Cremaschi - 1987 - Paleosols and vetusols in the central Po plain (No

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PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS
IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
(NORTHERN ITALY)
a study in Quaternary Geology
and Soil Development

Cremaschi, Mauro
Is
Pakosols and vetusols in the central Po plain (Northern Italy) a Study in Quaternary Geology and Soil
Development
M. Cremaschi
—Amsterdam: Fysisch Geografisch en Bodemkunding Laboratorium, Universiteit van Amsterdam
Proefschrift Universiteit van Amsterdam. - 111. -Met lit. opg.-
Met samenvatting in het Nederlands, in het Engels en in het Italiaans
Key words: quaternary geology, paleopedology, moraines, fluviatile deposits, fluvioglacial deposits,
loess, soil genesis, paleoclimates.
Ook vershenen in de reeks: EDIZIONI UNICOPLI, Studi e Ricerche sul Territorio Nr. 28
ISBN 88-400-0081-X
Copyright © 1987 by Edizioni Unicopli - via Verona, 9, 20135 Milano
On cover: Drawings by Luciano Coma-Pellegrini
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PALEOSOLS AN D VETUSOLS IN THE CEN TRAL PO PLAIN
(N ORTH ERN IT A LY)
a study in Quaternary Geology and Soil D evelopm ent
ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFT
ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor
in de Wiskunde en Natuurwetenschappen
aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam, op
gezag van de Rector Magnificus
Dr. S. K. Thoden van Velzen,
hoogleraar in de Faculteit der Tandheelkunde,
in het openbaar te verdedigen in de Aula der
Universiteit (Oude Lutherse Kerk, Singel 411,
hoek Spui) op woensdag 30 September 1987, te 15.00 uur precies.
door
Mauro Cremaschi
geboren te Reggio Emilia

ERRATA
CORRIGE
p a g . 15 , 1. hk testo tetto
pag. 15 , 1. 46 Capitolo 6 Capitolo 5
p a g . 16 , 1. 14 morenici moreniche
pag. 16 , 1. 27 Capitolo 7 Capitolo 8
pag. 16 , 1. 29 Capitolo 8 Capitolo 9
pag. 16 , 1. 31 Capitolo 9 Capitolo 10
pag. 16 , 1. 40 alluviazione illuviazione
pag. 47 , fig. 9 5 6
pag. 47 , fig. 9 6 5
pag. 47 , fig. 9 7 8
pag. 47 , fig. 9 8 7
pag. 86 , fig. 30 veutosols vetusols
pag. 86 , fig. 30 above below
pag. 86 , fig. 30 below above
pag. 89 , 1. 15 g l a d e s glaciers
pag. 89 , 1. 40 sugoests suggest
pag. 119, fig. 51 91 21
pag. 163, 1. 12 A) 2
pag. 190, fig. 89 buriel burial
pag. 191, 1. 20 Fersiallisation Fersiallitisation
pag. 194, 1. 6 birefingence birefringence
pag. 226, 1. 2 pronunced pronounced

CONTENTS
Acknowledgments .............................................................................................. 13
Riassunto............................................................................................................. 15
Summary ............................................................................................................. 17
Samenvatting...................................................................................................... 19
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION....................................................................... 23
1.1. The paleosols in Quaternary Geology ............................... 23
1.2. The paleosols of the Po plain; the «Ferretto»..................... 27
1.3. The aims of the stu d y ........................................................ 28
1.4. Methods ............................................................................... 29
1.4.1. Field and'Laboratory techniques...................................... 29
1.4.2. Geochronometric markers................................................. 30
Chapter 2. GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE A R E A .................................. 33
2.1. Main climatic characteristics................................................. 33
2.1.1. The paleoclimates............................................................ 33
2.1.2. The present climate of the area........................................ 37
2.1.3. The moisture and temperature regime of the soils............... 40
2.2. Geological outline ................................................................ 40
2.2.1. The Prequaternary Geology............................................... 40
2.2.2. Main tectonic d ata............................................................ 42
Chapter
3. PAST RESEARCH ON THE PHYSIOGRAPHY AND
QUATERNARY GEOLOGY OF THE AREA AND ITS
CONSEQUENCES FOR THIS RESEARCH .......................... 45
3.1. Introduction.......................................................................... 45
3.2. The Garda area and the Iseo area....................................... 47
3.2.1. Geological outline............................................................ 48
3.2.2. The paleosols.................................................................. 52
3.3. The Adda basin ................................................................... 52
3.3.1. General outline ................................................................ 52
3.3.2. The «Old Diluvium» terrace............................................. 54

ttm Ê Ê Ê Ê ô m i^
10 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
3.3.3. The «Middle Diluvium» terrace........................................ 56
3.3.4. The «Recent Diluvium» terrace........................................ 56
3.4. The isolated terraces in the Po plain ..... ........................... 56
3.5. The Apennine fringe .............................................................. 57
3.6. The loesses in the Po plain.................................................. 58
3.7. The present investigations.................................................. 58
■féîl
Chapter 4. QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND
PALEOSOLS IN THE GARDA A R E A .................................. 61
4.1. The stratigraphic sequence and the paleosols of the Gavardo
q u a rry ............................................................................... 61
4.2. The stratigraphic sequence of the Ciliverghe h i ll................. 68
4.3. The stratigraphic sequence of the Castenedolo h ill............... 74
4.4. The Chiese sequence............................................................ 79
4.5. The vetusols and loess at the top of the Chiese sequence . . . 84
4.6. The stratigraphic sequence of Val Sorda and the paleosol
developed in the moraines of the Sedeña glacial stage .... 89
4.7. The soils in the moraines of the Solferino stage................ 95
4.8. The fluvioglacial plain of the Solferino moraine system .... 100
4.9. Discussion on the chronostratigraphy of the Garda system . 103
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
5. QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEO­
SOLS IN THE ADDA A R E A ................................................... 107
5.1. The «Old Diluvium» terrace................................................. 107
5.2. Observations on the «Old Diluvium» terrace..................... 115
5.3. The terrace of the «Middle Diluvium »................................ 116
5.4. The terrace of the «Recent Diluvium »................................ 122
5.5. The stratigraphic sequence of the Bagaggera basin ........... 123
5.6. The chronostratigraphy of the Bagaggera basin and of the
Adda terraces......................................................................... 138
6. SOILS AND VETUSOLS IN THE TOP OF THE ISOLA­
TED TERRACES IN THE PLAIN ........................................... 143
7. QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEO­
SOLS IN THE APENNINE FRINGE...................................... 147
7.1. Stratigraphy of the continental Quaternary deposits, vetusols
and paleosols.................................................................. 147
7.2. The vetusols in the top of the Pepe-Apennine fluviatile
form ation............................................................................... 151
7.3. The terraces of Spezzano and Formigine, the profiles of
Tiepido and Rex .................................................................. 156

CONTENTS 11
7.4. The soils and vetusols mainly developed in the Ghiardo
lo e ss....................................................................................... 161
7.5. The soils of the late Pleistocene and Holocene alluvial fans 169
7.6. Conclusions on the stratigraphy of the Quaternary paleosols,
vetusols and continental deposits of the Apennine fringe
............................................................................................ 173
Chapter
Chapter
8. GENERAL CORRELATION; MAP OF THE QUATERNA­
RY FORMATIONS .................................................................... 179
8.1. Correlations of the lithostratigraphic and pedostratigraphic
units over the whole investigated a rea................................ 179
8.2. General concepts of the m a p ............................................... 184
8.3. The structure of the legend ................................................. 185
8.4. Description of the mapping units........................................ 186
9. INTRODUCTION INTO THE GENESIS AND DEVELOP­
MENT OF THE PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS................. 189
9.1. The pedogenetic phases ....................................................... 189
9.2. Relevant pedogenetic processes and pedological features . . 191
Chapter 10. THE PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN GRAVEL AND
INDIAMICTON ........................................................................ 197
10.1. The parent material ............................................................ 197
10.2. Characteristics and development of the horizons............. 197
10.3. Weathering of the coarse fraction .................................... 200
10.4. Evolution of the fine earth................................................. 202
10.5. Micromorphological characteristics.................................. 204
10.6. Rubéfaction and free iron content........................... 207
10.7. Mineralogical characteristics and cation exchange properties
....................................................................................... 208
10.8. Conclusions: the development of the vetusols and paleosols
in gravel and diamicton............................................... 210
Chapter 11. THE SOILS AND VETUSOLS IN LOESS............................ 215
11.1. Morphology and micromorphology of the soil horizons . 215
11.2. Textural characteristics....................................................... 218
11.3. Mineralogical and chemical characteristics....................... 218
11.4. The main soil forming processes in loess.......................... 221
Chapter 12. CONCLUSIONS......................................................................... 227
12.1 The Quaternary Geology ................................................... 227

12 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
12.2. The soil forming processes................................................. 231
12.3. The vetusol concept............................................................ 234
References .......................................................................................................... 235
APPENDIXES
1. Descriptions of individual profiles................................................................ 249
la. Brief descriptions of individual profiles...................................................... 267
2. Textural and chemical analyses of fine earth and gravel ............................ 271
3. X-ray analyses................................................................................................ 277
4. Heavy mineral analyses ................................................................................ 281
5. Brief micromorphological descriptions........................................................ 287
6. Map of Quaternary Formations in the Central Po Plain
7. Prehistoric cultures in Northern Italy from Early Palaeolithic to Neolithic . 303

Acknowledgments
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Prof. A.P.A. Vink, for having accepted to act as promotor of this
thesis, for his guidance, helpfull discussions, and critical reading of the manuscript which have led to important
improvements of the text.
I wish to thank Dr. J. Sevink, who strongly encouraged me in all the steps for the compilation of this thesis.
I am greatly indebted to him particularly for usefull discussions on soil genesis and landscape development, for
his assistance in the field, during laboratory studies in Amsterdam and during the compilation of the manuscript
and in subsequent discussions.
I would like to thank prof. G. Orombelli for his advices on the Quaternary of Northern Italy, for
encouragments in undertaking this thesis abroad, for careful reading of the manuscript and valuable suggestions.
Thanks are also due to:
—Prof. G.A. Ferrari, for many suggestions on micromorphology of soils and for his help in the impregnation
of samples in Institute of Applied Geology in Florence.
—Dr. H.J. Mücher for valuable comments on interpretation of some thin sections of loess.
—Prof. J.M. Verstraten: under his supervision many chemical analyses were carried out in the Laboratory of
Physical Geography and Soil Science in Amsterdam.
—Prof. G. Papani, for discussions about the Geology of the p>ede - Appennine fringe.
—B. de Leeuw for X-ray analyses.
—F. Spezzi Bottiani, for chemical analyses carried out in the Department of Earth Sciences in Milan.
—M. Minoli for drawings.
—Dr. Pietro Mario Rossi, director of the Centro di Studio p>er la Stratigrafia e la Petrografía delle Alpi Central!,
C.N.R. in Milan, who supported in many ways the investigations for this thesis.
—C.N.R. and M.PJ. (40Z) for financial support for the publication of the text and the printing of the map.

Riassunto
Questo Studio riguarda i depositi continentali quaternari, i vetusuoli ed i paleosuoli del settore centrale della
Val Padana (Italia del Nord).
Obiettivi e metodi sono discussi nel Capitolo 1 ; in una breve discussione circa il significato dei paleosuoli
nella Geologia del Quaternario ed in una rassegna delle defmizioni più frequentemente utilizzate nella letteratura
specialistica, vengono commentati i principal! tipi di paleosuolo fin ora riconosciuti. Viene sottolineato come i
concetti attualmente accettati non siano in grado di descrivere adeguatamente quei suoli che sono i) prodotto di
una evoluzione prolungata, peraltro molto diffusi nell’area mediterránea. Per essi si propone il termine di
vetusuolo.
Nella valle padana esistono numéros! paleosuoli che, malgrado i different! caratteri e la diversa eta, sono
stati spesso désignât! con il termine genérico di «Ferretto». Questo studio si propone di descrivere ed analizzare
compiutamente le evidenze paleopedologiche della regione centro padana e di descrivere i rapport! che intercorrono
fra essi ed i depositi quaternari cui sono associati. Inoltre vengono studiati i process! pedogenetici di cui i
paleosuoli sono il prodotto, al fine di individuare i fattori che li hanno controllati, e come essi sono variati nel
corso del Quaternario.
È stato eseguito un rilevamento dei depositi quaternari, sulla base del quale è stata redatta una carta in scala
1:250.000. Dei numerosi profili e sezione osservate, 54 sono stati descritti in dettaglio ed analizzati dal punto di
vista micromorfologico, granulometrico, chimico e mineralógico. Le datazioni proposte delle evidenze stratigrañche
e paleopedologiche appoggiano su dati paleomagnetici ed archéologie!.
Gli aspetti climatic!, paleoclimatici, geologic! e tettonici delParea sono esposti nel Capitolo 2. Dopo una
breve rassegna dei caratteri paleoclimatici dell’area mediterránea, dedotti da recenti studi palinologici, vengono
discussi nel dettaglio quelli relativ! alla pianura padana. Scarsi risultano i dati riferibili al Pleistocene inferiore e
medio, mentre si possiedono per il Pleistocene superiore numeróse serie polliniche, talora corredate da date
radiometriche. Sulla base di questi dati, la vegetazione padana durante Tapice glaciale risulta costituita da foresta
boreale, c solo ai margin! della pianura, limitât! da una stretta fascia si riconoscono ambient! a steppa-prateria.
L’attuale clima ha carattere submediterraneo.
II bacino padano venne a delinearsi, nei suoi caratteri principal!, già a partiré dal Miocene, in seguito
alTorogenesi appenninica. Risulta occupato dal mare per gran parte del Pliocene e divenne progressivamente
sede di sedimentazione continentale a partiré dal Pleistocene inferiore. Dal punto di vista tetonico Tarea risulta
fortcmente attiva durante tutto il Quaternario.
Nel Capitolo 3 viene passata in rassegna e discussa la letteratura quaternaristica delTarea; i Capitoli 4, 5, 6,
sono in vece dedicati alia descrizione ed al commento dei depositi quaternari e paleosuoli rilevati. NelTarea
gardesana, cui è dedicato il Capitolo 4, sono documéntate cinque avanzate glacial!. La piíi antica risale al
Pleistocene inferiore d’epoca paleomagnetica Matuyama (fase di Ciliverghe), tre appartengono al Pleistocene
medio (fasi di monte Paita, Carpenedolo e Sedeña), ed una al Pleistocene superiore (fase di Solferino). Gli
apparat! glacial! e fluvioglaciali delle prime quattro fasi sono mal conservati e ridotti talora a lembi isolati e/o a
terrazzi residui.
Le più antiche coltri di loess rinvenute risalgono al primo Pleistocene medio, e sono costituite da lembi
circoscritti, inclus! nelle serie stratigrafiche. Meglio rappresentati sono i lœss del Pleistocene medio finale e del
Pleistocene superiore che ricoprono ampie aree alia sommitá dei terrazzi e delle morene. Sono stati inoltre
rilevati sediment! fluvial! di fasi non glacial!, che si differenziano da quelli fluvioglaciali non solo per caratteri
sedimentologici, ma anche petrografíci. Sulle morene e sui terrazzi, dove non fortemente erosi, si conservano
vetusuoli rubefatti di eta crescente, con spessi orizzonti argillici, che differiscono tra di loro per spessore,
alterazione delle pietre, rubefazione, numero di coltri loessiche, al testo dei profili. Paleosuoli sepolti fortemente
alteran e rubefatti, risalenti almeno al Pleistocene inferiore, sono stati rinvenuti a Castenendolo e Gavardo.
Nel hacino di Ragaggera, posto nella regione delTAdda cui è dedicato il Capitolo 6, i sediment! lacustri
giungono fino alTepoca tardo-Matuyama. Ancora nel Pleistocene inferiore ad essi si sovrappongono e giustappongono
depositi connettibili ad una fase glaciale. Durante il Pleistocene medio la sedimentazione fluviale e
fluvioglaciale tende a prevalere progressivamente su quella lacustre. 1 sedimenti di questo periodo documentano

16 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
B
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tre successive fasi glaciali. Durante il Pleistocene superiore la sedimentazione ha esclusivo carattere eolico.
All’interno del hacino di Bagaggera sono documéntate cinque successive fasi pedogenetiche. La più antica è
rappresentata da un paleosuolo fortemente evoluto, sviluppatosi sul substrato roccioso e probabilmente precedente
alla sedimentazione lacustre, che risalirebbe quindi almeno al tardo Terziario.
Le fasi pedogenetiche quarta e terza sono rappresentate da paleosuoli sepolti sovrapposti, risalenti rispettivamente
al Pleistocene inferiore e medio. All’inizio del Pleistocene superiore va riferita la fase pedogenetica
quarta, mentre la quinta è rappresentata dalla pedogenesi postglaciale sviluppatasi sul loess.
Nell’area dell’Adda tra il tardo Terziario ed il Pleistocene superiore va sedimentandosi il Membro di
Paderno del Ceppo dell’Adda; segue, sempre nel Pleistocene inferiore, la sedimentazione del Membro di Trezzo
del Ceppo dell’Adda e la messa in posto della contemporánea morena di Camparada. Questi depositi costituiscono
la successione stratigrafica che da luogo al terrazzo a Ferretto. Tale unita è poi profondamente incisa e
successivamente, già nel tardo Pleistocene medio, essa viene avvolta dalle ghiaie del Diluvium medio.
Dopo un’altra fase di terrazzamento, si depongono le ghiaie del Diluvium recente, che sono parte di una più
ampia piaña fluvioglaciale connessa alle front! morenici dell’ultima fase glaciale; questo si estende per ampio
tratto verso Sud e forma il livello principale della pianura lombarda. Da questa emergono, in corrispondenza di
strutture tettoniche sepolte i terrazzi isolati, composti di depositi fluviali, ricoperti da coltri loessiche.
Al margine dell’Appennino, cui è dedicato il Capitolo 7, la Formazione Fluviale Pedeappenninica comincia
a depositarsi in età tardo Pleistocenica inferiore. Essa presenta un chiaro trend positivo connesso al progressive
sollevamento del margine appenninico. Una lunga fase di stabilità si verifica all’interno del Pleistocene medio e
in quel periodo il vetusuolo denominate di Collecchio, comincia a svilupparsi. Alla fine del Pleistocene medio,
successivamente ad una importante fase tettonica, si forma al margine appennico un ampio pedemontano.
In questa fase si deposita per ampio tratto una coltre di loess. Succédé una importante fase di erosione, cui segue
la sedimentazione di due distinti sistemi di conoidi pedemontane; la sedimentazione del primo sistema è già
cessata alla fine del Pleistocene superiore, mentre quella del secondo continua fino all’Olocene antico. Alle
formazioni descritte sono sistemáticamente associati dei vetusuoli rubefatti. Evidenze paleopedologiche più
antiche del Vetusuolo di Collecchio sono molto rare.
Nei Capitolo 7 sono discuss! i criteri con cui sono state formulate le unità stratigrafíche della Carta delle
Formazioni quaternarie e ne è descritta la legenda.
Nel Capitolo 8 sono discusse e descritte le fasi pedogenetiche riconosciute nell’area; sono discuss! su base
bibliográfica, i principal! process! pedogenetici operanti nei suoli dell’area in studio.
Nel Capitolo 9 sono discuss! i process! pedogenetici che hanno portato alio sviluppo dei paleosuoli su ghiaia
e diamictorr. decalcificazione, rubefazione, ferriargilluviazione e debole idromorfia.
Sulla base dei dati micromorfologici, granulometrici, minéralogie! e chimici, si osserva come, nel tempo, i
profili tendano ad ispessirsi, e ad articolarsi in una successione caratteristica di orizzonti (B21, B22, B31, B32)
che differiscono per rubefazione, accumulo di argüía illuviale e progressiva disgregazione ed alterazione delle
pietre. Trasformazioni e neoformazioni di mineral! argillosi risultano trascurabili. I paleosuoli e vetusuoli su
ghiaia e diamicton sembrano il prodotto di process! fersiallitici durati dal tardo Pleistocene inferiore fino al
presente, che non sembrano interrompersi durante i period! glaciali pleistocenici. Questi riguardano la parte
superiore dei profili, provocandovi deboli erosioni o l’accumulo di coltri colluviali e loessiche di spessori
moderati e favorendo lo sviluppo dell’alluviazione grossolana. I paleosuoli sepolti evoluti tra il tardo Terziario ed
il Pleistocene inferiore, hanno caratteri intermedi fra i suoli ferruginosi e fersiallitici e debbono essere perció
ricondotti ad un pedoclima di carattere più marcatamente intertropicale.
Il Capitolo 11 è dedicato alio sviluppo dei vetusuoli e suoli su loess. 1 process! in essi dominant! sono la
decarbonatazione, la traslocazione di argüía. A causa del difficile drenaggio determinato dalla bassa permeabilita
del materiale. I fenomeni idromorfi vi svolgono un ruolo importante; la rubefazione è di solito assente. I
vetusuoli su loess includono abitualmente bisequenze litologiche e pedologiche, ed orizzonti con caratteri di
fragipan. Questi sembrano essersi originati a partiré da superfici esposte e sottoposte a process! pedogenetici di
carattere isohumico durante fasi interstadial!, poi sepolte da nuovi arrivi di loess.
Le conclusion] generali della ricerca sono I’oggetto del Capitolo 12. Al margine alpino sono state riconosciute
cinque fasi glaciali. La più antica risale al Pleistocene inferiore ed è correlabile con lo Stage 22 delle
stratigrafie isotopiche oceaniche. Al margine dell’Appennino, soltanto a partiré dal tardo Pleistocene medio si
hanno tracce geologiche di fasi glaciali.
Lo studio dei paleosuoli pone in luce che I’inizio del Pleistocene glaciale, alla fine del Pleistocene superiore,
segna il limite fra i process! pedogenetici di carattere ferrallitico o ferruginoso (che determinarono lo sviluppo
dei paleosuoli più antichi) e quelli di carattere fersiallitico (che caratterizzano i paleosuoli evolutisi successivamente).
Questi, salvo che in situazioni particolari, sono costituiti da vetusuoli, caratterizzati da una sostanziale
continuita nel processo pedogenetico. II termine vetusuolo è infine ulteriormente discusso, in rapporto alia
nomenclatura paleopedologica.

Summary
This Study is concerned with the Quaternary continental deposits, vetusols and paleosols of the central part
of the Po Plain (Northern Italy).
Chapter 1 deals with the objectives and the methods employed. After a short introduction into the
significance of paleosols in Quaternary Geology, the author discusses the types of paleosols known from the
literature and the concepts related to them. It is underlined that the existing nomenclature is not sufficient to
characterize the soils which are marked by a continuity of pedogenetic processes in time. For these soils, which
arc in fact very common to the Mediterranean region, the term «vetusol» is proposed.
The main aim of this study is to describe and analyse the paleopedological evidence in the central Po plain,
in order to establish the relationships between pedogenetic processes and environmental changes during the
Quaternary period in an area marginally affected by glacier expansions.
A survey of the Quaternary deposits has been carried out and the results are given in a geological map at
scale 1:250,000. Moreover fifty-four profiles and sections have been described in detail and analysed for their
micromorphology, mineralogy, granulometry and mineralogy. The datings and correlations of the stratigraphical
and paleopedological sequences are based on paleomagnetical and archaeological data.
The climatic, palaeoclimatic, geological and tectonic features of the area are discussed in chapter 2. The main
palaeoclimatic characteristics of the Mediterranean area are discussed on the basis of the most recent palynological
studies. In the Po Plain, pollen data concerning the Early and Middle Pleistocene are very scarce, while many
pollen series are known from the Late Pleistocene, sometimes correlated with 14C dates. These data show that a
boreal forest was established in the Po Plain during glacial periods, while a steppe environment existed all along
the margin of the plain. Nowadays the climate of the area studied has submediterranean characteristics; the soil
temperature regime is thermic; the soil moisture regime is xeric at the Apennine fringe and turns to udic in the
Lombardian plain and at the Alpine fringe.
The essential features of the Po basin already existed in the Miocene, being due to the uprising of the
Apennine chain. The basin was still occupied by the sea during most of the Pliocene. Since the Early Pleistocene
it was progressively filled with continental sediments. From a tectonic point of view the area was strongly active
throughout the entire Quaternary.
The regional literature on the Quaternary period is discussed in chapter 3.
Chapter 4, 5, 6 and 7 are devoted to the description and discussion of the Quaternary deposits, vetusols and
paleosols examined.
Chapter 4 concerns the Lake Garda region. Here, five glacial stages have been distinguished. The oldest dates
from the Early Pleistocene (Civilverghe stage), three stages date back to the Middle Pleistocene (Monte Faita,
Carpenedolo and Sedeña stages) and one to the Late Pleistocene (Solferino stage). Glacial and fluvioglacial
deposits of the first four stages are scarce and are often limited to isolated outcrops and/or residual terraces.
The oldest loess sediments date from the early Middle Pleistocene and have been found in a few sites, as
intercalations in the stratigraphical sequences. The late Middle Pleistocene and Late Pleistocene loesses are
better represented and are widespread over older terraces and moraine ridges. Fluvial sediments of non-glacial
origin have also been found. They differ from the fluvioglacial ones with regard to their sedimentological and
petrographic characteristics. Rubefied vetusols with thick argillic horizons are encountered in the moraines and
the terraces, if not strongly eroded. Their thickness, rubéfaction and clay content generally increase with the age
of the deposits in which they developed. Buried paleosols, strongly weathered and rubefied and at least Early
Pleistocene in age, have been recognized at Castenedolo and Gavardo.
Chapter 5 deals with the Quaternary deposits, vetusols and paleosols in the Adda area. The sediments of the
Bagaggera basin range in age from Early Pleistocene up to Late Pleistocene. Five glacial stages are recorded in
the sedimentary sequence, the oldest dating back to the late Matuyama Epoch. Five pedogenetic phases can be
distinguished in this basin. The olde.st (S5) is represented by a strongly eroded oxisol, developed in the flysch
bedrock and probably predating the lacustrine sedimentation. The fourth (S4) pedogenetic phase and the third
(S3) consist of superimposed buried paleosols, dating from respectively, the Early and the Middle Pleistocene.
The second (S2) phase is attributed to the beginning of the Late Pleistocene, while the most recent (SI) is

18 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
represented by the Postglacial pedogenesis in loess. In the Adda area, during the Early Pleistocene the Cepp)o
d’Adda was deposited, which represents an aggrading piedmont alluvial fan. Its upper part (the Trezzo Member
of the Ceppo d’Adda) is probably connected with the genesis of the Camparada moraine, which formed during
an Early Pleistocene glacial stage. In the late Early Pleistocene, the «Ferretto» vetusof developed in the Cepp>o
formation. During the Middle Pleistocene, the Ceppo formation and the related soils were deeply cut by
fluviatile erosion and subsequently surrounded by the gravels of the «Middle Diluvium» terrace. After a new
phase of terracing, the fluvioglacial sediments connected with the Late Pleistocene moraines of the Adda
(«Diluvium recente» terrace) were deposited. They extend far to the South and form the Main Level of the
Lombardian Plain. Polygenetic loess has been found on top of the «Ferretto» and the «Middle Diluvium»
terrace, while it is completely absent from the top of the «Recent Diluvium».
Chapter 6 deals with the central part of the Po Plain, which is dominated by the «Recent Diluvium» which
formes the «Main level of the Plain» and by the wide Holocene floodplains of the Po and its main tributaries.
Some isolated older terraces occur, which rise from the Main Level in correspondence with buried tectonic
structures. lx>ess has been found on top of these terraces.
In chapter 7 the Quaternary continental deposits of the Apennine fringe are described. The Pede-Apennine
fluviatile sedimentation started at the end of the late Early Pleistocene. It is represented by meandering and
braided river deposits and by overbank sediments, which show a clear upward coarsening trend, connected with
the progressive uprising of the Apennine margine. During the Middle Pleistocene, at the top of the «Pede-
Apennine fluviatile formation» the Collechio vetusol started to develope. Subsequent on a tectonically induced
phase of landscape instability, a wide piedmont glacis developed at the foot of the Apennines, followed
by a general phase of loess sedimentation. During the late Pleistocene and Early Holocene alluvial fans were
deposited. The vetusols at the Apennine fringe are systematically associated with the deposits described above.
Chapter 8 is devoted to the stratigraphic correlations between the regions studied, and to the map and its
legend. The mapping units have been formulated according to lithostratigraphic, pedostratigraphic and morphostratigraphic
criteria.
In chapter 9, the literature concerning the relevant pedogenetic processes and the main features of the soils
and vetusols in the area studied are reviewed.
Chapter 10 deals with the genesis and the development of soils, vetusols and paleosols in gravel and
diamicton. The development of these soils is mainly due to the décalcification and disintegration of coarse
skeletal material, translocation of clay and iron, and slight hydromorphism. In time, the action of these
pedogenetic processes led to the thickening of the profiles, which developed a characteristic set of horizons
(B21, B22, B31, B32, Cca), and to the increase of rubéfaction and of the accumulation of illuvial clay.
Micromorphological, textural, chemical and mineralogical aspects of their evolution are described in some detail.
Vetusols and paleosols, of which the formation started from the late Early Pleistocene onward, are the
results of fersiallitic processes. Their development was not affected by the climatic changes induced by glacial
periods, during which only the upp>cr part of the profiles was affected by slight erosion, colluviation, loess
sedimentation and, at microscale, by an increase of coarse illuviation.
The buried paleosols, recorded at Gavardo, Castenedolo and Bagaggera, which developed from the Late
Tertiary^ to the Early Pleistocene, have characteristics intermediate between those of ferruginous and of ferrallitic
soils and, therefore, have developed in a more or less tropical pedoclimate.
Chapter 11 is devoted to the development of vetusols in loess. The dominant processes are décalcification
and clay translocation. Due to the low permeability of the material, hydromorhism is also a relevant process,
while rubefaaion is generally absent. Vetusols in loess are often developed in polygenetic loess covers. Clear
indications exist that in the loess, isohumic soils were formed during the interstadial periods; they degraded and
developed fragipans during the cold stages. During non-glacial periods and in Postglacial times lessived soils
marked by pseudogley developed and previously acquired characteristics were generally obliterated.
In the final chapter general conclusions are drawn. At the Alpine fringe five glacial stages can be recognized.
The oldest dates back to the Early Pleistocene and is correlated to the stage 22 of the isotopic records from deep
sea cores. Comparison between these results and the more complete oceanic record indicated that only during
periods, in which ice accumulation on the Alps was particulary strong, piedmont glaciers and related moraine
deposits developed. At the Apennine fringe sediments and landforms induced by glacial stages are found only
since the late Middle Pleistocene.
Comparison of the pedogenesis of the vetusols and paleosols leads to the conclusion that somewhere in the
Early Pleistocene a break in pcdoclimatic conditions occurred. Older soils have characteristics intermediate
between ferruginous and ferrallitic soils, and developed in a tropical climate. Starting from the late Early
Pleistocene up to the Early Holocene, soils developed through fersiallitic processes in a mediterranean climate,
while the glacial periods were ineffective with regard to pedogenesis.
Finally, the term vetusol is discussed in further detail in relation with the present paleopedological
terminology.

Samenvatting
Deze Studie handelt over de paleogeomorfologie van de continentale afzettingen van Kwartaire ouderdom,
in relatie tot de ontwikkeling van de palcosolen en de vetusolen in het centrale deel van de Po vlakte
(Noord'Italie).
In hoofdstuk 1 worden de onderzoeksdoelen en gebruikte methoden toegelicht. Na een körte inleiding over
de betekenis van de Studie van paleosolen voor de Kwartairgeologie worden in de literatuur gehanturde
typologie van paleosolen in de daaraaten grandslag liggende concepteo besproken. Benadrukt wordt, dat de
bestaande typologie niet toereikend is voor die bodems, welke gekenmerkt worden door continuiteit, in de tijd,
van de voor hun eigenschappen verantwoorlijke pedogene processen. Voor deze bodems, die in feite zeer veel
voorkomen in het Mediterrane gebied, wordt de term «vetusol» voorgesteld.
Het belangrijkste doel van deze Studie is de beschrijving en analyse van de paleosolen in de centrale Po
vlakte, teneinde vast te stellen welke relaties bestünden tussen de pedogene processen en de milieuveranderingen
tijdens het Kwartair in een gebied, dat marginaal beinvloed werd door gletschers.
Het onderzoek bestond uit een kartering van de kwartaire afzettingen met onder meer als resultaat een
geologische kaart op schaal 1:250.000. Daarnaast werden vier en vijftig bodemprofielen en geologische secties
in detail beschreven en geanalyseerd voor wat betreff hun micromorfologische, mineralogische, granulometrische
en chemische eigenschappen. De dateringen en ouderdomscorrelaties van de sedimentaire en paleopedologische
sequenties zijn gebaseerd op paleomagnetische en archeologische gegevens.
ln hoofdstuk 2 worden de bestaande gegevens over het klimaat, het paleoklimaat, de geologie en de
tcktoniek van het bestudeerde gebied besproken.
Voor wat betreff het paleoklimaat wordt vooral aandacht geschonken aan de resultaten van recente palynologische
studies in het Mediterrane gebied. Palynologische studies van Vroeg —en Midden —pleistocene afzettingen
in de Po vlakte zijin schaars. Veel palynologisch onderzoek is daarentegen verricht aan Laat-pleistocene
afzettingen, soms ondersteund door C14 dateringen. Deze gegevens tonen aan, dat tijdens glaciale perioden in
de Po vlakte een borcaal bos aanwezig was, terwijl in de randzone van deze vlakte steppe condities heersten. Het
huidige klimaat heeft sub-mediterrane kenmerken. Het «temperature regime» is «thermie» en het «moisture
régime» varieert van «xeric» in de randzone van de Appenijinen tot «udic» in de Lombardijse vlakte en de
randzone van de Alpen.
De grootschalige geologische structuur van het huidige Po bekken ontstond reeds in het Mioceen door de
opheffmg van de Appenijnen. Gedurende het grootste deel van het Plioceen werd het bekken nog ingenomen
door de zee. Vanaf het Vroeg-pleistoceen werd het echter in toenemende mate opgevuld met continentale
afzettingen. Gedurende het hele kwartair was het gebied tektonisch zeer aktief.
De uitgebreide regionale kwartairgeologische literatuur wordt besproken in hoofdstuk 3; de hoofdstukken
4, 5, 6 en 7 zijn gewijld aan de beschrijving en bespreking van de bestudeerde kwartaire afzettingen, paleosolen
en vetusolen.
Hoofdstuk 4 betreff hef Garda meer gebied. Hier kunnen vijf glaciaties onderscheiden worden. De oudste
dateert uit het Vroeg-pleistoceen (Ciliverghe stage). Drie jongere glaciaties dateren uit het Midden-pleistoceen
(Monte Faita, Carpenedolo en Sedeña stages) en de jongste uit het Laat-pleistoceen (Solferino stage). Glaciale
en fluvioglaciale afzettingen uit de eerste vier glacialen zijn zelden ontsloten, veelal in geisoleerde voorkdomens
cn/of résiduaire terrassen. De audste loessafzettingen dateren mit het vraege Midden-pleistocene. Zij zijn op
enkelc plaatsen gevonden en wel als inschakelingen in sedimentaire sequenties. Laat Midden-pleistocene en
Laat-pleistocene loessen komen op uitgebreiderc schaal voor als dekken op oudere terrassen en morene ruggen.
Fluviatiele sedimenten van nict-glaciale herkomst komen eveneens voor. Zij verschillen van de fluvioglaciale
afzettingen voor wat betreff hun sedimentologische en petrografische kenmerken. In de morenes en terrassen
worden, indien ze niet sterk geerodeerd zijn, roodgekleurde vetusolen met dikke kleiinspoelingshorizontcn
gevonden. De dikte, rubificatîe en het kleigehalte van deze bodems nemen in het algemeen toe met toenemende
ouderdom van de afzettingen, waarin zij zijn ontwikkeld. Begraven paleosolen van minstens Vroeg-pleistocene
ouderdom werden gevonden te Castenedolo en Gavardo. Ze worden gekenmerkt door een Sterke verwering en
rubificatie.

PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
In hoofdstuk 5 worden de kwartaire afzertingen, paleosolen en vetusolen van het Adda gebied behandeld.
De Sedimenten van het Bagaggera bekken lopen in ouderdom uiteen van Vroeg- tot Laat-pleistoceen. In deze
sedimentaire sequentie kunnen vijf glaciale perioden worden onderscheiden, waarvan de oudste dateert uit het
latere deel van de Matuyama Epoch. Daarnaast kunnen vijf pedogenetische fasen worden onderscheiden. De
oudste (S5) wordt vertegenwoordigd door een sterk geerodeerde oxisol, welke is ontwikkeld in het
onderliggende vaste gesteente (flysch). «Superimposed buried» paleosolen, daterend uit respectievelijk het
Vroeg-pleistoceen en het Midden-pleistoceen, representeren de vierde (S4) en derde (S3) pedogenetische fase.
De tweede pedogenetische fase (S2) dateert uit het begin van het Laat-pleistoceen, terwijl de jongste fase (S l) de
holocene bodemvorming omvat.
In het Adda gebied werd tijdens het Vroeg-pleistoceen de Ceppo d’Adda gevoimd, Welke een aggraderende
piedmont puinwaaier vertegenwoordigt. Het bovenste deel van deze formatie (de Trezzo Member van de Ceppo
d’Adda) is vermoedelijk gerelateerd aan de Camparada morene, gevormd tijdens een Vroeg-pleistocene glaciatie.
Tijdens het late Vroeg-pleistoceen werd in de Ceppo formatie de zogenaamde «Ferretto» vetusol gevormd.
Tijdens het Midden-pleistoceen werden de Ceppo formatie en de daarin ontwikkelde bodems fluviatiel sterk
versneden, waarna de grinden van de «Middle Diluvium» terrassen werden afgezet. Na een nieuwe fase van
terrasvorming werden fluvioglaciale Sedimenten afgezet, welke gerelateerd zijn an de Laat-pleistocene morenes
van de Adda en als het «Recent Diluvium» terras worden aangegeven. Dit terras strekt zieh ver zuidwaarts uit
en vormt het hoofdniveau van de Lombardijse vlakte. Zowel op de Ferretto als of het «Middle Diluvium» terras
is polygenetische loess gevonden. Op de «Recent Diluvium» terras ontbreekt loess geheel.
In hoofdstuk 6 wordt het centrale deel van de Po vlakte besproken. Deze wordt gedomineerd door het
«Recent Diluvium» en door de brede holocene dalvlakten van de Po en haar zijrivieren. Enkele geisoleerde
oudere terrassen körnen voor, bedekt met loess. Hun nauwe correlatie met het voorkomen van begraven
tectonische structuren wijst op een Sterke tektonische controle op het voorkomen van deze terrassen.
De kwartaire continentale afzettingen van de Appenijnse randzone worden behandeld in hoofdstuk 7. De
overgang van mariene naar fluviatiele sedimentatie dateert hier uit het laatste deel van het Vroeg-pleistoceen. De
Sedimenten bestaam uit meanderende en verwilderende rivierafzettingen. Zij vormen de «Pre-Apennine fluviatile
formation» en vertonen een duidelijke «coarsening upward», die samenhangt met de geleidelijke opheffing van
deze randzone. Tijdens het Middenpleistoceen nam de instabiliteit van het landschap af en begon de vorming van
de Collechio vetusol. Na een tectonische fase, die leidde tot een duidelijke toename van de instabiliteit van het
landschap, werd aan de voet van de Appenijnen een uitgestrekt «piedmont glacis» gewormd. Deze werd in latere
instantie met loess bedekt. Tijdens het Laat-pleistoceen en Vroeg-holoceen werden tenslotte puinwaaiers gevormd.
Hoofdstuk 8 is gewijd aan de stratigrafische correlaties tussen de diverse deelgebieden en aan de compilatie
door middel van de geologische kaart. Voor het onderscheid tussen de diverse kaarteenheden is gebruikt
gemaakt van litho-, pedo- en morfostratigrafische criteria.
Een overzicht van de literatuur betreffende relevante pedogene processen en van de belangrijkste kenmerken
van de bodems in het onderzochte gebied wordt gegeven in hoofdstuk 9. Dit vormt de inleiding tot twee
daaropvolgende hoofdstukken waarin de ontwikkeling van de bodems in grind en diamicton en van de bodems
in loess afzonderlijk worden behandeld.
De bodems in grind en diamicton zijn voomamelijk ontstaan door ontkalking, verwering van grof skelet
materiaal, verplaatsing van klei en ijzer en, tenslotte, zwakke pseudogleying. Deze pedogene processen leidden in
de loop der tijd tot verdieping van het solum, welke een karakteristieke horizontopeenvolging gaat vertonen
(B21, B22, B31, B32, Cca), tot een intensere rubificatie en tot een toenemende accumulatie van ingcspoelde
klei. De micromorfologische, granulomtrische, chemische en mineralogische aspecten van deze ontwikkeling
worden uitvoerig beschreven. De vanaf het late Vroeg-pleistoceen ontstane paleosolen en vetusolen kunnen
beschouwd worden als fersiallitische bodems. Hun ontwikkeling werd niet wezenlijk beinvloed door de
klimaatscondities tijdens de glacialen. Deze hadden alleen effect op het bovenste deel van de profielen en leiden
tot lichte erosie, colluviatie, afzetting van loess en, op microschaal, tot een toename van «coarse illuviation».
De begraven paleosolen van Gavardo, Castenedolo en Bagaggera, welke gevormd werden vanaf het
Laat-tertiair tot in het Vroeg-pleistoceen, hebben kenmerken, die intermediair zijin tussen die van ferrugineuze
en van ferralitische bodems. Daarom wordt aangenomen, dat zij onder een min of meer tropisch pedoklimaat
zijin gevormd.
Decalcificatie en kleitranslocatie zijn de belangripcste processen, die geleid hebben tot de vorming van de
vetusolen in loess. Daarnaast speelt, als gevolg van de läge permeabiliteit van het materiaal, hydromorfie een
belangrijke rol, terwijl rubificatie veelal ontbreekt. De vetusolen zjin vaak ontwikkeld in polygenetische
loessdekken. Er zijn duidelijke aanwyzingen, dat na afzetting eerst isohumische bodems werden gevormd, welke
tijdens de interstadialen degradeerden, waarbij zieh fragipans ontwikkelden. Tijdens interglaciale perioden en in
het Holoceen trad kleitranslocatie en pseudovergleying op en werden veelal de eerder verkregen bodemkenmerken
uitgewist.
Het laatste hoofdstuk is gewijd aan de meer algemene discussie en conclusies. In de randzone van de Alpen
kunnen vijf glaciaties worden herkend. De oudste dateert uit het Vroeg-pleistoceen en kan mogelijk gecorreleerd
worden met isotopic stage 22. Vergelijking van de resultaten met de completere, op onderzoek van
diepzeekernen berustende, isotopen kurves wijst erop, dat alleen tijdens perioden, waarin Sterke ijsaccumulatie in
de Alpen optrad, piedmont gletschers en bijdehorende morene Systemen werden gevormd. In de randzone van

SAMENVATTING 21
de Appenijnen komen sedimenten en landvormen, gerelateerd aan glaciaties, slechts voor vanaf het late Middenpleistoceen.
Het onderzoek naar de genese van de bestudeerde paleosolen en vetusolen leidt tot de conclusie, dat tijdens
het Vroeg-pleistoceen een fundaméntele wijziging in de pedoklimatologische condities optrad. Oudere bodems
hebben kenmerken, die intermediair zijn tussen die van fermgineuze en van ferralitische bodems, en werden
gevormd in een tropisch klimaat. Bodems, onstaan vanaf het late Vroeg-pleistoceen tot en met het
Vroeg-holoceen, hebben de kenmerken van fersiallitische bodems, gevormd in een mediterraan klimaat en
hieruit wordt geconcludeerd, dat de koude perioden in pedogentische zin niet effectief waren.
Tenslotte wordt het begrip vetusol uitvoerig besprocken, alsook de relatie tot de huidige paleopedologische
terminologie.

1 .
INTRODUCTION
The subjects of this study are the paleosols of the central part of the Po Plain
(Fig. 1). Its aim is to recognize and to describe their characteristics, their
stratigraphic and areal distribution, the factors which controlled their
development and the relationships with the Quaternary enviromental evolution.
1.1. THE PALEOSOLS IN QUATERNARY GEOLOGY
Paleopedology represents the historical branch of pedology (Ruellan, 1971);
and its subjects are represented by the paleosols which, according to a largely
accepted definition (Yaalon, 1971; Birkeland; 1974; Orombelli, 1971; Ferrari
and Magaldi, 1983), are the soils developed in a landscape of the past. In
commenting upon the definition, most authors point out that the bioclimatic
environment, in which the paleosol evolved, must be different from the present
one. In Orombelli’s definition (1971) the morphological implications are
particularly emphasized: the paleosols are soils developed in the past, in ancient
topographic surfaces.
Generally speaking, the surface of the emerged lands alternatively undergoes
gradational and pedogenetic processes. According to a concept used in
geomorphology (Chamberlain and Salisbury, 1904) the gradational processes are
those which level by lowering the relief through erosion (degradational
processes) and by filling the depressions with the accumulation of materials
(aggradational processes). The development of a soil takes place where there is a
balance between aggradational and degradational processes or where both are
inactive. Therefore pedogenesis evolves in contraposisition to erosion/
sedimentation and is connected to the stability of the surfaces on which it acts
(Bos and Sevink, 1975).
It is well known that in the evolution of the lithosphere periods of prevailing
stability (Biostasy), during which the continental areas mainly undergo
bioclimatic and pedogenetic alterations, after all due to the plant cover, alternated
with periods of intensive erosion, during which the surfaces, devoid of
vegetation, have been strongly affected by gradational processes (Resistasy)
(Erhart, 1967).
In the geological perspective, during very long time-intervals, pedogenesis is
a pulsating phenomenon. For this reason, the stratigraphic record often includes

i
i i
24 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
pedogenetic bodies which represent fossil evidence of the periods of Biostasy.
These represent the buried paleosols (Ruellan, 1971), or Geosols (Morrison, 1967;
North American Stratigraphic code, 1983) or the Sols fossiles (Duchafour, 1977).
In this case the paleopedological evidence represents a single pedogenetic period.
Fig. 1 - The investigated area and its main physiographic systems. 1) Pre-Quaternary formations; 2)
moraines and related fluvioglacial deposits of the Adda river, Iseo and Garda lakes areas; 3) Main
level of the Plain; 4) alluvial plain; 5) Pleistocene terraces of the Apennine fringe; 6) main scarps.
Fig. 1 - L’area in esame ed i principali sistemi fisiografici in essa compresi. 1) formazioni prequaternarie;
2) morene e depositi fluvioglaciali dell’area dell’Adda del lago d’lseo e del lago di Garda; 3)
«Livello principale della pianura»; 4) pianura alluvionale; 5) terrazzi pedeappenninlci; 6) principali
scarpate.

