taut. 

Proper tie-in and well-dressed knot (3). 

3 


No 

190 -


1 

2 

3 

4 


2.4. 

How to orient a quickdraw 

To work properly, a carabiner must be loaded along its long axis. If a quickdraw 

includes a captive carabiner (e.g. String), this should always be clipped to the rope 

rather than attached to bolts or other protection. 

Yes 

No 

Danger! 

No 

Choose the appropriate-length quickdraw to avoid rope drag and improper loading. 

Yes 

Danger! 

No 

Clip the quickdraw properly to prevent the rope coming accidentally unclipped. 


Danger! 

No 

192 -

2.5. 

How to clip the rope into a carabiner 

Properly clipping the rope into the 

carabiner reduces the risk of either the 

rope or protection coming unclipped. 

The rope must pass up through 

the carabiner from the cliff side 

and then back to the climber. 

On a traversing route, face the carabiner 

gate away from your direction of 

travel. 

Proper gate orientation will help 

prevent the rope from unclipping 

itself in a lead fall. 

Yes 

Yes 


No 

No 

If the rope is clipped wrong, there is a 

significant risk of its coming unclipped 

in a lead fall. During such a fall, the rope 

makes a whiplash-like movement (gate 

chatter) that may cause it to unclip itself 

from the carabiner. 

Danger! 

No 

Position the quickdraw such that the rope-side carabiner does not contact the 

rock in a fall. 

Yes 

Danger! 

No 


4.3. 

What to do when you arrive at a bolted belay station 

On multipitch routes—but rarely on sport routes—the belay station consists of two 

unlinked anchor points. Follow this procedure to build a secure belay station after 

rigging your redirect. 

Inspect the belay station 

Belay stations are generally bolted, but 

you should always check the condition of 

the bolts or other in situ hardware. 

Bolts: check condition and tightness. 

Pitons: check condition and systematically 

re-seat them with a hammer. 

Back up the belay station with additional 

pitons, nuts or cams. 

Boulder or horn: Test by rapping them 

with the palm of your hand. 

Chain: check the condition of the chain 

links, of the quicklinks, etc. 

In situ slings or webbing: systematically 

check for weathering/wear and swap 

them out if necessary. You should always 

carry a knife. 

Linking anchor points 

A belay station must at a minimum consist 

of two anchor points. If the anchor points 

aren’t already connected, equalize them 

such that each point equally shares you 

and your partner’s combined weight. 

Always use locking carabiners. 

Yes 

Bear in mind that the belayer may be 

lifted if the lead climber falls. In an 

emergency, when no locking carabiner 

is available, you should use at least two 

carabiners with gates facing opposing 

directions. 

No 


Always use locking carabiners 

at the belay station. 

Danger! 

216 -

4.4. 

How to equalize two anchor points 

Equalization allows you to connect natural, bolted or mixed anchor points with slings 

made of cordage or webbing. The various forces distributed on each anchor point will 

depend on the angles between these points. 

50% 

54% 

50% 

54% 

Less than 45° 

This is ideal: the anchors share 

the load equally, at 50 percent. 


60 degrees 

Still acceptable, because the load 

is distributed nicely between the 

anchors. 

71% 71% 

90 degrees 

Barely acceptable. 

120 degrees or more 

Load distribution is unsafe—each 

piece may be subjected to greater 

forces than if left unequalized. 

Handbook > Climbing > The belay station — 217


Alpinism

Alpinism 

Excellence in mountaineering rests on two pillars: knowledge 

of the mountains and physical fitness. Both are cultivated by 

spending considerable time in the mountains. Fortunately, rope 

techniques, climbing skills and self-rescue basics can be acquired 

more quickly. However, if you do not practice regularly, you 

may lose proficiency with the equipment and/or forget how to 

carry out these procedures. This module provides the necessary 

basics for the practice and instruction of mountaineering in 

snowy and glaciated terrain, and complements the techniques 

covered in the Climbing Module. 


1. Equipment 

2. Roping up 

3. Climbing 

4. Belay stations on snow and ice 

5. Crevasse rescue 

6. Tips and troubleshooting 

7. Mountaineering grades 

8. Evaluation 

p. 267 

p. 271 

p. 279 

p. 295 

p. 305 

p. 313 

p. 321 

p. 327

2.1. 