INTRODUCTION 25
independent of its duration and, if it has sufficient lateral continuity and clear
diagnostic characteristics, it may be used for stratigraphic studies as a
pedostratigraphic unit. This is defined at the same time by stratigraphic
characteristics and pedological characteristics for which specific proof of existence
is required (Working Group on the origin and nature of paleosols, 1971;
Ruellan, 1971; Finkl, 1980).
A pedostratigraphic unit usually includes different soils in catenary sequence,
or lateral variation (pédologie facies of Morrison, 1967), depending on the
original topography of the surface from which the geosol evolved (Birkeland,
1974; Gerrard, 1981); the buried soils are therefore stratigraphic markers and
have paleogeographic and paleoenvironmental significance.
In the Quaternary continental deposits, the geosols are present in particular
types of sedimentary environments, mainly in the thick loesses of the Central
Europe (Fink, 1954, 1969; Kukla, 1975; Valentine and Dalrymple, 1976), in the
slope deposits (Bolt et alii, 1980; Kwaad and Miicher, 1979) or in subsiding
fluvial plains. Nevertheless their study is made particularly difficult by scarcity
and casualness of the outcrops (fluvial cuts, quarries, construction pits).
ReHct paleosols (Ruellan, 1971) are more common in the Quaternary
deposits. These paleosols are defined as soils that, even if not buried, preserve in
their profile characteristics which are not in equilibrium with the present
pedo-environment and were produced by soil forming processes which acted in
the past. Time, therefore, plays an important role in their genesis.
Yaalon (1971) distinguishes three groups of pedological features according to
their persistence: —rapidly adjusting features, —relatively persistent features (near
the steady state), - persistent features produced by self-terminating processes. It
is well known that (Birkeland, 1974; Sharpenseel, 1971) accumulation of organic
matter is the complex of properties which rapidly reaches the steady state in time,
ranging from hundreds of years to a few thousands of years. On the other hand,
the rate and nature of this process may be easily altered, being controlled by
biological cycles. Besides, the A horizons, in which organic matter is
predominantly included, are the most subject to erosion. For such reasons they
have been placed by Yaalon (1971) among the rapidly adjusting features and
therefore they are little useful in the study of the paleosols, where, on the
contrary, evidence of past or ancient processes must be searched inside the B
horizons, in which persistent features are generally preserved and can be used to
reconstruct past conditions of pedogenesis. Many authors attribute polygenetic
characteristics to relict paleosols: they would have originated, through various
different pedogenetic phases that took place in time, from the same parent
material (sols polycycliques: Duchaufour, 1977), or with the interposition of a
thin sedimentary cover, which is not sufficient to isolate the underlying paleosol
from the new pedogenetic cycle (composite paleosols: Morrison, 1967;
polypedomorphic profiles: Bos and Sevink, 1975). The development of the relict
paleosols is commonly assumed to be connected with interglacial periods, while
during the glacial ones, there should be a substantial decline or interruption of
the soils forming processes. In fact Birkeland (1974) points out that some relict
soils are identical to equivalent buried soils covered by sediments of the glacial

I9SI
26 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
period and deduces that the characteristics of both soils must have been
completely acquired during the preceding interglacial period. Nevertheless
Birkeland acknowledges that in the regions with present climate, comparable to
that of the glacial periods, there are well developed soils while, according to his
model, there should not be any development of the soil.
It must be recalled that the tendency to refer the formation interval of
paleosols to interglacial periods is based on the concepts already expressed by
Penck and Brückner (1909) in the model of the stratigraphy of the glacial age
proposed by them for the Alpine region.
The isotopic studies on oceanic cores (Flint, 1971; Bowen, 1978) testify the
complexity of the quaternary climatic variations (cf. chapter: 2 .1.1) and suggest
prudence in the correlation of soils, polygenetic paleosols and interglacial periods
(Kukla, 1978; Boardman, 1985).
The question therefore is: are the relict soils the product of an evolution
prolongée» or of «évolutions successives» (Duchaufour, 1977)? the problem is crucial
to understand the significance of the paleosols and to use them in the study of
the Quaternary. The buried paleosols certainly testify only the pedoclimatic
characteristics of the period during which they evolved. There is a doubt whether
thick relict soils still related to the surface are mainly the product of a distinct
pedogenetic phase that lasted for only an interglacial period of for several
cumulated phases. Their evolution, in particular conditions, might rather vary
autonomously with respect to the climatic oscillations. Each of these possibilities
implies a paleoenvironmental and stratigraphic significance and especially the last
one puts the question of which role is effectively played by the climatic factor in
the evolution of soils in the long cycles.
On the other hand numerous authors (Novak et aüi, 1971; Icole, 1971;
Hubschman, 1975; Bornand, 1978; Boardman, 1985), by analysing the
chronosequences of the redit soils of the piedmont regions of the Pyrenees, of
the Alps, in England and in Canada, rather recognize a continuity of the
pedogenetic process during time, maybe with temporary breaks, but always in the
same direction.
The existing nomenclature for soils and paleosols is unsuited to adequately
characterize these soils which seem to be marked by a continuity of a specific set
of pedogenetic processes in time. They cannot be described as buried soils in
those instances where they occur at the present surface. Nor can they be
described as polygenetic soils, because the processes which determine their
characteristics have not changed in time. Finally they cannot be considered as
relict soils, as their evolution is still continuing.
As the term relict soil may lead to misunderstanding, having often been used
to indicate soils, presently occurring at the surface, but formed under entirely
different conditions, in this thesis the term «Vetusol» (after vetus = old) will be
used to indicate all soils which are not buried and cannot be characterized as
polygenetic. Whether the vetusols are indeed the product of an «évolution
prolongée», which should be the concept of their genesis, or of «évolutions successives»
(Duchaufour, 1977) is one of the topics of this thesis.

INTRODUCTION 27
1.2. THE PALEOSOLS OF THE PO PLAIN; THE «FERRETEO»
Geological literature and maps have indicated, since a long time, the presence
of many paleosols in the Quaternary deposits all along the margin of the Po
Plain. In most cases they developed in the top of fluvial and fluvioglacial deposits
and in moraines, or, locally, they are represented by buried paleosols brought to
light by the fluvial erosion or by artificial cuts. Most of them, independently on
their age or stratigraphic position, have been indicated with the term «FerreUo».
This is a popular term to define terrains rich in iron hydroxides; it has a
Lombardian origin and it has been referred to some areas of that region, whose
poor fertility was due to the presence of very clayey and leached paleosols
(Cornel, 1958, 1968).
The «Ferretto», as a geological entity, appears in the Italian literature already
from the first half of the 19th century (Breislack, 1822); it has been particularly
studied by Taramelli (1876) and was already correctly interpreted by Sacco
(1896) as the product of physico-chemical weathering of fluvioglacial gravel.
Nevertheless the term is used by the Italian authors with a certain ambiguity.
It has never been established whether it designates weathered and rubefied gravel
or only the fine sediments that systematically overlie them, which Sacco already
calls loess and «pseudoloess».
Penck and Briickner (1909) clearly define the pedogenetic nature of the
«Ferretto» and describe its characteristics: colour, weathering of gravel and
thickness of the paleosol profile. On the basis of this they distinguished the
«Ferretto» from similar, but more recent, pedological phenomena and pointed
out its concomitance with the «Deckenschotier». Therefore the paleopedological
evidence is used as a criterion for the identification of morphostratigraphic units.
The characteristics of great thickness and strong weathering are correlated with
the particularly long duration of the Mindel-Riss Interglacial (the Great
Interglacial) of which the «Ferretto» is considered the stratigraphic marker. This
theory had a remarkable success and for more that fifty years geomorphological
surveys of the Quaternary deposits of the southern margin of the Alps were
based on it (Venzo, 1957, 1965, 1961; Habbe, 1960). More recent studies on
the Alpine «Ferrettos» and on analogous paleosols do not stray much from the
stratigraphic ideas of the two Austrian authors (Venzo, 1957; Mancini, 1960;
Gabert, 1962; Fraenzle, 1965; Ferrari and Magaldi, 1968; Mancini, 1969). First
Ugolini and Orombelli (1968) and then Billard (1974, 1977) paid attention to
the fine sediments lying on top of the «Ferretto» and specified their aeolian
nature. In particular Billard observes that several phases of loess sedimentation
can be recognized in the silty covers, alternating with interglacial paleosols,
sometimes «degraded» by periglacial processes. Furthermore the loess overlies
weathered gravels of different ages; the «Ferretto» therefore may not be the
expression of a unique interglacial phase. The concept that the «Ferretto» could
be developed on morphological units of different ages was not strange even to
Penck and Briickner, who record different and superimposed «Ferrettos». Several
authors describe regional . variations of the «Ferretto» which depend on
differences in composition of the parent material (Mancini, 1960; Fraenzle,

28 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
1965). Furthermore soils of the «Ferretto» type have been discovered in
Northern Italy in Pleistocene terraces in the Apennine fringe (Pétrucci, 1968).
The term «Ferretto», even if deeply-rooted in the geological literature, thus
is very ambiguous (Cremaschi and Orombelli, 1982): from the lithostratigraphic
point of view it refers both to covering fine deposits and to the underlying
rubefied gravel. It also refers to coarse deposits (fluvial and fluvioglacial gravel
and diamicton) of different nature and lithologic composition. From a
paleopedologic point of view, it has never been defined with regard to its genesis
and chronostratigraphy. On the contrary it is certain that the term has been used
to designate paleopedological phenomena of different age.
In the Po plain the literature describes other paleosols in gravels or in loess
which are distinguished by their minor degree of evolution from the «Ferretto»
paleosols (Ugolini and Orombelli, 1968; Ven2o, 1965; Mancini, 1969). In
particular some slightly rubefied soils on the more internal moraine ridges of the
Garda lake system have been placed in the Riss-Würm Interglacial and are considered
to be the stratigraphic marker for the period. Other paleosols of early
Würm age have been recorded on the Late Pleistocene alluvial fans of the
Apennine fringe (Cremaschi, 1979 a).
Even if numerous paleosols have been recorded in the Po Plain, an adequate
synthesis on a regional scale and a definition of their stratigraphic position are
lacking. Furthermore analytical investigations by means of modern analytical
techniques are restricted to a small number of profiles (Ferrari and Magaldi,
1968; Magaldi and Sauro, 1982; Cremaschi, 1982 b).
1.3. THE AIMS OF THE STUDY
According to what has been expressed in the two preceding sections, the
aims of the investigations on the Po plain paleosols concentrate on two different,
but strictly connected, levels. First the research has aims of a regional character:
to describe, analyse and compare the paleosols of the Po plain, by means of a
geological survey and a paleopedo logical analysis, in order to describe some of
the main soil forming processes which acted in the Po plain during the
Quaternary and the factors which controlled their development.
An aim of a more general character concerns the relationship between the
development of the soils and the glacial periods: how the advance of the Pleistocene
glaciers and the climatic and environmental variations connected with them,
have interacted with the pedogenesis. In this perspective the Po plain has a particular
significance, not only because of the amount of well preserved paleopedological
phenomena, but above all, because, having been reached by the glaciers only
at its northern margin, it allows to compare, within the same basin and along
relatively short distances, the evolution of the soil forming process of areas
directly reached by the glaciers with other ones which had only been indirectly
influenced by them. The vetusols are the main subject of this thesis. In fact most
paleopedo logical phenomena of the area can be grouped into this category. The
aim is to clarify which factors have mainly controlled their genesis, whether they

INTRODUCTION 29
are the product of a unique progressive evolution or of different and subsequent
phases characterized by different processes. Finally it is to establish their
significance for the paleoenvironmental reconstruction and to verify their use as
pedostratigraphic units and chronostratigraphic markers in studies of Quaternary
Geology.
1.4. METHODS
1.4.1. Field and laboratory techniques
Various methods and analytical tecniques have been selected in order to reach
the aims mentioned in the preceding sections. The mapping of the Quaternary
deposits represents the work on which the rest of the study is based. The map
enclosed in the Appendix 6 (cf. chapter 8) has been obtained by critically
analysing all the existing geological map sheets: Peschiera, Brescia, Treviglio,
Bergamo, Como, Milano, Cremona, Piacenza, Fidenza, Parma, Reggio Emilia,
Mantova, of the Geological Map of Italy; Map at 1:100,000 scale of Parma and
neighbouring areas, (Venzo 1957, 1960, 1965) which have been accurately
checked by means of aerial photographs and in the field. Many areas, especially
on the Apennine fringe and in the Garda area, have been mapped ex novo at a
1:100,000 scale. More than one hundred profiles and stratigraphic sections have
been chosen as representative for the whole area; 45 out of them have been
analytically described (Appendix 1) and characterized by means of chemical,
physical and micromorphological analyses (Appendices 2-5). The descriptions are
generally made according to the current manuals of Soil Survey (Flodgson ed.,
1976; Sanesi, ed., 1977) sometimes simplified. Designation of the horizons of
vetusols and paleosols in gravel and diamicton generally strayed from the
standard nomenclature; these modifications are discussed in detail in chapter 10.
The laboratory analyses, of which the results and the technical details with
regard to the used methods are listed in the respective Appendices, are the
following:
— grain size analyses and petrographic analyses of gravels and lithic fragments
larger than 2 mm.
— grain size analyses of fine earth (finer than 2 mm), chemical analyses (pH,
organic matter content, free-iron content and for a fair number of profiles the
exchange capacity and the base saturation).
— mineralogical analyses. For most profiles the heavy minerals of the sand
fraction have been determined, used both as indicator of the provenance of the
parent material (Parfenoff et alii, 1971), and as tests of homogeneity of the
profile, as well as of weathering (Brewer, 1976). Results and technical details
on the analytical methods used are presented in Appendices 3 and 4.
For a representative number of profiles, clay minerals have been determined
by means of X-ray analysis. The semiquantitative approach has been considered
sufficient for this study, in which the general picture of the distribution of the
clay minerals of the soils in time and space is more important than detailed

i
30 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
mineralogical investigations on particular aspects of their pedogenetic evolution.
— micromorphological analyses: particular emphasis has been given to this aspect
of the study. In fact, 30 profiles have been analysed from the micromorphological
point of view and more than one hundred thin sections have been
described. As is known (Miicher and Morozova, 1983; Fedoroff, 1979)
micromorphology is a technique essential for the study of the Quaternary
paleosols. The synthetical micromorphological descriptions have been made
according to the nomenclature of Brewer (1976) and are reported in Appendix 5.
1.4.2. Geochronometric markers
For the aims of the present work it is necessary to refer the geological and
paleopedological evidence, traditionally dated with reference to the classical
Alpine stratigraphy, to an independent geochronometric dating system.
The solution of this problem is not easy in the Po Plain as there is an almost
complete lack of pyroclastic formations, generally used for the radiometric dating.
Only exceptionally, during Pleistocene times, volcanic ashes, coming from the
volcanoes of Central Italy (Arias et alii, 1980), were able to cross the Apennines
and were deposited, as thin lenses, inside fluvial deposits. Such deposits recorded
in Piedmont and in Romagna, although carefully looked for, have not been found
in the studied area.
Radiometric datings obtained with the 14C method are limited almost
exclusively to the Holocene and they are rarely connected with soils (Alessio et
alii, 1980; Cremaschi, 1982b). The radiometric datings relative to the Late
Pleistocene are rarer due to the scarcity of organic materials referable to that
epoch (Alessio et alii, 1978).
v>- - - .
z - ,;
V ' v ^ . - ' -
Magnetostratigraphy. It is known that, between the Early Pleistocene and the
Middle Pleistocene, the geomagnetic field has undergone remarkable variations,
systematically recorded in geological strata, which consequently are valuable
markers for stratigraphic datings and long distance correlations (Cox, 1975;
Koci and Sibrava, 1976; Hoffman and Fuller, 1978; Mankinen and Dalrymple,
1979; Fink, 1979) (Fig. 2).
The Jaramillo event, dating from 0.89 MA to 0.95 MA, falls within the Late
Matuyama epoch, while the paleomagnetic reversal Matuyama-Bruhnes, which
has been chosen as the limit between the Early and Middle Pleistocene by some
authors (Bowen, 1978), is referred to 0.73 MA.
In the investigated area, several thick and continuous stratigraphic sequences,
composed of fine-textured marine, lacustrine and fluviatile deposits have been
successfully investigated for magnetostratigraphic investigations. The Jaramillo
episode has been recognized in the sequences of Bagaggera, Stirone and Crostolo
(Bucha et ahi, 1975; Salloway, 1983; Cremaschi et alii, 1985).
The limit Matuyama-Bruhnes has been identified in the sequence of the
Tiepido and in the Crostolo (Salloway, 1983; Bucha, personal communication).
Reversed stratigraphic intervals belonging to the Matuyama epoch have been
recognised in several other sequences (Salloway, 1983; Tucholka, in press) and
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32 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
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2.
GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE AREA
2.1. MAIN CLIMATIC CHARACTERISTICS
2.1.1. The paleoclimates
The isotopic stratigraphy of the deep sea drillings represents up to today the
method which offers the most complete and articulate picture of the Quaternary
climatic fluctuations on a planetary scale. They clearly show that, during the
Quaternary, climatic fluctuations were much more numerous than earlier
assumed and they allow a rather precise dating of these fluctuations. Examples of
well-dated reference cores (Shackleton and Hall, 1984) are presented in Fig. 106.
On the continents, however, the analysis of fossil pollen seems more suitable
for the reconstruction of the climatic history and of environmental changes, not
only for the variations of temperature but also of humidity (Flint, 1971; Bowen,
1978) and for the seasonal variations. It is therefore of primary interest whenever
the aim is to investigate the role played by climate in the development of the soils
and paleosols. The pollen sequences analysed by Van der Hammen (1979) in
Eastern Greece can be extended, according to that author, to the whole Northern
Mediterranean (Greece, Spain, Italy).
The variations of the plant cover during time, documented by means of the
analysis of cores drilled in intramontane lacustrine deposits, testify an alternation
of temperate forest (oak, beech and sometimes typically mediterranean species)
and of arid steppes characteri2ed by Artemisia and Chenopodiaceae. Along the
interval of 600,000 years, documented in the core from Philippi (Van der
Hammen et ahi, 1971), 6 or 7 steppe phases can be recogni2ed alternating with
as many forest phases, and corresponding to seven main glacial cycles. In spite of
the important climatic variations, the plant associations during this time interval
show few changes.
Some data on the plant cover of the Northern Mediterranean regions during
older ages (Pliocene - Early Pleistocene) can be deduced from the recent studies
of Sue (1984) on cores drilled in the Tyrrhenian sea between Italy and France.
According to this author, the beginning of the mediterranean climate occurs
during the Middle Pliocene (PH ) and is marked by the appearance of phases of
seasonal aridity (occurrence of a dry season) that leads to the decline of the
Taxodiaceae which require a continuously humid climate. Phase P III, correlated
with the Praetiglian of the Netherlands (Sue and Zagwijn, 1985), and dated to
the Upper Pliocene, represents the first steppe phase and marks the beginning of
a climatic style of the Pleistocene character. The following period (P IV, PLI)
correlated with the Tiglian, is referred to the beginning of Pleistocene times and
comprises the paleomagnetic Olduvai episode. It has very warm characteristics.

34 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
being represented by an association of Carya, Ulmus, Zelcova, Carpinus and A.cer.
Comparing the pollen sequences of Macedonia with those of the Tyrrhenian
Sea, it seems that the Early Pleistocene is still characterized by a clear occurrence
of the thermophylous species and affected by cold phases which are
less numerous and have a smaller intensity compared with those which characterize
the Middle and Late Pleistocene. Although this data must be cautiously
considered, because the compared data have been obtained from different
analytical approaches and in different areas, they are in agreement with the results
obtained by Cita and Ryan (1973) on the basis of the study of the Mediterranean
faunas. In fact the authors distinguish a preglacial Pleistocene, that lasts till the
Late Matuyama epoch, characterized by high temperatures and by the lack of
clear climatic contrasts and a subsequent glacial Pleistocene, during which the
climatic fluctuations are numerous and more intense.
This phenomenon is further confirmed by the isotopic stratigraphy of recently
published high resolution oceanic cores, (Shackleton and Hall, 1984).
For the aims of the present research special attention must be paid to the
availability of local data on the variations on the plant cover. In fact the studied
area, with regard to its specific physiographic characteristics from the climatic
point of view, differs clearly from the rest of the mediterranean region
(chapter 2.1.2.) and it seems to be intermediate between this and the northern
regions. Since its present main physiographic characteristics come mostly from
prequaternary events, it is logical to think that these generated similar differences
also in paleoclimates. Unfortunately the pollen data for the Po area are scarce and
fragmentary. Fig. 3 and 4 represent an attempt to assemble the most significant
existing data, by setting them chronologically on the basis of the paleomagnetic
stratigraphy deduced from recent studies (Bucha et alii, 1975; Sallow ay, 1983).
During the Early Pleistocene, before the Jaramillo paleomagnetic event the Po
Plain vegetation still comprises numerous species, such as Carya and Pierocarya,
and various peaks of conifers clearly testify phases of cooling. A dramatic
decrease of the temperature species occurs in all the sequences analyzed, between
the end of the Jaramillo and the Matuyama-Bruhnes reversal (Bertolani Marchetti
et alii, 1979; Accorsi et alii, 1980).
Pollen data for the subsequent events of the Middle Pleistocene are completely
lacking until the «Riss-Würm» interglacial. The deposits of phillites of Pianico
Sellere at the alpine margin have been referred to this period (Venzo, 1955), as
well as those of the Padua subsurface and of the Po Delta (Marchesoni and
Paganelli, 1960; Paganelli, 1961). The plant cover of the R-W interglacial would
differ from that of today, dominated by the mixed oak forest, because of the
presence of rare archaic species {Zelkova, Abies Nordmanniana and Keleeteria), of
«warm species» {Kododendrum ponticum) and because of a sensible amount of
conifers, associated with the temperate forest.
There is a common opinion that the presence of a mixed forest of deciduous
trees and conifers in the Po Plain during the Riss - Würm Interglacial would
imply temperatures and precipitations higher than the present (Marchesoni,
1960; Mancini, 1962). Nevertheless, since the palynological data have a very
poor chronological and stratigraphic control, it is not possible to specify whether

GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE AREA 35
MATUYAMA JARAMILLO BRUNHES
I
Mloril conlinantal ^ 2
Fig. ) - Pollen diagrams of the Stirone, Crostolo and Tiepido sequences, during Early-Middle
Pleistocene; 1) temperate forest assemblage; 2) cold forest assemblage (Pinus, Betu/a)-, 3) temperate
forest assemblage; 4) Sequoia, Taxodium-, 5) Sciadopitys\ 6) NAP: non arboreal pollen; 7) other
species; 8) Abies, Keteleeria-, 9) Picea-, 10) Tsuga, Cedrus\ 1 la) Pirns diploxylotf, lib) Pinus haploxylon.
Fig. 3 - Diagrammi pollinici del Pleistocene antico e medio delle successioni stratigrafiche dello
Stirone, Crostolo, Tiepido.

GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE AREA 37
this character can be extended to the whole interglacial period or represents only
a part of it.
The plant cover of the Po area during the glacial phases of the Late Pleistocene
is, on the contrary, better documented and sometimes supported by radiocarbon
datings (Bertolani Marchetti, 1963-70; Bertoldi, 1968). During this
period the Po Valley was dominated by an association of Pinus silvestris, Pinus
mugus and Picea and to a lesser extent Betula and Salix. At its margins, near the
Apennine fringe (Bertolani Marchetti, 1960; Bisi et alii, 1977) and in the
proglacial areas of the Alps (Cattani, 1976) there are much more open environments,
where the trees represented by Pinus and Betula often are less than 51,
while herbs are largely prevailing {^Artemisia, Compositae linguliflorae and
Graminaceae)'.
During the Late Glacial and the Holocene the whole plain and its margins are
covered by the mixed oak forest already since the Allerod period (Bertolani,
1963-70; Bertoldi, 1968).
In conclusion, the stable surfaces at the margin of the Central Po Plain, on
which the vetusols here investigated developed, were covered during the interglacial
periods by prevailing temperate species of plants, that, starting from the
Middle Pleistocene, show characteristics very similar to the present vegetation.
On the contrary during the glacial periods, especially from the Middle Pleistocene
onward but mainly during the Late Pleistocene, a boreal forest covered the
centre of the plain and passed to steppes of restricted extension at the margins.
It is likely that numerous phases and intermediate situations occurred during
time and in space. Nevertheless they cannot be recognized with the scarce data
available up to now.
2.1.2. The present climate of the area
It is generally accepted that the characteristics of the paleosols have been mainly
acquired during the interglacial periods, because «the effects of weathering and
soil formation of a relatively short warm period may easily surpass those of a
long cold period» (Remmelzwaal, 1978). Since the Holocene climatic cycle can
be considered an interglacial phase which had (and would have, if man’s activities
had not largely transformed it) a plant cover not very different from that of the
older interglacial periods, at least from Middle Pleistocene, it can be assumed that
the present climate is not very different from that of the initial conditions of
the soil development (Boardman, 1985). For this reason the climatic conditions
of the studied area will be described in detail in the following section. Fig. 5
represents the trend of the mean annual temperatures in the Po area. In the
centre of the studied area it range from 14°C in the northern Mantua district to
12°C on the Apennine fringe.
At the northwestern margin of the area in correspondence with the Lombardian
piedmont, the temperature shows a prominent gradient and decreases from
13°C to 10°C. This gradient accentuates towards the centre of the chain and falls
to 4°C in a few tens of kilometres (Ministero dei Lavori Pubblici, 1969). The
area receives between 1,300 and 790 mm of precipitation per year; the lowest

T T
38 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
occurs at the south of the centre of the plain. A slight increase can be observed
towards the Apennine and Alpine fringes, in correspondence with the Garda
lake. A very strong increase of precipitation occurs northwestwards in the areas
of Bergamo, Adda and Milano (Ministero dei Lavori Pubblici, 1955).
Ombrothermal diagrams have been calculated (Fig. 6) from the data published in
the Annali Idrologici (Ministero dei Lavori Pubblici, 1955, 1969) and from
other sources (Rossetti et alii, 1974; Comitato Comprensoriale della Regione
Emilia Romagna, 1981), for some meteorological stations, chosen in order to
represent the whole area; these show that at the Apennine fringe there are two
distinct rainy seasons with maxima in April and in October-November, separated
by a short dry season (2T > P) between June and August. But already at
Belforte, in the centre of the plain, these conditions are different: the precipitation
has a more irregular trend and is more abundant. The trend becomes
Fig. 5 - Mean annual temperatures in Northern Italy (1926-1935), (after Ministero dei Lavori pubblici,
1969).
Fig. i - Temperature medie annue nel Nord Italia (1926-1935).

GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE AREA 39
Stronger towards the North-West at Chiari and Cantu with abundant precipitation
during the whole year and maxima in April, May, August and November.
At Desenzano, on the Garda Lake, there is a clear decrease of precipitation
between July and August, even if for that period one cannot speak of a true dry
season because the condition 2 T > P does not occur.
In the Unesco Fao Bioclimatic map (1963), the Po Valley is described as «...
an area of axeric climate, with semi-dry season. Furthermore, probably, in certain
parts of it there is a short and true dry season, but this does not mean, as often
has been thought, that the climate becomes mediterranean». Even if it is not
■C
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G F M A M G L A S O N D
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C
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Pig- 6 - Ombrothermic diagrams.
Pig- 6 - Diagrammi ombrotermici.

40 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
=ISi‘
g-''
^-.'V'■*; v-i >EV’'j:
possible to use correctly the Unesco Bioclimatic Classification, as some variables
(number of days with fog and frost) have not been taken into consideration, by
comparing the ombrothermal diagram of the studied area with those published there,
it turns out that the areas North of the Po River can be clearly referred to as having
an axeric climate, while the subapenninic belt has submediterranean characteristics.
2.1.3. Tie moisture and temperature regime of the soils
The mean annual temperature of the soils, calculated form the atmospheric
data, ranges from 14.9°C to 13.3°C. The thermal regime has therefore a mesic
character according to the Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey staff, 1975).
In order to evaluate the present hydrological regime of the studied soils,
among the obtained values. Available Water Capacity (AWC) = 190 mm (calculated
on the slightly weathered loess of the Val Sorda sequence) has been taken
as representative for the fine material (mainly weathered loesses). The AWC = 87
mm, calculated on the horizon IV C of the profile of Robbiate (loc. 22) in the
Adda area, has been selected as representative for the deposits with coarser
texture. Nevertheless it must be taken into account that materials of this type
sometimes reach AWC = 50 mm.
The climatic data have been elaborated according to the graphical method
proposed by Billaux (1978) which in its turn is based on the method of Thornwaite
and Mather (1955). The results are represented in Fig. 7, indicated as «Soil
water balance». The value of the AWC calculated for the soils in loess is very
close to the theoretical AWC = 200 mm, on which the Soil Taxonomy bases its
classification of the regimes of the soil. On the basis of it, the Cantù and Chiari
stations (northwestern part of the examined area) have an udic regime, the
remaining ones a xeric regime. Nevertheless it must be observed that in the coarse
deposits, in particular those with AWC = 87 mm, the time necessary for the soil
to reach a hydrological deficiency decreases with the increase of the potential
évapotranspiration, so that the coarse textured soils can remain dry for longer
periods and this accentuates their xeric nature.
In conclusion the sector of the Po Valley under study, from the climatic
point of view, is transitional between regions with a sub-mediterranean nature to
the South-East (Bologna), and other parts with more continental climate to the
North-West (Milano). The remarkable differences in the area are not related to
important temperature gradients but rather to differences in rainfall and air
humidity. The difference in soil moisture regime would be even more remarkable
if one takes into account the days of fog, snow and frost, not considered here.
2.2. GEOLOGICAL OUTLINE
2.2.1. The Prequatemary Geology
The Po Valley is a subsiding basin, bordered by the Alps to the North and
by Apennines to the South. The essential features of this region were already

GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE AREA 41
established in the Middle Miocene, when also the Apennine chain was uplifted
during the Tortonian orogenic phase.
During the Upper Miocene most of the Pre-Alpine margin and parts of the
neighbouring plain emerged (Riz2ini and Dondi, 1978) and were eroded or
subject to continental sedimentation. During the Messinian salinity crisis, which
produced a remarkable fall of the sealevel of the Mediterranean sea, the Pre-
Alpine margin was strongly eroded and during this period (Finckl, 1978; Bini et
alii, 1977) deep canyons were cut, whose relicts are now occupied by the
AWC 190
mm
rsz
87 S 1i n R 1 s
— •— AiT/V A / ^
CANTU'
a .s .1 . 360
°TC 13,5
Pmm 1317,9
AWC 190
87
r 1 s I u 51 '1 R
* , . yszzv ------------------------------------------ -
S 1 u D 1 R s
—---- ---- - ---
CHIARI
a .s .1.
148 m
n c 12,5
Pmm 912,7
AWC 190
87
R 1 S 1 U D 1 R
--- ------ ----- ------ ---
s 1 u D 1 R s
---- ------------- -
DESENZANO
a .s .1 .
°TC 13,9
Pmm 81 5
70 m
AWC 190
87
R I S 1 U D 1 R
---- ----- -
s I U D 1 R s
---------------- ---- -----------^zvzryzzvzj
BELFORTE
a .s .1.
22 m
°TC 13,2
Pmm 785,3
AWC 190
87
R 1 U D 1 R r
z>z z-sz zs, z^ ZX, z>„ A,z/Nz ZNz A-.-%z A.Z i->z Z-NZzsz z-sz zvz z -----------
R 1 U D 1 R 1
----- ----- -
M A M
O N D Month
MONTECHIARUGOLO
a .s .1 .
°TC 12,3
Pmm 805
121 m
Fig. 7 - Annual soil water balance, indicated as montly averages. (S = surplus; D = deficit; R = recharge;
U = utilisation); 1) moist everywhere; 2) moist in some part; 3) dry everywhere.
Fig. 7 - Bilancio idrico dei suoli (S = Surplus; D = deficit; R = ricarica; U = utilizzazione); 1) umido
ovunque; 2) umido in qualche parte; 3) secco ovunque.

42 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
sub-Alpine lakes. At the Apennine margin the Messinian is represented by
deposits of hypersaline shallow waters or continental sediments (laccarino and
Papani, 1979).
The Phocene marine transgression rapidly reestablished an open marine
environment for a long tract in the Apennines, in the whole Po area and inside
the Alpine valleys previously shaped. The continental sedimentation began rather
early at the Alpine margin, between the Adda and the Brembo rivers where
(Venzo, 1955; Orombelli, 1979), during the Late Phocene, important piedmont
fans were deposited. The Late Pliocene and the Early Pleistocene are not well
known along the Alpine margin of the Bergamo area and of the Garda area.
2.2.2. Main tectonic data
In spite of the apparent homogeneity of its surface, the Po Plain is a tectonically
very active area (Pieri and Groppi, 1981). The AGIP drillings for oil and
gas (AGIP, 1959), have shown that between the Po River and the Apennines,
buried Miocene to Pleistocene sediments have been folded and faulted by structures
trending NW-SE, due to compressive tectonic activity (Fig. 8). In the
synclines, where the rate of subsidence is higher, the thickness of Quaternary
sediments may be very great (more than 1500 m approx.).
Recent movements of buried structures have exercised a strong influence on
the drainage pattern, producing several river diversions during the last two
thousand years (Pellegrini, 1969; Cremaschi and Marchesini, 1978).
In the Apennine foothills the Quaternary sediments have been folded and cut
both by longitudinal and transverse faults. From a tectonic point of view this
area is characterized, all along the foothills, by a system of flexures, and reverse
faults which form the pede-Apennine tectonic line (Marchetti et alii, 1978;
Panizza and Papani, 1979). Sedimentary sequences and longitudinal tectonic
structures are displaced by transverse faults (NNE-SSW) with very important
geomorphological consequences, which reach the Tyrrhenian side of the Appennines.
North of the Po River, buried tectonic structures are much less developed. A
bland monocline, gently folded and cut by E-W faults, rises towards the North.

general ASPECTS OF THE AREA
43
10 20 30 km
f \\
\
\
C O L L É C C H IC
\
• A
-ELINO
CO
PR
B
Garda Lake
0 Quaternary
w
Pirns, P li,
Ms, ttn, PG
Tertiary rocks
Mesozoic
(K, Cretaceous)
Fig. 8 - Tectonic map and cross sections: 1) the limit of the plain; 2) reverse faults; 3) isolines of
the top of the Pliocene deposits, (depth in km), (after Fieri & Groppi, 1981).
Fig. 8 - Carta e sezione tettoniche: 1) limiti della pianura; 2) faghe inverse; 3) isobate del tetto del
Pliocene (profondita in km).

3.
PAST RESEARCH ON THE PHYSIOGRAPHY
AND QUATERNARY GEOLOGY OF THE AREA
AND ITS CONSEQUENCES FOR THIS RESEARCH
3.1. INTRODUCTION
The margin of the Alps rises abruptly from the plain in the northern part of
the studied area. Only concurrent with the deep valleys of the Garda, Iseo and
Lecco lakes (origin of Adda river), there are gradual transitions, caused by tbe
frontal moraines of the Quaternary glaciers.
South of the moraine ridges, between the Olona and Brembo rivers there is
a series of at least three stepped terraces, that extend into the plain in the shape
of narrow triangles (Fig. 1).
The lowermost terrace, which is connected with the moraines of the last
glaciation, wraps the older terraces and extends southward, forming most of the
«Main level of the plain».
Terraces which postdate the Last Glaciation are rare East of the Brembo river.
Near the Garda and Iseo lakes, at the mouth of the Alpine valleys, wide piedmont
fans as well as sandar of Late Pleistocene age occur. Southward these
sedimentary bodies gradually lose their morphological individuality and merge
into a singlelevel area, coinciding with the “Main level of the plain”, which extends
almost down to the Po river. Traces of related paleochannels can be recognized
on their gently undulating surfaces. In the northernmost part, where the deposits
are mostly gravelly, they show braided river patterns, while to the South they
gradually change into meandering patterns.
The great extension and the relative homogeneity of the Main level of the
plain are due to the subsurface «homocline», gently dipping southward (Pieri and
Groppi, 1981). Locally however this plain, although homogeneous, shows clear
tectonic disturbances, that affect its morphology. For instance, the isolated relief
forms of Monte Netto in the Brescia plain, of Romanengo in the Crema plain, of
Zorlesco and of Casalpusterlengo in the Milan plain a few km North of the Po
river, all rise from the main level of the plain in correspondence with the
anticlinal axes. The Main level of the plain was dissected during the Holocene by
the main Alpine water courses which generated valleys with steep erosional
scarps. Each of these as well as the Oglio river abruptly change their direction
from southward to eastward, in correspondence with the buried structure of
Piadena (Fig. 8).
The Holocene alluvial plain corresponds with the area of maximum subsidence.
The Po river presently runs in the northern part of this plain and is
accompanied by paleochannels, which show a clear meandering pattern. East of
the confluence with the Taro river several parallel paleochannels occur with a

1
46 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
Km*.
'1
W-E trend, testifying the existence of at least two main parallel drainage systems
during the Early Holocene (Cremaschi et alii, 1980). These merged into a single
bed sometime between the Roman Age and the Middle Age, due to the uplift of
the buried structure of Bagnolo (Cremaschi et alii, 1980; Fieri and Groppi, 1981)
(Fig. 8).
The Emilian Plain, to the South of the Po river, in contrast with the situation
in the North, is characteri2ed by wide depressed areas with a clayey lithology
and with many swamps, which were reclaimed between the 15th and 19th
century.
The Apennine fringe is dominated by piedmont fans, of a clear and well
preserved shape, whose apexes are situated far up the mountain valleys. The fans
extend far into the plain, enclosing the Middle Pleistocene terraces. These were
cut into the marine and continental deposits of Middle and Early Pleistocene
age, present along the border of the plain. The shape and distribution of the
terraces are very complex and are determined by tectonic structures parallel
to the Apennine margin and by transversal faults (Cremaschi and Papani,
1975).
In the whole area the Pleistocene deposits are subject to linear erosion, which
sometimes produces spectacular gorges, as in the case of the Paderno d’Adda,
where the Ceppo conglomerates have been incised to a depth of more than 60 m.
Presently, in the plain, fluvial erosion prevails over sedimentation, which is
limited to the embanked floodplain. This is probably largely due to human
activities: the embanking of the watercourses, the artificial straightening of the
riverbeds and the enormous extraction of material from the riverbeds (Pellegrini,
1969).
As can be concluded from the description above, physiographically the area
studied consists of five major systems; the pre-Alpine moraines of the Garda area,
the fluvioglacial terraces and moraines of the Adda river, the Main level of the
plain, the Holocene alluvial plain of the Po and its major tributaries, and the
terraces and alluvial fans of the Apennine fringe. The existing geological and
stratigraphical studies on the Quaternary deposits deal with each unit separately,
while studies on the system as a whole are non-existent. Nevertheless, these units
are more or less related to each other and represent parts of one large sedimentary
basin that already existed in the Late Miocene (see section 2.2.1.).
The existing literature on the Quaternary Geology and Paleopedology of the
various parts of the central Po Valley, is reviewed below. With regard to the
subdivision used, the following can be stated. The Main level of the plain is very
homogeneous and monotonous and represents a large outwash plain of Late
Pleistocene age. It forms the lateral extension of the fluvioglacial fans of the
Garda, Iseo and Adda areas and will be discussed in that context. The isolated
terraces in this plain however will be discussed separately, since they are not
related to these fans. No attention will be paid here to the Holocene alluvial
plain, as it is not relevant for these investigations.
The literature on the loess occurrence in the Central Po valley will be treated
separately, since loesses have been observed in both the Alpine and the Apennine
fringes.

PAST RESEARCH ON THE PHYSIOGRAPHY 47
3.2. THE GARDA A R E A AND THE ISEO AR E A
The first geomorphological studies on the Garda area go back to the second
half of the last century, when Paglia (1861) described the hills South of the lake
as frontal moraines, deposited by Quaternary glaciers. Sacco (1894, 1896),
Nicolis (1899) and above all Penck and Brückner (1909) (Fig. 9) described
their stratigraphy and first recognized traces of one glacial advance and, later, of
four glacial advances. After the survey of Cozzaglio (1934), the work of Venzo
(1957, 1961 and 1965) represents the most detailed morphological study of the
f/j?. 9- The Garda lake moraines and related Quaternary deposits. 1) pre-Quatemary rocks never
covered by glaciers; 2) pre-Quatemary rocks covered by glaciers; 3) S. Bartolomeo and S. Ambrogio
Pliocene gravel; 4) ancient moraines and related fluvioglacial terraces; 5) recent moraines and moraine
ridges; 6) ancient fluvioglacial terraces; 7) young fluvioglacial terrace; 8) ancient lake in the
Adige valley, (after Penck and Brückner, 1909).
Fig. 9 - Le morene ed i deposit! quaternari connessi nella regione gardesana. 1) rocce prequaternarie
mai raggiunte dai ghiacciai quaternari; 2) rocce prequaternarie raggiunte dai ghiacciai quaternari; 3)
ghiaie plioceniche di S. Ambrogio e S. Bartolomeo; 4) morene antiche e connessi terrazzi fluvioglaciali;
5) morene recent! e principal! cordon! morenici; 6) terrazzi fluvioglacial! antichi; 7) terrazzi
fluvioglacial! recent!; 8) antico lago nella valle dell’Adige.

1
48 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
area, which were combined with paleopedological studies by Mancini (1960,
1969). These studies were followed by the revisions of Fraenzle (1965, 1969),
Habbe (1969), Chardon (1975) and Hantke (1983).
3.2.1. Geological outline
The Garda lake lies in a deep depression along an important tectonic
lineament, which separates blocks of the Alpine chain with different tectonic
behaviour (Castellarin, 1982). In fact its Pliocene and Pleistocene development is
clearly conditioned by a stronger uplift of the Brescia area with respect to the
Verona area. While the latter behaved like a plateau during of the Pleistocene and
was affected mainly by pedogenetic processes (Zanferrari,1982), at the Brescia
margin, during the Pliocene and Early Pleistocene, thick gravelly piedmont deposits
were formed. The upper gravel deposits at S. Bartolomeo and Muscoline probably
belong to these (Fig. 10). Lithologically the gravels consist mostly of
Pre-Alpine limestones. The feeding basin during this stage did not yet reach the
Central-Alpine outcrops of porphyrites and metamorphic rocks.
During the Early Pleistocene the distal part of the piedmont alluvial fans
interfingered with littoral and shallow marine deposits. These have been found in
the subsurface in AGIP drillings (Percontg, 1956; Cita, 1955) and crop out at
Castenedolo.
Beginning from the late Early Pleistocene the Pre-Alpine margin, which
corresponds with the present Garda lake, was reached several times by the Alpine
glacier that each time generated frontal moraine ridges. In time the petrographic
composition of the clasts changes distincly. In the oldest moraines Pre-Alpine
limestones prevail, while volcanic rocks and granitoids are subordinate. In the
Middle Pleistocene moraines, but in particular in the more recent ones,
granitoids, metamorphic rocks and in particular porphyries from the Alto Adige
become prevailing (Cremaschi, in press) (Fig.ll).
It is know that the chronostratigraphic attribution of the moraines of the
Garda lake is based on the classic Alpine stratigraphy, even if there is no univocal
agreement between the authors. In Fig. 12 the opinions of these authors on the
age of the moraines are presented .The inaccuracies of the classical Alpine stratigraphy
are well known (Kukla, 1978; Bowen, 1978). Therefore in this study
each glacial stage will be called by the local name of the most significant outcrop,
and is arranged according to a scheme of relative chronology. Both local names
and this scheme are also presented In Fig. 12. They are extensively discussed in
chapters 4, 5.
According the German authors the moraines adjacent to the lake belong to
the Würm glaciation, those of Carpenedolo-Faita to the Riss glaciation, while a
moraine buried in the Calvagese sequence is dated as of Mindel age. According
to the Italian authors, mainly Venzo (1965), the moraines adjacent to the lake
date from two distinct glacial periods: the more internal ones are of Würm age,
the external ones are of Riss age, while those of Carpenedolo, Montichiari and
Faita as well those of Ciliverghe belong to the Mindel.

PAST RESEARCH ON THE PHYSIOGRAPHY 49
A
\ J 6
Fig. 10 - General development of the Garda area between Late Tertiary —Early Pleistocene and
Upper Pleistocene; a) Preglacial period (Early Pleistocene or before); b) Ciliverghe and Faita glacial
stages; c) Carpenedolo glacial stage; d) Sedeña glacial stage; e) Solferino glacial stage. 1) uplifting
area; 2) subsident area; 3) alluvial fan; 4) Prealpine Pleistocene (?) gravel; 5) Prealpine Early Pleistocene
S. Ambrogio gravel; 6) outer limit of frontal moraine.
Fig. 10 ■Evoluzione dell’area gardesana tra ü tardo Terziario-Pleistocene inferiere ed il Pleistocene
superiore; a) periodo preglaciale (Pleistocene inferiere o tardo Terziario); b) fasi glaciali di Ciliverghe
e Monte Faita; c) fase glaciale di Carpenedolo; d) fase glaciale di Sedeña; e) fase glaciale di
Solferino; 1) area in sollevamento; 2) area subsidente; 3) conoidi; 4) depositi ghiaiosi prealpini del
Pleistocene (?); 5) ghiaie di S. Ambrogio, del Pleistocene inferióte; 6) limite estemo delle morene
frontali.

?
50 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
Fig. 1 1 - Lithological characteristics of the areas surrounding the Garda lake. A) granite, B)
metamorphic rocks, C) volcanic rocks, D) limestones, E) main supply during glacial stages, F)
main supply during interglacial periods.
Fig. 11- Caratteristiche litologiche dell’area circostante il lago di Garda. A) graniti, B) rocce metamorfiche,
C) rocce vulcaniche, D) calcari, E) provenienza dei clasti durante le fasi glaciali, F)
provenienza dei clasti durante le fasi interglaciali.

!
PAST r esearch o n t h e p h y s io g r a p h y 51
n =>■S'
n > O cn
r
cn
■n ■D m O n
< > ni U ■q
n z C m m
72 m CTQ Z
0 D Wc_ >
1 O C w'
2
m r Q- 3"
O
O (tl Q.
VILLA
F R A N C H I A N
G U N Z
only one glacial
M I N D E L
RISS
period
W U R M
LO
- >
oo VOX
ON D
O
’T3
• m
O
t-
>
o
>
CD H
>
O
w
CO
G U N Z
(fluvloglacial)
M I N D E L
RISS I
W U R M
+
RISS II
n >
n
>
f
G U N Z
(fluviatile)
M I N D E L
W U R M
+
RISS
o
_ N
^ N
U) >
Ni O
G U N Z
M I N D E L I
M I N D E L II
W U R M I,II
RISS I,II
<
—m
M3
Ln
M I N D E L
RISS
W U R M
"H
:d
- > vo m
ON2
Ln
N
m
M I N D E L
G U N Z I, II
M I N D E L II
W U R M I, II
RISS I, II
^ 9
Ln 2
NO NJ
G U N Z
(fluvioglacial)
M I N D E L
RISS
W U R M
n I
o\ "
Ol O Oz
in^thi^stud^^
stratigraphical attributions of the glacial stages, in the Garda system, described
12 - I.e differenti attribuzioni stratigrafiche relative alle fasi glacial!, descritte in questo lavoro.

52 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
3.2.2. The paleo sols
Penck and Bruckner (1909) were the first to systematically record paleosols
interbedded with moraine deposits and to recognize the presence of a «Ferretto»
on top of Carpenedolo-Monte Faita moraine system and of a similar buried
paleosol in the Ciliverghe sequence. Venzo (1965) and Mancini (1960, 1969)
described for the first time the paleosols in the complex stratigraphic sequence of
Ciliverghe and Gavardo, as well as other profiles along the Carpenedolo moraines,
already recognized by Penck and Brückner. They identified as «Ferretto»
every red coloured soil showing evidence of deep weathering and, according to the
theory of the «great interglacial» of Penck and Brückner, date this soil to the
Mindel-Riss interglacial. They use it as a chronostratigraphic marker for that
period and based most of the stratigraphy of the whole Garda system on it.
Venzo (1965) described, along the slopes of the moraine ridges of the Solferino
stage, a sometimes eroded and slightly rubefied soil, and interpreted this soil as a
paleosol developed during the Riss-Würm interglacial.
The moraine system of the Iseo lake is far less complicated than that of the
Garda lake. It has already been studied by Sacco (1894), Penck and Brückner
(1909) and, more recently, by Vecchia (1954). Only two moraine ridges occur,
which have been correlated on basis of geomorphological criteria with the two
most recent moraine ridges of the Garda lake, i.e. the Solferino stage and the
Sedeña stage according to the nomenclature adopted for this research.
Because of the lack of any outcrops of older formations and the very simple
structure of the moraine system, which already has been well studied and with
regard to the paleosols strongly resembles the Garda system, in this study little
attention will be paid to this area.
3.3. THE ADDA BASIN
3.3.1. General outline
In contrast to the Garda area, tectonically the Adda area has been more
stable. As a result of this, the Pleistocene deposits occur either as infills of
narrow valleys in the Pre-Alps, which already as infills of narrow valleys in the
Pre-Alps, which already date back the Late Miocene (Messinian) (Bini et alii,
1978; Cremaschi et alii, 1984) or as stepped terraces in the Pre-Alpine fringe.
Thus far the valley fills have received very little attention (Venzo, 1948); the
rather specialized literature on these fills will not be discussed here, but in section
5.5. Much more attention has been paid to the Pre-Alpine fringe.
In the classic literature (Penck and Brückner, 1909; Riva, 1957) three different
frontal moraine systems and three associated fluvioglacial terraces have been
distinguished. The moraines have been dated as of Würm, Riss and Mindel age
respectively, while the terraces are described as «Diluvium recente», «Diluvium
medio» and «Diluvium antico» (Fig. 13).
In general, with the exception of Venzo (1948), these morphostratigraphic

past research on the physiography 53
o
O 00
o
O
T3
-a
^ &•
^ G
« E
CuO
i 'V
E
3 ci
1 _E &■
“ u
Q ”
o C
N • «
u _ ^
UOJ c^
'o
C'C
O S
'cl
rv ^
(U
^ s
g §
m
c

lWlUTJ(f
54 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
SLirX-i/, i?:
datings are accepted as correct, also in more recent geomorphological studies
(Riva, 1957; Gabert, 1962) and seem in agreement with the stratigraphy of the
loesses (Ugolini and Orombelli, 1968; Orombelli, 1979); in fact the terraces of
the «Diluvium recente» are devoid of a loess cover, those of the «Diluvium
medio» are overlain by one cover, while those of the «Diluvium antico» have a
cover of at least two loesses. Furthermore it has been observed that more developed
soils are associated with older surfaces (Ugolini and Orombelli, 1968; see
Fig. 44). In particular the highest terrace has deep, rubefied and clay-rich
paleosols, known in the literature as «Ferretto» (Garbert, 1962; Billard, 1977;
Cremaschi and Orombelli, 1982).
The terms used in the literature to describe the three terrace systems occurring
in the Adda area have also been used in the more detailed description of these
units, presented below. Flowever, in the next they will be referred to as the
«Ferretto terrace» («Diluvium antico» or Old Diluvium), the DJVI. terrace
(«Diluvium medio» or Middle Diluvium) and the «Main level of Plain»
(«Diluvium recente» or Recent Diluvium).
3.3.2. The «Old Diluvium» terrace
Considerable attention has been paid to the «Ferretto» terraces (Old
Diluvium ), of which the stratigraphic sequence is very well exposed in the deep
gorge of the Adda river near Paderno. This site has attracted all geologists who
for more than a century dealt with the Pleistocene of the Lombardian Piedmont.
The sequence (see Fig. 14) recently has been critically re-examined by Orombelli
(1979). The following units have been recognized:
From bottom to top:
PD l: fluvial silty clay, cropping out along the river bed. A jaw of Mastodon
avernensis was collected in this unit (Venzo, 1957).
PD2: Ceppo dell’Adda, Paderno Member (Orombelli, 1979). This member consists
of poorly sorted fluvial gravel, often matrix supported and with rare
pelitic intercalations. The clasts are generally well rounded. Bedding,
where visible, is often planar parallel and poorly defined, and sometimes is
inclined at low angle. The unit represents a piedmont fan facies.
Petrographically (Orombelli and Gnaccolini, 1978; Orombelli, 1979) the
clasts mainly consist of limestone and calcareous sandstones, originating
from the Pre-Alpine margin, and of rare pebbles of quartz and of
metamorphic rocks. The heavy mineral assemblage mainly consists of
metamorphic minerals, especially epidotes and amphiboles, and of a certain
amount of anatase and brookite, which are residual minerals from
limestones (Cremaschi et alii, 1985). The passage to the overlying unit
consists of a sub-horizontal erosional surface.
PD3: Ceppo dell’Adda, Trezzo Member (Orombelli, 1979). It consists of very’
poorly sorted gravels and boulders up to 50 cm in diameter and with a
sandy matrix. This member is frequently massive with randomly arranged
clasts or more rarely shows poorly defined, non-parallel, discontinuous
planar bedding. The clasts are generally well rounded. Petrographically

PAST RESEARCH ON THE PHYSIOGRAPHY 55
they still largely consist of limestome and calcareous sandstones but
pebbles of crystalline rocks,in particular those of metamorphic origin, are
present in appreciable amounts. The heavy mineral assemblage is
characterized by a strong and marked increase in staurolite (Cremaschi et
alii, 1985).
Both members, constituing the Ceppo dell’Adda, are strongly cemented,
although, according to Orombelli and Gnaccolini (1978), in the lower member
(PD3) cementation is more intensive than in the upper member (PD2).Observations
from drillings for water wells (CavalUn et alii, 1983) however indicate that
cementation is stronger and more continuous along the margins of the terrace
than in the more central parts of the terrace bodies. The upper limit of the unit
PD3 coincides with the décalcification front of the «Ferretto» soil.
I'he «Ferretto» terrace of the Camparada area in fact consists of glacial and
fluvioglacial deposits, which are strongly weathered, but can still be identified as
a frontal moraine and associated outwash sediments deposits (Riva, 1957;
L'golini and Orombelli, 1968). Because of this strong weathering the stratigraphic
relations between these fluvioglacial and till deposits and the Trezzo
member of the Ceppo dell’Adda could not be established.
Adda river
Fij^. 14 - The Paderno d’Adda sequence (after Orombelli, 1979). PDl = fluvial silty clay, PD2 =
Ceppo del!Adda, Paderno Member, poorly sorted fluvial gravel; PD3 = Ceppo dell’Adda, Trezzo
■Member, very poorly sorted gravels and boulders; PD4 = fluvioglacial gravels of the «Middle Dilu-
Fig. 14 - La successione stratigrafíca di Paderno d’Adda. PDl = argille limóse fluviali; PD2 =
Ceppo dell’Adda membro di Paderno, ghiaie fluviali; PD3 = Ceppo dell’Adda, membro di Trezzo,
ghiaie; PD4 = ghiaie fluvioglaciali del Diluvium medio.

56 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
3.3.3. The «Middle Diluvium» terrace
In the Paderno d’Adda section the Ceppo is covered by more recent deposits,
described as «Ceppo and polygenic gravels» by Orombelli (1979). These deposits
are indicated in Fig. 14 as unit PD4 and can be described as follows:
PD4: Fluvioglacial gravels, which are locally cemented and consist of pebbles of
which the diameter is less than 30 centimeters (Orombelli and Gnaccolini,
1978). Bedding ranges from poorly evident, planar non parallel and
discontinuous, to oblique at low angle. Lenses of coarse sand are present.
Igneous and metamorphic elements can be very abundant and locally
prevail over calcareous elements. In the heavy mineral fraction unstable
metamorphic minerals, among which amphiboles, kyanite, sillimanite,
epidotes, etc., prevail (Cremaschi et alii, 1985). The boundary with the
underlying Ceppo dell’Adda is erosional and has the shape of a deep gorge.
The «Middle Diluvium» terraces. West of the «.Old Diluvium» terrace of
Paderno, consist of the «Ceppo and polygenic gravels» («Ceppo Poligenico»). In
these terraces a rather deep, rubefied paleosol is present, overlain by a loess cover
of variable thickness (Ugolini and Orombelli, 1968).
3.3.4. The «Recent Diluvium» terrace
The «Recent Diluvium» forms a terrace which fills the valleys cut into the
older morphological units in the Pre-Alpine fringe, and further to the South
forms the Main level of the plain in the Adda area. To the East this plain merges
into the Late Pleistocene fluvioglacial plain of the Garda-Iseo area.
According to Ugolini and Orombelli (1968) the «Recent Diluvium» can be
correlated with the Wiirmian moraine of the Brianza and the Adda glaciers, of
which it represents the fluvioglacial plain.
At Pontida, glaciolacustrine sediments, enclosed in the outer Late Pleistocene
moraine ridge of the Adda system, have been dated by radiocarbon method to
17,700 ± 360 years B.P. This age can also be given to the ice margin location
of the Adda piedmont glacier, and to its first phase of retreat (Alessio et alii,
1978).
3.4. THE ISOLATED TERRACES IN THE PO PLAIN
In the Lombardian fluvioglacial plain isolated terraces occur which, according
to Desio (1965), represent strips of older fluvial deposits which have been
up-lifted as a result of local tectonic activity connected with buried tectonic
structures. Fraenzle (1965) and Cremaschi (1974) mention that the terraces have
a loess cover but provide no further information on their stratigraphy. Detailed
studies on these terraces other than that by Desio are lacking. These terraces have
been indicated on the various geological maps at scale 1:100,000, but with a poorK
defined age. They occur at Monte Netto, South of Brescia (sheet Brescia), at
Romanengo (sheet Treviglio), at Zorlesco and Casalpusterlengo (sheet Piacenza).

PAST RESEARCH ON THE PHYSIOGRAPHY 57
3.5. THE APENNINE FRINGE
At the Apennine fringe Pleistocene marine and continental deposits occur.
The marine deposits are of coastal and littoral facies and differ from the Pliocene
marine deposits only with respect to their biostratigraphy. They crop out in thick
sequences along the Apennine margin (Pelosio, 1960; Pelosio and Raffi, 1973;
Annovi et alii, 1979). The continental deposits consist of gravel, sands and clays,
representing different facies of a fluvial system which can be described as
piedmont alluvial fans and alluvial plains (Cremaschi, 1982a). In contrast with
the Alpine fringe moraines and fluvioglacial deposits are completely absent but
loesses abound.
.Ml along the piedmont margin which separates the first foothills of the
.Apennines from the alluvial deposits of the Holocene plain, the continental
Quaternary deposits occur as a narrow but continuous belt. Terraces, glacis and
related erosional surfaces have been cut into these deposits. The deposits are
locally folded and faulted. As a result of this tectonic activity their present surface
locally shows a monoclinal trend in the form of a regular dip towards the plain.
It also shown local faulting and local deformations connected with subsurface
teaonic stmetures. These surfaces thus have a strong tectonic control and reflect
the Quaternary tectonic evolution along the Apennine fringe and in the nearby
plain (Cremaschi and Papani, 1975; Marchetti et alii, 1978; Pieri and Groppi,
1981).
The first systematic studies on the continental deposits of the Apennine
piedmont have been carried out during the second half of the 1960’s and are
summarized in the map 1:100,000 of Parma and neighbouring areas coordinated
by VTnzo. On this map a series of terraces has been distinguished, dated according
to the Alpine stratigraphy and having different paleosols (Venzo et alii,
1965). Some years later (Ferrari and Magaldi, 1968; Cremaschi, 1978) the
systematic presence of loess on top of rubefied paleosols in the oldest terraces
was recognized. They were dated as of Mindel-Riss interglacial age, in analogy
with the Alpine «Ferretto».
Strong river erosion in the Apennine piedmont, which occurred especially
during the nineteen-seventies as a result of uncontrolled excavations, led to the
exposure of complex stratigraphic sequences of continental deposits, intercalated
between the Calabrian marine deposits and the surfaces of the oldest terraces.
Rich vertebrate faunas (Cigala Fulgosi, 1976; Ambrosetti and Cremaschi, 1975)
were collected in these sequences. The biostratigraphy, sedimentology and
magnetostratigraphy of a few sequences were studied in detail (Annovi et alii,
1979; Cremaschi, 1982a). In particular the magnetostratigraphic sequences along
the Stirone, Crostolo, Tiepido and Panaro rivers (Bucha and Sibrava, 1977;
Salloway, 1983) provide a geochronometric base for the dating of the sequences
of the Apennine fringe and for their correlation with the Alpine sequences.
The systematic and detailed correlation of the various Quaternary deposits in
the .Apennine fringe is largely based on the results of the research carried out for
this thesis and will be discussed and described in chapter 7.

58 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
;l !
3.6. THE LOESSES IN THE PO PLAIN
iKS
Jtj.-
Although they do not reach the thickness and the development of those
beyond the Alps, loesses are widely distributed in the Po Valley (Fraenzle, 1963;
Cremaschi, 1979b and 1984). At both the Alpine and the Apennine fringes they
nearly always overlie the Pleistocene non-aeolian deposits or the paleosurfaces in
the mountain areas, and form part of infills of karst cavities.
Stratigraphic studies indicate that the oldest loess sedimentation dates from
the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene. Nevertheless only loesses of late Middle
Pleistocene age and of Late Pleistocene age are preserved over large areas. In
particular the loesses of Late Pleistocene age show lateral variations in characteristics
that enable the identification of the direction of the prevailing winds that
caused their sedimentation (Cremaschi, 1983; see Fig. 15). These variations are: a
decrease of the average size of the particles and of the thickness of the aeolian
covers, depending on the distance form the source area, and thicker accumulation
along leeward scarps.
The loess covers usually have a limited thickness (approx. 0.5-2 m) and are
consequently strongly affected by pedogenesis. Therefore unweathered loess has
not been preserved in the area, except for some special stratigraphic situations.
These occur in the Riparo Tagliente in the Lessini plateau, (Bartolomei et alii,
1982), a few kilometers NE of the area surveyed, where strata of fresh loess
alternate with hearths and living floors, dating back to the late Upper Palaeolithic.
Furthermore, loess not affected by post-glacial pedogenesis can be found in
the sequence of the Torrion della Val Sorda (Chapter 4) where the loess, which
is about 5 m thick, has been buried by a moraine of the last Pleniglacial. The
grain size distribution of such sediments (Fig. 35) indicates a good sorting around
the value of silt and a low clay content (10-15?). The unweathered loess contains
a small amount of calcium carbonate (1-5?). With regard to the heavy minerals
it is characterized by a strong prevalence of unstable minerals of metamorphic
paragenesis such as amphiboles and epidotes, coming from the outwash plain of
the Garda glacier (Fig. 16).
3.7. THE PRESENT INVESTIGATIONS
To achieve the objectives of these investigations (see section 1.3) it is
essential to study the Quaternary landscape genesis of the Central Po valley as a
whole. It is evident from the review of the literature on the various parts ot the
Central Po valley, that the existing knowledge is often fragmental and of different
quality and nature. With regard to correlations, if existing at all, the classical
Alpine stratigraphy has often been used, but this concept is far too simplistic and
unrealiable for this purpose. Therefore in so far as the landscape genesis is
concerned, the present investigations have followed an inductive method, which
comprises a number of phases. These determine the structure of the chapters 4,
5,6. Their essentials are described as follows:
— within each main physiographic system a series of paleopedological and

esearch ON THE PHYSIOGRAPHY 59
PAST
T3
C
O-
O
o
p-

60 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
stratigraphic units has been identified, based on field observations and
analyses, as well as on a critical review of the existing local literature on the
Quaternary stratigraphy, soils and deposits.
paleopedological and stratigraphic units within each main physiographic system
have been dated, as far as possible, by independent methods, in particular by
magnetostratigraphy and archaeology (see Appendix 7).
in mapping the physiographic units, areas comprising lithostratigraphic and
pedostratigraphic entities have been identified and delineated. This correlation
is based on the independent methods, mentioned above.
Met
Vole
ST
Fig. 16 - Heavy mineral composition of Upper Pleistocene loess. Met.: Heavy minerals of metamorphic
paragenesis (amphiboles, epidotes, kyanite etc.); Ko/r: Heavy minerals of volcanic paragenesis
(mainly Augites); Si: Stable heavy minerals (zircon, tourmalines and Ti ox.). A) Heavy mineral
composition related to Apennine sandstones; B) Heavy mineral composition related to fluviatilc
sand (1; Adige outwash plain, 2; Garda outwash plain, 3: Po river, 4: Secchia river; Middle Pleistocene
fluvioglacial sediments: 5: Monte Netto, 6: Bagaggera); C) Late Pleistocene loess, (after Cremaschi,
1983).
Fig. 16 - Composizione in minerali pesanti dei loess del Pleistocene superiore. Met.: minerali pesanti
di paragenesi metamorfica; vole.: minerali pesanti di origine vulcanica; st: minerali pesanti stabili.
A) Composizione in minerali pesanti delle arenarie appenniniche; B) Composizione in minerali
pesanti di sabbie fluviali (1: piaña fluvioglaciale delTAdige, 2: piaña fluvioglaciale del Garda, 3:
flume Po, 4: flume Secchia, sedimenti mediopleistocenici, 5, Monte Netto, 6, Bagaggera); C)
composizione in minerali pesanti dei loess del Pleistocene superiore.

4.
QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS
IN THE GARDA AREA*
4.1 THE .n'RATIGRAPHIC SEQUENCE AND THE PALEOSOLS OF THE
GARVARDO QUARRY (/oc. 1)
This stratigraphic sequence is situated in a small valley SW of Gavardo
bordered to the North, to the South and to the West by limestone hills of the
Coma Formation (Boni and Cassinis, 1973). To the East, the valley is separated
from ancient moraines and fluvioglacial deposits of the Garda Lake (stages of
Monte Faita and Carpenedolo), which it may be correlated with (Fig. 17) by the
bed of the Chiese River and its Late Pleistocene deposits.
The area were the Gavardo sequence has been described represents, according
to Fraenzle (1965), an ancient polje, downthrown to the plain level because of
teaonic lowering of the pre-Alpine margin, and subsequently eroded by the Chiese
river. This hypothesis is in agreement with the neotectonic evidence observed in the
field survey of the area and it has been accepted in the present work.
Luzzago M.
E 3 2 H s H I 4 n U i 6 I___ I 7
Fig. 17 - Cross section between Gavardo and the Monte Faita moraine. 1) Coma limestone, 2)
Scaglia limestone, 3) GAV 1 stratigraphic unit, 4) Middle Pleistocene moraine and related fluvioglacial
deposits, 5) Late Pleistocene moraine and related fluvioglacial deposits; 6) GAV 4, 5, 6, 7
stratigraphic units; 7) Holocene deposits along the Chiese river.
Fig. 17 - Sezione Geológica fra Gavardo e la morena di Monte Faita; 2) calcare della formazione
«Coma», 2) Scaglia; 3) unirá stratigrafica GAV 1; 4) morena del Pleistocene medio e depositi
fluvKJglaciali connessi; 5) morena del Pleistocene superiore e depositi fluvioglacial! connessi; 6)
umta stratigraflche GAV 4, 5, 6, 7; 7) depositi olocenici adiacenti I’alveo del Fiume Chiese.
• Detailed descriptions of soil profiles, discussed in chapters 4, 5, 6 are included in Appendix
1 and la; equally the textural, micromorphological, mineralogical and chemical analyses mentioned
have been respectively recorded in Appendix 2, 3, 4, 5. The number of each locality or profile
lexJoc. 1) refers to the location in the geological map enclosed in the Appendix 6.

62 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
Inside the Gavardo Valley two morphological units can be distinguished.
They are separated by a rather smooth scarp, cut through the quarries, where the
stratigraphic sequence has been studied (Fig. 18). Venzo (1965) and Mancini
(1969) identified, at the base of the sequence, gravels that they referred to as
Günz moraine. These gravels are overlain by glaciolacustrine clay of the same
age. These deposits would be covered by a Mindel moraine weathered by a thick
«Ferretto», which is in its turn overlain by loess of Riss and Würm age.
The opening of a deeper quarry, near and parallel to the previously described
one, has allowed a more detailed study of the sequence. In particular the gravels
referred to Günz and the overlying lacustrine clays are not at the base of the
sequence, but they lie upon a flexure and belong to a younger sedimentary cycle.
The base of the sequence is represented by the «Colluvial Clays» of Venzo, which
actually are a paleosol in situ (Fig. 19).
The following stratigraphic units can be distinguished from top to bottom of
the new pit (Fig. 19).
'f: I
*T- ■
GAV 7; colluvial silt loam; at its base fragments of bricks, stones and
archaeologic remains of a Roman age kiln are exposed.
On these sediments a profile with Ap/B horizon has been observed: macroscopic
indications of clay translocation are completely absent; linear, erosive
boundary to:
GAV 6: strongly weathered loess, mottled and including common Fe-Mn
nodules, mainly in the lower part.
At the base of the unit Middle Palaeolithic artifacts have been collected (some
flackes and a déjete scraper), beloning to the Mousterian culture (Fig. 36)
(Baroni et alii, in press). The artifacts show sharp edges and they have not
undergone any postdepositional transport; linear limit to:
GAV 5: lacustrine sand and silt with scattered gravel. The sediments are
massive, with poorly evident planar bedding; dark in color at the top (5 YR
3/1), and gray-green in the lower part (5 GY 6/4).

q u a te r n a r y d e p o s it s , v e t u s o l s a n d p a l e o s o l s 63
GAVARDO l o g 1
----------A p
G A V 7
G R A IN S IZ E Fe 2 W.
10 15 20% 0 1 2
G A V 6
nB2t
G A V 5
G A V 4
nZB32t
r
^ M o u s te r ia n a r t ifa c t s
Fig. 19 - The Gavardo profile,
f/ j. - II profile di Gavardo.

T T
64 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
They pinch out Northwards, and thicken towards the South. Furthermore
they include scarce pollen of Pirns, Cupressaceae and Cyperaceae (Cremaschi, in
press). Abrupt and erosive limit to:
GAV 4: poorly sorted gravel and sand, composed of prevailing clasts of
metamorphic, crystalline and volcanic rocks. Bedding has been observed only in
the lower part, were it is discontinuous and planar.
The gravels are weathered and horizons IV B31t, and IB B32t can be
distinguished; not exposed boundary.
Units 4, 5 and 6 pinch out laterally against the scarp produced hy a flexure
which displaces the older units that can be described as follows.
'V rA"i'
i'
■"'-■•'’i ’-^ " - '- -'•is - -:#2
3iv-5ià5'3ni.'

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 6 5
The cumulative curves (Fig. 20) of the horizons of the GAV 1 unit, do not
represent the real grain size distribution of the soil horizons, due to the high
amount of iron hydroxides, and consequent poor dispersion of the sample during
the grain size analysis (see Appendix 2).
Micromorphological characteristics. Horizon II B2t (G AV 6) developed from the
eolian deposits, shows evident hydromorphic characteristics. In fact many areas
with low iron content and consequently discoloured can be observed inside the
plasma as well as some grainy cutans and Fe-Mn nodules. The pédologie features
mainly consist of complex cutans where the coarse illuviation is well
developed. Furthermore fluidal trends of the mica-lithorelicts can be observed.
The characteristics of the loess of GAV 2 (horizons VI B/C) indicate a slight
weathering: the matrix is slightly sepic and the indications for translocation of
clay are very poor.
The horizons IV B31t and V B32t (GAV 4) differ from the overlying
horizons by the more pronounced rubéfaction of the plasma and by a clear
increase of the ferri-argillans wich represent almost entirely the plasmatic fraction
inside horizon V B31t. Both soils developed in GAV 3 (V B22t, V B31t, V
B32t) and GAV 4 (IV B22, IV B31) units are characterized by a high concentration
of ferri-argillans. Inside the GAV 3 horizons, the very thick ferri-argillans
are laminated and strongly biréfringent, while in the G AV 4 unit they are much
more weathered, less biréfringent and lamination becomes discontinuos and less
evident.
The horizons V B22t and V- B31t contain a great amount of pedorelicts,
which originate from the horizons VII B21 and B22 (GAV 1). Their abundant
presence points to a strong truncation of the underlying paleosol and the poor
capability of selection of the sedimentary agent by which GAV 3 was deposited,
which must be therefore related into a proximal fluvioglacial sedimentary facies.
The paleosol of the GAV 1 unit shows characteristics different from those of
the overlying paleosol. In horizons VII B21 and B22 the argillans are absent, the
plasma consists mainly of strongly rubefied iron hydroxides and it is poorly
biréfringent and sometimes isotic.
.•\ngular polyhedric micropeds of sand size are common (pseudosands).
Glomerular micropeds and pedotubules covered by manganese are present especially
in horizon VII B21. They indicate a strong mixing of the horizon by
biological activity. A few ferri-argillans, slightly biréfringent and poorly
separated, are present inside the largest pores in the lowermost horizons.
The pores of the paleosol of unit G A V l are covered by ferri-mangans that
overlie all the other plasmic separations, and therefore they have to be regarded
as the last micromorphological event which affected the paleosol.
Siineralogical charachteristics. Heavy minerals of metamorphic paragenesis are
already present in the lowermost horizons (GAV I unit) of the Gavardo
sequence. This proves that also in these layers the parent material, from which
paleosol GAV 1 developed, has a provenance outside the Pre-Alpine area, where
limestones are prevaling in which heavy minerals of metamorphic paragenesis are

Ill
66 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PQ plain
Fig. 20 - The cumulative curves of the Gavardo profile, (t) = top, (b) = bottom.
Fig. 20 - Curve granulometriche cumulative del profile di Gavardo.

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 6 7
virtually absent. This is indicated by the heavy mineral composition of the
Pliocene sands of S. Bartolomeo (Appendix 4), where Ti oxides and zircon are
prevalent, which should be reguarded of Pre-Alpine origin.
In the stratigraphic sequence (Fig. 19) the heavy mineral association varies
according to the intensity of the pedogenetic processes. Even if it remains qualitatively
similar, there is a gradual downward increase of stable species. The X-ray
analyses do not display significant differences of the clay mineral composition
inside the sequence. These are represented by kandite, illite and vermicuhte.
Chtmical characteristics. In the Gavardo sequence, carbonates are absent, the
exchange capacity and base saturation are low and consequently the pH is low.
Free iron content rises with depth, and shows a clear increase in the VII B21
horizon, that points to strong weathering, also proved by the micromorphological
analysis. Both CEC and base saturation (Appendix 3) are rather
low throughout the whole profile.
Paltomagnetic stratigraphy. The Gavardo stratigraphic sequence was found to
have direct magnetic polarity (Tucholka, in press). This should not a priori be
interpreted by relating the whole sequence to the Bruhnes Epoch as this would
be in clear contradiction to the stratigraphy and the regional geological setting.
On the basis of the micromorphological study it is more likely that the last
generation of mangans and ferrans which are prevailing in the paleosol of unit
G.'W 1, took place when the main features of the paleosol in unit GAV 1 had
already been developed, probably for a long time already, with a consequent
obliteration of the previous magnetism.
Therefore, the magnetostratigraphy is not, by itself, suitable to date the
Gavardo sequence. On the base of correlation with the other sequences of
Ciliverghe, Chiese and Castenedolo, discussed in further sections, the GAV 1
unit and the GAV 2 probably, could be older than the Brunhes Epoch.
Discussion. The origin of the parent material of the paleosol of G AV 1 is
uncertain.
It cannot be represented by the limestone into which the Gavardo valley is
cut, given the presence of the metamorphic heavy minerals and the rare pebbles
of chert that can be found sporadically in the paleosol. These suggest a fluvial
origin and a wide feeding basin. A glacial period with formation of ice wedges
and deposition of loess (GAV 2) interrupts the evolution of the deepest paleosol
and buries it definitively. The deposition of the fluvioglacial sediments of unit
GAV 3 should be related to the same glacial period. This unit, according to the
geological setting, can be correlated with one of the oldest glacial advances in the
Garda area.
A long pedogenetic phase follows their deposition and precedes the tectonic
dislocation of the sequence. It is therefore probable that an important stratigraphic
hiatus separates unit GAV 3 from unit GAV 4.
Ihe deposits of unit GAV 4 have a fluvioglacial origin too. Nevertheless the
smaller size of the clasts indicates that the fronts of the glaciers were much

68 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
- -
.'1 . j w y i 'S
i
farther removed from the Gavardo site than during the previous stages. In the
top the next paleosol develops, which in its turn is buried by lacustrine sediments
(GAV 5) and loess (GAV 6) which, according to its sedimentological chararteristics,
to the pollen content and to the archaeological (Mousterian artifaas)
content can be referred to the last glacial period. In Holocene times, during the
Roman age, the loesses were exploited for brick production. The thick layer of
colluvium which buries the Roman brick-works indicates a phase of generalized
erosion of the area during latest Holocene times.
Therefore in the Gavardo sequence the occurrence is recorded, during the
Pleistocene, of at least 4 glacial stages, followed by a pedogenetic phase. The
first stage and the last are testified by loess.
The paleosol developed in the GAV 1 unit represents a long weathering
period with non-glacial climatic conditions and its paleonvironmental significance
will be further discussed.
In spite of the complexity of the sequence, direct datings are scarce and
concern only the uppermost units (GAV 5, GAV 6). By means of stratigraphic
correlations (see section 4, 9) the units G AV 4, 3, could be referred to the
Middle Pleistocene, the GAV 1 and probably GAV 2 unit, possibly to the Early
Pleistocene.
4.2. THE STRATIGRAPHIC SEQUENCE OF THE CILIVERGHE HILL
(loc. 7)
Near the Ciliverghe village, a terrace rises from the fluvioglacial plain. This
terrace has an elongated shape trending N-NE, and is about 1 km long. It
consists of Pleistocene continental deposits, already known in the older geological
literature; (Sacco, 1896) reports marine sands at the base of continental sequence.
Penck (1909) recognizes inside the sequence a moraine deposit which he refers
to the Mindel, covered by alluvial sediments. Caldera (1916) and Bonomini
(1926) consider the whole sequence to be continental deposits, among which the
most ancient ones should date back to the Giinz. Venzo (1965) published a field
survey at 1:25,000 scale of the hill and refers it to a Mindel moraine overlying
fluvial conglomerate. More recently Capponi (1968) described in the lower part
of the Ciliverghe sequence till deposits buried by fluvial deposits which are in
their turn overlain by fluvioglacial deposits and loess. Mancini (1969) studied the
soil formation in the upper part of the sequence and recognized a paleosol of the
«Ferretto» type, referred to the Mindel-Riss.
In the last years the southwestern edge of the Ciliverghe hill has been cut as
a result of road works for the Brescia-Lonato higway; the stratigraphic sequence
described below was exposed in the SW edge of the Ciliverghe hill. From the top
the following units (Fig. 21) can be recognized.
' -iii ■
CIL 6: polygenic cover of loess which fills a depression cut in the underlying
stratigraphic unit. Field observations, textural features and heavy mineral analyses
(App. 3, 4, 5) allow to recognize inside this unit three superimposed layers of
Irlii

quaternary d e p o s it s, v e t u s o l s a n d p a l e o s o l s 69
loess separated by two pedogenetic sequa.
The uppermost consists of a sequence of horizons Ap, B l, II B21tx, II B22 cn,
II B23g. The horizon II B22 cn includes a lithic industry of Mousterian typology
Baroni et alii, 1984) (Fig. 36). This proves the presence inside the loess cover,
of a buried surface and allows to assert that this cover actually consists of distinct
layers belonging to the same pedological sequum. Another cover of weathered
loess is present underneath, within which the horizons III Bl III B21tx, III B2tg
can be recognized. Numerous fragments of chert with sharp edges and of
colluvial origin can be found at the base of this horizon. This cover overlies, with
and abrupt contact and a clear angular unconformity, other silty sediments of
probable eolian origin, which show evident rubéfaction and well developed
structure (I\" B21t). The boundary to the underlying unit is gradual.
Cll. 5: poorly sorted fluvioglacial gravel, consisting of strongly weathered
crystalline and volcanic rocks. The vetusol that has developed in these gravels
consists of the horizons V B22t, V B31t and VI C ca. The salient characteristics
of the profile are the rubéfaction, the strong accumulation of clay, the heavy
weathering of stones and the accumulation of calcium carbonate at the base of
the profile forming a strongly cemented calcic horizon with abrupt and
undulating upper boundary; gradual lower boundary to:
2) ■The (aliverghc sequence.
21 - successione stratigrafica di Ciliverghe.

70 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAji,
CIL 4: gravel and loose fluvial crossbedded sands. The pebbles are well
rounded with a maximum diameter ranging from 3 to 5 cm. Black limestone of
the Valsabbia are prevailing. The upper part of the unit is discontinuously cemented;
clear linear boundary to:
CIL 3; glaciolacustrine deposits: laminated calcareous marls interbedded with
fine sand and clayey silt. The boundary to the underlying unit is abrupt, displaced
along a fault (Fig. 21). The unit is sightly tilted towards the East.
V* j- ¿i ^'4
•J '• a^,A - ^--1«
V'^' ~*wiiif '’
CIL 2: loose moraine deposits, consisting of gravel with pebbles and poork
sorted angular blocks of pre-Alpine limestone and of few volcanics, metamorphic
and granitoid rocks (Fig. 21). The clasts are matrix-supported and show clear
glacial striations. The contact with the underlying unit, in a stratigraphic sense,
is abrupt and subvertical due to faulting.
CIL 1: strongly cemented moraine deposits, of the same composition as that
of the overlying one, including angular blocks of several cubic metres of volume,
consisting of limestone of the «Coma» type. The deposit is usually non-bedded,
but westwards it shows a slight planar bedding. The lower limit cannot be
observed.
Textural characteristics. The loesses of CIL 6 show unimodal curves, indicative
of moderate sorting, with maxima around the values of medium and coarse sik
(Fig. 23).
The sand content ranges from 6 to 15? and can be attributed to the suppiv
of more or less sand during the aeolian sedimentation. The clay content range?
from 17 to 31? and its increase in directly correlated with the presence o:
argillans and with the Bt horizons. The vetusol in gravel (CIL 5) contains up
59.7? of clay, the sand content ranges form 15.5? in B22t horizon up to 19.4J in
V B31t horizon.
Micromorphological characteristics. The three upper loess covers, within the Cil 1
unit show similar characteristics. The aeolian nature of the sediment is well
testified by the moderate selection of the skeleton grains and the scarce
occurrence of lithorelicts. The plasma is slightly sepic, except for horizon II
B23g, where also the illuvial clay content is higher than usual.
The basic fabric is commonly porphyroskelic, except in the buried III Bl,
where it is agglomeroplasmic.
The voids are represented by channells, vughs and chambers. The metavugh?.
sometimes with vesicular shape, characterize especially the fragipan horizons that
lie on top of each sequum. Iron manganese redistributions or reduction-oxidation
phenomena are common in all horizons and they show a distribution in accordance
with the field observations, since they become very frequent inside the
pseudogley horizons. They consist of mangans and neomangans, grainy cutans.

d e p o s it s , v e t u s o l s a n d p a l e o s o l s 71
quaternary
CILIVERGHE
L O G 7
GRAIN SIZE
W.l.
0 50 100% 0 0,5
i— 1__I__1_L
C IL 6
L
CIL 5
rO
-3 m
22 - The Cilivcrghe profile.
22 - II profile di Cilivcrghe.

î
i [
72 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PlAl,
■'î :
m
iron and manganese nodules. The plasma is generally separated into reduced and
oxidized areas. While in the latter it is dark coloured and shows patterns of iron
accumulation, in the former it is strongly bleached and the ferri-argillans arc
iron depleted and weathered. The reduced areas prevail along the faces of the peds
and correspond to the tongues, at a macroscopic level.
In all B horizons developed in loess, illuviation cutans are well evident arw
are represented both by ferri-argillans and argillans, often decolourized and
biréfringent, and by complex cutans. They are present throughout the profil«,
but their presence and their ratios are strongly variable and very significant for
indicating the pedogenetic discontinuities. In the uppermost loess cover thin, well
preserved ferri-argillans prevail. On the contrary, in the II and III B21ti
horizons, the complex cutans are strongly developed, especially in those panse
the B horizons which have a fragipan character. In each sequum, below thc^t
fragipans they gradually decrease.
The IV B21t horizon, in addition to the complex cutans described above bs
a plasma which is much higher in iron content, and has thick and well préservai
ferri-argillans.
In the paleosol in gravel (B 22t, B31t), the plasma is very rich in iror.
content and shows an evident rubéfaction, the basic fabric is porphyroskelic ana
the plasmic fabric varies from argillasepic to bimasepic.
The distribution of cutans is remarkable: the complex cutans prevail in the
uppermost horizons, while the fairly abundant ferry-argillans have a low birefngence
and poor internal lamination. Downward the complex cutans decrease and
ferri-argillans become dominant and represent most of the plasma. The latter
cutans gradually change into strongly biréfringent laminated cutans. The prc'
are represented mainly by planes, due to the large amount of clay.
The C ca horizon has a cry Stic plasma, due to the presence of sparry calcitc
which covers and cements the skeleton grains.
Mineralogical characteristics. The heavy minerals are mainly represented by
amphiboles and epidotes and other of metamorphic paragenesis (Appendix 5)
Along the sequence the ratios between stable and unstable minerals change'
clearly and indicates, as in Gavardo, a progressively stronger weathering towari
the base. The weathering index of horizon IIIB24 (Fig. 22), rather high, show' j
different tendency. This can be explained by considering that, since the honzr^
is of colluvial nature, it consists of eroded material from older soils and frtsn
loess. In the CIL 5 soil a gradual decrease of the weathering index from topic
bottom can be observed between horizons B2 and B3. The X-ray analyses of the
clay do not point to significant differences in clay mineralogy: in all horizon'
the clay fractions consist of vermiculite, chlorite and smectite as well as o'
kandite.
Chemical analyses. The carbonates are leached from units Cil 6 and Cil -•
while their amount is high in the horizon C ca, at the lower part of the Cil 5 und
where they strongly the underlying sands and gravels (CIL 4).
The peaks of the free iron content are clearly related to the clay accumui»-
tions along the profile.

q u a t e r n a r y
d e p o s it s, v e t u s o l s a n d p a l e o s o l s
7 3
— T “
1- t) I5B21t C
2- b) I7B21t C
3- VB22 t
4.7B31t
5-VB31t
u
b]
1 ^
^

74 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAA
Paleomagnetic stratigraphy. It has not been possible to measure the residual
magnetism of units CIL 1 and CIL 2, because of the type of sediment and of the
strong cementation which did not allow a good sampling. The remaining uniu
CIL 3 and CIL 4 turned out to be of direct magneti2ation and therefore thes
belong to the Bruhnes epoch (Tukolka, in press).
Discussion. Units CIL 1 and CIL 2 represent the most outlying moraine of the
Garda moraine system. Their base does not crop out, but if the observations of
Sacco are accepted, it should consist of marine sediments. The contact between
units CIL 2 and CIL 3 is due to faulting.
Unit CIL 3, barren of pollen, must be interpreted as a deposit of a progladal
lake, the overlying gravels (CIL 4) are of fluviatile origin and are composed of
black limestones coming from the Pre-Alpine Jurassic limestones of the Val
Sabbia (Fig. 11). They completely lack metamorphic or crystalline rocks of gladal
origin (see section 3. 2.1.); therefore when they were deposited no glacier was
occupying the Garda lake and the Brescia plain.
The gravels of the CIL 5 unit, even if they are strongly affected by weathering,
clearly consist of materials of Central Alpine origin (volcanics, metamorphic
and granitoid rocks) and their deposition coincides with a new advance of a
glacier along the Garda furrow.
Weathering processes acted under non-glacial conditions in the gravels of the
CIL 5 unit and alternated at least three times with loess sedimentation in the CIL
6 unit.
The cronological data are however very poor. The upper loess cover is
referred to the Last Glacial Period on the basis of the Mousterian artifacts inside
the deposit. The underlying loess could be dated as Early Würm.
Each of the units CIL 1 -I- 2 -t- 3, CIL 5, and loess covers CIL 6, VI B21t, CIL 6,
IIIBl, niB 21t, CIL 6, A p B l IIB21t, IIB22cn IIB23g, represent a glacial stage
in which the glaciers reached the Alpine fringe. The loess covers and the CIL 5
unit, on the ground of the paleomagnetic measurements and archaeological
contents, can be dated to the Late and Middle Pleistocene. No intrinsic indications
exist for the oldest moraine (CIL 1-2) dating, which can be supplied by
correlation with the Chiese sequence, and will be discussed in section 4.4.
4.3. THE STRATIGRAPHIC SEQUENCE OF THE CASTENEDOLO HILL
(toe. 8)
This is a terrace, rising for about to m from the fluvioglacial Brescia plain,
which surrounds it from every side, a few km West of Ciliverghe. Its emergent
setting is due to the neotectonic activity of a buried structure (Desio, 1965).
The stratigraphy of the hill has been studied already in the last century, but
it attracted the attention of scientists, also in relatively recent time, as inside the
deposits of the hill there is the transition of the Pleistocene continental sediments
to the marine formations (Perconig, 1956; Cita, 1955; Ven2o, 1965). The

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 75
Stratigraphy (Fig. 24) surveyed by Cacciamali (1896) on the eastern side of the
hill, also on the basis of the AGIP well (Perconig, 1956) drilled near the hill,
has been chronostratigraphically interpreted by Venzo (1965). He refers the
outcropping littoral deposits to the Emilian (post-Calabrian marine Pleistocene),
N
sublitoral
sediments
150m ^
neritic sublitoral
sediments
F f 24 - Cross section and AGIP drill stratigraphy (after Perconig, 1955) of the Castenedolo hill.
! ; üttoral sediments and paleosol in their top; 2) continental sediments and «Ferretto» vetusol in
their top; 3) loess cover.
F« 24 ■II colie di Castenedolo: sezione geológica e stratigrafica del pozzo AGIP. 1) deposit! Litoral!
e pileosuolo al loro tetto; 2) depositi continentali ed il vetusuolo «Ferretto»; 3) coperture loessiche.

78 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
The stratigraphic sequence described here shows strong similarities with the
one that Cacciamalli (1896) observed on the eastern flank of the hill (Fig. 25).
Here the lower paleosol that developed in the littoral deposits is almost completely
eroded. Furthermore the fluvial gravels of unit CAST 3, called «Ceppo», are
thicker.
Some detailed analyses have been carried out on the vetusol and paleosol
developed in units CAST 4 and CAST 2 (see Appendix 3.5).
-rx. ,, •• ¡ V.:? ' A
Micromorphology. The B31t horizon of the vetusol developed in the top of
CAST 4 unit shows higly sepic plasmic fabric and well preserved, strongly
biréfringent ferri-argillans.
On the contrary the paleosols developed in the CAST 2 unit, has an argillasepic
to undulic plasmic fabric. The horizon IV B21 almost completely lacks cutans.
Cherty lithorelicts, in the IV 22, indicate that the parent material has probably
been cherty limestone gravel. The plasma is slightly biréfringent, very rich in
iron oxides and micropedality (pseudosand) in well expressed. Plasma separations
are not very developed, the argillans are very disturbed, they are poorly biréfringent,
and the original lamination has been destroyed.
Mineralogical characteristics. The clay minerals of the lowermost paleosol of
Castenedolo (CAST 2) consist exclusively of illite and kaolinite, while smectite is
present in the uppermost one (CAST 4).
Paleomagnetic stratigraphy. The units CAST 4 and CAST 3 show normal polarity;
the underlying paleosol (CAST 2) shows reversed polatiry, in the upper part,
and normal polarity (Tucholka, in press) (Fig. 25). The paleomagnedc sequence
could be interpreted as follows: the units CAST I and CAST 2 (upper pan)
belong to the Matuyama epoch, the normaly magnetized part of the CAST 2 unit
should be referred to the Jaramillo event; the units CAST 3 and CAST 4 belong
to the Brunhes epoch.
Discussion. The loess at the top of the sequence, as that of the Ciliverghe
sequence, is referred, also in the ground of the archaelogical content, to the Late
Pleistocene.
The CAST 4 unit has clear fluvioglacial origin, being mainly composed of
methamorphic and volcanic rocks. It has been subjected to strong weathering and
rubéfaction. Therefore all limestone gravel originally present has been dissolved
and the unit may have been much thicker.
The unit CAST 3, on the ground of the paleomagnetic measurements, was
sedimented in early Middle Pleistocene or probably also in late Early Pleistocene
(late Matuyama epoch); it is comoposed by limestone of prevailing pre-Alpine
origin and completely lacks metamorphic of volcanic rocks, usually associated
with glacial and fluvioglacial sediments of the Garda area. Therefore, as discussed
above for the unit CIL 3 of the Ciliverghe sequence, it must have been deposited
during an «interglacial» period when the area was free of glaciers. The unit in the
NE part of the Castenedolo hill consists of a gravel which southwestwards

w
QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 79
interfingers hill with pelitic sediments: it should be therefore interpreted as the
distal fringe of a piedmont alluvial fan at its boundary with alluvial plain
sediments.
Unit CAST 2 consist of a very developed paleosol whose characteristic and
paleoenvironmental significance will be discussed in the next chapters. Its upper
horizons are developed in probably gravelly sediments, while its lower horizons
are in litoral deposits which represent the unit CAST 1. They date back to the
Early Pleistocene Matuyama epoch (probably pre-Jaramillo).
4.4. THE CHIESE SEQUENCE (loc. 2: S. Biagio; loc. 3: Mocasina; loc. 4: Torre
di Mocasina; loc. 5: Terzago; loc. 6: M. Kotondo)
Between Carpenedolo and Calcinato (Fig. 9, 26) there is evidence of a unique
moraine ridge, which at present is split up into various strongly eroded hills
surrounded by the Late Pleistocene fluvioglacial plain. On the contrary. North
of Calcinato, several moraine ridges lean against or overUe each other and form
the undulating Cantrina plateau. Their identification poses problems as their
morphology has been altered by periglacial processes and the whole area is
covered by colluvial deposits and loess.
The Chiese River, near Mocasina and Calvagese, cuts the Cantrina plateau
and exposes a complex stratigraphic sequence, already described by the geologists
who studied the Garda area in earlier periods (Penck and Brückner, 1909;
Feruglio, 1929; Venzo, 1957; Fraenzle, 1965) (Fig. 27). A large part of the
section is still accessible today, so it has been described again more precisely from
top to bottom.
CM 8: loess cover, rubefied vetusol and underlying moraine deposits. This
upper p>art of the unit will be described in detail as Mocasina profile (loc. 3), in
section 4.5. The moraine deposits include limestone blocks several cubic meters
sized and poorly sorted gravels matrix supported, represented by limestone,
crystalline, metamorphic and volcanic rocks; clear boundary to:
CM 7: fluvial gravels, mainly composed by black and dark grey limestone
from Val Sabbia source: they have a discontinuous planar bedding and a clear
upward coarsening trend; abrupt erosive boundary to:
CH6: glaciolacustrine and fluviatile deposits: marly clay with planar parallel
bedding, overlain by sand with planar parallel bedding, outcropping for a
thickness of 1 metre. Both hthotypes are barren of pollen. Mancini (1960) and
Fraenzle (1965) report in association with this unit some loess deposits, which
we could not observe; clear boundary to:
CH5: moraine deposits or proximal fluvioglacial gravel, with large blocks of
volcanic crystalline and metamorphic rocks. They are strongly cemented and
contain clayey pedorelicts, which are rounded, and range from 5 to 40 cm in size.

quaternary d e p o s it s , v e t u s o l s a n d p a l e o s o l s 81
Fig. 26 ■Schematic geological map of the western area of the Garda lake. 1) pre-Quaternary rocks;
2) Gliverghe moraine, Early Pleistocene; 3) Monte Paita moraine ridges; early Middle Pleistocene;
4) Gavardo gravel, fluviogladial deposits, related to 3, early Middle Pleistocene; 5a) Carpenedolo
moraine ridges. Middle Pleistocene; 5b) Carpenedolo moraine ridges, very eroded areas, Middle
Pleistocene; 6) Paitone gravel, fluvioglacial deposits related to 5, Middle Pleistocene; 7) Gavardo
valley lacustrine deposits and loess, Late Pleistocene; 8) Sedeña moraine ridges, late Middle Pleistocene;
9) outwash plain connected with 10, Late Pleistocene; 10) Solferino moraine ridges. Late
Pleistocene; 11) Holocene plain; 12) cross section in Fig. 27.
Fig 26 - Carta geológica schematica della regione occidentale del lago di Garda. 1) rocce prequaternafk;
2) morena di Ciliverghe, Pleistocene inferióte; 3) morena di Monte Paita, antico Pleistocene
medio; 4) ghiaie di Gavardo: depositi fluvioglaciali connessi all’unita 3, antico Pleistocene medio; 5a)
ustcma morenico di Carpenedolo, Pleistocene medio; 5b) morene di Carpenedolo, aree fortemenete
crose. Pleistocene medio; 6) Ghiaie di Paitone, depositi fluvioglaciali connessi all’unita 5, Pleistocene
medio; depositi lacustri e loess della vallecola di Gavardo, Pleistocene superiore; 8) sistema
morenico di Sedeña, Pleistocene medio recente; 9) piaña fluvioglaciale connessa all’unita 10, Pleisto-
.cne superiore; 10) sistema morenico di Solferino, Pleistocene superiore; 11) pianura olocenica; 12)
tnenato della sezione di Fig. 27.

82
PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PL/^^
CHIESE SEQUENCES
Cavalgese
Burago
Orologlo R.
le Tese
Falta M
A2
^
i •
•
►
.
*1 <
•if 4 »
- -- - —
m
__
‘ Scaglia'
litoral deposits t?)
Fig. 27 - Cross section between Monte Faita moraine and Calvagese.
Fig. 27 - Sezione stratigrafica tra la morena di Mónte Faita e Calvagese.
At the top they are weathered by a strongly eroded rubefied paleosol of which
the B32 hori2on and underlying C ca horizon, have been preserved (see profile
Torre di Mocasina, loc. 3); gradual boundary to:
CH4: fluvial gravels, locally cemented, consisting mainly of dark coloured
limestones, coming from the Valsabbia, with discontinuous planar bedding andi
sharp upward coarsening trend; clear linear boundary to:
CH3: glaciolacustrine deposits: they consist of highly calcareous silts and sand
with planar parallel bedding and thin lamination; they abruptly onlap the
underlying CH2 unit and pass towards the top sands with wavy lamination;
abrupt boundary to:
CH2: monogenic breccia, composed of Coma limestone, angular boulders
(with a diameter of about 1 meter), medium and fine sized angular clasts. The
deposits show discontinuous stratification, dipping 25° towards the NE. It should be
interpreted as a detritus overlying the ground moraine, clear linear boundan to.
CHI: ground moraine, composed by large «Coma» limestone blocks and
poorly sorted gravels, often with striae, matrix supported.
Characteristics of the pedorelicts included in the unit CH5. They are fragments of a
B horizon and consist of strongly rubefied clay. They are poorly rounded, which
implies that they have not been transported for a long distance. Cherty and
metamorphic lithorelicts testify that they come from a soil developed in fluvial or
fluvioglacial deposits. On microscale the plasmic fabric is isotic or undulic. The
Ca COj nodules are present inside voids and seem developed after the
sedimentation of the pecloreUcts. The heavy mineral assemblage consists mainh
of stable minerals and therefore testifies a strong pedogenetic weathering
(Appendix 4).

d e po s its, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS
gy^NARY
83
Mocasina profile
(loc 3)
CH8
CH7
CH6
CH5
Torre profile
(loc 4)
pedorelicts
CH4
D
= 0
? 0
ID
10
ID
CH3
CH2
0
D
CH1
m
rO
^ 5 m
fig. 2S - The (Tiiese sequence.
f% 7 * - L a succcssionc stratigrafica del Chiese.