Rope length to maintain between climbers 

on a glacier; rope length to keep in reserve 

On a glacier, you should always keep at least 15 meters of rope between each climber. 

The spare rope on either end of your team (kept in backpacks) is reserved for aid in 

ascending the rope or to construct a rescue hauling system. Therefore, keep at least 

6 meters of spare rope on either end. With a shorter rope, you can get by with less 

spare rope but must still maintain at least 15 meters of rope between climbers. 

Rope team of two 

15 m minimum 

Rope length between the climbers: minimum 15 meters. 

When mountaineers climb with half ropes, 

one partner takes the spare rope while the 

other carries a second rope. This method 

allows either mountaineer to perform a 

rescue in case of a crevasse fall. 

35 metres of spare rope. Second (50-meter) rope. 

Rope team of three 

Minimum spare rope 

in the backpack: 

6 to 15 meters. 

For example, with two 50-meter ropes: 

keeping the minimum 15-meter distance 

between the climbers, one climber will 

carry 35 meters of spare rope, while the 

other carries a second 50-meter rope. 


8 to 15 metres 8 to 15 metres 

272 -

+ 

Knotted rope 

In some countries in the European Alps (Switzerland, Germany, Austria), mountaineers 

tie a series of knots in the rope between them about every two meters (but normally 

leaving the central section of the rope span clear of knots). This technique has its 

advantages and disadvantages. To limit disadvantages you can use both techniques, 

one rope with knots and another without. 

Advantages 

The knots have a braking action on 

crevasse lips. This technique makes it 

easier to arrest a fall in certain cases, 

especially for a two-person team with 

a significant weight difference between 

the climbers. 

If the fallen climber is conscious and 

has stopped just below the crevasse lip, 

the loops can help him or her climb out. 

- 

Disadvantages 

The knots make hauling very difficult, 

and require that you carry another rope 

or a large amount of spare rope. 


4 m. 4 m. 

Series of braking knots with loops. 

The rope should be taut. 

Handbook > Alpinism > Roping up — 273

4.1. 

How to choose a good location 

for a snow belay station 

On steep snow, when simul-climbing becomes too dangerous, you’ll need to build an 

anchor. These anchors can vary widely in strength. 

The leader chooses a line of ascent that 

avoids falling directly onto the belay, in 

case of a fall or slide. 

The belayer braces into the snow 

slope, digging notches for his buttocks 

and heels. 

The belayer faces in the direction of 

pull, to prepare to catch a falling leader. 

The belayer uses a dynamic belay in 

order to protect the anchor. Anchor 

strength varies with snow consistency, so 

it won’t always be predictable. 

Yes 

Yes 

No 


No 

Danger! 

296 -

4.2. 

How to build and use a snow bollard 

This type of anchor allows you to rappel 

down a slope, or to cross a crevasse or 

bergschrund. 

h 

h > 30 cm 

With good positioning in hard snow, a 

bollard can be a reliable anchor. 


d 

d = 1 to 3 metres 

maximum 90° 

0,5 m 1 m 1,5 m 

Hard snow: wrist used 

as centre of rotation 

Packed snow: elbow 

used as centre of rotation 

Soft snow: Shoulder 

used as centre of rotation 

Handbook > Alpinism > Belay stations on snow and ice — 297

5.6. 

How to haul an injured climber out of a crevasse 

Mechanical-advantage hauling systems 

With a two-person rope team, a single 

climber alone on the surface will have 

a hard time hauling up her partner. She 

must therefore use a hauling system with 

significant mechanical advantage. 

Even with a team of three or more climbers, 

it’s best to implement a «Triple 

Mariner»-type hauling system to bring 

up an incapacitated climber. This system 

gives a theoretical mechanical advantage 

of 7:1. However, once you factor in 

friction, especially if using only carabiners 

(no pulleys), the actual mechanical 

advantage is closer to 2:1. 

The 7:1 Triple Mariner is used when: 

The victim is unconscious or incapacitated. 

Communication is impossible. 

The victim doesn’t know self-rescue 

technique. 

Required equipment 

1 progress-capture pulley (head of the 

hauling system). 

Two simple ascending devices (mechanical 

or cordage). 

4 locking carabiners. 

5 to 10 m of 6 mm cord, or extra rope. 

2 additional pulleys, if available. 

The Triple Mariner requires 

5 to 10 m of 6 mm cord, 

or extra rope. Using pulleys 

helps reduce friction. 


312 - 

The sling prevents 

the rope from digging 

into the snow. Once 

the victim reaches 

the lip, pull on the rope 

with the sling to help 

him up and over, 

onto flatter ground.

Tips and troubleshooting 

6 

Knowing how to manage the unexpected is part of every experienced mountaineer’s 

skill set. A sudden slip, an improvised bivouac, rappelling an ice slope— 

nothing should ever catch us unprepared. 

6.1 How to arrest a slide on snow with an ice axe 

6.2 How to make a V-thread (or «Abalakov») 

6.3 How to carve a bivouac shelter into a snow slope 

6.4 How to make a bivouac shelter in powder snow. 


Handbook > Alpinism > Tips and troubleshooting — 313

6.4. 

How to make a bivouac shelter in powder snow 

Snow on flat or semi-flat ground can be loose or poorly packed, making it almost 

impossible to excavate a shelter. Try this instead: 

1 – Make a pile of packs, clothing and 

sleeping pads. 

2 – Cover the pile with snow and stamp 

it down. 

3 – Dig a hole beneath the packs, clothing, 

pads etc. and delicately remove them. 

Now excavate the hole into a bivouac 

shelter, taking care not to weaken the 

overlying structure. 

4 – Climb inside and cover the entryway 

with packs while maintaining air circulation 

with the outside. 

1 

2 

3 


4 

320 -

Mountaineering grades 

7 

Internationally, climbers use several different systems to classify mountaineering 

routes. The most precise systems are alphanumeric rating scales that distinguish 

between a route’s technical difficulty and its commitment level. To prepare for a 

climb, you need to be able to correctly interpret a route’s rating, and then assess the 

real-world implications as you go. All rating scales describe routes under standard 

climbing conditions. 

7.1. Alphanumeric grades (technical alpinism) 

7.2. Classic grades 

7.3. Russian grades 


Handbook > Alpinism > Mountaineering grades — 321

contents

Basic knowledge 

A. Environment 

1. Natural Environment...............................................................................................................7 

1.1 Altitudinal Zonation................................................................................................................... 8 

1.2 Main adaptations of life in the mountains ....................................................................10 

1.3 Most common types of rocks..............................................................................................12 

1.4 Glaciers..........................................................................................................................................14 

1.5 Objective Hazards.....................................................................................................................18 

1.6 Managing garbage in the mountains................................................................................20 

1.7 Rules of good conduct............................................................................................................22 

2. Meteorology................................................................................................................................ 23 

2.1 What are the main weather patterns of the world’s major mountain ranges?.24 

2.2 What is atmospheric pressure?..........................................................................................28 

2.3 What are the different types of clouds?.........................................................................29 

2.4 What is a high-pressure system (anticyclone)?............................................................30 

2.5 What are the effects of a high-pressure system?........................................................31 

2.6 How does an isolated thunderstorm form?...................................................................32 

2.7 How do your recognize the formation of an isolated thunderstorm?................33 

2.8 What is a low-pressure system?.........................................................................................34 

2.9 What happens inside a low-pressure system?.............................................................35 

2.10 What happens with the arrival of a warm front?.....................................................36 

2.11 What happens with the arrival of a cold front?........................................................37 

2.12 How do you interpret a weather report?.....................................................................38 

2.13 How do you assess changing weather conditions in the field?..........................40 

3. Orientation.................................................................................................................................... 43 

3.1 What is orientation?................................................................................................................44 

3.2 How to orient yourself without a map.............................................................................45 

3.3 What is a map?..........................................................................................................................46 

3.4 How to choose the right scale.............................................................................................47 

3.5 How to interpret a legend.....................................................................................................48 

3.6 What is a contour line?...........................................................................................................49 

3.7 How to identify a summit and locate a depression....................................................50 

3.8 How to differentiate a valley from a ridge, and how to recognize a col............51 

3.9 How to interpret a profile and estimate slope angle.................................................52 

3.10 How to orient a map without a compass.....................................................................53 

3.11 How to properly read a map..............................................................................................54 

3.12 Tools to use with a map.......................................................................................................55 