84 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL P0PLM|"
4î:!^
Characteristcs of the buried paleosol at the top of unit CH5. (Torre di Mousnu
profile) (loc. 4). The clay content is very high (Appendix 2). From %I%
micromorphological point of view the matrix is hightly sepic, with prominent f
stress cutans and abundant planes. The ferri-argillans are very abundant and |
disturbed by stress. Complex cutans are completely absent. The calcium carbonaï |
nodules are due to recarbonatation that occurred after the burial of the paleosol.
As far as the clay minerals are concerned, smectite, illite and chlorite are presen;
Among the heavy minerals, amphiboles are the most common and unstable ,
minerals such as epidotes prevail over stable ones (zircon and tourmaline) (set .
Appendix 4).
I
Paleomagnetic stratigraphy. CFf3 has shown a clear reversed paleomagnctic
polarity, while CFf6 has a direct magnetic polarity. Units CFfl, 2 and 3 thereto;: ;
belong to the Matuyama epoch, units CFf4 and 5 have an undertermined ’
position, while the uppermost units belong to the Bruhnes period. (Tucholka in
press).
4.5. THE VETUSOLS AND LOESS A T THE TOP OF THE CHIESE
SEQUENCE
A rather complex pedostratigraphic situation has been observed on the sur
face of the Carpenedolo-Monte Faita area (Fig. 29). The unweathered sediments
crop out on the top of the moraine ridges, which have been severely affected bt
the periglacial denudation. On the contrary loess covers, sometimes overhing
rubefied soils developed in the moraines, are present in areas protected frar
erosion.
Field evidence demonstrates that in the area closed to the Monte Faita moraines,
as already observed by Venzo (1965) the vetusols are stronger developcc
than in the other localities of the Cantrina plateau.
■ji ■
sn
The S. Biagio profile (loc. 2 ). The S. Biagio vetusol is representative of this arc;
(Fig. 29). The profile is preserved for more than four metres, tmneated at the
top and covered by colluvial sediments with aeolian matrix and carbonated clast'
It consists of the horizons: II B22t, IIB31t, IIB32t, and II C ca. The stronger
weathering occurs in the uppermost horizon, where very few fragments of stoneare
preserved, the rubéfaction is stronger, the amount of clay is higher than tr
the other horizons (Fig. 30) and the structure is strongly developed. At the base
there is a C ca horizon, which tightly cements the underlying moraine deposits
Grain size distribution characteristics are given in Fig. 30.
Micromorphological observations. From the micromorphological point of vie\r the
prevailing characteristic of B31t horizon is the large amount of large and thid
ferri-argillans. Neverthless they are strongly disturbed: the birefringence is lo».
microlamination shows an irregular undulating pattern and can often be hardh
observed. They apparently have been partly incorporated in the matrix which ¡'

quaternary d e p o s it s , v e t u s o l s a n d p a l e o s o l s 85
MOCASINA
LOG 3
TERZ AGO
LOO 5
Ap
B2 1t
nB22t
m B31t
\Q
Oo
Ll m
Fif 29 - The profiles of the Monte Falta and Chiese area.
29 - I profili delle aree di Monte Falta e del Chiese.
vcT)’ dynamic, due to its high clay content. In fact the voids of various types of
planes and stress cutans abound.
Siineralogical characteristics. Clay minerals are mainly represented by smectite,
vithout significant differentiation along the profile. As far as the heavy minerals
arc concerned, those produced by metamorphic paragenesis are prevailing and
the weathering index remains rather low.
The Mocasina profile (loc. 3). In the area of Mocasina, Cantrina and Terzago,
where some moraines lean against each other and represent the morphological
expression of the stratigraphic unit CHS, there are no deeply weathered vetusols.
The section described near Mocasina can be considered representative of the
whole area between Calvagese and Calcinato. In fact the profile of Terzago (loc.
5) is completely similar (Fig. 29) as well as the profile of Calvagese Belvedere,
not described here but already recorded by Venzo (1965, 1969), and the one
already studied by Fraenzle (1965) probably a few hundreds of metres far from
the one here described.
Four lithologic discontinuities can be distinguished from the top and they
correspond along the profile to as many stratigraphic discontinuities.
The Ap and B1 horizons are developed in colluvial loess and the II B21t
horizon is developed in weathered loess. The III B2t horizon consists mainly of
angular clasts of chert, embedded in illuvial clay; the chert comes from the

Fig. 30 - The cumulative curves of the Chiese area paleosols and veutosols (above), and of the
S. Biagio profile (below).
Fig. 30 Curve granulometriche cumulative relative ai paleosuoli e vetusuoli dell’area del Chkic
(basso), e del profilo di S. Biagio (alto).

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 87
erosion and the washing of the underlying unit. The IV B31t and IV C ca
horizons represent the weathered top of the moraine included in the stratigraphic
unit CHS. The former, rich in clay, shows slickensides and is rubefied. The
gravels are strongly weathered. The latter shows a clear accumulation of calcium
carbonate but it is discontinuous and not completely lithified.
.Micromorphologicaly (Appendix 5) the II B21t horizon shows a strong
accumulation of illuvial clay in the form of ferri-argillans. The presence of a fair
amount of lithorelicts suggests that the loess is partly of colluvial nature. Complex
cutans are scarce.
Inside the horizon IE B22t the basic fabric can be defined as chitonic (Brewer,
1976) or closed porphyroskelic because the soil consists exclusively of angular
clasts of chert, coated only by illuvial clay which forms most of the plasma.
.\mong the cutans, siltans, matrans and skeletans are prevailing and they alternate
with ferri-argillans and a few grainy cutans.
The horizon IV B31t shows completely different characteristics; the matrix is
veiy rich in clay, is crossed by numerous planes and is strongly sepic. The
ferri-argillans are very abundant and, in spite of the strong deformations, their
lamination can be distinctly recognized.
The B2 horizons of the Calvagese Belvedere and Terzago profiles show
(.Appendix 2, 5) identical patterns and therefore they can be considered as
betonging to the same pedostratigraphic unit. As far as the clay minerals are
concerned the horizon consists mainly of illite, smectite and kandite.
On the isolated moraine hills between Montichiari and Carpenedolo the
pedostratigraphic situation is similar (Coltorti and Cremaschi, 1978). The
moraine ridge is deeply eroded and narrow outcrops of a vetusol, similar to that
of the Mocasina profile are preserved in situ, and colluviated rubefied soil
material has been observed along the slopes of the moraine ridges. The Monte
Rotondo profile (loc. 39), (Fig. 31 and 32) is an example of such a situation.
Fj. )l - The Monte Rotondo section (loc. 39). 1) moraine deposits, 2) vetusol and underlying C
a horizon developed in the moraine. 3) loess and colluvial deposits, 4) Late Pleistocene fluvioglacul
plain; 5) Early Palaeolithic artifacts.
it - Ij sezione di Mónte Rotondo (loc. 39). 1) deposit! morenici, 2) vetusuolo e sottostante
orizzonte calcico, sviluppatosi nel deposito morenico; 3) loess e deposit! colluvial!; 4) piaña fluviogUaale
del Pleistocene superiore; 5) giacitura dei manufatti paleolitici.

,r^«>
1^i
-'i
s » ^
32 - Curve granulometriche cumulative relative alia sezione di Monte Rotondo.
Furthermore a flint tool assemblage, attributed to the Early Palaeolithic, (late
«Riss») has been found here, at the top of the eroded vetusol (Coltorti and
Cremaschi, 1978).
At least four glacial stages, (during which glaciers reached the Alpine fringe,
or climate became cold and dry enough to induce the formation of loess covers)
are represented by piled-up moraine accumulations, separated by fluvial
sediments, the last one consists of loess. The moraine accumulations of the
' l i ’

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 89
second and third stages are strongly weathered with rubefied paleosols and
vetusols which development started during interglacial periods (Torre di
Mocasina and Mocasina profiles).
The absence of a paleosol on the lowermost moraine can be explained by the
fact that it consists of a ground moraine on which, after the retreat of the glacier,
breccia (CH2) and glaciolacustrine sediments (CH3) were first deposited,
followed later by fuviatile sedimentation (CH4).
The composition of these fluviatile (CH4) gravels indicates a Pre-Alpine
source (\'al Sabbia) (See section 4.3., 4.4.) and excludes a provenance from the
Valle Sarca along which glaciers were flowing during glacial periods (Fig. 11);
and which supplied metamorphic and crystalline rocks. Even if not of
fluvioglacial origin, they seem to be connected with a progressive increase of the
upstream erosion, which was probably enhanced by the climatic degradation
induced by the beginning of the glacial period.
The presence of deposits strictly associated with glades is indicated by the
occurrence of Central Alpine materials. In the stratigraphic sequence these materiah
suddenly appear without any visible discontinuity in sedimentation.
During the Late Pleistocene only loess covers reached, during glacial stages,
the area near Chiese: in that period, in fact the glacier came to a stand in a more
western position.
Field observations in three deep sections between the Monte Faita Moraine
and the Chiese sequence (Fig. 27) allow the correlation of the unit CFI5 with the
Monte F'aita moraine (Cremaschi in press).
The latter would therefore represent the most ancient moraine ridge of the
area, still preserving its morphological evidence. The following moraines that are
piled up in Chiese sequence would here have been juxtaposed to this ridge.
The paleomagnetic stratigraphy allows to refer the deposits of the first glacial
stage (CFll, CF12) to the Early Pleistocene (Matuyama Epoch). The dating of the
second stage is uncertain (CH5), while the third (CF48) one must be certainly
referred to the Middle Pleistocene. Due to the strong expression of the pedogenetic
characteristics, also the loesses of Mocasina must be referred to the Middle
Pleistocene. The Late Pleistocene loess forms discontinuous covers in the area
and it has been described in the profile of Monte Rotondo. It shows a texture clearly
different from that of Mocasina and sometimes artifacts (Fig. 37) of the Middle
Palaeolithic (Coltorti, 1983; Baroni et alii, in press) have been collected in it.
4.6. THE STRATIGRAPHIC SEQUENCE OF V A L SORDA {loe. 6)
AND THE PALEOSOL DEVELOPED ON THE MORAINES OF THE
.SEDEÑA GLACIAL STAGE (map unit A 6)
Geomorphological evidence and sedimentary facies, sedimentary (see map
.Appendix 6) strongly suggests that the deeply eroded hills, lying westward of the
outer ridges of the Late Pleistocene moraine complex (see Fig. 26), are the
remains of a moraine ridge deposited during and independent glacial stage, which
will be indicated in this study as the Sedeña stage (see also Fig. 10 and 12).

90 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO P l^
Av ^
' A V J
1
0cm____ 3
¥ig, 37 - Palaeolithic artifacts from the Garda area; 1 - 5 M. Rotondo (Early Palaeolithic); 6 M.Rotonde
(Middle Palaeolithic).
¥ig. 37 - Manufatti paleolitici dell’area gardesana; 1-5 Monte Rotondo (Paleolítico inferiore); 6,
Monte Rotondo (Paleolítico medio).
In the western part of the Garda amphitheatre the moraines of the Sedeña
stage are deeply eroded and bear shallow soils with Ap/C profiles, developed
directly in the unweathered moraine material.
In the eastern part of this moraine system along the deep cut of the Val
Sorda, below the Late Pleistocene moraine and loess deposits, the Sedeña gladal
deposit and a paleosol developed in it can be observed. The Val Sorda sequence
has been known for a almost a century. It was described in detail by fs'icolis
(1898) and subsequently by Venzo (1957, 1959), by Mancini (1960) and by
Fraenzle (1965).
The following units have been observed from top to bottom (Fig. 33).
VS4: Late Pleistocene moraine, boulders and gravels of various sizes, often
with glacial striations, matrix-supported; they consist of limestone, dolomites.

quaternary d e p o s it s, v e t u s o l s a n d p a l e o s o l s 91
m a.s.I.r 300
-250
1
F^. j j - Cross section of the Val Sorda, 1) Miocene limestone, 2) loess and overlying Middle
Pleistocene moraine (Sedeña stage) and fluvioglacial deposits; 3) loess and colluvial deposits; 4)
Late Pleistcxxne moraine (Solferino stage).
- Sezione stratigrafica della Val Sorda; 1) calcareniti mioceniche; 2) loess e sovrastanti
depositi, dapprima morena del Medio Pleistocene (fase di Sedeña) e successivamente depositi fluviogbaali;
3) loess e depositi colluviali; 4) morena del Pleistocene superiore (fase di Solferino).
'0 ''

92 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PUUh
¿î-i:
■3:^
MM
ïï“
S
volcanic, metamorphic and crystalline rocks. Abrupt, undulating erosive
boundary to:
VS3: loess deposits; at the base there are colluvial deposits, including many
angular chert fragments which gradually pass upward to loess; clear linear
boundary to:
VS2: moraine (ground moraine) and fluvioglacial sediments: medium-sized
gravel and small stones (diam. max up to 20 cm), matrix supported; many of
them show glacial striations; they consist of limestone, dolomites, prophyries,
metamorphic and crystalline rocks. The sediments upwards become gradualK
finer and gravel and cobbles are interbedded with sandy layers. At the top a
rubefied, clayey, 0,80 cm thick paleosol is preserved. The boundary to the lower
unit is not exposed.
V Sl: weathered loess, 1 m thick, explored only with hand drill; the loess is
discontinuous, and sometimes the VS2 directly overlies the bedrock.
The whole sequence lies on Miocene calcarenites with evidence of weathering
at the top: a B horizon, about 0,50 m thick has a reddish bown colour (7.5 YR
4/4), and is decalcified. It probably corresponds to the «Ferretto inferiore» of
Nicolis ( 1899).
Microntorphological and mineralogical characteristics. The IV B31t horizon of the
buried paleosol at the top of the VS2 unit (Fig. 34) has a porphyroschelic fabric,
embedding chert and metamorphic lithorelicts; the dense red plasma shows
strong sepic fabric; ferri-argillans are common but often strongly deformed by
swelling, complex cutans are absent. At the bottom of VS3, the III C2 horizon,
developed in colluvial sediments, lacks cutans and shows low sepicity in the
plasma, but it includes many papules and pedorelicts derived of the underlying
soil.
The main micromorphologic features in the loess (VS3 Al/C) are the
pedotubules. Due to the high content of organic matter the plasmic fabric is
asepic; common calcitans occur in tubular voids.
The clay minerals of the buried paleosol at the top of VS2 are represented by
smectite, illite and kandite. Among the heavy minerals, unstable species of
metamorphic paragenesis prevail such as amphiboles and epidotes.
Chemical and textural characteristics. The organic matter content and the clay
and calcium carbonate distribution are summarized in Fig. 34. The VS3 loess has
an important sandy fraction at the base. The sand gradually decreases and
remains constant around 5?, then it increases again towards the top. The clay
reaches minimum values towards 2 and 3 metres and slightly increases at the top.
Clay and organic matter contents correlate in the first three metres of the profile.
The carbonates are abundant at the top. The colluvium at the base of the
loess is very clayey and rich in carbonates. The buried soil IV B31t with a higher

, . V O . P O S . S , V ^ U S O . S . N O ,
93
v a l sorda
g r a in s iz e C 3 C O- C.org
%40 0 %3
J__ I
1
0-1
W - The palcosols of the Val Sorda sequence.
^-4 - I palcosuoli della successione della Val Sorda.

94 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAInI
m -i
+ •
clay content than the colluvium, is completely devoid of carbonates. These appeay
again in large amounts in the underlying IV C ca.
Interpretation of the stratigraphic sequence of Val Sorda. In agreement with most"
of the literature (Venzo, 1957; Fraenzle, 1965) the topmost moraine (VS4) is
referred to the last Pleniglacial. In fact it is connected with the more eastern
ridges of the moraine here referred to the Solferino stage (see Fig. 10 and 12 and
next section).
Unit VS3, consisting of loess and colluvium at its base, can be probably
referred to the Early Wiirm.
It must be stated that inside this loess near S. Michele (Venzo, 1957;
Mancini, 1960) a Mousterian artifact was collected in situ.
In unit VS2, on a stratigraphic basis, according to Venzo (1957), Mancini
(1960), Habbe (1965), Cremaschi (in press) the moraine should be referred to
the Penultimate Glacial Period and therefore should be correlated with the
Sedeña Stage.
In the top of VS2 a shallow rubefied paleosolis developed (IV B31t IV C ca)
which can be referred to part of the Riss-Wiirm interglacial according to Penck
and Briickner’s terminology.
The moraine of the VS2 unit lies on an older loess (V S l) that overlies the
Miocene weathered bedrock. The Val Sorda sequence allows a rather detailed
stratigraphy stratigraphic reconstruction.
The main characteristics of the paleosol at the top of the VS2 unit are
rubéfaction, high clay content, and evidence of ferri-argilluviation; in the B31t
horizon limestone gravels have been dissolved , but volcanic, crystalline and
metamorphic ones are only slightly weathered. This paleosol certainly evolved in
non-glacial conditions. The end of the development of the pedogenetic process is
pointed out by erosion of the paleosol and by its burial by a colluvial cover, that
mostly comes from the dismantling of the soil itself, since it contains many chert
fragments and in particular also pedorelicts.
In the unit VS3 the early aeolian sedimentation is still accompanied by
colluvial supply, since there is a gradual passage between the colluvium and the
loess. Furthermore the loess (Fraenzle, 1965) is clearly more sandy at the base
and it becomes progressively more silty upwards.
The buried soil that evolved in it (Al/C), as already recognized by Mancini
(1960), shows characteristics of a chernosem (sol isohumique) further supported by
micromorphological analysis. Nevertheless the great thickness of the solum and
the gradual decrease of the organic matter with depth would suggest a cumulative
soil (Birkeland, 1974), developed during the last phases of the loess accumulation
and later.
The weathering processes in loess deposits, responsible for the considerable
accumulation of organic matter, should be attributed to an interstadial stage,
further interrupted by the last Pleniglacial glacier advance, and by resulting
deposition of the VS4 moraine.

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 95
Fig. 35 - The cumulative curves of the Val Sorda paleosols.
Fig. 35 - Curve granulometriche cumulative dei paleosuoli della Val Sorda.
4.7. THE SOILS IN THE MORAINES OF THE SOLFERINO STAGE (loc. 9,
10, 11; map unit A 7 )
The glacial period in which the well preserved moraines and related glacial
deposits, surrounding the Garda lake, were deposited, is indicated as Solferino
stage (see section 3.2. Fig. 10).

96
PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE ppm.
^NTRal
, n
0 c m 3
n
F/¿. 36 - Palaeolithic artifacts from the Garda area, 1 - 2 Gavardo; 3 - 7 Ciliverghe; 8
Fig. 36 - Manufatti paleolitici dell’area del Garda (Paleolítico medio); 1-2 Gavardo; 3 ' i
8 Castenedolo.

Qy^TEBNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 97
In the moraines and fluvioglacial deposits of the Solferino stage generally
Jeep soils (Fig. 38 and 39) have been preserved. The profile of Ronchi di
Pastrengo (loc. 11) shows a situation typical of the gentle slopes of the moraine,
the one of Fontanelle di Polpenazze (loc. 10) shows that of very steep slopes, and
the Solferino profile (lo c. 9) represents the situation in a rather flat bottom of a
mek-water valley. It must be added that, unlike what has been said by previous
juthors (Venzo, 1965) such profiles do not characterize only the external moriincs,
but the\- have been found also in the internal moraines, next to the lakes.
Since the field characteristics were found to be the same for all the profiles
taken into consideration (see Appendix 1), only the profile of Solferino will be
liescnbed here and comparisons will be be made which the other ones.
Tb* So^rrino profile (loc. 9). The morphological and textural characteristic
indicate a clear lithological discontinuity inside the profile (Fig. 38). The upper
part of the profile All, A12 consists of colluvial materials with abundant calcareous
stones and fragments of bricks of the Roman period.

98 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE1
N
Solferino stage moraine
^5
' & ' i
Fig. 39 - The Ronchi di Pastrengo profile.
Fig. 3? - II profilo di Ronchi di Pastrengo.
In the underlying II B31 and B32 horizons, the clay content is around 2.t
with an increase of 10? with respect to the moraine (II C ca) that represents tht
parent material (Fig. 40). Micromorphologically the matrix is only slightly sepic
and the argillans, present only inside the II B31 horizon are very scarce.
From the mineralogical point of view the heavy mineral (App. 4) assemblage
consists of unstable species, especially amphiboles. As far as the clay minerals arc
concerned, the whole profile is remarkably homogeneous with traces of smeaitc.
abundant vermiculite and chlorite, illite and kandite.
The B31 and B32 horizons show a slight rubéfaction, they are decalcified and
a calcic horizon (II C ca), with lamellar fabric and non-indurated, is present at
their base.
The micromorphological observations show that the B horizons of these soils
developed in situ because they are devoid of pedorelicts and of other indications
suggesting reworking. The profile of Fontanelle that has formed on a steeper
slope, is slightly shallower than the Solferino profile and, at least macroscopicalK.
shows a greater amount of illuvial clay. The colluvium that overlies the B
horizons is considerably thicker, but always rich in organic matter.
The profile of Pastrengo (Fig. 39) is very similar to that of Solferino. Also in
this case fragments of brick have been observed in the colluvium.
Profiles similar to these have also been mentioned by Fraenzle (1965) at
Strasse and by Mancini (1969) at S. Rocco. These soils, according to Venzo
( 1965), would be the result of the Riss-Würm pedogenesis and would have been
eroded, deposited along the slopes of the moraine during the Würm Anaglacial
and covered by colluvium of the same age. This is in contradiction with two
facts: the B horizons show clear indications of development in situ. The
colluvium that covers them bears fragments of bricks and must be of historical
age; it is probably related to agricoltural activities during the Roman period.

Q U A T E R N A R Y DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 99
Fig. 40 - The cumulative curves of the Solferino profile.
40 - Curve granulometriche cumulative del profilo di Solferino.
Late Pleistocene loess is absent on the moraine of the Solferino stage and in
the soils. If they were of Riss age it should be present. It must be concluded that
the moraines of the Solferino stage can be referred to the last glaciation and the
soils developed in them must be related to the postglacial pedogenesis.
i

100 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
4.8. THE FEUVIOGLACIAL PLAIN OF THE SOLFERINO MORAINE
SYSTEM (loc. 12, 13, 14, 40, 47, 48, 49; map. unit C2)
South of the frontal moraine of the Garda Lake, referred to as the Solferino
stage, lies the fluvioglacial plain (sandur), which developed downstream the
Garda glacier during the last pleniglacial period and of which the shape is still
well preserved. It has been deeply cut by main rivers that cross it from North to
South.
Lithologically the superficial sediments of the fluvioglacial plain show a
gradual decrease of the grain size of the clastic material from North to South:
close to the moraines it is represented by coarse pebbles, which are progressively
replaced by finer pebbles and by sand.
From the pedo logical point of view the situation is more complex. In fact the
area is strongly eroded, especially in the northernmost zones where the texture of
the material is coarser.
The profiles of Medole (loc. 40) and Ca Barcaccia (loc. 12) are characteristic
of this area. The B horizon is poorly developed and, even if slightly rubefied, it
still contains carbonate clasts. More to South, where the parent material is finer
sized, there are wide areas, particularly where protected from erosion, that
preserve well developed deep soils, of which the profiles of Ca’ Pegoroni (loc.
13), Spineda (loc. 48), S. Martino (loc. 47), Fontanelle (loc. 49) can be
considered as typical examples (Fig. 41a). The Ap and B2 horizons, consisting of
colluvial deposits, slightly carbonated, overlie a truncated soil, where the
horizons II B2t and II C ca can be recognized.
A similar profile has been observed at Casatico di Marcarla (loc. 14)
(Cremaschi, 1982b) where a large pit of Neolithic age is included in the II B2
horizon (Fig. 41b).
In the most strongly eroded area on the top of the fluvioglacial plain the deep
soils are missing and shallow soils with profile Ap/C have developed (profile loc.
14a). Also in the archaeological structures soils are generally better preserved:
the profile of Casatico PIV, (loc. 14c) dating back to Copper age, and developed
in a pit, consists of a thick A1 and of a well developed calcic horizon at it base.
Soil forming processes of more recent age are testified by the soil profile,
developed in the fill of a ditch of a Roman age (loc. 14b), consisting, below the
Ap, of a cambie horizon, and overlying a slightly developed C ca (Cremaschi,
1982b).
Mineralogical characteristics of the Ca Pegoroni profile (loc. 13). The heavy mineral
assemblage is dominated by mineral species of metamorphic paragenesis. The
petrographic composition is not very different from that of the moraine of the
Solferino stage. Nevertheless the variations, even if modest, of the weathering
index with depth indicate the pedological discontinuity already shown by the
profile description and grain size characteristics (Fig. 41 and 42).
Micromorphological characteristics. The IIB2t horizon of the profile of Ca
Pegoroni and Casatico have strong sepic plasmic fabric and above all illuvial

q u a t e r n a r y d e p o s it s , v e t u s o l s a n d p a l e o s o l s 101
CA’ PECORONI
l o g 13
GRAIN SIZE
0 50 I
CaCO^
% 100 0 %40 0
J__I__ I__L
Fe203
%4
J _ J ___ I___ l_
sand
nB2t
silt
clay
cm
0^
nCca
50
Fig. 41a - The Ca Pegoroni profile.
Fig. 41a II profilo di Ca’ Pegoroni.
Ap
C
Cg
3
M c
0 100 m
R o m a n age
d ra in a g e
T
N e o lith ic pit
T
P IV
T
w
41b - Cross section in the Casatico di Marcaria locality (loc. 14) and described profiles.
Fig. 41b - Sezione stratigrafica di un dosso presso Casatico di Marcaria e profili descritti.

102 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS INTHE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
Fig. 42 - The cumulative curves of the Ca Pegoroni profile (above) and of Casatico profiles
(below).
Fig.42 - Curve granulometriche cumulative del profilo di Ca Pegorani (sopra) e dei profili di
Casatico (sotto).

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 103
cutans (argillans and ferri-argillans). The fact that they can also be found in the
II B22t of the Casatico profile, whose parent material is an anthropic pit fill of
Neolithic age, demonstrates that the clay translocation was still active during the
Atlantic period. The ferri-argillans are sometimes covered by calcitans which are
problably due to the supply of calcium carbonate contained in the colluvial
deposits that overlie the B2t horizon.
Both the profile P IV developed from the Copper age (II Millenium B.C.)
(Biagi et alii, 1985) and the «Roman ditch» profile, whose pedogenesis started
from the 2nd century B.C., do not show any evidence of clay translocation. In
these profiles the carbonates occur as nodules inside the plasma and as calcitans
inside the pores. The plasmatic fabric is only slightly sepic and the plasma is
mainly characterized by a certain content of organic matter.
Evidence from these profiles on the age of the fluvioglacial plain of the central Po Valley
(Main level of the plain). The literature (see Cremaschi, 1982b) has inferred a
Middle Pleistocene age for the «Main level of the plain», which is strongly in
contrast with the data collected during this study.
From the geomorphological point of view, the «Main level of the plain» is
connected with the frontal moraines of the Solferino, which date back to Late
Pleistocene; furthermore remnants of Elephas primigenius, Bison priscus and other
Late Pleistocene mammals have been collected in its sediments (Sala, 1986). Both
géomorphologie and stratigraphic data strongly point to a Late Pleistocene dating
for the sedimentation of the Main level of the plain. The slightly rubefied soils
with an argillic horizon present in its top (Cà Pegoroni profile, horizon II B2t,
Casatico profile, horizon II B22t), as discussed above, mainly developed during
the Atlantic period. Since the Subboreal period the pedogenetic processes were
interrupted at different times by erosional and colluvial phases, which, being
systematically connected with archaeological materials, probably have been produced
mainly by human activities (Cremaschi, 1982b). The soils developed in parent
materials during this period lack evidence of clay translocation and rubéfaction.
4.9. DISCUSSION ON THE CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY OF THE GARDA
SYSTEM
Fig. 43 summarizes the correlations and the chronostratigraphic position of
each unit ot the described sequences. The correlations are based on lithostratigraphic,
paleopedostratigraphic, magnetostratigraphic and archaeostratigraphic criteria.
None of these criteria, taken by itself, would have allowed to set all the
stratigraphic indications in a chronological network. This however has been
possible by means of a critical comparison and with the reciprocal integration of
the different data.
The most significant stratigraphic marker which has characteristics which are
homogeneous and well identifiable in the field, is the vetusol which evolves in
the GAV 3, CAST 4, CIL 5, CH 5 units and S. Biagio profile. It allows to
establish between these a temporal relationship.

104 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
.tóJ
C A S T E N E D O L O C H IE S E S O L F E R IN O g la cia l
G A V A R D O C IL IV E R G H E V A L S O R D A &
o u tw a s h p la in
s ta g e s
H O L O C E N E
S O L F E R IN O
C - Í ',.* ;*Tr--
igpj?:
Q.
S E D E Ñ A
C A R P E N E D O L O
C IL IV E R G H E
Fig. 43 - Correlation between stratigraphic units of the Garda area and their chronological
position, (see legend in Fig. 43a). Localities: Gavardo = loc. 1, Castenedolo = loc. 8, Ciliverghe =
loc. 7, Chiese sequence = loc. 2, 3, 4, 5, 39, Val Sorda = loc. 6, Solferino and outwash plain plain
= loc. 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 40, 47, 48, 49 (legend: Fig. 88a).
Fig. 43 - Correlazioni fra le unita stratigrafiche dell’area gardesana (per la legenda vedi Fig. 88a).

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 105
Therefore it is possible to assert that the units GAV 3, CAST 4 and CIL 5
represent fragments of a fluvioglacial plain, connected to the moraines of unit CH
5 and of Monte Faita. On the basis of lithostratigraphic criteria the paleomagnetic
stratigraphy of the Chiese sequence (loc. 3, 4) can be extended to the Ciliverghe
sequence (loc. 7): moraine CIL 1 and 2 and that of CH 1 belong to the same
sedimentary body and therefore both must be referred to the Matuyama epxDch
(section 4.4). The possibility that the glaciolacustrine marls of CH 3 and CIL 3
may be referred to a different magnetic polarity, seems unlikely, keeping into
account the geological setting.
The fact that the Ciliverghe glaciolacustrine unit, unlike those of Chiese,
shows a direct polarity can be due to the different geological setting of the first.
Its contact with the moraines is not a stratigraphic passage, but a fault contact
and this could have disturbed the original magnetism. Furthermore the sampling
has not reached the base of the unit, as at Calvagese.
Therefore the passage from direct to reserved polarity could be present in the
marls of Ciliverghe at a depth not reached by the profile sampled.
Since they consist of similar gravels coming from the Val Sabbia, units CH4,
CIL 3, CAST 3 can be correlated on a lithostratigraphic basis and should belong
to the same alluvial fan.
On the basis of the stratigraphic positions the loess of GAV 2 should be
regarded as contemporaneous with the CIL 1 and 2 and CH 1 moraines. The
paleosol GAV 1 must therefore be correlated with the one of CAST 1, to which
it is similar also for its pedogenetic-characteristics. Because of the reversed
polarity of this paleosol and on the basis of stratigraphic position, both paleosols
should be referred to the Matuyama epoch, that is to the Early Pleistocene.
Among the Late Pleistocene deposits the loesses can be easily correlated both
on the basis of the lithostratigraphic characteristics and of the palaeolithic
artifacts collected in them.
In conclusion, in the Garda area the following results appear from stratigraphic
correlations:
- 5 phases of glacial advance in the piedmont area have been documented, one
during the Early Pleistocene (Ciliverghe stage), three during the Middle
Pleisfocene (Monte Faita, Carpenedolo and Sedeña stages) and one during the
Late Pleistocene (Solferino stage), which can be subdivided into two
substages.
- The glacial stages are preceded by and alternate with non-glacial phases, in
which fluvial sedimentation and pedogenesis are the main processes.

5.
QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS
IN THE ADDA AREA
5.1. THE «OLD DILUVIUM» TERRACE (map units B2 and B3)
The profiles described below have been selected in order to represent the
different geomorphological conditions which occur at the top of the «Old
Diluvium » terrace (Fig. 44). The profiles of Camparada (loc. 16) and Vivaldi
(loc. 15) are situated in correspondence with the Camparada moraine ridge (see
section 3.3, 3.4) (Fig. 13); the profiles of Cernusco (loc. 17) and Porto d’Adda
(loc. 19) represent the situation on the gently undulating surface of the Ferretto
terrace close to the Adda River. On the other hand, the Bivio Missaglia profile
(loc. 18) represents a very local situation in which the Ferretto is covered not
only by loess sheets but also by a thin gravel layer.
Camparada and Vivaldi profiles. The surface of the «Old Diluvium» terrace,
between Lesmo and Camparada, consists of an evident ridge and other less
prominent undulations related to moraine accumulation. In these deposits, a deep
vetusol («Ferretto»), marked by strong weathering, is observed (Ugolini and
OrombeUi, 1968). The here described profiles have been described at Camparada
on the topmost part of the moraine (Camparada profile) and along the flanks of
the moraine itself, in the trench of Via Vivaldi (Vivaldi profile).
The relationships between the two profiles are schematically represented in
Fig. 45.
Both profiles have a loess cover at their top. In the Vivaldi profile the loess
lies on a stone line composed of strongly weathered gravels. The underlying
horiaon (IV B22t), exposed for about three metres, is strongly mbefied and rich
in clay, while the gravels are almost absent and consist of angular fragments of
quartz and chert, which are more abundant and coarser towards the base.
In the profile of Camparada only the lower part of the B22t horizon, already
richer in stones, has been preserved. The transition between the B22t and B31t
is marked by a progressive and gradual increase of the gravels with respect to the
matrix. In the underlying B32t horizon gravels prevail over the fine earth. They
have retained their shape but are friable and can easily be broken by hand. There
is still an appreciable amount of matrix and many thick ferri-argillans are present.
The latter are rubefied and visible with the naked eye. The base of the B horizon
is not exposed, even at seven meters depth.

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 109
Textural characteristics. The loess cover of both profiles has a homogeneous
texture, a low amount of sand {6-11), and a moderate clay content (between 24
and 2?>l) (Fig. 46).
The great amount of silt and the low percentages of clay of the curves of
Vivaldi III B21t and IV B22t, which are in contrast with the field evidence and
with the grain size distribution of the deepest horizons of both profiles, must be
attributed to poor peptisation during analysis (see Appendix 2).
V IV A L D I
LOG 15
C A M P A R A D A
LOG 16
% 45 - The Vivaldi and Camparada profiles.
45-1 profili di Camparada e Vivaldi.

110 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
The III B21t horizon of the Vivaldi profile, differs from the underlying IV
B22t in its greater sand and gravel content present as a stone line. The slightly
coarse texture is evidently due to admixture of material eroded from the top-most
part of the moraine, where the vetusol had been more deeply eroded. The
gram size distribution of the IV B22t horizon of the Vivaldi profile and III B22t, III
I331t, B32t of the Camparada profile, belonging to the same sequum, shows a regular
decrease in clay content, balanced by a progressive increase in sand content.
Fig. 46 - The cumulative curves of the Camparada and Vivaldi profiles.
■t
Fig. 46 - Curve granulometriche cumulative dei profili di Camparada e Vivaldi.

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 111
Micromorphological characteristics. The loess cover of the two profiles, especially
the horl2ons II B21t and II B22tx of Vivaldi and II B21t of Camparada show
very similar characteristics. The plasma is slightly sepic, ranging from silasepic to
insepic. The voids are mainly vughs and metavughs, of which the latter characterize
the II B22tx horizon of the Vivaldi profile that has the characteristics of a
fragipan. The complex cutans are particularly evident and consist of an alternation
of siltans and skeletans. In the S-matrix sometimes fluidal patterns can be
observed, evidenced by preferential orientation of skeleton-sized micas and by
thin silty strata.
The vetusol in moraine in both profiles (B22t, B31t and B32t horizons) has
different properties. The plasma is strongly rubefied, rich in iron and very little
biréfringent. In the uppermost horizons the prevailing cutans consist of
ferri-argillans alternating with siltans and skeletans. In the lowermost horizons
thick ferri-argillans dominate, but they are strongly disturbed, and complex
cutans are less frequent. Furthermore a micropedality of the pseudosand type is
evident in the S - matrix.
Mineralogical characteristics. Mineralogically the loess cover of the profiles of
Camparada and of Vivaldi shows no clear differences, neither in the heavy
mineral composition nor in the weathering index.
The loesses contain a wide variety of metamorphic minerals, particularly
amphiboles and epidotes, while staurolite is much less frequent.
The composition of the weathered moraine is different because staurolite is
largely prevailing and amphiboles and epidotes are much rarer due to weathering.
The weathering index is very high, especially inside horizon IV B22t of the
Vivaldi profile and decreases in the deepest horizon of the Camparada profile.
The clay minerals consist of scarce smectite and of vermiculite, illite and kandite
minerals. The vetusol evolved in the moraine deposits shows clearly a lower
content of vermiculite and higher content of kandite.
Chemical characteristics. All the horizons are decarbonated and have a pH lower
than 5. The exchange capacity of the B22t, B31t, B32t horizons of the vetusol
on moraine is low, as well as the base saturation, which reaches only the 18?.
The free iron content is high, both in the loess and in the underlying horizons,
where it reaches 10.5?.
Paleomagnetic stratigraphy. Measurements were made on samples of Vivaldi
profile (Salloway, 1983) which turns out to have a direct residual magnetic
polarity.
The magnetic dips remain positive, but at the base of the profile the
declination shows a marked direction towards the South and gives an intermediate
VGP.
This could be interpreted as a tendency of the polarity to become reversed
with depth.
The Cernusco profile (loc. 17). The profile has been described along the road

112 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
-ifI
cut Cernusco-Merate at the top of the «Old Diluvium» terrace (Fig. 47); it has
already been synthetically described by Orombelli (1979). The upper part consists
of two distinct loess covers; the first one is slightly weathered, friable, and has a
soils with an Ap/B2 horizon sequence. The second loess, more strongly
weathered, dense and with the characteristics of a fragipan, constituites the II
B2Itx horizon. The loess covers have an abrupt and wavy limit and fill a few
depressions of the underlying horizons developed in the gravels of the terrace.
These are clearly rubefied and show characteristics of a strong weathering. The
horizons III B31t, III B32t can be distinguished from one another by the
remarkable increase of the stones in the latter.
Along the scarp of the Molgora Stream, Orombelli (1979) described the
lowermost horizons of the Ferretto vetusol, that consist of about 7 metres of the
III B32 horizons, where the clasts, even if strongly weathered, prevail over the
matrix.
The C ca horizon crops out along the margins of the terrace, even if not in
continuity with the profile. It consists of the top of the Ceppo, Trezzo Member
which is indurated by CaCOj.
The boundary with the B horizons is abrupt and very irregular, consisting of
pinnacles and cemented rock that penetrate more or less deeply into the B32
horizon.
Textural characteristics. The cumulative grain size curves of the loesses show a
unimodal shape and a considerable amount of clay, even in the upper most loess
(Fig. 48).
As discussed above for the Vivaldi profile, the great amount of silt and the
low percentage of clay in the III B31t and III B32t horizons must be due to poor
peptization during analysis (see Appendix 2).
Micromorphological characteristics. The B21t and II B2Itx horizons evolved in
loess show moderately high sepicity, distinct and abundant ferri-argillans and a
predominance of vughs among the voids.
Areas of reduced plasma, indicate that the B21tx horizon was subjected to
pseudogleying, subsequent on the illuviation of clay.
The III B3It horizon of the vetusol in gravel shows characteristics similar to
those of the IV B22t horizon of the Vivaldi profile.
The matrix is rubefied and slightly sepic, the ferri-argillans are abundant,
sometimes strongly weathered and disturbed, being partly incorporated in the
matrix. Papules are common.
Mineralogical characteristics. Similar to the Camparada and Vivaldi profiles, the
heavy mineral assemblage in the loess is composed of a greater variety of heavy
minerals of metamorphic paragenesis, while in the underlying vetusol stauroUte
abounds and the weathering index is much higher. The latter also in absolute
values is similar to those obtained for the Camparada and Vivaldi profiles.
Throughout the profile the clay fraction largely consists of vermicuhte, illite
and kandite.

q u a te r n a r y d e p o s it s , v e t u s o l s a n d p a l e o s o l s 113
CERNUSCO
LOG 17
BIVIO MISSAGLIA
LOG 18
PORTO
D’ADDA
LOO 19
Fig. 47 - The Cernusco, Bivio Missaglia and Porto d’Adda profiles.
Fig. 47-1 profili di Cernusco, Bivio Massaglia e Porto d’Adda,

114 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
Bivio Missaglia profile (loc. 18). The place lies on the same geomorphological
unit as the profiles described up to now, but further upstream, at the foot of the
relief of the Bergamo Flysch represented by the Monte Vecchia hill.
In the upper part of the profile (Fig. 47) the loess covers are well developed.
The following horizons have been distinguished: a horizon of friable loess (Ap),
reworked by ploughing, at the base of which artifacts referable to the Upper
1 =B 2
2 =OB2 1 tx
3 = IIB 2 2 tx
4=rnB3 It CO
5 =niB3 1 1 Cbi
/ L
m
I ------
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 9
1 mm 0.062
0,002
Fig. 48 - The cumulative curves of the Cernusco profile; (t) = top; (b) = bottom.
Fig. 48 - Curve granulometriche cumulative del profilo di Cernusco.

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 115
Palaeolithic have been found, and an underlying thick layer of loess (II B21tx) with
fragipan characteristics. This horizon, especially at the base, is particularly rich in
iron and manganese nodules. This is followed by a platy horizon (II B22t). In
thin section, this loess layer is characterized by a great amount of complex cutans,
by fluidal patterns of the skeleton grains and by zones of clean silt.
Underneath there is sandy silt (III B23t) that passes through a laminar
horizon (IV B24t) to decarbonated gravels (IV B/C).
In thin section the III B23t shows characteristics similar to those of the
overlying loess, but a poor sorting of the skeleton grains and the presence of
lithorelicts demonstrates that it represents the fine (pelitic) top of a fluviatile
deposit of which the gravels represent the base.
These gravels, with a very wavy erosional contact, overlie a strongly rubefied
paleosol of which only th VB 31t horizon has been observed which, in thin
section, has a highly sepic plasmic fabric and common thick complex cutans and
disturbed ferri-argillans. This horizon is similar to the horizon III B 31t of the
Cernusco profile.
On the Paderno d’Adda terrace a polygenic cover of about two metres of
loess overlies a rubefied vetusol on gravel, (Porto d’Adda profile, loc. 19) similar
to those described above.
The lower boundary of the vetusol is well exposed along the Paderno d’Adda
gorge (Orombelli, 1979). The contact between B32 horizon and the C ca is
abrupt and highly irregular and locally has isolated pinnacles about one metre
long of cemented material, which penetrate into B horizons and generate a
pattern known as Geologische Orgeln (Penck and Brückner, 1909).
The stratigraphic situation of the Calusco terrace, on the left side of the
Adda River, does not differ from that of the Paderno terrace.
5.2. OBSERVATIONS ON THE «OLD DILUVIUM» TERRACE
The parent materials in which the vetusols in the top of the «Old Diluvium»
developed, range from moraine deposits in the area of Camparada and fluvial or
fluvioglacial sediments for the easternmost areas.
Special attention will be paid to the correlation between the Trezzo member
of the Ceppo d’Adda because it is very important for the Quaternary stratigraphy
of the whole Alpine margin. Although the Trezzo member lacks volcanic roks
which characterize the Camparada moraine, the high amount of staurolite, which
is typical of both units and the local stratigraphic context strongly suggest that
the Trezzo d’Adda member sedimentation has been strictly connected with the
Camparada moraine deposition, and should represent its fluvioglacial deposits.
The absence in it of the volcanic rocks can be due to the strong weathering in
the Ferretto, or by local feeding from a lateral valleys not occupied by glaciers.
The surface of the «Old Diluvium» terrace has undergone subsequent phases
of erosion, colluvium and eolian sedimentation.

116 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
5.3. THE TERRACE OF THE «MIDDLE DILUVIUM» (map unit B51)
The terrace of the «Middle Diluvium» is intensively cultivated and good
sections in the vetusols and loess covers are rather scarce. In the first place the
profiles of Ronco Briantino and Novedrate, already described by Ugolini and
Orombelli (1968), are described here. In addition the Copreno profile will be
also examined, although it is located beyond the western limit of the area here
(Fig. 49).
!i I...,.
Tbe Ronco Briantino profile (loc. 20). The upper part of the profile consists of
friable loess, colluviated, lying on a clearly identifiable erosional surface.
Underneath occurs a vetusol developed in fluvioglacial gravels. The II B22t
II B31t and II B32t hori2ons can be distinguished; they differ from each other
because of a strong increase in gravel, in porosity and of a decrease of
rubéfaction towards the bottom.
The grain size curve of the loess sample (n. 1) shows a sandy tail that
indicated its colluvial nature (Fig. 50). The curves of the samples from the soil
in gravel (n. 2/5) are sufficiently homogeneous as far as their shape is concerned,
but they show significant grain size variations due to weathering. In fact one can
observe a clear increase of clay towards the base of the B31t, which decreases in
the B32t. The sandy fraction shows an opposite trend, since it increases between
the B31t and the B32t.
In thin section the vetusol in gravel has a moderately sepic plasmic fabric and
many highly biréfringent and laminated ferri-argillans, locally interbedded with
complex cutans; however the ferri-argillans slightly decrease in number with
depth. Clay mineral composition does not show any significant change along the
profile. The heavy mineral association is very similar to that of the «Ceppo
Poligenico» (Section 3.5.). The difference in garnet content, which can simply
depend on different sedimentary conditions in the two sampling localities
(Partenoff et alii, 1971), is not considered to be significant.
The Novedrate profile (near loc. 20, see Fig. 49) described by Ugolini and
Orombelli, (1968), exposes the contact, not reached by the former profile,
between the B horizons of the soil in gravels and the underlying cemented gravel.
Furthermore the loess cover is thicker. In fact the profile consists of a loess
cover, 1.90 m thick, in which the A l, B1 and B2 horizons can be recognized.
Erosion in the underlying soil has been so severe that an important part of the B
horizon has been removed, except for the B32 horizon which is 6 m thick in the
whole and pass to C ca horizon with an abrupt, strongly undulating boundary.
The contact shows characteristic of Geologische Orgeln, similar to those described
for the «Old Diluvium» terraces.
n
The Copreno profile (loc. 21). This profile, brought to light by the road-cut on
the eastern margin of the terrace of the «Middle Diluvium», has already been
studied in detail some 50 m West of our locality by Orombelli (1970) and this
has been subsequently discussed by Billard (1977) (Fig. 51).
Three loess covers can be distinguished in the section studied by Orombelli

q u a te r n ar y d e p o s it s , v e t u s o l s a n d p a l e o s o l s 117
NOVEDRATE
(a fte r U golini
and O rom bellT)
RONCO
BRIANTINO
LOG 20
COPRENO
LOG 2 1
Fi^. 49 - The profiles on the «Middle Diluvium» terrace (map unit B51).
Fig. 49-1 proflli del terrazzo del Diluvium medio.