3.13 What is a compass?...............................................................................................................56 

3.14 What is the difference between magnetic north and true north?....................57 

3.15 What are the strengths and limitations of GPS technology?...............................58 

333

3.16 How to orient a map with a compass............................................................................60 

3.17 How to orient yourself when visibility is good...........................................................61 

3.18 How to take a bearing on the ground and transfer it to the map......................62 

3.19 How to determine your position in good weather...................................................63 

3.20 How to navigate in poor visibility....................................................................................64 

3.21 How to take a bearing on the map and follow it on the ground........................65 

3.22 How to lead a hike using a compass...............................................................................66 

3.23 Ensuring you don’t miss your target..............................................................................67 

3.24 How to bypass an obstacle.................................................................................................68 

3.25 How to plan a hike using a compass...............................................................................69 

B. Leading a Group 

1. Group Management ........................................................................................................... 73 

1.1 How to organize your group.................................................................................................74 

1.2 The most common group dynamics..................................................................................75 

2. Decision-Making .................................................................................................................... 77 

2.1 How to make good decisions...............................................................................................78 

2.2 Criteria to consider when planning a route...................................................................79 

2.3 Choosing a route while mitigating risk.............................................................................80 

2.4 Evaluating risk during an outing.........................................................................................81 

2.5 Why do an evaluation at the end of the outing?.........................................................82 

C. Adapting to the Environment 

1. Nutrition and hydration................................................................................................... 87 

1.1 The three nutritional groups................................................................................................88 

1.2 Why we need to hydrate........................................................................................................89 

2. Cold....................................................................................................................................................... 91 

2.1 How is heat distributed in the body?...............................................................................92 

2.2 How wind increases the cold’s effects (i.e., wind chill).............................................93 

2.3 What is hypothermia?.............................................................................................................94 

2.4 How frostbite occurs................................................................................................................95 

2.5 The different stages of frostbite.........................................................................................96 

2.6 Treating frostbite in the field...............................................................................................97 

3. Altitude............................................................................................................................................. 99 

3.1 What effects does altitude have on oxygen levels?................................................ 100 

3.1 How to evaluate the seriousness of Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS)............ 101 

3.1 How to recognize pulmonary edema and cerebral edema.................................. 102 

334

4. Lightning....................................................................................................................................... 103 

Protecting against direct lightning strikes........................................................................... 104 

Protecting against ground currents caused by lightning strikes................................ 105 

5. Sun......................................................................................................................................................107 

D. Rescue 

1. Protect, Call, Care ...............................................................................................................111 

1.1 Managing a rescue situation............................................................................................. 112 

1.2 Protecting yourself and the victim in an emergency situation........................... 113 

1.3 Calling for help........................................................................................................................ 114 

1.4 Ways to call for help.............................................................................................................. 115 

1.5 Caring for a victim before medical help arrives........................................................ 116 

1.6 Clearing the airway................................................................................................................ 117 

1.7 What to do in case of severe bleeding.......................................................................... 118 

1.8 What to do in case of respiratory and cardiac arrest.............................................. 119 

1.9 Securing an unconscious victim....................................................................................... 120 

1.10 Securing a conscious victim............................................................................................ 121 

1.11 What to do if someone is choking................................................................................ 122 

1.12 Keeping the victim comfortable while awaiting medical help.......................... 123 

2. Evacuating an injured person .................................................................................125 

2.1 Carrying an injured person................................................................................................ 126 

2.2 Choosing and preparing a landing zone....................................................................... 127 

2.3 Dealing with an approaching helicopter...................................................................... 128 

2.4 Approaching a helicopter for boarding......................................................................... 129 

3. First-aid kit.................................................................................................................................. 131 

Alpine hiking 

1. Equipment ................................................................................................................................. 135 

1.1 Equipment to bring on a hike............................................................................................ 136 

1.1 Type of ropes and technical equipment to use when hiking............................... 138 

2. Mountain travel ...................................................................................................................139 

2.1 How to manage a group while traveling in the mountains.................................. 140 

2.2 How to travel on low-angle snow without crampons............................................. 141 

2.3 How to self-arrest without crampons or an ice axe................................................ 142 

2.4 How to reassure a hiker during a technical crux....................................................... 143 

Handbook > Contents — 335

2.5 How to secure the crux of a route.................................................................................. 144 