118 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO |
(1968). They lie on a colluviated paleosol evolved in the gravels of the «Middle
Diluvium»; from top to bottom:
COP 1: A1 + Cl, 0-2 m; silty sandy loess; the thick A1 horizon, includes
fragments of pottery dating back to the Iron Age (VI - IV sec. B.C.); the
boundary with the next layer is marked by a thin laminary horizon.
100-
90-
1= A P + B 1
2=ni
322t
80 —
70
__ 3=n 3 3 1 1
4=n
5=n
3321 (t
I
332tCb I
-----
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 L 0 9
1mm 0,062 0,002
Fig. 50 - The cumulative curves of the Ronco Briantino profile; (t) = top, (b) = bottom.
Fig. 50 - Curve granulometriche cumulative del profilo di Ronco Briantino.

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 119
COP 2: C2, 2 2.90 m: silty sandy loess, coarser textured at the base and finer
at the top, in the upper part some laminar horizons are developed.
COP 3: C3, 2.90 - 4.25 m: silty sandy loess; not laminated layer, showing a
cler upward fining trend, at the top a thin laminar horizon.
COP 4: 4.25 - 6.50 m: colluviated paleosol and decarbonated gravels of the
«Middle Diluvium» terrace.
The textural characteristis, derived from Orombelli (1970) are reported in
Fig. 51.
G RAIN SIZE
A1
COP 1
C1
COP 2
C2
COP 3
C3
COP 4
o r~
1“
c HmO*D>nmOc/)
O
51 - The Copreno (near loc. 91) profile described by Orombelli (1970).
i i - II profilo di Copreno (presso la localita 21) descritto da Orombelli (1970).

120 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
The laminar hori2ons, in the loess part of the profile mainly developed in the
Orombelli’s profile, recall the “ limons a doublet” of Normandy, described by
Latridou and Giresse (1980), and being a typical feature of the Copreno profile,
they have been studied in thin sections. On microscale, they appear to be slightly"
sorted, due to the removal of the finer fractions. The lamination is due to
alternating lamellae with oxidi2ed and reduced plasma; mainly in the reduced area
there are thin and discontinuous intergranular argillans.
Those characteristics would suggest that the laminar hori2ons in loess developed
because of rain wash or melt water (Miicher and Vreeken, 1981). Likely
these phenomena took place during the last glacial period and must be considered
almost contemporaneous to the sedimentation of the loess itself.
On the contrary the accumulation of illuvial clay must be referred to Holocene
times. The clay is observable both from the microscopic and textural points
of view and its accumulation took place along lithological discontinuities, probably
in correspondence with the formation of hanging aquifers, according to the
mechanisms described by Dijkerman et alii (1968) (Section 9.2.).
In the profile described in detail by the present author in this study (Appendix
1, loc. 21) 50 m east of that already studied by Orombelli (1970), the loess ,
cover is only 2 metres thick. The underlying paleosol is mostly preserved in situ
and below an erosional surface, the II B21t, III B31t, III B32 hori2ons are clearly
developed (Fig. 52).
COPRENO
LOC 21

q u a te r n a r y d e p o s it s , v e t u s o l s a n d p a l e o s o l s 121
'Ihe grain size of these horizons indicate a textural difference already present
in the parent material (Fig. 53). The II B21t horizon evolved on fluvial silty
sediments in top of the gravels in which the horizons III B31t and III B32 have
developed.
A large content of free iron corresponds to the rubéfaction of the II B21t, the
pH is clearly acid and the exchange complex is strongly desaturated. Unstable
Pig- 5} - The cumulative curves of the Copreno profile.
Pig- 5} - Curve granulometriche cumulative del profilo di Copreno.

122 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
metamorphic minerals ( amphiboles and epidotes ) prevail among the heavy minerals.
The weathering index shows a slight decrease with depth. Among the clay
minerals, vermiculite and chlorite are prevailing, while illite and kandite are
scarce.
In thin section, the II B21t horizon has a strongly sepic fabric, shows weak
rubéfaction of the plasma and contains common thin ferri-argillans.
O, .
5.4. THE TERRACE OF THE «RECENT DILUVIUM» (map unit C 2)
The gently rolling surface of the «Recent Diluvium» is devoid of loess cover;
well-developed soils are generally present below the ploughing horizon, in permeable
materials, or where strong erosion did not occur. The Robbiate profile is
a representative example.
Robbiate profile (loc. 22). The profile consists of Ap, B31t, B32t and C ca
horizons, the decarbonation front is at a depth of 1.5 m, the calcic horizon differs
from that of older vetusols because it only forms discontinuous crusts developed
especially on the lower part of the pebbles (Fig. 54).
R O B B IA T E
In the shghtly rubefied B31t horizon the gravels are strongly weathered. The
presence of a maximum of clay indicated by the grain size curves (Fig. 55) and
of clay cutans, evident in thin sections, even if poorly developed on the larger
structural elements, allow to identify an argillic horizon.
The amount of free iron is about half of that of the vetusol in the Middle
Diluvium (see Ronco Briantino profile p. 5.3.). The heavy mineral fraction of
the Bt largely consists of unstable metamorphic minerals and has undergone only
slight weathering.

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 123
5.5. THE STRATIGRAPHIC SEQUENCE OF THE BAGAGGERA BASIN
(map unit B4, loc. 23)
The stratigraphic interest of the sequence exposed in the clay pit near
Bagaggera (Merate, Como) is in its particular geo-morphological situation (Fig.
56). The quarry exposed the filling of the valley of the Curone Stream which,
during the Early Pleistocene, at several times, was dammed by the Ceppo dell-
- The cumulative curves of the Robbiate profile.
A - Curve granulometriche cumulative del profile di Robbiate.

124 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
’Adda grave] and was subsequently surrounded, but never reached, by the piedmont
lobes of the Adda glacier.
Pleistocene lacustrine, fluvial, fluvioglacial and eolian deposits, interbedded
with several paleosols, were formed in this valley, which is here called Bagaggera
basin. The paleomagnetic stratigraphy (Billard et alii, 1982; Salloway, 1983;
Cremaschi et alii, 1985), as well as the palaeolithic artifacts found in the
uppermost units, allow to date the whole sequence in a sufficiently precise way.
w
Case del Soldato
Ftg. 56 - Cross section between the Bagaggera basin fill, the Adda terraces and the Late Pleistocene
moraine. 1) Bergamo Flysch, 2) Ceppo dell’Adda formation, 3) Bagaggera basin fill, 4) Late
Pleistocene moraine and related fluvioglacial deposits, 5) Holocene deposits.
Fig. 56 - Sezione stratigrafica tra il hacino di Bagaggera, i terrazzi dell’Adda e la morena del
Pleistocene superiore. 1) Flysch di Bergamo; 2) Ceppo dell’Adda; 3) riempimento del hacino di
Bagaggera; 4) morena del Pleistocene superiore e depositi fluvioglaciali ad essa connessi; 5) depositi
olocenici.
Description of the sequence. The infill-sediments in the Curone valley are transversally
cut by the quarry. They are subdivided into two sub-basins by an high of
the Bergamo Flysch bedrock (Fig. 57).
The following units can be distinguished from top to bottom:
BAG 9: loess covering the whole basin: two distinct loess covers can be
recognized, representing the Ap, B1 and II B21tx and II B22t horizons of the
pédologie profile of Bagaggera 2 (SI). In the heavy mineral fraction, amphiboles
largely prevail; erosional boundary to:
BAG 8: fluviatile gravel and sand. In the northern part of the basin, thick
layers of massive or poorly bedded gravels prevail. Southwards, beyond the

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 125
Flysch threshold, on which the gravel lies with erosional contact, sand prevails.
Here the unit consits of discontinuous parallel planar layers of sand, interbedded
with thin layers of fine gravel. Petrographically the gravel consists of decarbonated
sandstones and of a fair amount of granitoid and metamorphic rocks. The
heavy minerals consist mainly of epidotes and amphiboles. In the top of this unit
a shallow rubefied vetusol has developed (S2); erosional undulating boundary to:
BAG 7: fiuviatile silt; the unit crops out only in the northern part of the
basin. It consists of a massive bed of clayey sandy silt and contains randomly
distributed pebbles. The unit can be interpreted as the topmost pelitic part of an
upward fining fiuviatile cycle.
A deep paleosol (S3) developed in this unit, continuing into the underlying
unit BAG 6.
The sedimentary continuity between units 7 and 6 is demonstrated by the fact
that at their contact, allochtonous blocks of unit BAG 1, transported as pebbles,
are present, partly in one unit and partly in the other one.
A thin and discontinuous loess cover occurs at the bottom of the unit; clear
boundary, marked by a laminar hori2on to:
BAG 6: fiuviatile gravels and sands. Also this unit crops out only in the
northern sub-basin, it consists of sandy-clayey silt with a few pebbles. It has
strongly been affected by the development of the paleosol S3 (see BAG 7) and
the sedimentary structures are consequently poorly evident. The pebbles increase
in frequency and size towards the Flysch threshold. As far as the heavy minerals are
concerned, the unit shows a slight decrease of staurolite and a remarkable increase of
the stable minerals, probably due to weathering; erosional boundary to:
BAG 5: fiuviatile gravel and sands. The unit crops out only in the northern
sub-basin and consists of layers of silty-clayey sand, interbedded with lenses of
rounded pebbles which increase in number southwards.
The unit is strongly weathered, contains a buried paleosol (S4) and the
sedimentary structures are competely erased. Among the clasts decarbonated
sandstones are prevailing, the metamorphic rocks and granitoids are subordinate,
limestones are absent because dissolved by weathering.
With regard to the heavy minerals the unit is characterized by the staurolite
that reaches by itself 472, followed by edpidote and to a much lesser extent by
unstable metamorphic minerals and by stable minerals. Erosional boundary to
BAG 1 unit.
BAG 4: (exclusively in the southern sub-basin) fluviolacustrine sand and silt.
Two subunits can be recognized. The first one (4a) consists of massive layers of
clay, with mollusca and plant remnants, passing to clayey silts, laminated and
interbedded with thin sandy layers. Upwards the sandy interbeds increase in
number and thickness and layers of small pebbles appear.
The second one (4b) consists of at least four upward fining cycles. Each cycle
has an erosional base and starts with sands and pebbles with cross-lamination.

NORTHERN SUB-BASIN
SOUTHERN SUB-BASIN
-0
>
r-
m
O
C/3
O
O) 1“
>
z
o
<
m
H
C
03
O
Fig. 57a - (see. Fig. 57b).
Fig. 57a - (ved. Fig. 57b).
I
m
o
>
profile 3
D
profWe 2
<
m
H
C
03
o n
03
>
“0 >1“m
O
03
O
Fig. 57h - The Bagaggera b.i' in fill: the basin cross section, and the stratigraphic and pedostratigraphic units (B = Brunhes; J = Jaramillo; M
Matuyama).
Fig. 57b -II riempimento del b;itino di Bagaggera; sezione stratigrafica ed unita pedostratigrafiche.

128 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
followed by sands with low angle bedding and sometimes ripple-marks. On top
of each sequence there is silty clay and clay rich in organic matter; erosional
boundary to:
BAG 3: (exclusively in the southern sub-basin) sand and cherty fluviatile
gravels. It consists of sands and fine gravels, with cross lamination, and contains
(Venzo, 1949) plant remains, among which Abies alba. The base and the top are
erosional. With regard to heavy minerals, the ultrastables as well as garnets are
prevailing. The metamorphic ones, epidotes and amphiboles, represent only H of
the total. The pebbles consist mostly of chert fragments, quartz, sandstones and
decalcified marls and of very rare volcanic clasts. The nature of this deposit is
clearly residual: pebbles of quartz, sandstones and marls come from the decarbonated
Flysch, while the chert concentrated in such a way must derive from the
solution of a great amount of cherty limestones, that is, from a strongly weathered
soil, whose prevailing process has been the leaching of carbonates. The
pebbles of quartz and chert are broken by gelifraction. This fact and the paleobotanic
context indicate that these deposits have a periglacial character. Erosional
boundary to BAG 1 unit.
BAG 2: (northern sub-basin) slope deposits, coarse textured, consisting of
angular fragments of the Flysch of the bedrock, strongly weathered and are
included, in apparent sedimentary continuity, in the unit 1, furthermore, in the
northern edge of the northern sub-basin they liey on the eroded Flysch bedrock.
BAG 1: silty lacustrine clays. They crop out both in the southern sub-basin,
where they lie normally, and in the northern one where they are slightly tilted
and folded. They consist of silty clay and fine sands, with some carbonates, with
planar parallel lamination, sometimes massive and with mollusc shells. In the
northern sub-basin they lie on the erosional surface which cuts the Bergamo
Flysch. In the southern basin the lower boundary was not reached by the quarry
excavations.
The heavy mineral assemblage consists mainly of metamorphic minerals,
epidotes and amphiboles, of a great amount of garnet and to a lesser extent of
tourmaline and Ti-oxides (anatase, brookite, rutile, titanite).
Paleomagnetic stratigraphy of the lacustrine units. The lower lacustrine deposits
(unit 1) show a reversed magnetic polarity (Billard et alii, 1983; Cremaschi et
alii, 1985). At their top, just under the erosional surface that puts them into
contact with unit 3, J. Salloway (1983) has discovered in sedimentary continuity
the passage to normal polarity. On the basis of the transitional pattern of the
magnetic pole, this has been interpreted as the passage between the lower
Matuyama and the Jaramillo (0.9 MA).
The paleosols. In the Bagaggera sequence five different pedogenetic phases
consisting of vetusols and paleosols, are preserved. They are indicated in Fig. 57
as SI, S2, S3, S4 and S5. Their characteristics and their distribution are strictly
¡iliii

q u aternary d e p o s it s , v e t u s o l s a n d p a l e o s o l s 129
related to the morphology of the basin and to the different sedimentary facies of
the filling. Three different situations can be distinguished:
1 - At the northern margin of the basin, there is a vetusol (S1/S4) developed
in slope deposits, which cover a buried paleosol developed in Flysch bedrock
(S5).
2 - In the northern sub-basin, where the fluvial and fluvioglacial deposits are
prevailing, there are several superimposed buried paleosols.
3 - In the southern sub-basin, at the top of the fluviolacustrine sequence, there
is a unique vetusol, covered by a thin loess sheet (S1/S2).
Profile 1 is representive of the first situation, profile 2 of the third, profile 3
of the second.
Profile 1 (Section A , Fig. 57). In the profile three important both lithological
and pédologie discontinuities can be distinguished (Fig. 58).
The A l/ B l horizon consists of loess belonging to the colluviated BAG 9
unit. The II B21tx - IV B22t horizons are developed in colluvial sediments of
BAG 8, 7, 6 and 2 with a prevailing eolian component, and embedding at their
base the monogenic breccia described as unit BAG 2, and finally the V B3, VC
and VR horizons developed in the bedrock consisting of Bergamo Flysch (S5).
The slope deposits show three distinct horizons with strongly expressed
structure, interpedal glosses and hydromorphic patterns (mottling and
concretions), separated by two laminar horizons. The rubéfaction, already well
evident in the uppermost horizon, becomes stronger toward the base, the
lowermost horizon contains the monogenic breccia of unit BAG 2, which
consists of angular pedorelicts derived from the paleosol developed in the
Bergamo Flysch. The latter is strongly eroded. The original bedding of the Flysch
can already be seen in its uppermost horizons. Nevertheless in the upper horizon
of the weathered Flysch, rubéfaction is particularly expressed, it decreases
gradually downward. The VC horizon shows olive brown colours and along the
bedding-joints and the fractures, thick and continous red ferri-argillans occur. At
about 18 metres from the surface, embedded in the C horizon, isolated strips of
carbonated rock (core-stones) were observed that prelude the unweathered rock
which is not outcropping along the section. Along the whole norhtern sub-basin,
up to the threshold, the Flysch shows the same characteristics of the C horizon
of profile 1. In correspondence with threshold a hydromorphic horizon (profile
2, Cg) has developed in horizon C, with large mottles, white, green and
violet-coloured and with zones hardened by siliceous cement.
Textural characteristics. The grain size indicates the already described lithologic
discontinuities. Three types of curves (Fig. 59) can be distinguished: those of
A l/ B l horizon, those relative to the horizons from the II B21tto the IV B22t
and those relative to the paleosol in the Flysch. The difference in clay and silt
content is considered to be of largely pedogenetic origin. As shown by the
diagram of Fig. 58 the maxima of clay content correspond to the lamellar
horizons II B22t and III B22t.

QUATERNAR'r DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 131
Fig. 59 - The cumulative curves of the Bagaggera 1
profile.
Fig. 59 - Curve granulometriche cumulative del
profilo di Bagaggera 1.
Micromorphological characteristics. The ferri-argillans interbedded with siltans,
skeletans and matrans (complex cutans) are common in all the horizons from II
B21tto rV B22t. They are particularly abundant in the tongues and in the area
where the plasma is decoloured; they are frequent everywhere, but decrease
clearly towards the base of the IV B22t. The ferri-argillans, especially in the
IV B22t horizons, are very thick and disturbed. They have lost their birefringence
and their internal lamination and locally they grade into the S-Matrix.
The laminar horizons consist of alternating zones of reduced plasma and oxidized
plasma. The accumulation of illuvial clay is well developed in both areas.

132 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
Nevertheless in the former, grainy cutans prevail together with complex cutans,
while the ferri-argillans prevail in the latter.
All horizons mentioned show hydromorphic features i.e. an alternation of
reduced and oxidized zones, the former especially abundant and continuous
inside the glosses. Mangans or ferrans are present especially in the oxidized areas
of the laminar horizons.
Pedorelicts and papules which in most cases represent allochtonous fragments
of argillans, are common in all horizons. Pedorelicts from the V B3 are present
almost exclusively in the IV B21t and IV B22thorizons, while in the overlying
horizons one can also observe papules coming from more and more recent
horizons. The II B21thorizon is very rich in papules and pedorelicts originating
from all underlying paleosols. It also shows particular features like washed silt
and fluidal patterns of mica skeleton grains. The characteristics of the V B3
horizon are very different: argillans are almost completely absent, the plasma is
clearly isotic (undulic) and the S-Matrix has an agglomeroplasmic or intertextic
character. Silica coatings can be observed in the Cg, inside the pores.
Mineralogkal characteristics. As far as the heavy minerals are concerned, the
stable ones increase towards the base of the profile. An anomalous peak in
correspondence with the IV B22t is probably due to a mistake in sampling, as the
sample includes a fragment of strongly weathered breccia.
The V B3 and VC horizons are characterized by and association of stable
minerals only: zircon, tourmaline and Ti-oxides. This must be due to pedogenetic
weathering: a clear amount of alterable minerals is still present in the fresch
Flysch (see Appendix 4).
Illite prevails among the clay minerals along the whole profile. Vermiculite is
particularly abundant in the topmost loess, but it is present, even if in small
amounts, all along the profile, together with smectite. The kandite minerals
show a clear concentration in the V B3 horizon.
Chemical characteristics. Carbonates are absent along the whole profile and
appear only in the v.core stonesr> at a depth of 18 m.
The pH shows clearly acid values and the exchange complex is strongly
desaturated all along the profile, but mainly in the V B3 horizon.
The free iron content increases, towards the base of the profile and remain
constant in the III B21t and B22t horizons.
Valeomagnetic stratigraphy. The upper part of the profile shows normal magnetic
polarity. On the contrary the base of horizon IV B22t shows reversed magnetic
polarity, the V B3 and VC horizons show again positive magnetic polarity
(Cremaschi et alii, 1985).
Profiles 2 and 3 (Fig. 60). Profile 2 characterizes the top of the sequence, both
in the northern and the southern sub-basin. The sequence described here has been
observed near the box of the pipeline, at the margin of the scarp along the
Curone stream (section I, Fig. 57).
\r'

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 133
BAGAGGERA
LOG 23
SIZE
0 50
F© i 2 o U3 Oq
2 4 6 8 10
I I I I I
o
a
I
0) ^
CO •—
o
a.
/ \ Upper P a la e o lith ic a rtifa c ts
I
M iddle P a la e o lith ic CM ousterian) a r tifa c ts
Fig. 60 - The Bagaggera 2 (section I) and 3 profiles (composite: Section D and lower part of section F),
Fig. 60-1 profili di Bagaggera 2 (section I) e Bagaggera 3 (section 2).

134 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
- .
ré‘ if.si’rtg. •
»• *rS
At the top there are two different loess sheets (Ap, Bl/II B21tx, B22t) at
whose boundary some hundreds flint artifacts have been collected (Cremaschi et
alii, 1985) (Fig. 62).
They lie on one single level and have no evidence of postdepositional distur- -
bances: some flakes have been refitted with cores. Fire damages on artifacts and
some charcoals included in the archaeological level indicate the presence of
hearths. These archaeological observations testify a settlement of Upper Palaeolithic
age and consequently the existence of a surface dividing the two loess
covers, exposed for some time.
The II B21t horizon immediately under this surface shows characteristics of a
fragipan. A laminar horizon is present at its base (II B22t).
Below this, there are the III B21t and III B22t horizons of a rubefied soil
with evident polyhedric structure, on top of which Mousterian artifacts of non
levallois technique have been found (Fig. 62).
The passage between B and C horizons is marked (see Appendix 1, profile
Bagaggera) by a progressive decrease of the Hue from red to ohve-brown as well
as of the degree of expression of the structure.
Already in the Cl horizon the sedimentary structures are evident: alternations
of sandy layers and silty-clayey beds that characterize the top of unit 8.
In the northern sub-basin (profile 3) the III B22t horizon passes laterally to
the IV B32t horizon in gravel which has a lamellar structure. It overlies an
erosional surface which cuts an older pédologie sequum, developed in the units
BAG 7, BAG 6 and BAG 5.
The V B it horizon is composed of thin lenses of loess which discontinuously
overlie the VI B21t horizon. The latter is rubefied and characterized by its well
expressed prismatic structure. The underlying horizon (VI B22t) is traversed by
discoloured tongues and shows evident pseudogley phenomena. At its base a
lithological discontinuity with the underlying gravel is outlined by a horizon, rich
in Fe/Mn nodules (VII B22cn). The lowermost VIII B2t (BAG 5) horizon
differs from the former by a strong increase of weathered stones.
Grain size distribution characteristics of the profiles 2 and 3 are given in Fig.
61.
Micromorphological characteristics. A relevant characteristic of these profiles is
represented by the cutans: ferri-argillans, grainy cutans and complex cutans.
They are well expressed throughout the profiles described with two
exepeptions. The first exception is represented by the B1 horizon: absence of
cutans, low sepicity in the matrix and agglomeroplasmic basic fabric render it
transitional between an eluvial and illuvial horizon. Similar characteristics are
shown by the V B1 horizon in the loess which could be interpreted in the same
way. Inside the sequum the horizons that show the greatest amount of cutans are
the thick B2 horizons, especially those with a coarse texture.
This fact is evident in the paleosol developed in unit BAG 7 and BAG 6
(S3); the fine-textured uppermost horizons in spite of well-developed structure,
rubéfaction and clay content have very few cutans, which on the contrary are
very well developed in the underlying VII B21t mainly consisting of gravel.

quaternary deposits, vetusols and paleosols 135
Fig. 61 - The cumulative curves of the Bagaggera 2 and 3 profiles; (t) = top; (b) = bottom,
Fig. 61 - Curve granulometriche cumulative dei profili di Bagaggera 2 e 3.

136 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PUIN

quaternary deposits, vetusols and paleosols 137
The cutans in the VIII B2t horizon, mainly ferri-argillans, differ from all
those of the overlying horizons; they are very thick and strongly disturbed and
sometimes broken.
Features produced by periodical hydromorphy appear in each B horizon.
Besides the grain cutans there are sesquans and neosesquans as well as iron and
manganese nodules and zones of reduced plasma, especially along the tongues,
and in the lamellar horizons.
Mineralogical characteristics. In these profiles the heavy mineral composition
(Appendix 4) and the trend in the weathering index are influenced more by the
composition of the parent material than by the pedogenetic processes. The
increase of the amount of the stable minerals reflects especially the increase of
staurolite, of the Ti-oxides and of zircon and tourmaline, already present in the
parent materials of units BAG 5 and BAG 4.
The clay mineral composition, mainly ilUte, vermiculite and kandite, remains
rather constant throughout the profiles.
Chemical characteristics. The whole profile is largely devoid of carbonates; these
appear again only in profile 2, at a depth of 13 metres (see Appendix 1), but
without generating calcic horizons. The pH in the Ap and B1 horizons is strongly
acid: it goes up to 6 for the horizons in loess and goes down again to values
ranging from 5 to 5.5.
The pH is less acid at the bottom of profile 3 in the horizons VII B21t, and
VIII B2t. Concurrently the base saturation of the exchange complex varies; it is
very low in the B 1 and increases clearly in the deepest horizons.
The trend of the free iron is shown in Fig. 60, it gradually increases with
depth, apart from the peak which corresponds with a maximum increase of the
clay in the II B22t horizon.
Paleomagtietic stratigraphy. The loesses at the top of the sequence, the
underlying paleosol and units BAG 7 and 6 have turned out to be of normal
polarity. The VIII B2t horizon (BAG 5) and the underlying lacustrine clays of
unit BAG 1 are of reversed polarity (Salloway, 1983).
Discussion on the paleosols of the Bagaggera Basin. In the southern sub-basin, the
profile 2 shows a paleosol (S2) developed in the top of the unit BAG 8 and
covered by the loess of unit BAG 9; no buried paleosol is included in the lower
stratigraphic sequence.
In the northern sub-basin on the contrary the situation of profile 3 is rather
more complex: the BAG 8 unit covers two distinct superimposed buried
paleosols (S3 and S4) (Fig. 60) developed respectively in the top of the BAG 7
and BAG 5 unit.
In profile 1 the paleosol developed in the Bergamo Flysch (S5), is covered by
several weathered layers in the top of which a vetusol has evolved.
Due to excellent exposure these profiles could be correlated by means of
lateral continuity as indicated in Fig. 57, and therefore lateral variations of each

138 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAInI
horizon in the different profiles can be observed. The characteristics of the!
horizons vary widely, depending on their position within the basin and on
internal drainage.
The horizons of profile 1 are more rubefied than the corresponding ones
profile 3. Complex cutans are prevailing in the former, whereas hydromorphyicl
features are better expressed in the latter.
For example, the II B21t of profile 1 (Fig. 58), where the ferri-argillans^
alternating with coarse cutans are very well expressed, corresponds stratigraphi-^
cally to the IV B23t of profile 3 (Fig. 60), where on the contrary the hydromorphic
features are well expressed and the scarce cutans are represented mostly by
grainy cutans, and where Fe-Mn concretions or nodules are abundant.
The lateral continuity within the large exposure shows clearly however, that
they are a part of the same horizon.
In the northern basin (profiles 1-3) most lamellar horizons towards the centre
of the basin grade laterally to horizons rich in Fe-Mn concretions. Until a few
years ago it was possible to observe here that the IV B23t horizon of profile 3
was at least 70 cm thick and consisted of strongly cemented Fe-Mn nodules.
Equally the paleosol in Flysch (S5, V B3) of profile 3 (Fig. 57 and 60) -
situated in the threshold, shows hydromorphic characteristics (S5, Cg) which are
absent in profile 1. This indicates that poor drainage conditions in the northern
sub-basin existed at least locally during the development of this paleosol.
The paleotopography of the basin and its sedimentary evolution have played a
very important role in determining the number and nature of the paleosols and
the characteristics of their profiles.
In the southern sub-basin, where sedimentation prevailed for a long time,
only at the top the sequence a vetusol (S l/ 2 ) occurs. In the northern sub-basin,
where a more strongly expressed alternation of sedimentation and soil formation
took place, five separate superimposed soils have developed. At the northern
margin of the basin, where sedimentation was limited and the erosional and
colluvial phases prevailed, the same pedogenetic processes led to formation of a
polygenetic soil.
5.6 . THE CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY OF THE BAGAGGERA BASIN AND
OF THE AD D A TERRAGES (FIG. 63)
,,|,U I,.
The erosional surface that cuts the Bergamo Flysch, can be related on the
basis of the regional geological setting (see section 2 .2 .1 .) to the erosional phase
which affected the Pre-Alpine fringe during the Messinian period (Rizzini and
Dondi, 1978; Bini et alii, 1978). It is not certain whether the paleosol S5 in the
Bagaggera basin developed in the erosional surface, or that it was itself affected
by the erosion and therefore existed before it. The preserved horizons of this
paleosols however do not seem to reflect the steep slopes produced by a valley
cut, but rather a flat morphology, which suggests that it predates the erosional
phase.
The precise period in which the sedimentation in the Bagaggera basin started

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 139
Fi¿. 63 - Stratigraphic correlations between the Bagaggera units and the Adda terraces (see section
3.3.2. and 33.3, for the legend see Fig. 88a).
F ;¿. 63 - Correlaaioni fra le unita stratigrafiche del hacino di Bagaggera e quelle dei terrazzi
dell’Adda (per la legenda vedi Fig. 88a).

ml
1
140 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO' PUIN J
IS not known. During the Matuyama epoch, before the Jaramillo event, the^
lacustrine deposits (BAG 1) had already covered the S5 paleosol. In the southern
sub-basin the lacustrine sedimentation seems to have continued, without relevant
changes, up to the erosional surface at the interface which is now found
between BAG 1 and BAG 3 and near which the boundary Matuyama —Brunhes
occurs.
In tbe northern sub-basin, on the contrary, already during the Matuyama
epoch, the sedimentation environment underwent several important changes.
The monogenic breccia (BAG 2) which has been sedimented during this
period, has been interpreted as the result of a glacial period as is also the case
with the deposition of the gravel of the BAG 5 unit. Later, but still during the
Matuyama epoch, in this gravel the S4 paleosol developed.
In the southern part of the Bagaggera basin a glacial stage is indicated by the
unit BAG 3, which has been sedimented at the beginning of the Brunhes period
(Salloway, 1983); its sediments have been produced by the erosion of strongly
weathered soils (probably the S5 and S4 paleosols) and include paleobotanic
materials indicative of a cold climate and pebbles broken by gelifraction.
Tbe BAG 7 and BAG 6 units, occurring in the northern sub-basin, must be
referred to the same sedimentary phase. The buried paleosol S3, developed in the
northern sub-basin, indicates a pedogenetic phase during the Middle Pleistocene.
In a following glacial stage, at the top of this paleosol a thin loess cover has been
deposited which in its turn has been buried, without the interposition of any
important pedological event, by the fluvioglacial gravel of the BAG 8 unit. In the
top of this unit a slightly rubefied soil developed, which should be dated to the
beginning of the Late Pleistocene period (Riss-Würm Interglacial according to
Alpine stratigraphy), due to its stratigraphic position and the archaeological
content (Mousterian artifacts) (Fig. 62). The whole Bagaggera basin is covered
by a thin loess sheet, dating back to the last glacial period (Würm glaciation, in
Alpine stratigraphy), which is involved in the S1/S2 vetusol development.
According tothe stratigraphic regional context (Cremaschi et alii, 1985) (see
Fig. 56), the BAG 1 unit should be regarded as a lateral sedimentary equivalent of
the Ceppo d’Adda formation.
The heavy mineral assemblage strongly suggests the correlation between the
BAG 5 unit and the Tre22o member of the Ceppo d’Adda formation and consequently
with the Camparada moraine. All these units together should be
interpreted as the result of an important glacial stage during the Early Pleistocene
(Late Matuyama Epoch).
The heavy mineral analyses, the palaeomagnetic data and the general
stratigraphy (see also Fig. 64) give reason to correlate the S4 paleosol in the
Bagaggera sequence with the «Ferretto» vetusol; the development of this
paleosol has been interrupted by the deposition of the BAG 6 unit during early
Middle Pleistocene (Fig. 64).
The BAG 3, BAG 7 and BAG 6 represent sedimentary cycles characteristic
and exclusive ot tiie iiagaggera iiasm anti na\e no siiaiigiaplneaih ee|ui\alciit
phenomena in the Adtla terraces.

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS. VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 141
«OLD DILUVIUM»
BAGAGGERA BASIN
Ü
O I-wm
LiJ
<
Z
UJ
Ü
O
Q
Ü
O
!-
W
LU
_l
CL
C
<
LU
F e rre tto vetusol developm ent
buried paleosols form ation
F/^. 64 - Comparison between the soil development in the «Old Diluvium» terrace and in the
Bagaggera basin: the formation of vetusols.
Fig. 64 - Raffronto fra lo sviluppo del suolo sui terrazzi del Diluvium antico e nel Bacino di
Bagaggera: genesi dei vetusuoli.

142 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
Petrographic composition, stratigraphy and géomorphologie setting lead to
the correlation between the BAG 8 unit and the gravel of the PD4 unit (see
action 5.6.).
_
Therefore the most recent fluvioglacial deposits of the Bagaggera basin
correspond, from the stratigraphic point of view, to the «Middle Diluvium»
terrace.

6 .
S O I L S A N D V E T U S O L S I N T H E T O P
O F T H E I S O L A T E D T E R R A C E S I N T H E P L A I N { m ap u n it C 1 )
The profiles described below are from the terraces of Romanengo (Melotta
profile) and from the terrace of Zorlesco (Zorlesco profile).
A similar sequence of soil horizons and of stratigraphic units have been
observed on the top of the Monte Netto and Costa Fagioli terraces (loc. 51, 50)
and these have been briefly described in Appendix la.
M elotta { loc. 3 7 ) a n d Z orlesco { loc. 3 8 ) p r o file s . The stratigraphy of the topmost
part of the terrace of Romanengo can be observed in a clay quarry in the western
part of the terrace. This consists of a loess cover (A 2, B21tx, B22tx, B23cn),
lying on sandy clays and fluvial sands, outcropping for about 3 metres (Fig. 65).
Pedogenetically an A2 horizon can be distinguished, with mottling and
Fe-Mn concretions. An argillic horizon follows with well-expressed structure,
intrapedal tongues and fragipan characteristics in the top. At its base a horizon of
Fe-Mn concretions (B23cn) occurs, which is at least 30 cm thick, tightly
cemented, and has a wavy lower boundary.
The B23cn has developed at the contact with the fluvial clay which has
hydromorphic characteristics and carbonate nodules.
The profile described on the terrace of Zorlesco resembles that of Melotta but
for the greater thickness of the loess. In the section in which the profile has been
described the A2 is missing having been removed by the excavations, but it is
preserved in pockets with a glossic lower limit along the same side of the quarry.
It is followed by a B21t horizon which, without any apparent discontinuity, lies
on a II B22tx horizon with fragipan characteristics which are prominent but
decrease with depth.
The B21t, II B22t horizons, and the following III B23 are crossed by a dense
network of decoloured tongues.
As in the Melotta profile, a horizon of Fe-Mn nodules marks the contact with
the underlying fluvial sediments. These crop out for only two metres. At the base
they consist of medium and coarse sands with cross bedding. They cover a buried
B horizon, which is slightly rubefied and developed in silty clay.
T ex tu ra l ch a ra cteristics. The loess deposits in both profiles show similar
cumulative curves, with a main mode of coarse silt, few sand and a clay percentage
ranging from 16 to 262 (Fig. 6 6).
In the Melotta profile a gradual increase of clay towards the bottom can be

144 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRALTPO PLAIN K
observed, while in the Zorlesco profile the clay shows two superimposed maxim^
that indicate a lithological and pedological bisequence inside the loess cover.
Mineralogical characteristics. Among the heavy minerals, amphiboles are largely
prevailing, followed by epidotes.
The weathering index is low and remains constant in the Melotta profile.
MELOTTA
LOG 37
ZORLESCO
LOG 38
m
Fig. 65 - Melotta and Zorlesco profiles.
Fig. 65-1 profil! di Melotta e Zorlesco.

SOILS AND VETUSOLS
145
Fig. 66 - The cumulative curves of the Melotta (top) and Zorlesco (base) profiles; (t) —top, (b) =
bottom.
Fig. 66 - Curve granulometriche cumulative dei profili di Melotta e Zorlesco.

146 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
Kandite minerals are present in both profiles in small amounts, smectite and
chlorite occur as traces and illite and vermiculite prevail. The last mineral shows
a clear increase at the top of the profiles.
Chemical characteristics. The loesses are decarbonated and calcium carbonate
nodules are present in the fluvial sediments at the base of the profiles; the soils
are almost neutral.
The clay/free iron ratio, constant all along the Melotta profile, indicates that
the iron moves together with the clay, with the exception of the II B22tx horÍ2on
where an enrichment in free iron can be observed.
Micromorphological characteristics. The observations refer only to the Melotta
profile.
In the A2 plasma is scarce, the S-Matrix is intertextic and sepicity is rather
low. Argillans and ferri-argillans are common, but are strongly disturbed and
broken, and often reduced to papules. The sepicity of the plasma and the degree
of expression of the cutans increases in the B21t. There, besides ferri-argillans,
grainy cutans and complex cutans are present. In the B22t horizons and B23cn
cutans are very scarce, but the plasmic fabric is strongly sepic and stress cutans
are present and, in the B23 cn, Fe-Mn nodules and concretions prevail. Along the
whole profile the plasma shows decoloured, reduced zones and oxidized zones; the
former largely prevail in the horizon A2, the latter increase with depth.
Discussion. There is no direct evidence for the dating of the loesses of the
isolated terraces, but due to the textural and mineralogical characteristics,
indicating the absence of strong pedogenetic alterations, they can be referred to
the last Pleniglacial.
The loess lies on slightly weathered or unweathered deposits of fluvial
sedimentary facies (Fig. 67). These probably have already been uplifted (see
section 3.4.) during the sedimentation of the surrounding gravelly fluvioglacial
plain. It may also be supposed that before the sedimentation of the fluvioglacial
plain the isolated terraces have been eroded and therefore they should be
regarded as remnants of much larger terraces.
Fig. 67 - K schematic cross section of isolated terraces: 1) fluviatile sediments; 2) pelitic top of the
fluviatile sediments and associated paleosols; 3) loess cover; 4) fluvioglacial gravels belonging to
the Main level of the plain.
Fig. 67 - Sezione geológica schematica dei terrazzi isolati: 1) depositi fluviali; 2) tetto pelitico dei
depositi fluviali e paleosuoli associati; 3) copertura loessica; 4) ghiaie fluvioglaciali appartenenti al
«Livello principale della pianura».

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS
IN THE APENNINE FRINGE
7.1. STRATIGRAPHY OF THE CONTINENTAL QUATERNARY
DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS
In the Quaternary deposits of the Apennine fringe, the following units have
been distinguished (Fig. 68 and 69):
AM 1; littoral sands: fine and medium sands, yellow, with wedge-shaped
low-angle crossbedding and with peUtic intercalations. The unit can be found all
over the area studied and has the same characteristics between the Stirone and
Panaro rivers.
On the basis of the paleomagnetic stratigraphy it is assumed to have been
deposited (Salloway, 1983) during the Jaramillo event, i.e. at the end of Early
Pleistocene, and to be roughly synchronic all along the part of the Apennine
fringe described here. This unit occurs at the top of the Pleistocene marine
sequences of the Apennine fringe (section 3.5.).
AM 2: (map units D1 and D2), Pede-Apennine fluviatile formation: gravelly,
sandy, silty and clayey continental deposits, in which several sedimentary facies
of the fluvial environment can be recognized:
FI, piedmont alluvial fan deposits: gravels with large clasts, matrix
supported, without bedding or with a slight planar non-parallel bedding,
deposited by debris flow.
F2, cyclothems of braided river deposits: medium and coarse gravel with
planar discontinuous bedding; at the top they may show sands with crossbedding
and massive or laminated pelites.
F3, cyclothems of meandering river deposits: fine gravel and sand with
oblique low-angle bedding, which can be interpreted as point bar deposits. They
also consist of sand and silt with cross lamination, interpreted as natural levees,
and of fine pelites, representing the filling of abandoned channels.
AL, silty clays, sometimes sandy and massive, sometimes with parallel planar
beds of slightly variable texture. They enclose and embed the fluvial bodies of the
previous facies. They must be interpreded as backswamp deposits of a periodically
flooded fluvial plain.

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 149
The contact between the AMI and AM2 units is erosional and sometimes
shows an angular unconformity.
In the western sequences (Stirone and Crostolo) the lower part of the AM 2
formation consists of alluvial plain and of meandering river sediments, while,
towards the top, a general increase of the grain-size of the clasts and a progressive
change of the fluvial facies, from meandering to braided, can be observed.
Also the eastern sequences Tiepido-Panaro, although consisting of fan
deposits from their base on, show a clear upwards increase in frequency and
grain size of the gravel bodies.
This general trend of coarsening upwards is connected with the prograding
of the piedmont alluvial fans that cover sediments of the alluvial plain or distal
parts of previously deposited fans. It is due to the progressive northward moving
of the Apennine margin and its uplifting (Ricchi Lucchi et alii, 1982).
The various paleomagnetic studies carried out on the Stirone sequence (Bucha
and Sibrava, 1974; Salloway, 1983), the Crostolo sequence (Bucha, personal
communication; Salloway, 1983), and the Tiepido-Panaro (Salloway, 1983) all
locate the Matuyama-Bruhnes reversal at the base of the fluviatile formation (Fig.
68). This formation therefore is considered to be deposited between the end of
the Early Pleistocene and the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene.
The biostratigraphic data are in good agreement with this dating. A rich late
Villafranchian fauna with E. meridionalis, D. estruscus, D. nesti, etc. has been found
in the Crostolo and Stirone rivers (Cremaschi and Ambrosetti, 1975; Cremaschi
and Sala, 1982) inside the Matuyama levels of the formation. A cranium of D.
hemitoecus has been collected in the Stirone inside the sediments dating from the
Bruhnes epoch (Cigala Fulgosi, 1976).
A rubefied vetusol, which will be described as the Collecchio vetusol (map
unit D31) (section 7.2.) has developed in the top of the formation.
Locally, i.e. in the area of Spezzano and Formigine, after the onset of the
development of the Collecchio vetusol, erosion and subsequent fluvial sedimenta-
D32 D6 D7
W
Fig. 69 - Relationships between the stratigraphic units and the carthographic units of the Apennine
fringe.
Fig. 69 - Rapporti fra le unita stratigrafiche e cartografiche del margine appenninico.

150 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PUIN
tion led to the formation of unit AM2’, which largely consists of gravel. In this
terrace a more recent vetusol (Rex vetusol) was formed. Because of their only
local occurrence these deposits have not been separately indicated (Fig. 69).
Due to the subsequent tectonic deformation (folding, tilting, fault
displacement) of the fluviatile formation, the surface in which the vetusols
developed has been folded and faulted and subsequently eroded to a Middle
Pleistocene piedmont glacis (map unit D5). In fact, the tectonic deformation
locally (Tiepido) already started during the later part of the deposition of AM2
sediments.
-V " .i. /
-^v.Pirr-r» >‘.'-P-iX".%-^.-.-*‘i‘
AM3: (map unit D4) Borzano gravels: the deposits mainly consist of gravels,
which are poorly bedded or show discontinous non-parallel planar bedding. Some
sand lenses occur as well as, towards the top of the formation, lenticular pelitic
bodies (see Borzano La Cittadella profile, loc. 43).
The deposits must be interpreted as braided river deposits. They occur in
valleys cut into the AM 2 unit, which can be completely infilled (Fig. 70).
Possibilities for absolute dating of the unit are lacking, but it can be referred to
the Middle Pleistocene on the basis of the stratigraphy. Artifacts of Clactonian
and Protolevalloisian techniques with evidence of postdepositional transport (Fig.
71) were found in this unit (Cremaschi and Peretto, 1977).
AM4: Ghiardo loess. This unit consists of a polygenic loess cover about one
metre thick, (containing several covers which were deposited during subsequent
phases). The characteristics of soils in it will be described in detail in a following
section.
The cover systematically overlies the Borzano gravels, the fluviatile formation
and the erosional surface, which in the legend to the geologic map (Appendix 6;
unit D5) and in section 8, is described as piedmont glacis. The Ghiardo loesses
contain at their base, and sometimes bury, an Acheulean industry (Cremaschi and
Peretto, 1977; Cremaschi and Christofer, 1984), which allows to refer its cover
to the end of the Middle Pleistocene (Fig. 79).
fr- I-
AM 5 (map unit D 6) Cavriago gravels: Piedmont alluvial fan deposits. These
consist of mainly gravelly sedimentary bodies that, although their specific morphological
characteristics are preserved unareserved unaltered, are deeply cut by the
present Apennine watercourses. A rather thin rubefied soil has developed in its
top. In strongly subsiding areas (East of the Secchia river or at their southern
margins) these are buried by Holocene sediments of the alluvial plain (map unit
D7).
They date from the Late Pleistocene, as can be inferred from stratigraphic
correlations and radiocarbon datings: the deposits that cover their southern margins
include archaeological finds of the ancient Neolithic and of the Mesolithic.
The organic matter of an alluvial soil, dated in a quarry of Fiorano and overlying
the fan, has shown an age of 12,000 years B.P. (Alessio et aUi, 1980) (Fig. 86).
At the Apennine fringe, vetusols have developed in the top of the
Pede-Apennine formation (Middle Pleistocene), in the Ghiardo loess (late

quaternary d e p o s it s , v e t u s o l s a n d p a l e o s o l s 151
Middle Pleistocene) and in the Late Pleistocene alluvial fans. In the next sections
the soil developed in Holocene alluvial fans will also be briefly discussed and
compared with older phenomena.
7.2. THE VETUSOLS IN THE TOP OF THE PEDE-APENNINE
FLUVIATILE FORMATION (map unit D3.1)
The vetusols in the top of the fluviatile formation, developed mainly in gravels
and systematically covered by the Ghiardo loess, shows the same characteristics
all over the area studied. Among the numerous profiles observed those of
Ghiardo and Ronco have been studied in detail and are representative for the
whole area.
They are schematically indicated in Fig. 72, together with two similar profiles
(Ghiardo, loc. 25; Collecchio, loc. 44), which will not be discussed here.
A special pedostratigraphical situation has been found in a small area East of
the Tiepido river: under the Ghiardo loess there is a vetusol with much less
developed pedogenetic characteristics, while inside the AM2 unit a buried paleosol
displaced by faults (Tiepido profile) has been exposed.
The Ghiardo Vigneto and Ronco profiles (loc. 26 and 27; map unit D31). Both
profiles have a solum of about 6 metres and consist of a similar sequence of soil
(Fig. 72) horizons: B21t, B22t, B31t, B32, C Ca.
Since the top of the vetusols has clearly been subject to erosion, the thickness
of the B21t horizon can vary. The horizon is characterized by a strongly
developed prismatic or medium blocky structure, accentuated by a strong accumulation
of brown iron hydroxides near the ped faces; only the ped interiors are
rubefied. Both horizontal and vertical ped faces are bleached and give a reticular
n.Groppo
R.Lavachiello
F;¿. 70 - Cross section of a Pleistocene terrace close to Borzano (Reggio E.). 1) Pede-Apennine
fluviatile formation; 2) Collecchio vetusol; 3) Borzano gravel (AM4); 4) fine-textured sediments at
the top of the Borzano gravel; 5) Ghiardo loess; 6) Late Pleistocene gravel; 7) Late Acheulean
artifacts, 8) Clactonian and Protolevalloisian artifacts; A) Borzano La Cittadella profile (loc. 43);
B) Borzano profile (loc. 42).
F/g. 70 - Sezione geológica dei terrazzi pedeappenninici nei pressi di Borzano (RE). 1) formazione
fluviale pedeappenninica; 2) vetusuolo di Collecchio; 3) ghiaie di Borzano; 4) depositi fini al tetto
delle ghiaie di Borzano; 5) loess del Ghiardo; 6) ghiaie del Pleistocene superiore; 7) manufatti tardo
acheuleani; 8) manufatti clactoniani e protolevalloisiani; A) profilo di Borzano la Cittadella (loc.
43); B) profilo di Borzano (loc. 42).

PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PL,aim

quaternar y d e p o s it s , v e t u s o l s a n d p a l e o s o l s 153
appearance to the horizon. In intrapedal cracks and voids common carbonate
nodules occur, probably as a result of decarbonation of the overlying loess.
In the B22t horizon the structure and the concentration of nodules decreases
clearly while the mottling increases. The stones, completely absent in the B21t,
begin to appear at the top of the B22t horizon and consist of small angular chert
fragments. Towards the base they increase clearly in number and also decalcified
fragments of sandstone and marly limestone start to appear. The decalcified and
weathered gravel prevails in the B3 horizons. The main differences between B31t
and B32t are the weaker rubéfaction and lower amount of fine earth in the latter.
The C ca horizon, in the profile of Ghiardo Vigneto, coincides with a
lithological change and consists of clays with abundant carbonate nodules. In the
Ronco profile it consists of gravels strongly cemented to a great depth. The
contact between the B3 and C ca horizon has not been observed.
GHIARDO -
VIGNETO §
UIB21t
fluviatlle
silt and clay
IS B22t
ISB31t
ISB32
nzcc
fluviatlle
clay
L 1m
BK- 72 - The vetusols in the top of the Pede-Apennine fluviatlle formation.
P'S- 72-1 vetusuoli al tetto della formazione fluviale pedeappenninica.

154 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
■
í
V- >4
' •►'í
Textural characteristics. The grain si2e curves (Fig. 73) indicate a clear difference
between the texture of the B2 and B3 hori2ons. This difference is mostly
due to a pre-existing lithological discontinuities in the parent material. At least
the B21t horixon, devoid of stones, will have developed in a pelitic lense on top
of the gravels.
Micromorphological characteristics. All the B horixons have a porphyroskeHc
related fabric. Lithorelicts are very scarce in the B21t, they increase slightly in the
B22t, where they are almost exclusively represented by chert fragments. In the
B3 horixons they increase clearly and consist mainly of sandstones and decarbonated
marls. In the B2 horixons the plasma is characterixed by alternating reduced
and oxidixed areas.
The first arc particularly abundant at the top of B21t (Ghiardo Vigneto
profile) and gradually decrease with depth. The plasmatic fabric is strongly sepic
in the reduced xones, where stress cutans can also be observed. In the oxidixed
xones, due to the great amount of iron (hydr)oxides, the sepicity is much lower
and the (hydr)oxides mask the ferri-argillans which are more evident in the
underlying B22t.
In the B22t, the cutanic features, together with the papules, form most of the
plasma. Among the cutans the ferri-argillans prevail, they are thinly laminated,
thick and strongly biréfringent, usually well preserved, but slightly deformed in
the lowermost horixons. Complex cutans are present everywhere in clear
amounts, and they alternate with the ferri-argillans without any apparent order.
In the C ca horixon fragments of calcarenites, sandstones, ophiolites and scarce
sand form the skeleton, the crystic plasma consists of sparry calcite, and almost
completely fills the intergranular voids, where nevertheless rare vughs, with few
discontinuous thin ferri-mangans, are present.
Mineralogical characteristics. The heavy mineral composition strongly depends
on the primary characteristics of the parent materials. In the Ghiardo Vigneto
profile the minerals of metamorphic paragenesis, among which a fair amount of
glaucophane, prevail while the heavy mineral assemblage of the Ronco profile is
mainly represented by opaque minerals and spinels (mainly picotite) coming
from the ophiolites which are very abundant in the parent material (Appendix
4). Nevertheless in both profiles there is a clear difference between the B21t
horixons and the underlying horixons; the B21t has a larger variety of mineral
species and a lower weathering index probably due to some admixture from the
overlying loess.
An higher concentration of stable minerals can be observed in the B22t
horixon, beneath which the weathering index generally decreases with depth. The
clay minerals, studied in the Ronco profile, consist of vermicuhte, smectite, illite
and kandite; the latter mineral decreases in the lower horixons.
1 t» •t! ...M
Chemical characteristics. The B21t, B22t, B31t and B32 horixons are mostly
decalcified and massive carbonate precipitation occurs only in the C ca horixons.
However, the presence of sligh amounts of Ca C03 in the fine earth fraction.

q u a t e r n a r y d e p o s it s , v e t u s o l s a n d p a l e o s o l s 155
Fig. 73 - The cumulative curves of the Ronco and Ghiardo Vigneto profiles.
Fig. 73 - Curve granulometriche cumulative dei profili di Ronco e ghiardo Vigneto.

156 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
development of Ca C03 nodules in main voids and the increase in base saturation
percentage, which occurs in the B21t or B22t horizons, strongly point to recalcification
due to supply of calcium from the overlying loess cover.
The amount of free iron is generally high, but unusually high contents are
reached in the Ronco profile, because of the high content of ophiolithic rocks in
the parent material.
7.3. THE TERRACES OF SPEZZANO AND FORMIGINE, THE PROFILES
OF TIEPIDO AND REX (map units D3.1 and D3.2; loc. 24 and 28)
rWM
In the area between the Fossa di Spezzano and the Tiepido river, the Ghiardo
loess covers two terraces of different age; in these different rubefied soils have
been observed (Fig. 69). On the upper terrace (map unit D3.1) a vetusol occurs
whose profile is completely similar to the Ghiardo and Ronco vetusols (see
Cremaschi, 1978, Ca di Sola profile), and to the Collecchio vetusol, after which
the mapping unit is named.
Representative for the vetusol of the lower terrace (map unit D32) is the Rex
profile described close to the brick kiln «Rex», Fiorano (MO). Also in the area
mentioned above, within the upper gravel deposits of the Pede-Apennine fluviatile
formation (AM2) a paleosol (the Tiepido profile) was observed. The
stratigraphic position of the Rex and Tiepido profiles is indicated in Fig. 74.
Rex profile. The uppermost part of the profile is developed in the Ghiardo
loess (B21t, B22cn) and underlying fluviatile clay (II B23ca), while the lower
horizons are developed in the top of the terrace deposits; these comprise the
followings horizons: III B21t, IV B31t, FV B32t, IV C ca (Fig. 74 and 75).
The essential difference in grain size distribution between the III B21t
horizon and the IV B32t horizons (see Fig. 76) is considered to be due to a
primary lithological discontinuity in the parent material: that is, to the presence
of a politic cover on the top of the gravel formation.
Micromorphologically, the Rex vetusol resembles the Ronco and Ghiardo
profiles. The plasma shows an alternation of reduced and oxidized areas
throughout the whole profile, but pseudogleying is not as prominent. Plasma is
strongly separated. Lithorelicts are present everywhere, but they become dominant
in the IV B3 horizons; the cutans (argillans, ferri-argillans and complex
cutans) are well preserved in solution pores and crack in decalcified stones. In
these, stress cutans abound and illuviation cutans are strongly deformed; only
occasionally the primary lamination can be recognized.
Cutans are abundant in the IV B31t and decrease strongly in the IV B32t.
Nodules, cutans and neocutans of iron and manganese, are well developed in the
topmost horizon. In the IV C ca horizon the calcareous cement almost completely
fills the intergranular voids.
In the heavy mineral fractions unstable species of metamorphic paragenesis
and spinels, coming from the ophiolites prevail (Appendix 4). The change in the
ratio between micas and opaque minerals points to a lithologic discontinuity

-C a
&
q u a te r n ar y d e p o s it s , v e t u s o l s a n d p a l e o s o l s 157
ou
D-
o
-Td 'Oh V
H
-a c

158 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
between III B21t and IV B31t already indicated by the grain size analyses. The
clay minerals consist of smectite, vermiculite, illite and kandite in the B horizons;
the C horizon seems slightly richer in smectite and chlorite.
Carbonates are absent in the III B2 horizons, they are present as traces in the
IV B3 and are abundant in the IV C horizon. The 111 B21t is slightly acid, while
the lower horizons are alkaline. The base saturation is high. It is very likely that
the upper horizon underwent a slight resaturation by the overlying sediments.
The IV B3 horizons are clealrly richer in free iron than the overlying parts of
the B horizons. This is most likely due to differences in lithology and not in
pedogenesis, the gravels being rich in ophiolite fragments.
Tiepido profile (loc. 24). The paleosol is exposed in the bed of the Tiepido
river in the upper gravel deposits of the fluviatile formation (AM 2) and consists
of B horizons, broken into three main blocks and displaced by reverse faults.
TIEPIDO
S'

quaternary d e p o s it s , v e t u s o l s a n d p a l e o s o l s 159
Fig. 76 - Cumulative curves of the Tiepido and Rex profiles; (t) = top; (b) = bottom.
Fig. 76 - Curve granulometriche cumulative, relative ai profili del Tiepido e di Rex.

160 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
i .
%
li
k: -
I'-
•■• •• -I
m
with small displacement (Fig. 74). In each block the same sequum of pedological
horizons has been observed; while in the two blocks upstream they are slightly
eroded, in the downstream block the B21t and B22t horizons are well preserved,
and the lower boundary of the B32t horizon is a fault plane, showing clear
striations.
On the top of the B21t, an about 10 cm thick horizon of black clay occurs
(Fig. 75). This clay, free of carbonates contains an appreciable amount of organic
matter and has therefore been indicated as A lb horizon. It has a heavy mineral
composition similar to that of the paleosol, but rather different from that of the
parent material of the paleosol. A fragment of a tibia of a great mammal has been
found in this layer. These clays can be therefore interpreted as sediments
deposited in a swamp on top of the paleosol, and their sedimentation included
the reworking of the uppermost horizons of the paleosol itself.
The overlying sediments, laminated silty sands and fluvial gravels, indicate a
sedimentary environment of higher energy and seem to indicate the progressive
approaching of a fluvial channel of braided facies towards the paleosol.
The grain size analyses (Fig. 76) show that the B horizons of the paleosol
have a similar clay content, with a weak maximum in the II B22t. Sand content
progressively increases towards the base, which corresponds macroscopically to
an increase of stones.
The II B21t horizon has a clearly different texture as it shows a clear
maximum in the silt fraction. This suggests that, although chert fragments and
lithorelicts are present, the II B21t horizon developed in a more pelitic cover on
the top of the gravel.
The main micromorphological characteristics are as follows; in the B21t and
B22t horizons the plasma is highly sepic and stress cutans and papules abound,
but the cutans are poorly expressed, being partially destroyed and absorbed in the
S-matrix; slight pseudogleying occurs mainly along voids.
On the contrary in the II B31t the plasmatic fabric is argillasepic and the
ferri-argillans are strongly expressed and almost completely fill the intergranular
spaces between the lithorelicts. The ferri-argillans are always deformed and
broken. Sometimes microlamination cannot be seen any more and cutans have a
low birefringence. Complex cutans were not observed. Fe-Me nodules, present
especially at the top of the paleosol, and neosesquans indicate conditions of
temporary hydromorphism throughout the whole profile.
The heavy mineral assemblage. In the parent material (IV C), largely consists
of unstable heavy minerals, which on the contrary are severely depleted in the
paleosol, in which mainly, Ti oxides (anastase, rutile, brookite etc.), spinel and
opaque minerals occur.
The weathering index shows a progressive decrease towards the bottom.
Among the clay minerals smectite, chlorite + vermiculite, illite and kaolinite are
present almost in the same amount in each horizon of the profile, with a slight
concentration of illite in the A1 and II B21t.

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 161
7.4. THE SOILS AND VETUSOLS MAINLY DEVELOPED IN THE
GHIARDO LOESS ( stratigraphic unit AM4 )
The general trend in the profiles of Ghiardo (loc. 25), Ghiardo Cave (loc.
29), Collecchio (loc. 44), Boscone (loc. 30), Merline (loc. 32) and Niviano
Gastello (loc. 31) is representative for the main types of vetusols, observed in
many of sections and outcrops (Fig. 77).
TTie field characteristics indicate that the profiles in the Ghiardo loess actually
consist of at least two superimposed sequa (Al, A2, B21, B22cn/II B21, II
B22cn).
The upper sequum increases clearly in thickness eastwards. Close to the
Trebbia river where it is particularly well expressed (Niviano Castello and
Merline profiles) a further discontinuity can be recognized inside this upper
sequum, represented at Niviano Castello by a thin but distinct. Fe-Mn horizon
(B21cn) and at Merline by a horizon with characteristics of a fragipan (B22tx).
The Ghiardo loess contains artifacts that belong to different palaeolithic
cultures and are very helpful in establishing its stratigaphy (Fig. 79 and 80).
Underneath the A l or the Ap horizons frequently an A2 horizon occurs;
where absent, this is commonly due to ploughing. The A2 horizon is, in most
cases, one decimetre thick and contains Fe-Mn concretions and locally is mottled.
Its lower limit is clear and linear, and sometimes abrupt. An argillic B horizon
follows, with moderately expressed characteristics. Fe-Mn concretions and
nodules are present and increase towards the bottom of this horizon and
eventually form a B cn horizon. This horizon, with a lower boundary which is
clear to abrupt, overlies a lower argillic horizon which is very prominent and has
distinct interpedal tongues. In the field it is clearly distinguishable from the
overlying argillic horizon.
Tile characteristics of the soils developed in the Ghiardo loess vary depending
on the thickness of the eolian cover and on the nature of the substratum on
which it lies (Fig. 77).
In the profiles in which the loess lies on earlier soil horizons in gravel,
generally an horizon consisting of Fe-Mn nodules (B22cn) generally occurs
which occasionally can be very hard due to cementation of Fe-Mn glaabules. In
the Collecchio and Merline profiles it is replaced by a strongly expressed laminar
horizon.
Where the loess overlies unweathered fluviatile clay, the soil developed in it
has an abrupt and strongly wavy lower boundary (Boscone profile).
The Ghiardo Cave profile (loc. 29) of such a type but it shows noticeable
characteristics: the A2 horizon is particularly thick and it overlies, with a linear
and abrupt erosional limit, an argillic horizon which is in its upper part lamellar
and strongly prismatic below. This horizon is often discontinuous, filling concave
depressions (Fig. 78) in underlying clay belonging to the Pede-Apennine
fluviatile formation (AM2).
In the area close to the Ghiardo Cave profiles (loc. 29) an Early Palaeolithic
settlement, lying at the base of the loess has been explored through systematic
archaeological excavations (Cremaschi and Christopher, 1984). These excavations

PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PQ
c \ + - c
Ü X. T— Ü T-
CM CM CM
CM CÛ \ CM CD
CQ 1=1 \ CD
\ t d
B
-------- E 7 c - ^
Ü T— CM o •«—
y CM CM C M ,- - ^ CO CM
GÛ .
CD ^ C D CM CD
m o n CD
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4-< c 1 C3) c
o CM o
CM CM CM CM CO
CD CM CD CD CM
CD Ö Ö / CD
1=1
■*—

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 163
allowed detailed observations on the shape of the boundary between the loess and
underlying clay over a large area (Fig. 78). The boundary shows round
depressions up to a metre deep and one to two metres wide, separated by narrow
ridges: this is iLgilgai microrelief according to the definition of Hallsworth et alii
(1955). The Acheulean artifacts, which do not show postdepositional damages
are associated with small rounded fragments of sandstone or silicified mudstone.
They are not concentrated in the concave depressions, but, on the contrary, they
Fig. 78 - T h e g ilg a i m ic r o r e lie f in th e G h ia r d o C a v e I (lo c . 2 9 a ) p r o file ; a n d b e lo w , th e is o lin e s o f
the b o u n d a ry b e tw e e n th e 11 B 2 2 t / ll B 2 3 c n o n a n d th e 111 B 2 4 h o r iz o n s ; d e p th is in d ic a te d in cm
b elo w th e lo w e r b o u n d a r y o f th e A 2 h o r iz o n . T h e la te A c h e u le a n a r tif a c ts h a v e b e e n c o lle c te d
m a in ly in th e IIB 2 3 c n h o riz o n .
Fig. 78 - II m ic r o r ilie v o g ilg a i n e l p r o filo d i G h ia r d o C a v e I ( lo c . 2 9 a ) . A ) is o ip s e d e l lim ite fr a g li
o riz z o n ti II B 2 2 t, II B 2 3 c n e l’o r iz z o n te III B 2 4 ; la p r o fo n d itá é in d ic a ra in c e n tim e tr i d a lla b a s e
d e ll’ o r iz z o n te A 2 .

q u aternary d e p o s it s , v e t u s o l s a n d p a l e o s o l s 165
are uniformely distributed, in a thin layer, at the boundary between the loess and
the underlying clay.
They indicate therefore that the surface, at present deformed by the gilgai,
originally must have been nearly flat, but sufficiently inclined to allow the transport
of small clasts and has formed part of the widest piedmont glacis that
developed on top of the Pede-Apennine fluviatile formation (Cremaschi and
Christofer, 1984; section 3.5. and 7.1.).
Textural characteristics. The grainsize distribution of the soil horizons
developed in loess is clearly unimodal, the median is between the values of coarse
and medium silt, they are moderately sorted and show a marked positive asymmetry
(Fig. 81 and 82). The sand content is very low, while the clay content
ranges from \A1 to 50?, depending on the pedogenetic processes that affected the
horizon, from which the sample was collected. The trend of the clay content
versus depth is congruent with the sequa indicated by the field descriptions. In
the upper sequum of each profile the clay content regularly increases going
through Ap, A2, B21t and B22cn horizons.
The lower sequum lacks an A2 horizon and consists of II B21t, II B22g and
II B23cn horizons. Where thick and well preserved (Boscone profile, loc. 30), it
first shows an increase and then a decrease in clay content. This increase must be
attributed to accumulation of illuvial clay, as the sandy fraction remains almost
constant.
The clay percentage in the lower sequum on the average is higher (between
40 and 50?) than that of the upper sequum.
¥ig. 80 - M id d le a n d U p p e r P a la e o lith ic a r tif a c ts fro m th e G h ia r d o lo e s s . 1 -2 , M id d le P a la e o lith ic
B o s c o n e ; 3 , U p p e r P a la e o lith ic , M e r lin e .
Fig. 80 - M a n u fa tti d e l P a le o lític o s u p e r io r e e m e d io p r o v e n ie n ti d a l lo e s s d e l G h ia r d o ; 1 -2 ,
P a le o lític o m e d io , B o s c o n e ; 3 , P a le o lític o s u p e r io r e , M e r lin e .

166
' : Í-
i t
' - ■. * V'i'' ■'
f''íX''íí?-?-S.í4Siíííí
F / ¿. 81 - T h e c u m u la tiv e c u r v e s o f th e G h ia r d o c a v e p r o file s . (C a v e I a b o v e ; C a v e II, b e lo w ).
F / ¿. 81 - C u rv e g r a n u lo m e tr ic h e c u m u la tiv e d e i p r o fili d i G h ia r d o C a v e . ( C a v e I s o p r a , C a v e II
s o tto ).

q u a te r n ar y d e p o s it s , v e t u s o l s a n d p a l e o s o l s 167
Fig. 82 - T h e c u m u la tiv e c u r v e s o f th e B o s c o n e ( a b o v e ) a n d N iv ia n o G a ste llo ( b e lo w ) p r o file s .
Fig. 82 - C u r v e g r a n u lo m e tric h e c u m u la tiv e d e l p ro fili d i B o s c o n e ( s o p r a ) e d i N iv ia n o G a ste llo
( s o t t o ) .

168 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
Micromorphologtcal characteristics. In the Collecchio profile, the upper sequum
shows a progressive increase in sepicity of the matrix at the passage from the A2
to the B21 and B22cn which corresponds with a progressive increase in plasma
content. Cutans are completely absent in the A2, poorly developed in the B21
and much more developed in the B23, even if strongly disturbed by the Fe-Mn
concretions. This would indicate that the accumulation of the illuvial clay has
preceeded the development of the Fe-Mn nodules and concretions and that of the
neosequans. Coarse cutans are rare. The II B21t horizon strongly differs from the
overlying ones: the plasma consists of alternating oxidized and reduced areas. In
the first the plasmic fabric is argillasepic or insepic, and abundant, laminated,
thick and strongly biréfringent ferri-argillans occur. These oxidized areas form
polyhedric fragments surrounded by reduced areas where the plasmic fabric is
much more sepic and which show stress- and grainy cutans. Papules are very
common.
The laminar structure, which characterizes the II B23 horizon, at a microlevel
is composed of alternating oxidized and reduced bands. In the oxidized bands, the
iron ( hydro )xide concentrations sometimes hide the thick and laminated ferriargillans
.
The reduced areas show a skel-vo-masepic fabric, mangans and abundant
stress- and grainy cutans.
In the Ghiardo Cave I profile the A2 horizon contains, together with Fe-Mn
nodules and papules, few ferri-argillans. They are, thin, decoloured and slightly
biréfringent. The A2 shows a slightly sepic fabric. Inside the B horizons the
plasma is characterized by alternating reduced and oxidized zones that locally take
the shape of horizontal bands.
The strong sepicity of the matrix and the presence of stress cutans are
accompanied by a weak development of the argillans. Apart from a great amount
of nodules and Fe-Mn coatings in the II B23cn, argillans, ferri-argillans and
grainy cutans occur, which seem to be more abundant than in the overlying
horizons.
Mineralogical characteristics. The heavy mineral composition of the loesses
resembles that of the piedmont alluvia (Fig. 16) (Cremaschi 1978, 1979).
Nevertheless heavy minerals with smaller specific weight concentrate in the
loesses (for example amphiboles, rather than garnets) (Ferrari and Magaldi,
1968). Unstable minerals of metamorphic paragenesis prevail such as amphiboles,
glaucophanes and epidotes which are abundantly present in the Miocene
sandstones of the Apennines.
The weathering index shows a marked peak at the top of each of the superimposed
sequa and subsequently decreases with depth (Fig. 105).
The clay minerals, determined only for the profile of Ghiardo Cave II, consist
of vermiculite, chlorite and smectite. They are particularly abundant in the II B
horizons, while smectite was only observed, as a small trace, in the A2 horizon.
Chemical characteristics. The loesses are completely decarbonated and slightly
acid. The carbonates which are assumed to have been originally present, have

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 169
been leached and now form nodules inside the clayey bedrock or in the rubefied
vetusols on which the loesses sometimes rest. The CEC is low in the A2
horizons and increases in the B horizons where it shows rather high values and
points to the presence of clay minerals like vermiculite and montmorillonite.
The base saturation is high: it ranges from 48? in the A2 of the Boscone
profile to more than 80? in the B horizons. Its trend with depth, especially in
the Boscone profile, correlates with the bisequum already defined by the other
characteristics. The amount of free iron varies clearly in the various profiles and
ranges from 2-3? up to a maximum of 11-13? in the II B22cn horizon of Ghiardo
Cave II. In each profile the iron tends to be leached from the upper horizons and
to accumulate at the base. The clay/free iron ratio is not constant and indicates
separate transport of iron and clay, due to hydromorphism.
Discussion on the Ghiardo loess. Field and laboratory data, together with the
archaeological evidence, indicate that the Ghiardo loess is actually composed of
at least two sequa.
The lower sequum was subjected after its sedimentation to strong weathering
and soil formation, including the development oigilgai microrelief. After subsequent
erosion, it has been buried by a new loess cover.
The sedimentation of the lower sequum, considering its archaeological content,
most probably dates from the Late Middle Pleistocene, and its weathering
should have started from the beginning of the Late Pleistocene (Riss-Würm
interglacial); the sedimentation of the loess of the upper sequum will date from
Late Pleistocene (Würm glacial period).
7.5. THE SOILS OF THE LATE PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE A L ­
LU VIAL FANS (map units D6 and D7)
The soils on the surface of the Late Pleistocene fans at the mouth of the main
Apennine valleys show homogeneous characteristics over wide areas and are well
represented by the three profiles described in detail: the Spilamberto, Cavriago
and Settima (Fig. 83) (loc. 33/35).
They are composed of a solum about 140 cm thick, which comprises the
following horizons: Ap, B l, II B2t, II B3t, and II C ca. The first Ap and B1 are
in an alluvial cover over a more ancient soil (II B2t and II B3t) developed in the
sediments of the Pleistocene fan.
The Ap and BI horizons of the Cavriago profile (loc. 34) and the Ap of
Settima (loc. 35) consist of silty deposits than can be interpreted as overbank
sediments of the nearby watercourses and the latter contains fragments of brick
of Roman age.
In the Spilamberto profile (loc. 33) the alluvial cover is thicker and contains
the archaeological remnants of a Neolithic settlement (Cremaschi, 1979a).
In the soil evolved on the Late Pleistocene fan the II B2t, III B3t and II C ca
horizons are preserved, the II B2t horizon developed in the pelitic top, and the
111 B3t and C ca in the gravel. They show shght rubéfaction, and well-developed

170 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
S tru c tu re , a re d e v o id o f c a rb o n a te s a n d s h o w sca rce e v id e n c e o f h y d ro m o r­
p h is m .
The boundary with the C horizon is linear and clear. Well developed calcic
horizons are lacking, carbonate concretions being only developed on the lower
surface of the pebbles.
Textural characteristics. The grainsize distribution of the fine earth (Fig. 84)
gives proof of the lithologic discontinuities already indicated in the field descriptions.
Those of the pelitic top show a shghtly expressed sandy tail and the main
mode falls in the silt fraction. On the contrary those of the gravel deposits have
a high sand content. The silt is very scarce and the sorting is very poor. The
highest clay content can be observed in the II/III B3t horizon where it constitutes
almost 302 of the fine earth; it decreases regularly with depth and is slightly
greater than 102 in the horizon C.
Micromorphological characteristics. Only the Settima profile has been studied in
this respect. Features produced by biological activity and by organic matter
prevail in the Ap horizon; argillans are absent, the plasma fabric is only slightly
sepic. In the II B2t and B3t horizons the plasmic fabric is strongly sepic, especially
in the former, where ferri-argillans are scarce; these cutans, as well as a few
matrans associated with them, are abundant in the B3t horizon. Pseudogley
phenomena are absent and a moderate amount of Fe-Mn nodules is scattered in
the matrix.
CAVRIAGO
LOG 34
SETTIMA
LOG 35
SAVIGNANO
LOG 36

quaternary d e p o s it s , v e t u s o l s a n d p a l e o s o l s 171
Mineralogical characteristics. Unstable metamorphic minerals prevail among the
heavy minerals: epidotes and secondly amphiboles, but garnets are also abundant.
Their distribution with depth points to lithological discontinuities already
indicated in the field descriptions and by the grain size analyses.
The Settima profile, compared with those of Spilamberto and Cavriago, turns
out to be much higher in picotite due to the fair amount of ophiolites in the
parent material. The weathering index, even though influenced by the different
composition of the sediments, reflects a weak weathering of the B2 and B3
horizons, with respect to the unweathered sediments. The same clay minerals are
present along the whole profile: smectite, vermiculite and chlorite, illite and
kandite, with a sUght increase of the latter two species in the uppermost horizon.
Chemical characteristics. Calcium carbonate is present in appreciable amounts in
the Ap and B1 horizons. It is completely absent in the B2 and B3 horizons, but
abounds in the C ca horizon. The soils in the Late Pleistocene fans have been
leached of carbonates, in a first phase. Recarbonation may have occurred after
their burial by the sediments in which the Ap and B1 horizons developed. Soil
reaction is near neutral, the CEC and the base saturation are high. The free
iron content is much higher in the B2 and B3 than in the unweathered parent
material, its trend is parallel to that of the clay. The unusual amount of free iron
present in the Settima profile is probably due to the great amount of ophiolites
in the parent material.
During the Holocene at the margin of the Pleistocene terraces mainly finetextured
sediments of alluvial plain facies were deposited. Gravelly alluvial fans,
which are the main type of sedimentary deposits formed during the late Pleistocene,
were deposited along the main Apenne rivers (Panaro, Secchia, Enza).
The usually shallow soils developed in these have been studied in detail near
Savignano (loc. 36) (Fig. 85) on the fan of the Panaro river, in an area with a
Neolithic settlement (Bernabo Brea M. and Steffe G., unpublished data), covered
by planar convex lenses of clay one decimetre thick, surrounded by the outcropping
gravels. Vertisols are present in correspondence with the clay while poorly
developed lessived soils are present in the gravels.
Both the soils in gravel and the soils in clay are truncated by an erosional
surface which is mainly subhorizontal but also comprises small channel incisions.
This surface is covered by sandy and silty sediments, which, considering the
associated archaeological material, must have been deposited during the Iron Age
(Subatlantic).
In the studied section (Savignano profile, loc. 36) the soil in gravel is slightly
truncated. A B2 horizon about 30 cm thick is preserved. The gravels are
fractured and only inside the largest pebbles primary carbonates are preserved.
Discontinuous argillans are present on the surface of the pebbles and of the
aggregates. The boundary towards the weathered gravels is clear and linear and
is marked by the presence of carbonate nodules. This soil passes laterally to the
vertisol developed in the clayey deposits.
Archaeologic structures have been excavated starting from the surface of the

quaternary d e p o s it s , v e t u s o l s a n d p a l e o s o l s 173
soils in gravel and in clay respectively. These have been subjected to the same
pedogenetic processes as the surrounding soils. The age of the archaeological
filling of the structures (radiocarbon dating on charcoals) is approximately the
same as that of the beginning of the evolution of the soils in the fan ' (Bernabo
Brea et alii, in press).
SAVIGNANO PROFILE LOG 36
bronze age pottery
nB3
neolithic pit
neolithic pit
nCca
Fi£. 85 - S c h e m a tic s e c tio n o f th e to p o f th e a llu v ia l fa n , c lo s e to th e S a v ig n a n o p r o f ile ; 1 - c la y ,
2 - g ra v e l.
Fig. 85 - S e z io n e s c h e m a tic a d e l te tto d e l c o n o id e a llu v io n a le p r e s s o il p r o filo d i S a v ig n a n o ,
1 -arg illa, 2 -g h ia ia .
7.6. CONCLUSIONS ON THE STRATIGRAPHY OF THE QUATERNARY
PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS AND CONTINENTAL DEPOSITS IN THE
APENNINE FRINGE (FIG. 86)
The deposits of the Pede-Apennine fluviatile formation (AM2) indicate that
the present fringe of Apennines during most of the iVliddle Pleistocene, constituited
a fluvial plain with sedimentation rates which generally were too high and/or
too constant to allow the formation of well-developed soils.
Nevertheless soil forming processes must have occurred, more inside the
Apennines on surfaces which at present lack any older well-developed soil
(paleosol or vetusol).
Allochtonous blocks of rubefied paleosol material, observed by Cremaschi
and Papani (1975) in the fan gravels of the Pede-Apennine fluviatile formation
at Rio Monticelli (Reggio Emilia), provide evidence for such soil formation.
T e le d y n e Iso to p e s L a b o r a to r y : 6 3 1 0 + 2 1 0 y e a r s b p .

174 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO
Where not strongly eroded, the Pleistocene terraces cut into the fluviatile
formation at the foot of the Apennines have a rubefied vetusol, developed mainly
in pebbly materials. Most characteristic are its topmost horizons which are
marked by a strong accumulation of Fe-Mn nodules and clay, a slight increase in
kandite content, décalcification to a depth of at least 6 metres and, where the
parent material is pebbly, formation of a thick calcic horizon. The vetusol, whose
proprieties are virtually identical in all profiles observed in the area studied (see
section 7.2.) can be considered as a pedostratigraphic unit for the whole
Apennine fringe. This unit (map unit D 31) has been called (Cremaschi 1978,
1982) the «Collecchio paleosol» after the place where it has first been recorded
(Ferrari and Magaldi, 1968). The dating of this pedostratigraphic unit is
5:
4:
'lílliii'iíiiih 'iíi
w u /m :-.
T IJJT T jrnjm
'////////////-'Z'/''/
¥ig. 86 - S tr a tig r a p h ic s e c tio n in th e F io r a n o q u a r r y ( lo c . 4 5 ) . 1 ) p a le o s o l a t th e to p o f th e L ate
P le is to c e n e a llu v ia l f a n , 2 ) b u r ie d A 1 p a le o s o l, d a te d b a c k to 1 1 ,8 4 5 ± 8 0 b p ; 3 ) b u r ie d A 1 p a le o so l
in c lu d in g N e o lith ic f in d s ; 4 ) b u r ie d A1 p a le o s o l in c lu d in g B ro n z e a g e fin d s ; 5 ) b u r ie d A 1 p a le o so l
in c lu d in g Iro n a g e fin d s .
Fig. 86 - S e z io n e s tr a tig r a f ic a d e lla C a v a d i F io r a n o ( lo c . 4 5 ) . 1 ) p a le o s u o lo a l te tto d e l c o n o id e d el
P le is to c e n e s u p e r io r e ; 2 ) o riz z o n te Al s e p o lto , d a ta to a 1 1 .8 4 5 ± 8 0 b .p .; 3 ) o r iz z o n te Al sep o lto
c o n te n e n te r e s ti a r c h e o lo g ic i d ’e tá n e o lit ic a ;4 ) o r iz z o n te Al s e p o lto , c o n te n e n te r e s ti a rc h e o lo g ic i
d e ll’e ta d e l B r o n z o ; 5 ) o r iz z o n te Al se p o lto c o n te n e n te m a te r ia li a r c h e o lo g ic i d e ll’e ta d e l F e r ro .
5m

1
QUATERNARY DEPOSITS, VETUSOLS AND PALEOSOLS 175
somewhat uncertain. According to Salloway (1983) the Collecchio vetusol dates
from the Brunhes paleomagnetic epoch. The gravelly sediments in which it
developed contain a palaeolithic industry (Bisi, Cremaschi and Peretto, 1979) of
Clactonian and Protolevalloisian techniques which clearly dates from the Early
Palaeolithic. It is covered by the Ghiardo loess, in which is found a late Acheulean
industry dating from the end of the Middle Pleistocene. The development of
the Collecchio vetusol therefore cannot be dated more precisely than of Middle
Pleistocene age.
The pedostratigraphic situation of the Tiepido profile (loc. 24) is quite unusual
and different from that observed elsewhere. This paleosol, displaced by
faulting, is buried inside the topmost part of the Pede-Apennine fluviatile formation,
which at Tiepido has a gravelly facies. It shows characteristics similar
to those of the Collecchio vetusol but it is more rubefied, and shows an higher
degree of weathering.
In the same stratigraphic position as that of the Collecchio vetusol, i.e.
covered by the Ghiardo loess, and in the top of gravelly deposits, another (Rex)
vetusol occurs (map unit D32), which resembles the Collecchio soil but is less
weathered.
This twofold development of a Collecchio type vetusol is probably caused by
the specific tectonic evolution of the area east of the Secchia river, where
pedogenetic and erosive phases apparently were not synchronous with those of
the adjacent region. The interpretation is that the Tiepido paleosol developed,
was displaced by faults and buried, while in the surrounding areas sedimentation
still continued. On the contrary the deposition of gravels on the top of the
Tiepido profile probably still continued after the time at which the Collecchio
vetusol started to develop, as indicated by the lower degree of weathering of the
Rex vetusol subsequently developed in these gravels. Between the beginning of
the evolution of the Collecchio vetusol and the deposition of the Ghiardo loess
along the fringe of the Apennines, important tectonic events occured. The
surface in which the Collecchio vetusol formed is tilted, folded and displaced by
faults. The resulting complex relief has been levelled through the development of
a piedmont glacis at the margins of which the Borzano gravels (AM 3) were
deposited. The Ghiardo loess lies on both: the development of glacis therefore
must date from the late Middle Pleistocene, after the development of the
Collecchio vetusol and before the deposition of the Ghiardo loess.
The Ghiardo loess consists of at least of two loess covers, separated by a
period in which the oldest loess cover was subjected to weathering and soil
formation. On the basis of the archaeological content, the lower loess deposits
can be dated to the late Middle Pleistocene and the upper to the Late Pleistocene.
The erosion and terracing of the Borzano gravel (AM 3) (Fig. 69) were
followed by a subsequent cycle of piedmont fan deposition in the Late Pleistocene,
as determined on the basis of stratigraphic arguments (Cremaschi, 1979) and of a
radiocarbon dating from the Fiorano sequence (Alessio et alii, 1980) (Fig. 87).
The stratigraphic sequence of the Fiorano quarry clearly indicated that the
Late Pleistocene alluvial fan must already have been buried during the Early
Holocene. The soil of the Cavriago and Spilamberto type (loc. 34 and 33, Fig.

176 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PQ
PUiN
TR EBBIA
river area
STIRONE
river area
C R O STO LO
river area
TIEPIDO
river area
Fig. 87 - C o rre la tio n b e tw e e n th e s tratig ra p h ic u n its o f th e A p e n n in e frin g e ; see le g e n d o f F ig . 8 8 a.
Fig. 87 - C o rre la c io n e fra le u n ita s tratig ra fic h e d el m a rg in e a p p e n n in ic o ; p e r la le g e n d a , c fr. F ig. 8 8 a.

quaternary d e p o s it s , v e t u s o l s a n d p a l e o s o l s 177
83) developed in it must therefore date from the latest Pleistocene and perhaps
the Late-Glacial.
During Holocene times mainly sediments of alluvial plain facies have been
deposited at the margins of the Pleistocene terraces. The sedimentation of
gravelly fans continued only where the main rivers reached the plain.
Lessived soils of Holocene age have been preserved in the top of the
Holocene fan of the Panaro River. On the basis of the archaeological evidence
and of radiocarbon datings they can be referred to the Atlantic period.

GENERAL CORRELATION;
MAP OF THE QUATERNARY FORMATIONS
8.1. CORRELATIONS OF THE LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC AND
PEDOSTRATIGRAPHIC UNITS OVER THE WHOLE
INVESTIGATED AR E A
In this section the general correlation of the units (see Fig. 88) identified
within the various areas will be discussed, starting from the oldest units. Their
regional correlation has been discussed in the chapters 4, 5, 6, 7 and is
schematically indicated in the figures 43, 63, 86. The correlations, as described
before (see section 1.4.2.), are largely based on the magnetostratigraphy and the
archaeostratigraphy.
The genetic interpretation of the various stratigraphic units and the
paleogeographic reconstruction will not be systematically discussed here, but in
the final chapter.
Pre-Pleistocene. The only clear example of a paleosol which is of
Pre-Pleistocene age is the polygenetic soil S5 of the Bagaggera sequence, which
developed in Flysch.
Early Pleistocene. The fluviatile units at the base of the sequence of the Adda
(PDl and PD2) and their lateral lacustrine equivalent at Bagaggera (BAG 1)
represent the oldest evidences of sedimentation in a terrestrial environment and
can be correlated with marine deposits along the Apennine fringe and in the
Garda area.
In the Garda area the oldest known moraine, i.e. the moraine of Ciliverghe,
dates from the Matuyama epoch. The loess at Gavardo (GAV 2), which covers
a strongly and deeply weathered paleosol, most probably correlated with this
moraine.
In the Adda area, deposits which date from this epoch, are those of units
BAG 2 and BAG 5 at Bagaggera. The first have been interpreted as a periglacial
breccia, while the facies of the second in terms of glacial, or non-glacial is less
clear. The paleomagnetic analyses of the stratigraphic sections indicate that the
periglacial phase dates from the post-Jaramillo interval of the Matuyama epoch.
The Trezzo Member (PD 3), also in the Adda area, represents the lateral
transition of the moraine of Camparada which could not be dated by itself.

PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PQ Plain
IS O LA TED TERRAC ES
APENNINE FRINGE

general CORRELATION 181
Fi¿. 88 - Correlation between the main stratigraphic units of the whole studied area (paleosols and
vetusols are not included).
Garda sequences: 1) littoral sediments (CAST 1); 2) Ciliverghe glacial stage (CIL 1, 2; CH 1 and
GAV 2 loess); 3) fluviatile gravel (CH 3); 4) Monte Faita glacial stage (Monte Faita moraine, CH
5, and related fluviogladal deposits (GAV 3, CIL 5, CAST 4); 5) fluviatile deposits (CH 6); 6)
Carpenedolo glacial stage (CH 8) and loess; 7) Sedeña glacial stage: moraines, related fluviogladal
and loess; 8) Solferino glacial stage: moraines,related fluviogladal and loess.
Bagaggera and Adda sequences. 1) fine textured fluvial sediments (P D l); 2) Ceppo (Paderno
member) and BAG 1 lacustrine deposits; 3) Camparada moraine and fluvioglacial (?) related
deposits (Ceppo, Trez2o member and BAG 5 gravel); 4) BAG 3; 5) BAG 6 and BAG 7; 6) BAG
8, «Middle Diluvium» and loess; 7) BAG 9 (loess), «Recent Diluvium», Main level of the plain.
Isolated terraces. 1) fluviatile sediments; 2) loess covers.
Apennine fringe. 1) litoral sands (AM I); 2) fluviatile Pede-Apennine formation (AM2), mainly
fine-textured; 3) fluviatile Pede-Apennine formation (AM2), mainly coarse-textured; 4) piedmont
glacis and Borzano gravel (AM3); 5) Ghiardo loess (AM4); 6) Pede-Apennine alluvial fans and
Late Pleistocene loess.
Fig. 88 - Correlazione fra le principal! unita stratigrafiche dell’intera area studiata;sono escluse le
evidenze paleopedologiche.
Succession! gardesane: 1) deposit! litoral! (CAST 1); 2) fase glaciale di Ciliverghe (CIL 1, CH 1) e
loess (GAV 2); ghiaie fluviali (CH3); fase glaciale di Monte Faita (Morena di Monte Faita, CH5 e
deposit! fluvioglacial! connessi (GAV 3, CIL 5, CAST 4); deposit! fluviali (CH 6); 6) fase glaciale
di Carpenedolo (CH 8) e deposit! loessici ad essa connessi; 7) fase glaciale di Sedeña, deposit!
fluvioglacial! e loess connessi; 8) fase glaciale di Solferino, morene, deposit! fluvioglacial! e loess.
Succession! stratigrafiche di Bagaggera e dell’Adda. 1) deposit! fluviali fini (PD 1); 2) Ceppo di
Paderno e deposit! lacustri BAG 1; 3) morena di Camparada e deposit! fluvioglacial! (?) connessi
(Ceppo di Trezzo e ghiaie BAG 5); 4) BAG 3; 5) BAG 6 e BAG 7; 6) BAG 8, «Diluvium» medio
e loess; 7) BAG 9 (loess), «Diluvium recente», Livello principale della pianura.
Terrazzi isolati. 1) sediment! fluviali; 2) coperture loessiche.
Margine appenninico. 1) sabbie litoral! (AM 1); 2) formazione fluviale pedeappenninica (AM 2) a
tessitura fine; 3) formazione fluviale pedeappenninica, di tessitura grossolana prevalente (AM 2);
4) glacis pedemontano e ghiaie di Borzano (AM 3); 5) Ghiardo loess (ÁM 4); 6) conoidi
alluvionali e loess del Pleistocene superiore.
F/¿. 88a - The legend of the correlation - schemes: 1) marine sediments, 2) litoral sediments, 3)
lacustrine deposits, 4) glaciolacustrine deposits, 5) fine textured fluviatile sediments, 6) coarse textured
fluviatile sediments; 7) moraine deposits; 8) fluvioglacial gravel, 9) breccia, 10) loess, 11) colluvial
deposits, 12) soils and paleosols, 13) erosion, 14) angular unconformity, 15) Upper Palaeolithic artifacts,
16) Middle Palaeolithic artifacts.
Fig. 88a - Legenda degli scherai di correlazione: 1) sediment! marini, 2) sediment! litoral!, 3) deposit!
lacustri, 4) deposit! glaciolacustri, 5) deposit! fluviali a tessitura fine, 6) deposit! fluviali a tessitura
grossolana; 7) deposit! morenici, 8) ghiaie fluvioglacial!, 9) brecce, 10) loess, 11) deposit! colluvial!, 12)
suoli e paleosuoli, 13) superficie erosiónale, 14) discordanza angolare, 15) manufatti del Paleolítico
superiore, 16) manufatti del Paleolítico medio.