2.6 How to stage and organize an outing............................................................................ 146 

3. Alpine trekking hygiene ...............................................................................................149 

3.1 Preventative measures against infectious diseases................................................. 150 

3.2 Vaccinations for your destination country.................................................................. 151 

3.3 How to prevent and treat diarrhoea.............................................................................. 152 

3.4 How to guard against rabies.............................................................................................. 153 

3.5 Type of first aid kit to bring for a multi-week trek................................................... 154 

4. Alpine hiking grades.........................................................................................................155 

5. Managing and leading a trek...................................................................................159 

5.1 Formalities under the leader’s purview....................................................................... 160 

5.2 Preparing for your expedition........................................................................................... 161 

5.3 Leading a local support team............................................................................................ 162 

5.4 Encouraging responsible tourism.................................................................................... 163 

5.5 Topics to make participants aware of............................................................................ 164 

5.6 Running a successful group trip....................................................................................... 166 

5. Evaluation .................................................................................................................................. 169 

Climbing 

1. Equipment ................................................................................................................................. 173 

1.1 What gear to bring................................................................................................................ 174 

1.2 The various types of ropes................................................................................................. 175 

1.3 The various types of dynamic ropes.............................................................................. 176 

1.4 What weakens a rope ......................................................................................................... 177 

1.5 Inspecting and caring for your rope............................................................................... 178 

1.6 How to single-coil and carry a rope................................................................................ 179 

1.7 How to double-coil and carry a rope............................................................................. 180 

1.8 The various types of carabiners....................................................................................... 182 

1.9 Tying a nylon webbing sling............................................................................................... 184 

1.10 The best knot for joining two ropes............................................................................ 185 

1.11 How to carry slings.............................................................................................................. 186 

2. Tying in .......................................................................................................................................... 187 

2.1 Tie-in knots............................................................................................................................... 188 

2.2 Properly tying in to the harness....................................................................................... 189 

2.3 Why partners should double-check each other........................................................ 190 

2.4 How to orient a quickdraw................................................................................................. 192 

2.5 How to clip the rope into a carabiner............................................................................ 193 

336

2.6 Clipping stances and techniques..................................................................................... 194 

2.7 What a fall entails.................................................................................................................. 196 

2.8 How to minimize impact force on the lead climber during a fall....................... 198 

2.9 The pulley effect..................................................................................................................... 200 

3. Single-pitch routes ............................................................................................................201 

3.1 What mindset should the belayer adopt?................................................................... 202 

3.2 How to belay a lead climber with a traditional device .......................................... 204 

3.3 How to belay a lead climber with an assisted-braking device ........................... 206 

3.4 When is a bottom anchor necessary for the belayer?........................................... 207 

3.5 How to position the rope when lead climbing.......................................................... 208 

3.6 Precautions to take before setting up a toprope...................................................... 209 

3.7 How to thread the anchors and set up a toprope.................................................... 210 

3.8 How to remove quickdraws on toprope....................................................................... 212 

4. The belay station ................................................................................................................213 

4.1 How to quickly protect a belay station......................................................................... 214 

4.2 How to protect a belay station with a more-distant redirect.............................. 215 

4.3 What to do when you arrive at a bolted belay station........................................... 216 

4.4 How to equalize two anchor points............................................................................... 217 

4.5 How to build a unidirectional anchor............................................................................ 218 

4.6 How to build a multidirectional anchor........................................................................ 219 

4.7 How to use natural anchors............................................................................................... 220 

4.8 How to place nuts.................................................................................................................. 221 

4.9 How to place cams................................................................................................................ 222 

4.10 Where to position a traditional belay station.......................................................... 223 

4.11 How to build a traditional belay station.................................................................... 224 

5. Multi-pitch routes ..............................................................................................................225 

5.1 How to correctly anchor into the belay station......................................................... 226 

5.2 How to belay one or two seconds (climbers)............................................................. 227 

5.3 What to do when your second arrives at the belay station................................. 228 

5.4 How to organize/manage the belay station when swapping leads.................. 229 

6. Rappelling ................................................................................................................................. 231 

6.1 Preparing to rappel............................................................................................................... 232 

6.2 Which knot to use to join two ropes............................................................................. 233 

6.3 How to set up a rappel......................................................................................................... 234 