182 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
Paleomagnetic analyses indicate that soil formation in the Trez2o Member already
started in the Matuyama epoch (see Vivaldi profile and S4 Bagaggera paleosol),
indicating a Matuyama age for this member. As discussed in chapter 5, the heavy
mineral composition of BAG 5 is similar to that of the Trezzo Member and
indicates that these units can be correlated with each other (see also Fig. 63).
Such correlation implies that also unit BAG 5 dates from a glacial period.
The stratigraphic observations thus point to the occurrence, during the
Matuyama epoch, of at least one major glaciation, which reached the Pre-Alpine
fringe throughout the area studied. Although it cannot be excluded that more
than one glaciation occurred, the absence of evidence for more than one
glaciation in each of the sections studied strongly suggests that only during one
period glaciers reached the fringe. Evidence from the sections at Bagaggera
indicate that this glaciation dates from the Post-Jaramillo interval of the
Matuyama epoch.
Soil formation in the Trezzo Member started later in the Matuyama epoch
(see Vivaldi profile). The «Ferretto» thus represents the oldest vetusol in the area
studied. The paleosol in the BAG 5 unit (S4) should be considered as the
stratigraphic equivalent of the «Ferretto», but it has been buried during the
Middle Pleistocene (Fig. 64).
The glacial and related deposits cover terrestrial and marine deposits as well
as deep and strongly weathered soils (Bagaggera, Castenedolo, Gavardo).
Along the Apennine fringe between the Jaramillo event and the end of the
Matuyama epoch, the sedimentary facies gradually changed from marine-littoral
to continental, conditioned by tectonic activity. Evidence for a climatic
deterioration is limited to the section of Crostolo and Tiepido where a sharp
increase in cold elements was found in the pollen record (section 2 .1 .1 .).
Middle Pleistocene. The correlation of the units dating from the earlier parts of
Middle Pleistocene is hampered by the fact that the paleomagnetism provides no
clues and that the rare artifacts found do not allow more that a general indication
of their age.
In the Alpine fringe, except for the late Middle Pleistocene, the stratigraphy
of the Middle Pleistocene is largely based on the sequences of the Garda area. In
the Adda area, units of middle and early Middle Pleistocene age are relatively
rare and fragmental.
The moraine of Monte Faita (Garda) represents the best preserved moraine
from the earliest part of the Middle Pleistocene. In the section of Chiese (CHS)
this moraine rests on sediments dating from the Matuyama epoch and is covered
by sediments dating from the Brunhes epoch. In the Baggagera section (Adda)
the unit BAG 3 consists of fluvioglacial deposits, containing plant remains of
cold species; these deposits date from the beginning of the Brunhes epoch. The
units CH 5 of the Garda area, and BAG 3, of the Adda area, are of related facies
and in the same stratigraphic position; they may therefore be correlated with each
other.
In the Garda area many remnants of the fluvioglacial plain connected with
the Monte Faita moraine exist (CIL 5, CAST 4, GAV 3). In both types of
w m

g eneral c o r r e l a t io n 183
deposits subsequently a soil developed, presently exposed as a vetusol or buried
by more recent deposits (Torre profile). In the Adda area, apart from the
Bagaggera section, traces of this glacial phase are lacking.
In the Garda area a following glacial phase, represented by the Carpenedolo
moraine (CHS), can be distinguished. This phase dates from the middle part of
the Middle Pleistocene. It is younger than CH5 and older than VS2 moraine; the
former is proved by superposition, the latter is proved by the geomorphological
position. The loess of CIL 6 can be correlated with the Carpenedolo moraine
(CHS) and dates from the same phase. In the Adda area this phase probably is
represented at Bagaggera by fluvioglacial gravels and well sorted loams,
(probably of eolian origin) (BAG 7/6), and at Vivaldi by an important erosive
phase (Vivaldi stone-line).
Deep and strongly weathered vetusols occur in the Carpenedolo moraine,
testifying that strong pedogenesis occurred from this phase onwards. At
Bagaggera also soil formation started, but this was interrupted, resulting in a
buried paleosol (Bagaggera, S3).
Fluvial sediments, intercalated between deposits from the early glacial stages,
are only encountered in the Garda area and comprise the units CH4, CIL4 and
CAST3, covered by the Monte Faita moraine and associated units, and unit CH7,
intercalated between the moraines of the Carpenedolo and Faita stages. In the
Adda area only scattered and fragmental fluvial deposits of ill-defined age occur
(Missaglia gravel).
In the Apennine fringe mainly during the Middle Pleistocene fluvial
sediments were deposited, forming the Pede-Apennine fluviatile formation.
These sediments show a clear coarsening upwards, i.e. towards the top of the
formation gravels become predominant and at the end of this sedimentary phase
everywhere along the fringe mainly gravels were deposited. As discussed above
(chapter 7) this sedimentary evolution was tectonically controlled. Locally the
sedimentation has been interrupted as evidenced by the presence of the Tiepido
paleosol. The artifacts found in the top of the gravel deposits, postdating the
Tiepido paleosol, can be identified as Clactonian and therefore indicate that the
sedimentation stopped in the middle of the Middle Pleistocene (about 0.4 MY
BP). From this time on the vetusol of Collecchio developed, which is the oldest
vetusol in the Apennine fringe.
In contrast to the earlier glacial stages, all along the Alpine fringe the moraines
and associated deposits of the last glacial stage of the Middle Pleistocene
are widespread and generally well-preserved. Along the Apennine fringe no
glacial formations have been observed but, for the first time, periglacial
morphogenetic systems and sediments are encountered. The sediments, in
particular loess, can be correlated by their lithology and stratigraphy, but also in
particular by the associated artifacts. These, for this period of the Middle
Pleistocene, enable more reliable datings (Appendix 7).
l^ate Pleistocene. Deposits dating from the Last Interglacial have not been
encountered along the fringes of the Alps and the Apennines, but the fluvial
deposits of the isolated hills in the plain are supposed, on lithostratigraphic

■UIIIJI' ' i l l J i H B g a
184 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
y-',-
I 1
evidence, to date form this phase. Soils which started to form during this period
however, abundantly occur in both the Alpine and Apennine fringes. In the
Adda area they comprise the vetusols developed in the «Middle Diluvium» and
in the BAG 8 unit. In the Garda area they consist of a buried paleosol in the
Torrion della Val Sorda sequence (see Fig. 33). In the Apennine fringe they are
represented by vetusols in loess.
Deposits dating from the Late Pleistocene glacial period are very widespread
and well preserved. They comprise moraines, fluvioglacial deposits, loess and
alluvial fan deposits. As the loess is associated with abundant Middle and Upper
Palaeolithic artifacts, a relatively refined stratigraphic scheme of the Late
Pleistocene deposits could be developed.
In the Alpine fringe moraines and fluvioglacial deposits dominate. The latter
from the Main level of the plain. Its upper strata are considered to date from the
Pleniglacial, and, from the Late-Glacial, its top is subjected to soil development.
In the Apennine fringe loesses from this period are thin and discontinuous.
Two phases of alluvial fan deposition can be recognized, of which the first
stopped somewhere in the Last Glacial period, while the second has continued up
to the Early Holocene.
8.2. GENERAL CONCEPTS OF THE MAP
The map produced in Appendix 6 shows the areal distribution of the
stratigraphic units, as they have been defined in the conclusive sections of the
chapters 4, 5, 6, 7 and mapped in the field on the basis of their lateral continuity
and correlation. The units have been formulated against the background of the
general requirements of nomenclature in Quaternary stratigraphy, as discussed by
Richmond (1959, 1962) Flint (1971), Orombelli (1971), Porter (1972) and the
North American Commission on stratigraphic nomenclature (1983).
Apart from the Ceppo dell’Adda, a unit already formalized by Orombelli
(1979), only informal units have been adopted in this study, which implies that
these are not strictly defined according to the codes of stratigraphic
nomenclature. The major reason for this is that the present knowledge on the
Quaternary of the region is still far from complete.
Most «paleosols» associated with Quaternary deposits, described in the
previous sections, have to be defined as vetusols. They are clearly recognizable in
the field and are laterally continuous over large areas. During the field work for
the compilation of the map they have been used as pedostratigraphic units,
straying from the american code of stratigraphy which establishes for this
category one class only, the geosols, that are by definition buried paleosols.
Geosols can be time-transgressive and therefore cannot be used as time
stratigraphic marker. At a regional level, vetusols formed in similar parent
materials and showing the same characteristics can be used as a pedostratigraphic
unit: they were formed during the same period and thus indicate that the
morphological surfaces in which they developed are isochronous.
The term «Ferretto» generally very loosely defined (see section 1.2.) has been

GENERAL CORRELATION 185
used here in a very strict sense, i.e. for the vetusols developed in the highest
terrace level of the upper lombardian plain («Old Diluvium» Terrace).
Most of the units recognized are lithostratigraphic units («rock bodies which
are distinguished and delimitated on the basis of lithic characteristics and
stratigraphic position»; North American Commission, 1983). Only unit D5,
which refers to a glacis with aeolian covers, has been defined according to
morphostratigraphic criteria (Frey and Wilman, 1962). Only four pedostratigraphic
units (B l, B3, D31 and D32) have been used as independent mapping
units. Other units are based on lithostratigraphic as well as on pedostratigraphic
criteria. In such cases there is a mutual relationship between soil and lithostratigraphic
unit: the former representing an important key for the recognition and
delimitation of the latter.
The mapping units differ slightly from the stratigraphic units described in the
foregoing chapters. For example, the loess described in the text as separate
lithostratigraphic units, have not been mapped as independent units. Within the
context of this thesis emphasis has been put on the sedimentary body on which
they rest. Their presence is only recorded in the legend. Furthermore, the Main
level of the plain and the Isolated Terraces in this plain have been grouped
together into one main physiographic system.
8.3. THE STRUCTURE OF THE LEGEND
The main physiographic systems into which the various mapping units have
been grouped, are indicated with capital letters and comprise:
A: Alpine Fringe - Garda and Iseo moraines
B: Alpine fringe - Adda moraines and terraces
C: The Main Level of the Plain and Isolated Terraces
D: Apennine fringe
E: Alluvial plain.
Within each physiographic system the mapping units are chronologically ordered
from the oldest to the more recent and are indicated with an arabic
number. Each unit, except in the system E, is indicated with a synthetic name
derived from the stratigraphic analysis (for example: Collecchio vetusol, Pede-
Apennine Fluviatile Formation, etc.) followed by a short description of the main
lithologic, paleopedologic and physiographic characteristics. For detailed descriptions
and analyses, references to the text are given.
The tentative dating of the units, based on the stratigraphic analysis (section
7.7.) and on correlations, is indicated using the following subdivisions: Early
Pleistocene, Middle Pleistocene, Late Pleistocene, Holocene.
On the map (Appendix 6 ) the main characteristics of the mapping units are
schematically indicated; they include:

186 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
— symbols and name of the units;
— the highest and the lowest altitude, for each unit, in metres above sea level;
— lithology, including only the main characteristics; in the case of pedostratigra-j
phic units this concerns the parent materials;
— sedimentary facies, reference is generally made to Reading ed. (1982);
— pedology, depth of the boundary between B and C horizons in metres isj
indicated, and the hues of the B horizons are given;
J
— presence of loess and/or colluvial covers;
— age^ 1
- '• i»-
«fei
;r ■■4'
8.4. DESCRIPTION OF THE MAPPING UNITS
A )
Al
A2
Alpine fringe (Garda and Iseo lakes systems). -j
Ciliverghe moraine (units Cil 1, Cil 2, CH 1, CH 2). Massive diamicton, including angular boulders |
of Coma limestone, locally strongly cemented. It is often associated with laminated highly carbona-1
ted silt of glaciolacustrine facies (units Cil 3, CH 3); from 180 to 160 m a^J. -
Early Pleistocene. !
Monte Faita moraine.
^
Frontal moraine ridge, strongly eroded, composed of heterometric diamicton, covered by^
loess; with a strongly rubefied (Hue 2.5 YR of B horizons), strongly eroded, up to 4 m ■
thick vetusols (S. Biagio profile); from 350 to 300 m a.s.l.
Early Middle Pleistocene.
Gavardo gravel (Unit GAV 3).
Coarse fluvioglacial gravel systematically covered by loess, with a rubefied (Hue of B
horizons 2.5 to 5 YR) up to 4 m thick vetusol, marked by strong weathering, and
moderately eroded. (Gavardo, Ciliverghe and Castenedolo profiles); from 200 to 120 m a.s.l.
Early Middle Pleistocene.
Carpenedolo moraine.
Frontal moraine ridge, strongly eroded, composed of heterometric diamicton, systematically
covered by loess, with a rubefied (Hue of B horizons 5 YR) up to 3 m thick, strongly
eroded vetusol, (Mocasina profile); from 250 to 74 m a.s.l.
Middle Pleistocene.
Paitone gravel.
Fluvioglacial gravel, gently merging in to the Main Level of the Plain (C2), and covered by
loess sheets; with a moderately rubefied (Hue of B horizons 5 YR) vetusol, up to one m
thick; from 195 to 170 m a.s.l.
Middle Pleistocene.
Sedeña Moraine
Complex, strongly eroded, moraine ridge, composed of heterometric diamicton, with Ap/C
soils in its top, in the Garda area; vetusols have been observed in it in the Iseo area; from 119
to 76 m a.s.l.
Late - Middle Pleistocene.
Solferino moraine.
Complex, well preserved, moraine system, including slightly eroded moraine ridges,
composed of heterometric diamicton, and käme terraces, composed of stratified gravel and
sand, with a slightly rubefied (Hue of B horizons 7.5 YR to 5 YR) one metre thick (B
horizons) soil (Solferino, Fontanelle and Pastengo profiles); from 284 to 100 a.s.1.
Late Pleistocene.
Alpine fringe (Adda moraines and terraces).
Bagaggera complex polysol (Bagaggera 1 profile).
Strongly rubefied (Hue of B horizons 2.5 YR) polygenetic soil, developed in limestones or

GENERAL CORRELATION 187
B2
B3
B4
calcareous LTysch bedrock, highly eroded profiles, up to 10 m thick (B and C horizons),
systematically covered by colluvial sediments and loess; from 370 to 300 m a.s.l.
Upper Pliocene-Early Pleistocene.
Ceppo d’Adda (unit PD2).
Fluviatile gravel, often strongly cemented, mainly poorly bedded, occasionally with cross
bedding: upper or intermediate parts of alluvial fans, strongly dissected by present rivers;
from 250 to 145 m a.s.l.
Upper Pliocene - Early Pleistocene.
«Ferretto» vetusol.
Rubefied (Hue of B horizons 2.5 YR) vetusol, developed in gravel up to 10 m thick (B
horizons), slighly eroded, systematically covered by loess (Camparada, Vivaldi, Cernusco
profiles); from 300 to 150 m a.s.l.
Early Pleistocene.
Bivio Massaglia gravel.
Gravel and sand (no bedding observed), and overbank clay; fluviatile sediments, filling
small erosional valleys, cut into the «Old Diluvium» terrace (Bivio Missaglia profile). It is
systematically covered by loess; from 330 to 150 m a.s.l.
Middle Pleistocene.
B51 «Middle Diluvium» («Diluvium medio») (unit PD4 of section 3.3.3.).
Gravel and sand, poorly bedded, fluvioglacial sediments: upper and middle part of sandar
and systematically covered by loess deeply dissected by present rivers; with a vetusol,
moderately rubefied (Hue of B horizons 5 YR) up to (B horizons) 5 m thick, slightly eroded
(Copreno, Ronco Briantino, Bagaggera 3 profiles); from 300 to 150 m a.s.l.
Late Middle Pleistocene.
B52 Missaglia moraine.
Frontal moraine ridge, moderately eroded, composed of diamicton. In the top the same
vetusol and loess as unit B51; from 300 to 150 m a.s.l.
Late Middle Pleistocene.
B6 Merate moraine.
Frontal moraine ridge composed of diamicton, well preserved morphology; the small
outcrops of this unit included in the map have generaly slightly developed soils (Ap and B
horizons less than 0,50 m thick); from 320 to 280 m a.s.l.
Late Pleistocene.
C)
Cl
C2
Main Level of the Plain and Isolated Terraces.
Isolated Terraces Fluvial Formation.
Cross-bedded sand and gravel of braided river facies; in some cases (Melotta and Monte
Netto) with a shallow paleosol (B horizon 0,5 m thick and Hue 7.5 YR); they are systematically
covered by loess (Melotta, Zorlesco and Monte Netto profiles); from 120 to 80 m a.s.l.
Late Middle Pleistocene.
Main Level of the Plain.
Outwash plain connected with Pede-Alpine moraine systems (B6, A7); coarse gravel in the
proximal part, gradually passing into bedded sand and silt in the distal part, strongly
dissected by present rivers. Its top is undulating and slightly eroded and has a slightly
rubefied (5 YR to 7.5 YR Hue of B horizons) soil one metre thick (B horizons), (Ca
Pegoroni, Robbiate and Casatico profiles); from 267 to 20 m a.s.l.
Late Pleistocene.
D) Apennine fringe.
D1 Pede-Apennine Fluvial Formation (unit AM2).
Fine-textured fluvial deposits: cross bedded sand and fine sand (with epsilon cross bedding)
(lithofacies F3), point bars and natural levees of meandering watercourses; overbanck
deposits; clays, silts and silty clay with planar parallel bedding (lithofacies AL); from 200 to
85 m a.s.l.
Early Middle Pleistocene.

188 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PL
' ■
r V •'
D2
D31
D32
D4
D5
Pede-Apennine Fluvial Formation (Unit AM2).
Coarse-textured fluvial deposits (gravel and gravelly sand), locally with planar parallel
bedding (lithofacies FI, F2), representing piedmont fans, in particular their middle or
proximal part; from 270 to 90 m a.s.l.
Early-Middle Pleistocene.
Collecchio vetusol.
Rubefied (Hue of B horizons 5 YR-2.5 YR) vetusol, up to 5 m thick; developed mainly in
gravelly sediments; these older parent materials are systematically covered the Ghiardo loess
(Unit AM4); from 245 to 60 m a.s.l.
Middle Pleistocene.
Rex vetusol.
Moderately rubefied (Hue of B horizons 5 YR-7.5 YR) vetusol, solumn is up to 2.5 m thick
(Rex profile), the parent material consists mainly of gravel (Unit AM2), and is from 125 to
100 m a.s.l.
Middle Pleistocene.
Borzano gravel.
Coarse fluviatile gravel, mainly poorly bedded; proximal parts of alluvial fans, systematically
covered by the Ghiardo loess; from 125 to 100 m a.s.l.
Middle Pleistocene.
Piedmont glacis.
Erosional surfaces cut into the Pede-Apennine Fluvial Formation or into older marine
sediments; They are associated with thin covers of colluvial deposits and systematically
covered by the Ghiardo loess; from 426 to 166 m a.s.l.
Middle Pleistocene.
Cavriago gravel.
Coarse fluviatile deposits (poorly bedded gravel and gravelly sand with planar bedding)
constituing well-preserved alluvial fans, dissected by the present rivers, with a slightly
rubefied vetusol (Hue 7.5 to 5 YR) to 1.5 m thick (Cavriago and Spilamberto profiles);
from 133 to 60 m a.s.l. Late Pleistocene.
Savignano gravel.
Coarse fluviatile sediments, gravel and sand with poorly developed planar bedding
constituting well preserved alluvial fans, dissected by the present watercourses; with non
rubefied lessived soil, 0,50 m thick (Savignano profile); from 120 to 50 m a.s.l.
Early Holocene.
Alluvial plain.
Gravelly unit.
Gravel and sand mainly with planar and cross stratification: fluvial sediments of braided
facies; they form the beds of present rivers, cut into the «Main Level of the Plain» (C2) or
at the distal margin of the present Apennine alluvial fans; weakey developed soils (Entisols
and Inceptisols); from 50 to 20 m a.s.l.
Holocene.
Loamy unit.
Loamy sand clay and silt, planar stratification: overbanck deposits of paleochannels and
present rivers; weakly developed soils (Entisols and Inceptisols); from 50 to 20 m a.sJ.
Holocene.
Sandy unit.
Sandy deposits of present channels and paleochannels of the Po plain rivers; they include
mainly natural levee and crevasse splay facies; weakly developed soils (Entisols and
Inceptisols); from 50 to 20 m a.s.l.
Holocene.
Clay unit.
Clayey, massive or poorly stratified sediments: they were part of distal food basins and permanent
ponds up to the Late Medioeval period, reclaimed mainly during the Renaissance and the Modem
period; weakly developed soils (Entisols/Vertisols); from 50 to 20 m asL
Holocene.

9.
I N T R O D U C T I O N I N T O T H E G E N E S I S A N D D E V E L O P M E N T
O F T H E P A L E O S O L S A N D V E T U S O L S
9.1. THE PEDOGENETIC PHASES
From the stratigraphical studies, the correlation of the stratigraphic units and
the survey, it clearly appears that, in the Quaternary deposits, soils have been
formed of which the characteristics strongly change in time. On the basis of the
correlations discussed in Section 8.1. the paleosols and vetusols can be subdivided
into five groups of soils. Each of these groups embraces soils which may be of a
different nature, but which started to form in the same period. Significant differences
in age between members of a group may lead to the distinction of
subgroups. For these groups the term «pedogenetic phase» has been used, which
only has a stratigraphic implication. The phases recognized are (Fig. 89):
PI)ase 1, this phase comprises the most recent vetusols and concerns the soils
which developed from the Late Glacial (phase 1 B) or from the early Holocene
(phase lA ) onward. It comprises the profiles of Savignano, Cavriago, Settima for
the Apennine fringe, the profiles of Robbiate, Solferino, Pastrengo, Belforte and
Ca Pegoroni for the Alpine margin and the Lombardian plain.
Phase 2, dated to the early Late Pleistocene, comprises the vetusols in the
Ghiardo loess at the Apennine fringe, the profiles of Copreno, Ronco Briantino,
Bagaggera 2 and the buried paleosols in gravels of Gavardo IV and of Val Sorda
at the Alpine margin.
Phase 3, dating from the Middle Pleistocene, comprises the Collecchio vetusol
at the Apennine fringe and the vetusols of Ciliverghe and Calvagese. It is not
clearly represented in the Adda Basin, but may be represented by the buried
paleosol (VI B21t) of profile 3 at Bagaggera.
Phase 4, dating from to the late Early Pleistocene and early Middle Pleistocene
is, probably with the exception of the Tiepido buried paleosol, not represented at
the Apennine fringe; it comprises the soils of the «Old Diluvium» terrace in the
Adda area which have probably developed from the late Early Pleistocene, and
the buried paleosol and vetusols in the moraine and related deposits of the Monte
Faita glacial stage in the Garda area (S. Biagio GAV IV, Cil IV profiles),
developed from the early Middle Pleistocene.
Phase 5: dating from the Early Pleistocene to the Late Tertiary, it comprises
the buried paleosols of the Gavardo sequence (GAV 1), the Castenedolo sequence
(CAST 1) and Bagaggera basin sequence (S5); stratigraphic evidence indicates
that these paleosols have been already buried in the early Middle Pleistocene.

INTRODUCTION INTO THE GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT 191
The beginning of the development of the Gavardo and Castenedolo paleosols
dates from the Early Pleistocene; the paleosol S5 of Bagaggera should even date
from an older period (Late Tertiary).
Phase 5 comprises paleosols only, but soils from the other phases are mostly
vetusols. The vetusols represent chronosequences of which the members exhibit
characteristics of which the expression increases in time. The sequences can be
described as post-incisive chronosequences according to the terminology of
Vreeken (1965) and Bockheim (1980).
In the following sections attention will be paid to the identification and
quantification of the main pedogenetic processes active in these soils during the
Quaternary. The effect of the pedogenetic processes not only depends on the
factor time but is also affected by the nature of the parent material. Therefore the
chronosequences in gravel and diamicton and in loess will be treated separately.
9.2. RELEVANT PEDOGENETIC PROCESSES AND PEDOLOGICAL
FEATURES
In this section a review will be given of the existing literature on pedogenetic
processes and features, which occur or can be expected to occur in the Central Po
Valley. No attention will be paid to the genesis of the A horizons as all soils studied
have an A horizon which has been ploughed or is otherwise disturbed by man.
Fersiallisation. This pedogenetic process is considered to be characteristic of
the mediterranean environment (Duchaufour 1968, 1977; Bornand, 1978;
Boulaine, 1961; Remmelzwaal, 1978; Sevink et alii, 1984).
The conditions required for fersiallitisationare, apart from the climatic
conditions, a good internal soil drainage and a mainly calcareous parent material,
but with a sufficient amount of silicate material. Leaching of carbonates and the
resultant increase in voids volume slows down the compaction of the horizons
and assures the maintenance of a good internal drainage (Bornand, 1978).
From the geochemical and mineralogical points of view, fersiallitisation
stands for the process of bisiallitisation (Pedro, 1968). It is characterized by a
slight removal of silica, the formation of clays of the 2/1 type (smectite) and the
inheritance of clay minerals present in the bedrock or in the parent material.
Neoformation, especially of kandite, is weak. According to Duchaufour (1983)
fersiallitisation is the first stage of pedogenetic alteration in warm (sub)-tropical
climates. It is replaced, with increasing temperature and decreasing seasonal
contrast, by ferrugination and by ferrallitisation. These two processes are
characterized by increasing intensity of weathering and neoformation of more
aluminous clay minerals (kandite and gybbsite). Décalcification, rubéfaction and
lessivage (clay translocation), are considered as processes connected with
fersiallitisation.
Rubrfaction. It is well know (Kubiena, 1956; Duchaufour, 1977;
Remmelzwaal, 1979; Sevink et alii, 1984) that a red colour characterizes the

192 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
mediterranean soils developed in a wide range of parent materials (tufa,
limestones, gravels). It is also a typical characteristics of a large number of
paleosols in the Po Valley and it is implicit in the term «Ferretto» used for most
such paleosols.
According to Schwertmann et alii (1974) rubéfaction results from the
dehydratation of pedogenic iron hydroxides (transformation of the paracrystalline
hydroxide ferrihydrite into hematite) in a pedoclimate with strong seasonal
contrast, alternating between humid conditions and dessiccation and with rather
high temperatures.
Furthermore a good internal and external drainage, as conditioned by the
texture and/or by the morphologic position of the soil, was found to promote
rubéfaction (Bornand, 1978; Sevink et alii, 1984).
Many studies show that a direct correlation exists between iron content, age
of the paleosols and red colour (see for example: Torrent et alii, 1980; Arduino
et alii, 1983). Therefore it is often assumed (Duchaufour, 1977) that pedogenetic
iron hydroxides in time change into reddish coloured oxides. Considering the
foregoing it is evident that rubéfaction tends to be particularly expressed in the
soils and paleosols in a mediterranean (paleo) environment.
Nevertheless, Schwertman et alii (1982) record Holocene rubefied soils in
Würm fluvioglacial deposits North of the Alps in an axeric climate, and point out
the fundamental role of the parent material in the development of rubéfaction. It
cannot be excluded that the profiles described form that area date from earlier in
the Holocene, when the climate was warmer and drier than at present.
Décalcification and accumulation of Ca CO y Exclusive of hot arid areas,
décalcification is among the first pedogenetic processes, active in soils in
calcareous parent materials. The rate of the process is controlled by a great
number of factors, among which climate is dominant. The carbonate dissolution
is inter alia controlled by the partial CO2 pressure. The solubility of CO2 gas in
water increases with decreasing temperature. Therefore in cold climates the dissolution
of carbonates may proceed more rapidly than in warm climates even
though the biological activity and the concurrent increase of CO2 production are
smaller. The décalcification is directly correlated with the leaching intensity,
which, if the drainage is good, depends on climate (Wilke, 1975). Lastly, in non
arid climates and under leaching conditions the deepening of the décalcification
front is a function of time.
Several authors have tried to quantify the rate of this process (Birkeland,
1974; Wilke, 1975; Spaargaren, 1979; Van der Meer, 1982). However the loss of
carbonates can only rarely be considered a linear chronofunction. It tends to
decelerate with time i.e. increasing depth of décalcification (Scheffer etahi, 1962).
Furthermore it is logical to expect that during long pedogenetic cycles rates
accelerated or decelerated in response to the Quaternary climatic changes.
The dissolution of calcareous gravel and a consequent reduction of the
volume of the material constituting the soil horizons is an aspect of the décalcification
process described in a great detail by Bornand ( 1978). The chemical attack
on the calcareous clasts is strong from the first phases of soil development

in tr o d u c tio n in to t h e g e n e s is a n d d e v e lo p m e n t 193
onwards, and it is immediately followed by the weathering through hydrolysis
of the plutonic and metamorphic clasts.
The ratios between chert and quartz (which generally are not affected by
weathering) present in the parent material and those in the vetusols (Bornand,
1978; Brewer, 1976) allow to estimate the original thickness of the sediment at
the expenses of which the vetusols developed. The losses of thickness are very
great: Bornand (1978) calculated between 55 and 100 metres for the
«Villafranchian» terraces and between 11 and 15 metres for those of the Early
and Middle Pleistocene.
Generally, at some depth in the soil, the soil solution becomes supersaturated
and calcium carbonate precipitates to form soft powdery lime and/or nodules
(calcic horizons) or continuous phases (petrocalcic horizons) (Soil Survey Staff,
1975). Gile et alii (1965) attribute the name of K horizon to the horizons of
which the fabric mainly consists of calcareous cement. Several authors (Gile et
alii, 1966; Ruellan 1968, 1970, 1973) recognize various types of calcium
carbonate accumulations classified according to an increase of cementation,
hardness and crystallinity, which are functions of time and of genesis (such as a
continuous lateral supply).
Translocation and accumulation of clay. In soils in relatively humid climates for
peptization to occur rather specific requirements must be met with: clay^humus
complexes should not be too stable and, for example, must be less stable than
those encountered in isohumic or calcimagnesian soils (Duchanfour, 1977); and
the base saturation (mainly by Ca^"^) must be fairly high, but not too high, as for
example in soils containing finely divided lime. These conditions are often found
in decalcified soils, with a pH between 5 an 7 and under forest (Hallsworth,
1963; Scheffer and Schachtschabel, 1976; Duchaufour, 1977), but sometimes
evidences of clay translocation have been recorded in calcareous materials (Allen
and Goss, 1974). The process is caused by the lowering of the electrolyte content
of the liquid phase. Such dilution occurs in particular in climates with contrasting
seasons, through rapid wetting of the soil during the wet season (Duchaufour,
1983). The dispersed clay is transported with the infiltrating water through the
non-capillary pores of the soil and it is deposited where electrolyte concentrations
increase and/or where the water is absorbed by the capillary pores, i.e. on the
walls of the voids and of the structural elements. This clay generally forms thinly
bedded coatings (illuvial cutans) (Dalrymple and Theocharopoulos, 1984).
The illuvial accumulation of clay causes the formation of argilhc horizons
(Soil Survey Staff, 1975), but the evidence in the form of coatings can disappear
when the clay is subsequently absorbed in the matrix (Me Keague, 1983). This
phenomenon is particularly common where swelling clay minerals are present in
the profile and alternate shrinking and swelling occur. The clay tends to accumulate
progressively during time, leading to a gradual thickening of the argillic
horizon (Birkeland, 1974).
The argillic horizon is a persistent feature, produced by processes that can
become irreversible and selfterminating (Yaalon, 1971) and therefore it tends to

194 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL. PO PLAIN
be preserved in the geological record and represents an important marker in the
pedological and soil-stratigraphic studies.
When the argillans and ferri-argillans are not rapidly absorbed by the matrix,
they also show a clear evolution with time: a progressive crystallization of the
iron hydroyides and concurrent progressive destruction of the microlamination
and lowering of the birefingence of the cutans (Brinkman et alii, 1973;
Remmelzwaal, 1978, 1979).
'/.'.■^i.u.t,-r
'”9A-
^-'' V' “i
vT^,-
Hydromorphic features. As discussed by Sevink et alii (1984), water stagnation
inducing pseudogleying, plays and important role also in mediterranean areas. It
is well known that this process is induced by lithology and topographic position
rather than by climate (Duchaufour, 1977). In conditions of poor drainage the
soil can be saturated with water for a prolonged period and iron and manganese
may be reduced (Van Schuylenborgh, 1973). When the soil subsequently begins
to dry, the entrance of oxygen along fissures and large pores causes the oxidation
of iron and manganese which precipitate and form concretions and mottles.
Nodules and concretions are formed more frequently in the upper part of the
horizon affected by alternating reduction and oxidation, while the mottles are
best developed in the lower part of this horizon (Bini et alii, 1977). The
processes connected with pseudogley have been extensively described by Van
Schuylenborgh (1973).
This type of temporary hydromorphism induces the formation of bleached
zones, or tongues, along the major pedfaces through a gradual diffusion of Fe and
Mn into the peds (Bouma et alii, 1968; Soil Survey Staff, 1975). In the upper
part of the bleached tongues, at the passage from the A2 horizon to the Bt
horizon, clay degradation may occur, which leads to transformation of clay 2: 1
minerals into aluminium chlorites and to residual concentration of inherited
kaolinite (Duchaufour, 1983). The clay fraction thus can be partly destroyed and
the sand and silt fractions can accumulate residually.
The argillans that form in such situations are iron depleted, light coloured
and show a low birefringence (grainy cutans) (Brinkman et alii, 1973).
That the characteristic features of the tongues, which are also frequently
observed in the area studied, are brought about by pseudogleying, is generally
agreed upon. However, considerable disagreement exists between various authors
about the origin of the tongues.
Many authors (Bouma et aUi, 1968; Jamagne, 1973; Soil Survey Staff, 1975)
believe that they characterize the later stages of development of lessived soils in
a humid climate.
Other authors (Billard and Fedoroff, 1977) consider the tongues as
indications of degradation of interglacial soils, due to a climatic worsenning at
the beginning of a glacial period or (Billard, 1977) they assume that the cracks
along which the tongues developed are permafrost cracks (polygonal soils).
Fragipan. According to Smalley and Davin (1982) the fragipan can be
described, in agreement with the definition of the soil Survey Staff (1975), and
according to the flow diagram proposed by Thomas et alii (1979), as a

INTRODUCTION INTO THE GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT 195
subsurface horizon of loamy texture (more rarely sandy) which has a higher bulk
density as compared with the upper horizon. It is very hard when dry, and brittle
when moist. It is very low in organic matter and crumbles when immersed in
water. Is shows coarse prismatic structure, bordered by decoloured bands and its
upper limit is clear to abrupt and linear, while the lower limit is gradual.
Micromorphologically it is characterized by a dense packing and low porosity;
the voids have often subsphericaf shape, are mainly intrapedal and are sometimes
coated by argillans, but mainly by matrans, skeletans and siltans. Bridges of clay
connecting the skeleton grains can be observed especially with the scanning
electron microscope (Fitzpatrick, 1976; De Kimpe, 1976; Miller et ahi, 1971;
Payton, 1981). Such characteristics agree with the idea expressed by Sevink
(1974) that the high density of the fragipan comes from the structural collapse of
the soil and the concurrent illuviation of the matrix.
The various hypotheses about the origin of the fragipan can be subdivided
into three great groups: 1) periglacial origin (Fitzpatrick, 1956, 1976; Sevink and
Vink, 1969; Van Vhet and Langhor, 1978); the fragipan would have been
formed in a periglacial environment and be connected with permafrost of which
it would be a fossil evidence; 2 ) the formation of the fragipan is connected with
«normal» soil forming processes; it may have been formed by interparticle
cementation of aluminum, silica and clay bridges (Wang et alii, 1974; Romans,
1976; Hallmark and Smeck, 1979; Steinhardt and Franzmeier, 1979); 3) buried
soil theory (Smalley and Davin, 1982): the hardening of the fragipan can have
taken place beginning from an ancient exposed surface on which pedogenetic
processes acted (for example shrinking and swelling) and which was afterwards
buried by fresh loose material. In this case the fragipan would have formed
mainly because of processes of incipient pedogenesis (see also: Sevink and Vink,
1969). This model is particularly applicable to the fragipans developed in eolian
deposits.
Coarse cutans. This term indicates the cutans composed of fine sand, silt grains
and/or matrix (skeletans, siltans, matrans), that frequently alternate with the
argillans to form composite cutans (Brewer, 1977, Fedoroff, 1979).
They are clearly the result of a strong decrease in structural stability or even
collapse of structure of the upper horizons and concurrent mobilization not only
of the clay, but of the whole matrix or of the coarse part of it (Miller et alii^
1971). They have been described in particular in boreal soils in Canada (see:
Fedoroff and Goldbergh, 1982), in the dernovo podsolic soils (Targulian et alii,
1974) where they are called partcutans. They have also been described from a
series of polygenic soils, dating back to the Late Pleistocene in Western Europe
(Fedoroff and Billard, 1977; Eimberk Roux, 1980; Fedoroff and Goldbergh,
1982). As regards their origin, Nettleton et alii (1969) and Sevink (1974)
suppose that they were generated by wetting and drying cycles, Fitzpatrick
(1956) assumes that they are due to freezing and thawing cycles, while Russian
authors (Targulian) relate them to massive water inputs that occur inside the
dernovo podsolic soils during the periods of snow melting.
The connection between coarse cutans and «boreal» climatic conditions or in

196
PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PUIN
general with large water supplies seems accepted by most authors. When the
cutans are clearly fossil features, they are commonly interpreted as evidence of
cold and sometimes periglacial climatic conditions (Billard and Feroroff, 1977;
Eimberck Roux, 1976; Fedoroff and Goldsbergh, 1982).

10.
THE PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS
IN GRAVELS AND IN DIAMICTON
10.1. THE PARENT MATERIAL
The parent material of this group of soils consist of gravelly sediments. The
gravel is mainly composed of calcareous and silicate rocks (granitoids,
metamorphics, volcanics, quartz-feldspathic sandstones) (Appendix 2, tab. 4).
For the gravel fraction (Appendix 2) the ratio between calcareous and silicate
rocks is 5.5 for the Garda region, 1.1 for the Middle and Recent Diluvium of the
Adda basin and 3.6 for the rocks of the Apennine fringe. The ratio (limestone +
marly limestone)/(sandstone with non-calcareous cement + cherts), a measure
for the silicate residue in the carbonate rocks, is 3.5 for the Apennine fringe, 5.8
for the Adda basin and on the average 30 for the Garda area. It can thus be
concluded that at the Apennine fringe and in the Adda basin, the parent material
contains an important amount of silicate rocks, whereas limestone prevails in the
Garda area.
10.2. CHARACTERISTICS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE HORIZONS
In the gravels of Middle and Early Pleistocene age, subsequent to their
deposition, soil formation occurred. Where a loess and/or colluvial cover is now
absent, either because it never existed or because it was eroded away in later
(historical?) times, the vetusols in the gravels are clearly more or less truncated.
Where a cover of loesses and/or colluvial materials is present, the previously
formed soils in gravel appear to have been truncated to the B horizon or deeper
before being covered. The younger sediments in their turn have been affected by
later soil formation, of the same or similar nature as the previous soil formation.
These soils thus consist of upper horizons in more recent sediments, over lower
horizons in gravels, which together constitute a vetusol. Here only the lower
horizons in gravels will be discussed. The vetusols in Late Pleistocene and
Holocene deposits on the other hand show Ap and B1 horizons developed in
anthropogenic colluvial covers; these overlie the original sediments in which the
B2 and B3 horizons are found (cf. Solferino, Ca Pegoroni, Savignano profiles).
The systematic presence of fragments of bricks and ceramics both protohistorical
and more recent in the B1 horizons demonstrates the anthropogenic

198 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
‘M.
nature of the colluvium and relates their origin to phases of stability and
instability created by the long lasting agricultural use of the area.
The genesis of the B horizons in gravels and diamicton, is more complex.
They show a characteristic sequence from top to bottom:
— B21 horizon: the characteristic feature is the absence of coarse fragments. As
mentioned in section 5.7 and in section 7.5 for the Apennine fringe, the
horizon, in several localities, developed from a pelitic cover, deposited on top
of the gravelly sediments in which the other horizons developed, 'fhe B
horizon characteristics are strongly expressed. These concern in particular the
clay accumulation, the colour, the cutans and the Fe-Mn concretions. The
boundary towards the underlying horizons is linear and clear in the relatively
young vetusols, while it tends to be gradual in the older vetusols;
— B22 horizon: the original gravel is reduced to small and rare fragments of
quartz or chert. The characteristics of a B are strongly expressed. These concern
the clay accumulation and the rubéfaction, the presence of Fe-Mn nodules and
concretions, the structural development of the horizon and locally the presence of
bleached tongues;
— B.51 horizon: the weathered pebbles are clearly distinguishable, the rubéfaction
is always strongly expressed, the plasma prevails over skeleton, clay cutans are
very abundant and systematically cover the pebble surface. Pores and fractures,
due to dissolution of carbonates determine the voids and the pedality;
— B32 horizon: the pebbles, even if decarbonated and weathered usually preserve
their original shape. Rubéfaction and clay illuviation are much less expressed
than in the overlying horizons and decrease gradually with depth. On the other
hand the porosity increases clearly and the skeleton tends to prevail on the
matrix;
— C ca horizon: its characteristic feature is the accumulation of carbonates partly
leached from the overlying horizons.
Where parent material consists of gravel, in phase 1 the C ca horizon contains
carbonate nodules encrusting the lower part of the pebbles, which in phase 2
tend to be cemented. Beginning from phase 3 a petrocalcic horizon develops,
which can reach several metres in thickness. While the lower limit is diffuse,
the upper is generally abrupt and very wavy and has a very irregular karst-like
surface. The trend described is very similar to the development of the calcic
horizons in other pedoclimatic environments, described by Gile et alii (1966),
Flach et alii ( 1969) and Ruellan ( 1968, 1970). The nature of the calcic horizon
also depends to some extent on the lithology of the C horizon: at Solferino for
example due to the impermeability and the strong compaction of the moraine,
it shows an evident laminar structure. In sandy and pelitic sediments (Ghiardo
V, Rivarolo) on the contrary it consists of nodules.
The thickness of the horizons and the depth of the décalcification front (Fig.
90, 91, 92, 93) increase with time but, at a different rate, in each area.
The B22 horizon generally is absent in the first stage of soil development; it
appears in the 2nd or 3rd phase, as a result of strong weathering of the upper
horizons.

THE PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN GRAVELS AND IN DIAMICTON 199
The profiles of the paleosols of the 5th pedogenetic phase have specific
characteristics which cannot be fitted into the model of horizon development
described here for the vetusols developed in gravel.
In the Gavardo profile a VIII B22 horizon is exposed, which is at least 6
metres thick. With regard to its degree of rubéfaction, structure and Fe-Mn
coatings, it differs strongly from those of the phases 1-4. The paleosol S5 of the
Bagaggera basin sequence, which is severely eroded, consists of a shallow B3
which has oxic characteristics and a Cl horizon.
The latter horizon is a saprolite which is sometimes mottled and locally shows
cementation by silica; it passes to the unweathered calcareous rock through a co re
sto n es zone without an intermediate calcic horizon.
Fig. 9 0 - The rates of increasing thickness of the B horizons (Garda vetusols). Thickness indicated
are mean thickness of the various, non eroded, B horizons of each phase.
Fig. 9 0 - Le variazioni di spessore degli orizzonti B (vetusuoli gardesani).

200 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
10.3. WEATHERING OF THE COARSE FRACTION ( > 2 mm)
The décalcification leads to a residual concentration o£ silicate rocks in the
B horizons, (Appendix 2). With progressive weathering also the quartzitic
feldspathic sandstones, volcanic and metamorphic rocks are increasingly attacked |
and are gradually weathered to fine earth ( > 2 mm). Thus, in each profile the j
fragmentation and alteration of stones increase from bottom to top, i.e. form the
B32 to the B22 horizons. The chert clasts which remain after the dissolution of
limestone and the quartz pebbles are fractured and reduced in size.
The concentration of chert fragments with respect to the parent material
increases with time; in the Garda region in vetusols of the phase 1 the ratio is—
about 3, in vetusols of phase 2 about 6, in older vetusols in ranges from 6 to 10.

THE PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN GRAVELS AND IN DIAMICTON 201
Removal of carbonates and concurrent concentration of chert are at the same
time the cause of an important reduction in thickness of soil horizons with
respect to the original parent material. For a limited number of profiles, this
reduction, has been calculated according to the formula of Brewer (1976); chert,
quartz and sandstones with siliceous cement have been chosen as stable matefials.
The results presented in Tab. 1 which are based on a limited number of data,
have only an indicative value. Nevertheless they point to a strong decrease in
thickness of the parent material in particular for the oldest vetusols. The
obtained values are not very different from those calculated by Bornand (1978)
for the vetusols of the Rhone valley.
Fig. 92 - The rates of increasing thickness of the B horizons (Apennine fringe vetusols).
Fig. 92 - Le variazioni di spessore degli orizzonti B (vetusoli del margine appenninico).

202 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN!
Table 1 - Thickness reduction of paleosols in gravel. Q = the parent material quotient (% by weight I
of the stable constituents in the parent material / 12 by weight the stable constituents in *
the present day soil horizons); Vs: volume of present day soil horizons, Vp = volume of ;
the parent material; Ts = thickness of the present day soil horizon; Tp = original
thickness of the parent material.
>
Q Vs/Vp Tp Ts Tp - Ts
m m m
Holocene (Phase 1)
Alps B 31 0.68 0.74 0.72 0.54 0.2
Apennines B 31 0.45 0.49 0.91 0.55 0.4
Upper Pleistocene (Phase 2)
Alps B 31 0.45 0.47 2.13 1.00
B 32 0.47 0.49 4.10 2.00
6.23 3.00 3
Middle Pleistocene (Phase 3)
Apennines B 22 0.11 0.12 6.40 0.70
B 31 0.26 0.27 5.50 1.50
B 32 0.36 0.38 7.90 3.00
19.80 5.20 15
Middle late Early Pleistocene (Phase 4)
Alps B 22 0.12 0.13 19.20 2.50
B 31 0.20 0.20 30.00 6.60
B 32 0.33 0.34 29.40 10.00
78.60 18.50 61
10.4. EVOLUTION OF THE FINE EARTH (See also section 9.1. and Fig. 89)
The unweathered parent material contains a relatively small amount of fine
earth ( < mm), from 30 to 10?i, which largely consists of sand size material.
The fine earth content increases clearly in each profile from bottom to top
and inside each individual horizon, from more recent vetusols to older vetusols
(App. 2, Tab. 3).
In the B 22 horizons of the older phases the percentage of the coarse fraction
is sometimes reduced from 60-70? parent material down to 1?.
In order to evaluate the enrichment in clay of each horizon the clay B
max/clay C-ratio has been calculated (Fig. 94).
The analytically determined horizon of maximum clay content is the B31 for a
great number of vetusols and more rarely the B22. This phenomenon, often in

1
the PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN GRAVELS AND IN DIAMICTON 203
contrast with the field indications, can be due to the strong concentration of iron
hydroxides in the B22 which have not allowed an appropriate dispersion of clay
during analyses.
The increase in clay, distinct already in vetusol and paleosols from the first
pedogenetic phase, tends to increase rather regularly with time. It is slightly
stronger in the Apennine fringe and the Adda area than in the Garda region. The
clay content of the buried soils does not differ considerably from that of the
vetusols of the same phase.
10-
5-
0 -
I I I I I IV
phases
93 - The deepening of the décalcification front.
P'g- 93 - L’approfondirsi del fronte di decalcificazione.

204 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
10.5. MICROMORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS (Tab. 2 and 3)
-"i
Already in vetusols of the first phases the soil matrix is porphyroskelic. This
indicates that already during the first stages of the pedogenetic evolution a
massive production of clay took place.
The plasma is usually rich in iron and rubefied; in the oldest phases often a
redistribution of the iron due to hydromorphism was observed.
The voids mainly consist of interconnected channels, chambers and vughs.
They are particularly developed at the base of the profiles. In the B32 horizons,
and decrease in the upper horizons, especially in the B22t where the planes
dominate.
The plasmic fabric shows significant variations, both inside each profile and
in time. The sepicity of the plasma is strongest in the B21t and B22t horizons
and decreases considerably in the underlying horizons. The soil chronosequences
first exhibit an increase of the sepicity, due to a progressive organization of the
plasmatic structure, while in the oldest profiles (some phases IV, phases V of the
Garda and of the Adda) the plasma is undulic or isotic and very rich in iron, and
shows a polyhedric or glomerular microfabric (pseudosands).

the PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN GRAVELS AND IN DIAMICTON 205
Table 2 - The micromorphological characteristics of the paleosols and vetusols in the Alpine fringe
(legend in Tab. 3).
Alpine Margin - Garda moraines
pedogenic horizon voids plasma plasmic cutans glabulae
phases
fabric
1 B 31 v+ch (cc) clear brown insepic A l(c) Fe Mn (f)
Holocene
2 B 31 V (f), pi (m) brown red mosepic A1 (cc), A2 (f) pap (c)
Upper Pleist.
Acorn (m)
3 B 22 v+ch+pl (c) red brown masepic A1 (c) Fe Mn (c)
Middle Pleist. A com (m) pap (c)
B 31 ch+pl (c) red brown masepic A1 (m) Fe Mn (c)
A com (cc) pap (c)
B 32 ch+pl (c) red brown argillasepic A1 (mm) Fe Mn (f)
A com (c) pap (f)
4 B 22 pi (m) red argillasepic A1 (m) Fe Mn (c)
A com (c)
Middle Pleist.
B 31 pl+ch (cc) red brown argil-insepic A1 (m) Fe Mn (c)
5 B 21 V (c) ch (f) dark red isotic undulic Fe Mn (c)
Late Early «pseudosand » -
Pleist. B 22 V (c) ch (f) dark red undulic A1 (ff) Fe Mn (c)
Alpine margin - Gecco piedmont
Pedogenic horizon voids plasma plasmic cutans glabulae
phases
fabric
1 B 31 ch+chm (cc) clear brown argillasepic A1 (c) pap (ff)
Holocene
Acom (ff)
2 B 22 v+ch+chm (c) brown red vo-mosepic A1 (m) Fe Mn (f)
Upper
Acom (m)
Pleist. B 31 v+ch+chm+pl brown red insepic A1 (c) pap (c)
(c)
Acom (cc)
4 B 21 v+ch+chm (c) red brown argillasepic A1 (c) Fe Mn (c)
Late Early B 22 v+ch+chm (cc )red brown argillasepic A1 (m) Fe Mn (c)
Pleist.
A com (cc) pap (c)
B 31 ch+chm (cc) brown red argillasepic A1 (c)
A com (m)
B 32 ch+chm (m) brown red argillasepic A1 (mm)
A com (c)
5 B 3 v (f) red isotic-undulic — FeMm (f)
Early Pleist.
Late Plioc.

206 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAlhT
7m
1 able i - The micromorphological characteristics of the paleosols and vetusols in the Apcnnine '
fringe. -
Apennine margin
Pedogenetic horizon
phases
voids plasma plasmic
fabric
cutans
glabulae
1 B 21 v+ch (c) clear brown insepic A1 (ff) Fe Mn (c)
Holocene - B 31 v+ch-l-pl (c) clear brown vomosepic A1 (m) Fe Mn (c)
Late Pleist.
A com (f)
2 B 21 v+ch+pl (f) clear brown mosepic A1 (c) Fe Mn (c)
Middle
A com (cc)
Pleist. B 22 v+ch+pl (c) clear brown mosepic A1 (f) Fe Mn (c)
A com (cc)
B 31 v-l-ch (m) brown insepic A1 (cc) Fe Mn (c)
A com (cc)
3 B 21 v+ch-tpl (f-c) red argilbimasepic
A1 (cc), A2 Fe Mn (c)
(cc)
Middle A com (c) pap .(c)
Pleist. B 22 v-l-ch (c) red brown (bi)masepic A1 (m), A2 (f)Fe Mn (c)
A com (c) pap.(c)
B 31 v-tch (m) brown argillasepic A1 (mm) Fe Mn (c)
A com (f)
V = vughs; ch = channels; chm = chambers; pi = planes
A1 = ferri-argillans, A2 = argillans, grainy cutans, C com = complex cutans
Fe Mn = Fe Mn nodules and concretions; pap = papulae
f = few; c = common; m = many.
Illuvial cutans are scarce in the B2 horizons, they increase appreciably in the
B31 and reach their maximum in the B32. This distribution is explained by the
mechanism of deposition of the cutans and by the dynamic nature of the uppermost
horizons. The greatest concentration of illuvial cutans is at the top of the
B3 horizons, because of the secondary porosity and the fragmentation of the
skeleton caused by the décalcification. The amount of argillans is much lower in
the B21t and B22t horizons, although these horizons contain high percentages of
clay. It is well known (Nettleton et alii, 1969; Me Keague, 1983) that swell and
shrink and biological homogenization in these clayey horizons may destroy
existing cutans and lead to their incorporation into the matrix.
The occurrence, thickness and development of argillans increase with time,
while their birefringence and internal lamination increase from the first to the
second phase and then decrease clearly: the cutans loose their lamination, birefringence
and degree of separation from the S-matrix. Complex cutans are characteristic
for the vetusols studied: they consist of skeletans, siltans, matrans, but
these are irregularly alternating with argillans and ferri-argillans. This implies that
i!lii

the PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN GRAVELS AND IN DIAMICTON 207
the process which caused their formation, must have alternated in annual or
seasonal short cycles with the normal process of clay translocation. Considering
the nature of the complex cutans, it seems very unlikely that the coarse cutans are
connected with dramatic phases of soil degradation; on the contrary, they seem
to be a rather normal phenomenon. Among the factors that led to the formation
of the coarse cutans, the alternation of freezing and thawing in the superficial
horizons of the soil and the large water input connected with snow melting seem
to play a major role. In the area studied there are 40-50 days of frost per year and
snow persists for 15-25 days (Ministero dei Lavori Pubblici, 1973). Comparison
of the frequency of complex cutans with the age of the vetusols shows that the
cutans are slightly expressed in vetusols of the first phase (Holocene or Late
Pleistocene) where they occur as matrans and discontinuous skeletans, interbedded
with thin ferri-argillans. Starting from the second phase (Late and Middle
Pleistocene), complex cutans become numerous and strongly expressed; they are
composed of thick, continuous siltans and skeletans and in a smaller amount by
matrans, interbedded with well developed ferri-argillans. Although the coarse
cutans are well developed in vetusols they are absent from the corresponding
buried paleosol (compare, for instance the II B21t horizon of the Bagaggera
1 profile with the corresponding VI B21t horizon of the Bagaggera 3 profile, and
the buried paleosol in the Calvagese sequence with the S. Biagio profile). Coarse
cutans thus are connected with upper horizons of strongly developed soils, i.e.,
having B horizons which are clayey and have a distinct porosity. It must be
stressed that complex cutans are dominant micromorphologic features in vetusols
which have undergone one or more glacial periods.
In the upper horizons (B21t and B22t) of the paleosols of phase 5 the
argillans are almost completely absent and only in the deepest horizons of these
paleosols thin weakly separated ferri-argillans occur.
In the buried paleosol in Flysch in the Bagaggera sequence (phase 5) cutanic
features are developed in VCg horizon, they consist of silica (silans) inside the
pores of the Cl horizon and probably cause the slight cementation of that
horizon.
Micromorphological features related to hydromorphic conditions (glabulae,
cutanic and neocutanic features, mottling and grainy cutans) are generally well
represented in the top horizons of the vetusols; they are clearly due to the poor
internal drainage induced by the high clay content. Fe-Mn concentrations both in
the form of glabules and of cutans are particularly developed in the vetusols of
the Apennine fringe.
Vetusols of Phase 3 in the studied area show prominent pseudogley in the
B21t and B22t horizons.
10.6. RUBEFACTION AND FREE IRON CONTENT
The redness rating index has been calculated, according to Torrent et alii
(1980), for the B22t and B31t horizons, of most of the profiles described in
Appendix 1. The results are represented in Fig. 95.