6.4 How to stay anchored while going on rappel ........................................................... 235 

6.5 Does the friction hitch go above or below the rappel device?........................... 236 

6.6 What are the best friction hitches?................................................................................ 238 

6.7 How to pull the rope............................................................................................................. 239 

6.8 How to execute a series of consecutive rappels....................................................... 240 

7. Tips and troubleshooting .......................................................................................... 241 

7.1 How to tie off a partner/load on toprope .................................................................. 242 


7.1 How to lower a second with a Munter hitch.............................................................. 244 

7.1 How to lower a second with a plaquette..................................................................... 245 

7.1 How to descend a rappel rope that is under tension............................................. 246 

7.1 What to do if you lose your belay device..................................................................... 247 

7.1 How to assist the second with a difficult move......................................................... 248 

7.1 How to re-ascend a fixed rope......................................................................................... 249 

7.1 Can you belay a rappel from the bottom?................................................................... 250 

7.1 How to rappel on a damaged rope................................................................................. 251 

7.1 How to pass the knot on a damaged rope.................................................................. 252 

7.1 How to provide assistance to a partner stuck mid-rappel.................................... 254 

7.1 How to lower from two unconnected protection points 

while remaining backed up....................................................................................................... 256 

7.1 How to retrieve a stuck rappel rope.............................................................................. 257 

8. Rock-Climbing Grades.....................................................................................................259 

9. Evaluation.................................................................................................................................... 261 

ALPINISME 

1. Equipment................................................................................................................................... 267 

1.1 Equipment for glacier travel......................................................................... 268 

1.2 Equipment for an ice, snow, rock or mixed route......................................... 269 

2. Roping up..................................................................................................................................... 271 

2.1 Rope length to maintain between climbers on a glacier; rope length to keep in 

reserve................................................................................................................ 272 

2.2 Roping up for simul-climbing........................................................................ 274 

2.3 Spacing between members of the party....................................................... 275 

2.4 Roping up three or more climbers (on snow)............................................... 276 

2.5 Roping up for technical routes...................................................................... 277 

3. Climbing........................................................................................................................................ 279 

3.1 Climbing a slope of less than 40°.................................................................. 280 

3.2 Climbing a slope between 40° and 50°......................................................... 282 

3.3 When and where to short-rope.................................................................... 284 

3.4 How to tie off hand coils when short-roping................................................ 286 

3.5 How to safely climb an easy rock ridge......................................................... 287 

3.6 The different types of ice screws.................................................................. 288 

3.7 Where to place an ice screw......................................................................... 289 

3.8 How to place an ice screw............................................................................ 290 

3.9 The different types of pitons........................................................................ 291 

338

3.10 How to place a piton................................................................................... 292 

3.11 How to clip a piton...................................................................................... 293 

4. Belay stations on snow and ice.............................................................................295 

4.1 How to choose a good location for a snow belay station............................. 296 

4.2 How to build and use a snow bollard........................................................... 297 

4.3 How to build and use a deadman................................................................. 298 

4.4 How to place a snow fluke............................................................................ 300 

4.5 How to build an ice belay station.................................................................. 302 

4.6 How to climb between belay stations........................................................... 303 

5. Crevasse rescue.....................................................................................................................305 

5.1 How to arrest a crevasse fall......................................................................... 306 

5.2 How to build a bomber anchor..................................................................... 307 

5.3 How to extricate yourself from a crevasse.................................................... 308 

5.4 How to transfer the load to an anchor......................................................... 310 

5.5 How to haul an able-bodied climber............................................................ 311 

5.6 How to haul an injured climber out of a crevasse........................................ 312 

6. Tips and troubleshooting.............................................................................................313 

6.1 How to arrest a slide on snow with an ice axe.............................................. 314 

6.2 How to make a V-thread (or “Abalakov”)...................................................... 316 

6.3 How to carve a bivouac shelter into a snow slope....................................... 318 

6.4 How to make a bivouac shelter in powder snow.......................................... 320 

7. Mountaineering grades.................................................................................................321 

7.1 Alphanumeric grades (technical alpinism) ................................................... 322 

7.2 Classic grades................................................................................................ 324 

7.3 Russian grades.............................................................................................. 325 

8. Evaluation.................................................................................................................................... 327

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