208 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
In the Apennine as well as in the Alpine fringe, the redness index of the
vetusols increases with time; it must be emphasi2ed that in older vetusols the
higher rubéfaction values are associated with the presence of crystalline hematite
recorded by X ray-analysis (Appendix 4).
Furthermore the rubéfaction curve is systematically higher, for each pedogenetic
phase in the Apennine fringe and in the Garda vetusols than in the
Adda ones. Rubéfaction therefore seems directly correlated with the moisture
regime of the soils, which is xeric at the Appennine fringe and in Garda and udic
in the Adda region (Section 2.1.3).
In the older pedogenetic phases (4 and 5) the redness index is occasionally
lower than in more recent phases; this is due to hydromorphic phenomena which
affect the upper horizons of these soils.
10.7. MINERALOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND CATION
EXCHANCE PROPERTIES
The weathering index (Brewer 1977, see also Appendix 4), calculated on the
basis of the heavy minerals in the sand fraction 250-63 microns, tends to decrease
rather regularly along each profile (from top to bottom), demonstrating the
sensivity of the heavy minerals to the pedogenetic weathering.

THE PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN GRAVELS AND IN DIAMICTON 209
Nevertheless, since the heavy mineral associations vary clearly because of the
difference in composition of the parent materials, the weathering indexes,
calculated from them, cannot have an absolute value. In order to compare the
degree of weathering deduced form the heavy mineral compositions for all soils
of the area, the ratio between the weathering index of the B horizons and that
of the parent material has been calculated for each profile . In this manner effects
caused by the variability of the parent materials are excluded. The weathering
index calculated in this way (Fig. 96) turns out to increase gradually with time
for the four phases, even though the values of some profiles are higher than
normal due to local factors.
The ratios of the vetusols of the GAV 3 unit, for example (see section 4)
point to stronger weathering than those of the corresponding vetusols of the
WI B3 1 horizon
WI C horizon
T g . 96 - I n c r e a s e o f th e w e a t h e r in g in d e x in th e p e d o g e n e tic p h a s e s .
Fig. 96 - L ’a u m e n to d e ll’in d ic e d i a lte r a z io n e n e lle fa si p e d o g e n e tic h e .

210 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL
same pedogenetic phase. This is most likely due to the abundant presence ot'J
pedorelicts originating from the older paleosol of phase 5.
The soils of phase 5, both of the Adda and of the Garda area, strongly differ
from the vetusols of the previous phases and show a much more pronunced
alteration.
The vetusols of the Apennine fringe contain mainly smectite, vermicuUte,
illite, and kandite. Chlorite appears exclusively in the vetusols from the first two
phases, while in those of the third one, especially in the B22t horizon of Ronco _
(loc. 27, see section 7.2.), a slight tendency towards higher kandite contents can
be observed.
The cation exchange capacity is rather high, in accordance with the observed ~
composition of clay minerals.
The composition of the vetusols of the Garda region is similar. Nevertheless
one can observe a higher kandite contents in those of phase 4.
In the Adda vetusols,smectite is present in appreciable amounts only in soils
from the first and second phases while chlorite is present only in the first one.
Vermiculite is particularly abundant in the vetusols of phase 3, while it decreases
in the older vetusols. In the phases 4 and 5 kandite and illite become the
prevailing clay minerals. The cation exchange capacity of the Adda vetusols on
the average it also lower than those of the other regions.
The analyses clearly show that, within each chronosequence, vetusols of the
pedogenetic phases 1 to 4 have a clay mineralogy which shows little change with
time and is largely inherited from the parent material. Transformation and
neoformation of clay minerals apparently play a subordinate role.
However a clear increase in kandite minerals, indicative for a more
pronounced neoformation, has been recorded in the vetusol of phase 5.
In conclusion, clay mineral formation seems to have been rather weak and to
have been dominated by the heritage mechanism (Duchaufour 1977), rather than
by neoformation. It certainly does not exceed the characteristics of the bisiallitic
alteration as defined by Pedro (1968).
10.8. CONCLUSIONS: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE VETUSOLS AND
PALEOSOLS IN GRAVEL AND DIAMICTON
Apart from physical weathering, which although certainly of importance, was
not separately studied here, four main pedogenetic processes have determined the
development of the paleolsols and vetusols of this group during the first four
pedogenetic phases (late Early Pleistocene to Early Holocene):
1 . décalcification of the fine earth, dissolution of the limestone gravel, and
development of a calcic/petrocalcic horizon at the base of the profiles.
2 . rubéfaction.
3. translocation and accumulation of illuvial clay.
4. shght hydromorphy in upper horizons of the profiles.
The décalcification leads to a discernible reduction of the volume of the
parent material and to a release of a considerable amount of clay and iron (hydr)

THE PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN GRAVELS AND IN DIAMICTON 211
oxides. The décalcification develops through soutirage or altération hypodermique
(Bornand, 1978), causing especially at the base of the B32 high secondary
porosity that improves the internal drainage of the soil. This process therefore
tends to enhance itself, causing the progressive lowering of the décalcification
front.
Originally the penomenon takes place at the expense of the loose parent
material; it continues by dissolving the calcic horizon previously formed,
generating the typical features called Geologische Orgeln.
The weathering of the decarbonated fragments proceeds rapidly through the
disintegration of clasts. The heavy mineral analyses testify that the hydrolysis of
the silicate minerals occurs from the early beginning and continues progressively
with time.
Rubéfaction, even if slightly expressed, already exists in more recent soils and
tends to increase in intensity with time. The clay accumulation rate shows a quite
similar trend. The clay minerals are largely inherited and neoformation is at most
weakly expressed. From the beginning on, plasma with sepic fabric develops. The
ferri-argillans are very common, but their distribution varies inside the profiles:
in the B21t and B22t horizons they are often destroyed and incorporated in the
matrix, whereas they are strongly expressed in the B31t horizons. In the latter
they sometimes represent the whole plasma. They evolve with time in a way
comparable to that recorded in the soils of the Maremma Toscana (Ferrari, 1968)
or in Latium (Remmelzwaal, 1979): during the first two pedogenetic phases,
they increase in amount, in complexity and thickness, but already from the third
phase they tend to loose their separation and birefringence.
In time soil formation leads to a thickening of the solum, which can be
subdivided into a characteristic sequence of horizons (Fig. 97): B21t, B22t, B31t,
B32t, C ca. The A horizons, where preserved, have developed in colluvial
deposits lying on erosional surfaces in the top part of the vetusols. The B21t
generally developed in a pelitic layer on the top of gravel.
The well-developed B22t only occurs in soils from the second or third phase
or older, as it is result of a strong disintegration of gravel and of strong
weathering.
Poor drainage, induced by strong clay accumulation in the B21t and B22t
horizons during older phases, leads to the development of hydromorphic features
(pseudogley).
In some cases geomorphological surfaces, which were already subjected to
soil forming processes, were partly buried during glacial periods by very thick
sedimentary covers. This precluded any further soil development. These
stratigraphic situations allow to compare buried paleosols with the corresponding
vetusols and to infer the initial conditions of pedogenesis.
By comparing for example the buried paleosol of Torre di Mocasina (loc, 4)
with the correpsonding vetusol of the S. Biagio profile (loc. 2), and the Copreno
one (loc. 21) with the Ronco Briantino profile (loc. 20), one can observe that
in buried paleosols rubéfaction, clay translocation and disintegration of gravel are
already well developed and similar to the features of the vetusols.
The pedogenetic features produced during a single interglagial period thus do

PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO I

t
XUC the p a l e o s o l s a n d v e t u s o l s in g r a v e l s a n d in d ia m ic t o n 213
not differ qualitatively from those of a vetusol which developed over a longer
time which lasted several glacial periods.
The difference consists mainly in the thickness along which the pedogenetic
features occur, which is much higher in the vetusols and, at a microscale, in the
presence of coarse illuviation which is typical for the upper horizons of these
vetusols.
The expression of most pedological processes increases with time without any
apparent deceleration in the more recent (final) phases: décalcification and clay
translocatoin are still active processes. Therefore the soil system, in any stage of
vetusol development, has losses that largely exceed the gains and has not reached
the steady state as defined by Yaalon, 1971 (see also Bockheim, 1980).
Given strong similarities between parent materials, some of the observed
differences in soil characteristics seem to be related to differences between the
local climates within the studied area.
In the soils of the Adda zone, where at present (section 2.1.2.) the rainfall is
higher and the moisture regime is udic, the décalcification front is deeper, the
accumulation of clay is less, and the hydromorphy of the upper horizons less
developed in comparison with the soils of the Garda and Apennine fringe, where
the present climate is drier and the moisture regime xeric.
Since these differences can be found systematically in each member of the
chronosequences, it is possible that, in non glacial periods during the Pleistocene,
the present differences in climate within the area were already existing.
The buried paleosols of the phase 5 are enclosed in the lower parts of the
Gavardo (GAV 1) (loc. 1), Castenedolo (CAST 2) (loc. 8) and Bagaggera (S5)
(loc. 23) sequences (sections 7.1., 7.3., 7.5).
The stratigraphic evidence indicates that these soils were fully developed, and
did not evolve any more, beginning from the Early Pleistocene.
In fact pedorehcts of those soils have been found in early Middle Pleistocene
moraine (Calvagese) and in fluvioglacial deposits of the same age (Gavardo).
As discussed before, the paleosols of phase 5 are the results of stronger
weathering than in younger soils. From a micromorphological point of view, they
show oxic features (according to Stoops, 1983) but their mineralogical and
chemical characteristics do not reach the requirements for ferrallitic processes (Soil
Survey Staff, 1975; Duchaufour, 1977; Fitzpatrick, 1980) and should be regarded
as intermediate between ferruginous and ferrallitic soils.
Therefore it seems probable that the climate during their formation was
warmer than the present and precipitation might have been higher and more
evenly distributed than it is to-day.
The Bagaggera, loc. (23), (S5) paleosol, however, has some specific
characteristics; it has developed in an erosional surface, cut into the Bergamo
Flysch. Below the B horizon which has clear oxic characteristics, there is a thick
saprolite and a discontinuous silcrete. Therefore it shows better expressed
«tropical» features than other paleosols included in the same phase. As discussed
insection 3.2.7., on the basis of the stratigraphic context, it should be dated back
at least to late Tertiary.

11.
T H E S O I L S A N D V E T U S O L S I N L O E S S
As has already been discussed in section 3.6, the loesses encountered consist
of thin strata which have been affected by pedogenic processes to such an extent
that their original characteristics are obliterated. For information on these
characteristics reference is made to the above mentioned section.
11.1. MORPHOLOGY AND MICRO MORPHOLOGY OF THE SOIL
HORIZONS
The profiles in loess of the Adda area consist (loc. 15, 17, 18, 19, 23) of
several superimposed loess covers.
The vetusols developed in the loesses overlying the «Middle Diluvium»
consist of the following horzons Ap, B l, II B21tx, II B22t (Fig. 98). The Ap +
B1 horizons represent the remnant of the older A1 and A 2, transformed by
agriculmral activities. They correspond to the youngest loess cover, the
discontinuity of which with the underlying loess is indicated by Upper Palaeolithic
artifacts found at Bagaggera (loc. 23).
Micromorphologically these A horizons are devoid of plasmatic separations
and the plasma itself has low birefringence.
The underlying II B21tx horizon shows well developed structure, bleached
interpedal tongues, yellow-brown colours and indications of temporary
hydromorphy (mottling, Fe-Mn nodules). The plasmic fabric ranges from insepic
to masepic. Complex cutans are strongly developed while argillans, locally with
grainy characteristics are also present.
The strong consistence, the presence of bleached tongues arranged into an
hexagonal pattern and the other morphological characteristics allow to classify
this horizon as afragipan (Soil Survey Staff, 1975; Smalley and Davin, 1982). The
pores are particularly characteristic, represented mainly by metavughs.
Wavy patterns of the skeleton grains and zones of washed sand and silt are
also typical for this horizon. At the contact with the underlying deposits , there
is a horizon with marked lamellar structure, consisting of alternating laminae of
reduced and oxidized matrix, separated by argillans and grainy cutans.
This same sequence of horizons is locally present in the top of the loess
covers of the «Old Diluvium» terrace, although there it has often been eroded.
An older cover of strongly weathered loess underneath preserves a B21tx which

216 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
differs from the overlying loess cover in colour and higher clay content. This
horizon however also has characteristics of a fragipan and, from the micromorphological
point of view, it has a more sepic plasma than the upper fragipan. The
ferri-argillans are extremely abundant and locally they cover the metavughs. Also
in this case the wavy patterns and the zones of washed silt are well expressed.
The soils in loess of the Garda region (loc. 6, 7) are similar. At the base of
the profiles there is a colluvial horizon formed by erosion of the underlying soil
(«Fliesserde»: Fraenzle, 1965). The sequence of horizons, which is the same as_
already described for the Adda, is locally truncated by erosion. At Ciliverghe (loc.
7) at least 4 superimposed loess covers with three distinct soils have been
preserved in a morphological depression. The first two have a clear sequum with
similar sequence of horizons (Bl/II B21tx, II B22t, II B23g, III B l, III B21tx).
The B2Itx horizons show clear characteristics of a fragipan.
The lithological discontinuity at the base of the II B21tx, indicated also by
Middle Palaeolithic artifacts in situ, is marked by a horizon consisting entirely of
Fe-Mn concretions. The main micromorphological features are the strong
expression of the complex cutans and of the zones of washed sand and silt and
the fluidal patterns of mica skeleton grains . The hydromorphic characteristics.
C E R N U S C O B IV IO M IS S A G L IA B A G A G G E R A P O R T O D 'A D D A
L O C 17 L O C 18 L O C 2 3 L O C 19

THE SOILS AND VETUSOLS IN LOESS 217
particularly developed in the lower horizons, are represented by areas of reduced
bleached plasma which prevail over the oxidized patches and also by grainy
cutans. The lowermost soil, consisting only of a unique B21t horizon, is slightly
rubefied and, micromorphologically, is rich in thick and well expressed ferriargillans,
alternating with complex cutans.
The profile in loess of the sequence of Torrion della Val Sorda (loc. 6) is
particularly significant, because the overlying moraine of the Solferino phase
prevented it from being affected by post-glacial pedogenesis. From the stratigraphic
point of view it shows the same features as are observed in most loesses of
the Alpine margin. The colluvial component at the base of the profile is gradually
and definitively replaced upwards by loess deposits. In these, evidence for clay
translocation and hydromorphic features are completely absent. The soil is characterized
by the organic matter that gives it a black colour, by a hig porosity with
pores sometimes filled by secondary carbonates and by indications of biological
activity.
The soils and the paleosols in loess of the Apennine fringe (loc. 25, 29, 30,
31, 32, 44) (Fig. 77) also show composite profiles developed in lithologic and
pédologie bisequences. East of the Trebbia River there is the sequence of
horizons A2/B21t/B22cn/II B21t/II B22cn ( or B22 lam.), while west of it
(Merline profile, loc. 32) the upper sequum has a great thickness and consists of
the following horizons: Ap, B21t, B22tx, B23t and B24cn. It represents, in the
Apennine fringe, the only profile with a hardened horizon, with poorly expressed
characteristics of a fragipan. This horizon probably indicates a lithologic discontinuity.
Apart from the Ghiardo profile (loc. 25), in which the A2 horizon is
rather thick and has an abrupt boundary towards the II B21t, the A2 horizons
are generally poorly developed; at microscale they have a silasepic fabric with low
sepicity and sometimes a few fragments of argillans, and show pseudogleying and
Fe-Mn nodules.
The lower limit is gradual: in the Ghiardo Cave II (loc. 29) it is clearly glossic.
The B21t horizon, brown coloured, shows a higher sepicity and an amount of
ferri-argillans sufficient for an argillic B horizon.
The underlying II B21t has a strong structure and bleached vertical tongues.
Its plasmic fabric is highly sepic and it includes a large amount of ferri-argillans.
In the Ghiardo profile, the cutans are poorly expressed due to shrinking and
swelling which led to their destruction.
Thick horizons consisting mainly of Fe-Mn nodules are typical for these loess
soils. They develop along lithological (stratigraphic) discontinuities. Their lower
limit is abrupt, while the upper one gradually passes into the overlying horizon
through a progressive decrease in concentration of nodules. At the Ghiardo Cave
1 (loc. 29), as already discussed (section 7.4.), Acheulean artifacts are included
in the Ben horizon.
The Fe-Mn nodules and concretions are found on the surfaces of the
artifacts: furthermore they contain charcoal of hearths, which acted as nuclei for
crystallization. Therefore the concretions and nodules of the Ben horizons should
be regarded as formed in situ; micromorphologically they show abrupt limits and
are surrounded by a highly sepic matrix.

218 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL
At Collecchio (loc. 44) the Fe-Mn concretions are replaced by a laminar^
horizon, while in the Merline profile (loc. 32) nodules and laminae were“
observed to coexist in the same horizon.
Characteristics intermediate between those of the profiles in loess of the
Apennine and those of Alpine margins are shown by the Isolated Terraces of the
Plain.
The Melotta profile (loc. 37) consists of a monogenetic cover of loess
represented by A2/B21tx/B22tx/B23cn horizons, while the Zorlesco profile
includes a lithological bisequence. Micromorphologically, features due to
hydromorphism prevail and the sepicity of the plasma is low with the exception
of the B23 horizon, where cutans are very poorly expressed. Complex cutans are
abundant, along the whole profile.
1
11.2. TEXTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
The loess has a characteristic grain size distribution: the cumulative curves are
unimodal, with moderate sorting, the median ranging from 5 to 6 phi. The sand
percentage is generally low. The amount of clay ranges from \D°L to 401,
depending on the weathering.
The diagram in Fig. 99 constructed from the grain size analyses of loess,
recorded in this study (about 70 samples), evidences the differences between
fresh or slightly weathered and very weathered loesses which have become poorly
sorted and show an increase in fine silt, clay and sand, and a consequent decrease
of coarse silt (see also Fig. 100).
The clay accumulation rate in the B horizons has been calculated by means of
of the ratio: Clay 1 in the B hor./Clay 1 in the fresh loess (Fig. 101).
In comparison with unweathered loess, the clay increases from 2 to 4 times
in the postglacial soils, and from 3 to 6.5 times in the older vetusols. The
increase in clay content is progressive from the A2 horizon to the B2t, and for
the younger soils it has a similar trend all over the studied area, while the Middle
Pleistocene weathered loesses are clearly richer in clay at the Apennine fringe.
11.3. MINERALOGICAE AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
As already discussed (section 10.7) the variations with depth of the
weathering index, calculated on the basis of the different stabilities of the heavy
minerals, allow to recognize in the profiles the lithologic and pedogenetic
discontinuities (Fig. 102).
The clay minerals consist mainly of illite, kandite, vermiculite and chlorite.
While illite is present everywhere, kandite is mainly found in the profiles of the
Alpine margine. Vermiculite and chlorite tend to concentrate in each profile in
the uppermost horizons and to decrease with depth.
The cation exchange capacity, concurrent with the clay mineralogy, is higher
at the Apennine fringe than in the Alpine one (App. 2, Tab. 2).

the s o ils a n d v e t u s o l s in l o e s s 219
The pH is generally slightly acid (ranging from 5 to 6) in the soils of the
Apennine fringe and tends to increase with depth, indicating a leaching towards
the lower B horizon of cations (Fig. 103). At the Alpine margin it has somewhat
lower values, from 5 to 5.5, and remains constant or even decreases with depth;
lo e s s .
Fig. 99 - C a m p o d i v a r ia b ilitá d e lla te s s itu r a d e i lo e s s : 1 ) lo e ss fre s c o o d e b o lm e n te a lt e r a to ; 2 ) lo e ss
a lte r a to .

220 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
in this area therefore the leaching of cations seems to have been more effective
and deeper.
The rubéfaction is usually absent in the soils in loess; their colours are
generally included in the lO YR and 2.5 Y hue. Only the IV B21 and IV B22
hori2ons of the Cihverghe sequence (loc. 7) show reddish brown colours.
The free iron in the soils in loess ranges from 3 to 52, with maximum peaks
of 11 and 72 in horizons of Fe-Mn concretions. Usually it tends to increase in the
deepest horizons. The ratio Fe/clay in the soils of the Apennine fringe is almost
constant along the profiles; the migration of iron seems to be concomitant with
that of clay.
On the other hand in the soils and vetusols of the Alpine fringe (Fig. 103) it
shows an irregular trend and indicates that the iron, due to hydromorphic processes,
migrates at least partly separately with respect to the clay.
mmâm'..
siK
1 0 0 %
silt
1 0 0 %
silt
100%
Fig. 100 - G r a in siz e o f s o ils a n d v e tu s o ls in lo e s s ; A ) A lp in e lo e s s ; B ) A p e n n in e lo e ss a n d ( t r ia n g le s )
lo e s s o f th e is o la te d te r r a c e s .
Fig. 100 - C a r a tte r i t e s s itu r a li d e i s u o li e v e tu s u o ll s v ilu p p a tis i in lo e s s ; A ) lo e s s a lp in i, B ) lo ess
a p p e n n in ic i e ( t r ia n g o li) lo e s s d e i te r r a z z i is o la ti.

THE SOILS AND VETUSOLS IN LOESS 221
A systematic concentration of iron with respect to the clay occurs at the top
of the fragipan horizons.
11.4. THE MAIN SOIL FORMING PROCESSES IN LOESS
Three main processes contributed to the development of soils in loess:
- décalcification and acidification of the soil;
- translocation of clay and slight transformation of clay minerals;
- release, translocation, reduction/oxidation and precipitation of iron and manganese,
through hydromorphic processes.
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A2
— I-----------1-------------- 1— 11— I------------1----------------1
B1 B21 B22 A2 B21 B22
Upper sequum
Lower sequum
Fig. 101 - Clay accumulation rate.
Fig. 101 - Accumulo dell’argilla.

222 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO P U IN ^
The existence of Ca CO3 nodules in soils underlying the weathered loess
demonstrates that the parent material will have contained a certain amount of
free carbonates. Décalcification has probably been a prime process followed by
the leaching of cations and subsequent acidification of the soil which improved
the conditions for clay translocation.
Clay translocation, well documented both with regard to the granulometry
and the micromorphology, is accompanied by weathering of the clay minerals in
the upper part of the profiles, which part often meets the requirements for an
albic horizon. This weathering is evidenced by the prevalence of vermiculite and
chlorite and by the lower cation exchange capacity. According to Jamagne (1973)
and Duchaufour (1977) the phenomena can be ascribed to a progressive aluminisation
of the clay minerals, which has also been described as a characteristic
feature of ferrolysis (Brinkman, 1969). In particular for the Ghiardo and Melotta
profiles, which are close to Planosols, the latter explanation seems very likely.
The soils developed in loesses in the Apennine fringe have an A2 horizon and
show pronounced hydromorphic features, due to stagnation on the Bt horizon as
well as on Lithological and pedological discontinuities lower in the solum. These
features consist of bleached tongues and of more or less indurated Fe-Mn
nodules, which often occur in more than one horizon. The formation of the
nodular horizons seems to be strongly dependent on the occurrence of profile
discontinuities. The lower horizon developed at the transition from the rubefied
paleosol to the Middle Pleistocene loess. It is clearly related to soil formation,
which started immediately after its deposition. The upper horizon on the contrary
GHIARDO CAVE 1
LOG 29
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
_ j _______ I______j _______ I
BOSCONE
LOG 30
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Fig. 102 - The changes with depth of the weathering index in two profiles in loess (loc. 29 and 30).
Fig. 102 - Variazioni con la profondita dell’indice di alterazione in due profili nel loess.

the s o ils a n d v e t u s o l s in l o e s s
223
Fe/Clay
0,2
0,1
0,07
F6203
% 7
A Adda
O Garda
□ Apennine
4fc Isolated terraces
6
5H
4
3H
2
B21 B22 B23
A2 B21 B22
- Upper sequum ----------
— Lower sequum------
Fig. 103 - Chemical characteristics of soils and vetusols developed in loess.
Fig. 103 - Caratteristiche chimiche dei suoli e vetusuoli sviluppati nel loess.

224 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
n j ^ - T r r f r i r . t v
h d i
;i|
.' I
is clearly related to soil formation which started after the deposition of the Late
Pleistocene loess. Where the Middle Pleistocene loess has been strongly eroded
before being covered, or the Late Pleistocene loess is thin or absent, the lower
and upper nodular horizons may merge into one single horizon. In figure 104
these processes are graphically illustrated.
Locally the nodules constitute up to 802 of the horizon in which they occur.
If present in such large amounts a sedimentary origin would seem likely. In thin
sections the nodules often show abrupt limits, which in the literature is sometimes
interpreted as a proof for the allochtony of the nodules. However the
abrupt limits can also be due to the repeated alternation of oxidation and reduction,
causing a sharp separation between glaebules, high in iron, and iron depleted
matrix, in combination with vertic processes. Proof for such an in situ
formation is that the Palaeolithic artifacts, which are stricly in situ, have been
cemented by the Fe-Mn accumulations (Ghiardo loess, loc. 25, 29, section 7.4.).
As regards the provenance of the iron and manganese, it must be assumed
that lateral transport played an important role. The major reason for this is that
the clay/free iron ratios in the upper parts of the sola are rather constant and
point against a massive removal of sesquioxides from these horizons.
In comparison with the Apennine fringe, the soils from the Alpine fringe
less commonly show distinct nodular horizons and where occurring these are less
pronounced. They are restricted to areas with poor drainage and laterally grade
into laminar horizons. The latter, as are the nodular horizons, are systematically
found at lithological and pedological discontinuities.
In the oldest soils (see for example Bagaggera profiles 2 and 3, section 5.5.)
the laminar horizons consist of laminae high in iron (hydr)oxides and ferriargillans,
and of bleached laminae with a sepic matrix and complex cutans.
Individual laminae can be easily identified. On the contrary, in the less weathered
younger loess (see for example Copreno profile, loc, 21, section 5.3.) the laminar
horizons are less expressed and show far less clay illuviation features, but they
still exist. In these thin bands, oxidized plasma alternates with bands of reduced
plasma and with thin intergranular and iron-depleted argillans.
In the soils in loess of the Alpine fringe, and, at lesser extent, in the Apennine
fringe (in the Piacenza area), numerous fragipan horizons occur, which meet the
requirements as defined in the Soil Taxonomy (1975), by Thomas et alii (1979) and
by Smalley and Davin (1982). They are very frequently connected with buried
surfaces, which can be identified as such by the presence of Palaeolithic artifacts.
The fragipans have a number of micromorphological characteristics in common:
the S. matrix is usually silasepic (more rarely skel-vo-masepic), voids are
rare and consist of vesicular metavughs and coarse cutans abound. In addition the
skeleton, in particular the micas, exhibits wavy patterns associated with areas of
washed silt. These patterns resemble the «structures lenticulaires» described by
Van Vliet and Langhor (1981) and by Dumanski (1964). They are less prominent
than those described by the above mentioned authors, who consider this phenomenon
to be the product of repeated alternate freezing and thawing. Cremaschi
and Lanzinger (1983) observed the same phenomenon in loess wedge casts in the
Trento Alps and here cryogenic processes must be held responsible for its formation.

1
THE SOILS AND VETUSOLS IN LOESS 225
The general sequence of pedogenetic processes in the loesses is clear and is
essentially identical to that in diamicton and gravel in so far as the décalcification,
lessivage and hydromorphism, induced by stagnation, are concerned. The soils in
loess, however, have fragipan horizons. In the literature (see section 9.2.) disagreement
exists on the conditions under which they were formed and consequently
several hypotheses can be formulated on their position within the genetic
sequence.
A genesis as a result of permafrost can be excluded, as any independent
evidence (pollen analyses, paleotemperature reconstructions, permafrost features)
for the occurrence of permafrost in the Alpine fringe lacks.
For several reasons it must be assumed that the fragipans were formed close
to the surface, most probably by repeated alternate freezing and thawing. The
fragipans are so closely associated with buried surfaces within the loesses, that it
is higly improbable that they were not formed near these surfaces in the intervals
between the phases of loess deposition. Climatic conditions during these intervals
should be considered to have had interstadial characteristics: considering the interruption
of the loess deposition, the climate must have been more humid and temperate.
Isohumic soil formation during these intervals is testified by the presence of a thick
chernosem in loess, in the Val Sorda (loc. 6) seguence. The transition to more glacial
conditions, led, in the Val Sorda seguence, to the deposition of a pleniglacial moraine
(Solferino stage). In loess deposited on stable surfaces this transition is accompanied
by a strong increase of the effects of alternate freezing and thawing and
conseguently to fragipan formation. The wavy skeleton patterns, of which the
presumed genesis has been described above, also strongly point such a phenomenon.
On the other hand the paleolithic hunters, whose artifacts occur on these
buried surfaces, are known to have lived in a prairie steppe system (Cremaschi
1979). The absence of isohumic soils in loesses not covered by moraine, can be
easily explained as being due to their obliteration by Postglacial soil formation.
Additional indication for the occurrence of strong alternate freezing and
thawing is the systematic presence in the Garda area, at the base of each
individual loess cover, of deposits described as colluvial in chapter 5, which,
probably, could have been formed by solifluction.
Fig. 104 summarizes the phases of sedimentation and of pedogenesis in loess
for the Alpine fringe and the Apennine fringe. The development of the soils of
the Ghiardo Cave type is indicated separately. In this type of profile, which only
occurs in the Apennine fringe (Ghiardo and Boscone, loc. 25, 26, 29, 30, section
7.2.), the underlying clayey horizons show a gilgai microrelief.
Strong evidence exists that this gilgai relief has been formed before the deposition
of the overlying loess (see chapter 7) during the Last Interglacial Period.
Fig. 104 illustrates that considerable differences exist between the soils of the
Alpine fringe and those of the Apennine fringe. In the Alpine fringe the deposition
of a loess cover is systematically preceded by solifluction, fragipans abound
and hydromorphism is relatively weakly expressed. In the Apennine fringe soils
exhibit more pronounced hydromorphic features and lessivage, and, if with a
clayey subsoil, show features due to strong swell and shrink. These differences

226 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
together indicate that the climate in the Apennine fringe on the whole was
characterized by a more pronunced seasonal contrast than that in the Alpine
fringe. This, at least for the Holocene, fits with the known data on the climate of
the area, discussed in chapter 2 .
loess
se d im enta tion
CR - W 3
weathering
e ro sio n / lo e s s
sedim en tation
lo e s s
s e d im .
H olocen e
weathering
A p
TTTTTfP
A1
G h ia rd o
c la y e y
s u b s o il
L£ci>
g ilg a
" n e t c a v e I
p ro file
n B c n
m B / c
A 2
1 1 TT
B1
Bt
B en
DBt
n B c n
Apennine
lo e s s
o ld e r
Alp in e
lo e s s
Fi£. 104 - Soil forming processes in loess.
Fig. 104 - Process! pedogenetici nei loess.

12.
CONCLUSIONS
12.1. THE QUATERNARY GEOLOGY
The development of the Po basin, surrounded by the Alpine and Apennine
chains, where orogenesis has not yet terminated, is essentially conditioned by the
geodynamic activity of the area. Not only in the Pliocene but also later, in the
Quaternary, the area was unstable; landform and sedimentary facies of the Quaternary
deposits were found to depend strongly on the tectonic development of
the geological structures.
The oldest Plio-Pleistocene continental sedimentation is found at the Alpine
margin: in the Adda area and in the valley in which the Garda lake is situated,
and it is represented by aggrading piedmont fans, already active during the Late
Pliocene. This is the result of the uplift of the Pre-Alps, which is a part of the
greater Villafranchian tectonic phase described by various authors (Gabert, 1962;
Chardon 1-975).
At the Apennine fringe the marine sedimentation continued during most of
the Early Pleistocene and perhaps continued until the beginning of the Jaramillo
event. No products of continental environments of this age has been preserved
in the area investigated, nor inside the Apennine chain of the Emilia region. The
continental sedimentation seems only to have started during the late Matuyama
epoch and shows sedimentological characteristics of an alluvial plain and of
alluvial fans. Within the stratigraphic sequences, pollen data indicate important
climatic fluctuations, which had however no effects on the sedimentary facies.
At the Alpine margin, the late-Early and Middle Pleistocene continental
sediments mostly consist of moraines, fluvioglacial deposits and loess; sedimentation
was therefore strongly determined by the glacial periods.
This sedimentation however, was also conditioned by tectonics, giving rise to
differences in the geographical distribution of glacial and fluvioglacial deposits.
The first of the Pleistocene glaciations during which the glaciers reached the
southern limit of the Alps, goes back to the late Matuyama epoch, probably
post-J aramillo. This is testified by the moraines of the Ciliverghe stage and
probably also by that of Camparada. The latter covers the older fluvial body,
represented by the Ceppo dell’Adda formation, the former overlies presumably
littoral deposits. During this phase, in this area the Como and Garda lakes seem
to have been the only possible paths for glaciers to reach the plain. During the
Brunhes epoch the glaciers reached the margin of the plain four times and only

228 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
for the last two there is clear evidence that they were able to reach the plain also
along the valley of the Iseo and Lecco lakes.
In contrast to the Alpine fringe, in the Apennine fringe no indication was
found for a climatic control of the sedimentary facies: from the late Early
Pleistocene to the middle part of the Middle Pleistocene, alluvial fans and alluvial
plain facies dominate. In time these show a gradual shift from finer to coarser
textured sediments, as a result of the progressive uplift of the margin of the
Apennine fringe. This tectonic activity probably slowed down considerably somewhere
in the Middle Pleistocene and therefore the surface of the large system of
coalescing alluvial fans became stable and a deep soil was formed. Subsequently
tectonic movements increased again, producing the tilting, folding and faulting of
the previously developed surface. During the late Middle Pleistocene, a large
erosional glacis developed cutting the older surfaces; this morphological feature
has been interpreted here as the first evidence of a periglacial morphosystem
occurring at the margin of the Apennines.
Evidence of permafrost lacks completely in the Apennine fringe for this
period, while in the investigated area of the Alpine margin only dubious evidence
has been found; this consists of the ice wedge casts of the Gavardo loess (GAV
2, section 4.1).
Eolian sedimentation is a typical characteristic of the glacial periods at the
margin of the plain. The loesses belonging to the early Middle Pleistocene are
represented by small outcrops at the Alpine margin only. Beginning from the end
of the Middle Pleistocene, during the Late Pleistocene and the Late-Glacial, the
eolian sedimentation affected wide areas in both the Alpine and Apennine
margins, as well as the isolated terraces in the plain.
Three different phases of large scale loess sedimentation could be distinguished.
The first phase dates from the late Middle Pleistocene; deposits from
this phase are mainly encountered in the Apennine fringe. Their Scarcity in the
Alpine fringe may be due to periglacial erosion during later periods.
Loess deposits from the second and third phases generally occur in close
association and both date from the Last Glacial period. Archaeological evidence
points to a Mousterian and an Upper Palaeolithic age respectively (see also
Appendix 7).
The loesses of the second and third phases are mainly found along the Alpine
fringe, while, along the Apennine fringe they are generally thin and discontinuous
and are fully represented only in the Piacenza area. The expansion of the
loess sedimentation over the whole Po basin in the late Middle Pleistocene is
remarkable. Its deposition follows the first presumably periglacial planation phase
in the Apennine fringe (see above). Both phenomena strongly suggest that,
during the glacial phases in this later part of the Pleistocene, the climate of the
Po area became more continental. This could be due to the progressive uplift of
the Tosco-Emilian Apennines, which led to isolation of the Po basin from
Tyrrhenian influences. Losacco (1949), using other kinds of evidence, also assumes
such an uplift.
The number of glacial advances recognized in the Po valley does not stray

CONCLUSIONS 229
much from the classical model of the quadripartite glacial Pleistocene, while it
strongly deviates from the polyglacial theory that assumes eleven glacialinterglacial
cycles for the Brunhes epoch (Fink and Kukla, 1977). The contradiction
is actually only an apparent one as it is well known that the continental
record is incomplete in comparison with the oceanic system (Gibbons et alii,
1984). This incomplete record, at least in the Po area, may have two explanations:
- the area was tectonically active and therefore changes in sedimentation and
sediment composition may be tectonically induced; this tectonic control may
overrule the effects of climatic fluctuations. The sedimentation along the Apennine
fringe during the early Middle Pleistocene forms a typical example of
such a tectonic control;
- the area was at the southern limit of the Alpine ice cap and therefore will have
been reached only during the periods of greatest extension of the glaciers. In
the Alps phases of smaller glacial advances in that case may have left clear
geological indications, but these have then been erased in subsequent periods
of greater advance; or, in the fringe they did not lead to recognized changes in
sediment patterns or in the composition of the sediments.
Isotopic curves of oceanic cores are known to register variations in ice
volume, i.e. in the accumulation of ice on polar caps and on the continents.
Therefore it is generally assumed that the peaks of higher delta O'* values
correspond to periods of greater ice accumulation, during which chances for the
Alpine glaciers to reach the southern margin of the chain evidently were greater.
On the basis of this criterion a tentative correlation has been made between the
glacial phases recognized in this study and the high-resolution isotopic curves,
recently elaborated (V 28-239, DESDP 504; Shackleton and Hall, 1984). These
curves as well as the correlation are presented in Fig. 106.
Paleomagnetic evidence and stratigraphic correlations, already discussed in
section (8.1. strongly support the correlation between the Early Pleistocene
Ciliverghe glacial stage and the related glacial evidence of the Adda area with the
isotopic stage 22. Little doubt also exists on the correlation of the Late Pleistocene
Solferino glacial stage the corresponding Merate moraine (Fig. 13) and
related deposits dated by radiocarbon analyses and by geomorphological evidence,
with isotopic stages 2 and 4.
As discussed in section 1.4.2. it is not possible to exactly date the pede-
Alpine moraines and related glacial deposits of Middle Pleistocene age. Therefore
their correlation with the isotopic stages is tentative and is based on the assumption
that the piedmont moraines of the South-Alpine glaciers have been formed
in periods of maximal glaciation of the Alps. This is in accordance with the
theoretical model by Gibbon et alii (1984). In this way the Faita stage, which is
dated as of early Middle Pleistocene age, can be correlated with isotopic stage
16. In the same manner the Sedeña stage ,which dates from the Penultimate
Glacial is correlated with isotopic stage 6. The Carpenedolo stage, of which the
age is intermediate between the Faita stage and the Sedeña stage, thus probably
correlates with isotopic stage 12.
Assuming that the foregoing correlations are correct, this would mean that

230 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
the isotopic stages 8, 10, 14, 18 and 20 left no traces in the Quaternary stratigraphic
record in the central Po-valley.
The results of this study in so far as the Quaternary geology is concerned,
therefore point to a general agreement between the paleoclimatic record, as
inferred from deep-sea cores, and the pede-Alpine Quaternary stratigraphy. Only
major phases of ice accumulation seem connected with major glacier advances.
The part of the Alpine fringe, described in this thesis, thus might be considered
as a regional demonstration of the theoretical model of Gibbon.
V 28-239
EQUATORIAL PACIFIC 03°
à '°0%ovs PDB
DSDP Hole 504
PANAMA BASIN 01°
SO IL D EV ELO PM EN T
PO VALLEY
ADDA GARDA APENNINE
I'
G L A C IA L PERIODS
ADDA GARDA APENNiNt
A Solferino A
A Sedeña A
I I
A Carpenedoio
A Falta
A Ciliverghe
Fig. 106 - Correlation between glacial stages, pedogenetic phases in the Central Po plain and ocean
isotopic records.
Fig. 106 - Correlazione fra le fasi glaciali, le fasi pedogenetiche della pianura padana centrale e
le curve isotopiche oceaniche.

CONCLUSIONS 231
12.2. THE SOIL FORMING PROCESSES
The soils, vetusols and paleosols studied can be divided into two major
groups. The first group comprises buried soils, dating from Late Tertiary to Early
Pleistocene. These soils exhibit features characteristic for soils which are intermediate
between ferruginous and ferrallitic soils. The second group comprises fersiallitic
soils, developed in deposits of wideley varying age, i.e. from late Early
Pleistocene to Early Holocene (Atlantic). These soils together form post-incisive
chronosequences (Vreeken, 1974) the most ancient of which begin at the end of
the Matuyama epoch. The soils formed after the Early Holocene are marked by
their limited profile development and by redistribution of carbonates and as such
constitute a separate group. In the following text the youngest soils will be
treated first. It should be realized that the Holocene time-scale is of the order of
some thousands of years only, the Pleistocene scale should be read in tenthousands
to hundred-thousands. The Pliocene to Early Pleistocene scale must be
read in hundred-thousands to some millions of years.
The Post-Atlantic soils. Although the present climate seems compatible with the
argilluviation and rubéfaction processes which characterize the second group of
soils mentioned above, features deriving from these processes have not been
observed in the post-Atlantic soils of the area. These limited indications of soil
development are probably due to the strong man-induced erosion of the soils,
which already started in the Bronze Age.
The late Early Pleistocene to Early Holocene soils. The soils developed between
the late Early Pleistocene and the Early Holocene, as discussed in chapter 10,
resemble each other strongly with regard to their pedogenetic characteristics, i.e.
they are fersiallitic soils. Therefore they are considered to represent stages in a
progressive pedogenetic evolution («cycle long» of Duchaufour, 1983) rather
than a summation of vairous pedogenetic processes connected with different pedoclimates.
The latter, which is the essential characteristic of polygenetic soils, has
thusfar not been observed here.
The observations discussed in this study strongly indicate that the pedoclimate
during the interglacials did not differ from that during the Atlantic, i.e. it
will have been of the mediterranean type. This is in fair agreement with the
present concepts on paleoclimates in the mediterranean area (see chapter 2a).
The presence of erosional surfaces, of loess covers, and of colluvial deposits
in the upper parts of these profiles, seems to be in contradiction with the model
of a progressive evolution of the soils. These phenomena are products of periglacial
morphosystems, which even might have interrupted the soil forming processes
and may have changed their general trend. Nevertheless the contradiction
is only apparent. In fact o'nly the upper part of the profiles was affected by
degradational processes, causing slight erosion and, at microscale, coarse illuviation,
or by deposition of thin loess covers. The lower parts, on the contrary,
deepened progressively by décalcification, weathering of silt, sand and silicate
gravel and by clay translocation, acting at ever lower depth.

232 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
The fact that the soil development has not been more severely hampered
during the glacial periods is somewhat surprising, but is considered to be due to
the specific climatic conditions in the area studied (Fig. 105). In fact, unlike the
conditions in Central and Western Europe, permafrost did not occur and the
WESTERN EUROPE
m e a n
annual
interglacial
forest
boreal forest
steppe
tundra
polar desert
soil d evelopm ent
p erm afrost
s o liflu c tio n
soil developm ent
m e a n
NORTHERN ITALY
annual
in te rg la cia l
forest
Pinus forest
steppe
. ru b e fa c tio n / ferrolysis
local e ro sio n
Fig. 105 - Comparison of the soil development during a Glacial-Interglacial cycle, between Western
Europe and Northern Italy (after: Bowen, 1978, van der Hammen, 1979).
Fig. 105-1 process! pedogenetici nell’arco di un ciclo glaciale-interglaciale; raffronto fra TEuropa
occidental ed il Nord Italia.

CONCLUSIONS 233
climatic conditions during the glacial periods were generally milder due to a
geographic isolation which was comparable to that of today.
The resulting differences in vegetation can be described as follows: to the
North of the Alps, during the glacial periods the temperate forest was replaced
by a tundra-steppe and sometimes by a polar desert. In the Po plain the mixedoak
interglacial forest was replaced by a Pinus forest and grasslands and steppes
existed only in narrow belts along the margins of the plain.
Because of the absence of permafrost and the presence of a protective vegetational
cover, sohfluction and periglacial erosion in the Po plain were of very
minor importance. This is in contrast to the situation in a great part of Europe
where they were the cause of severe erosion, including complete removal of the
previously developed soils.
Coarse illuviation and related degradational processes occurred due to the
intense alternate freezing and thawing, the higher precipitation and longer lasting
snow covers, but these processes affected only the upper part of the profiles.
Clear indications exist that in the loess isohumic soils were formed, during
interstadials which degraded into fragipan in subsequent glacial conditions. During
non-glacial periods lessived soils marked by pseudodogley developed and this
obliterated many of the previously acquired characteristics. These soils are characterized
by décalcification and lessivage, but they lack rubéfaction because of the
poor internal drainage of the parent material.
It can therefore be concluded that although the processes will have acted at
different rates, the general trend in pedogenesis in soils in the stablc^urfaces was
not interrupted.
Although all soils exhibit the same general trend, this does not imply that
within the area studied slight differences in soil formation did not exist. On the
contrary, presumably climatically controlled regional differences in soil formation
occur in all members of the chronosequences. The most evident differences are:
— more pronounced pseudogley in the Apennine fringe, in the soils in gravel as
well as in loess, to be attributed to a climate with a stronger seasonal contrast;
— more pronounced and moife frequent development of fragipans in the Alpine
fringe, to be attributed to lower temperatures in glacial periods close to the
glacier front;
— deeper décalcification in the Adda area, to be attributed to higher precipitation
rates.
The explanation given for these phenomena conforms with the present day
climatic differences in the area studied and thus suggests that similar variations
also occurred during the Pleistocene.
The Tate Tertiary to Early Pleistocene soils. The paleosols buried in the lower
part of the Gavardo, Castenedolo and Bagaggera sequences represent soils formed
over a very long period of time (see above). They owe their characteristics
to pedogenetic processes which were active in the Late Tertiary and Early
Pleistocene only: the soils show characteristics intermediate between ferrallitic
and ferruginous soils and must have been formed in a more tropical climate, i.e.

234 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO
t
with higher temperatures and higher summer precipitations (weaker seasonal
contrast in precipitation) than prevail in today’s mediterranean regions.
Comparison of these pedoclimatic conditions with those occurring later in the
Pleistocene leads to the conclusion that somewhere in the Early Pleistocene a
break in the paleoenvironmental evolution occurred: during the Early Pleistocene
(Pre Jaramillo) a more or less tropical climate prevailed, while the Middle and
Late Pleistocene were characterized by climates of a more mediterranean type; the
latter frequently alternating with glacial periods.
Isotopic and faunal studies by Cita and Ryan (1972) led these authors to
distinguish a Preglacial Pleistocene from a Glacial one. Similar conclusions were
drawn by Ruggeri et alii (1984) and Rio et alii (in press) on the basis of studies
of mediterranean microfaunas. They can also be drawn from recently published
high-resolution isotopic curves (Shackleton et alii, 1984; see Fig. 106).
Comparison of these results shows that the transition is generally assumed to
have taken place at the end of the Early Pleistocene, which agrees very well with
the conclusion based on the evidence presented by the paleosols and vetusols.
12.3. THE VETU SOT CONCEPT
A major conclusion of the discussion on the genesis of the late Early Pleistocene
and younger soils constituing the post-incisive chronosequences, is that
these soils are not paleosols in the sense of the definition by Yaalon (1971). They
are pedogenetic bodies still in evolution, and undergoing the same or similar
processes from their start up to the present time i.e. in this case the dominant
process of ferri-argilluviation. Such soils very closely approach the etimon «vêtus»
(Latin: old), they are very old soils developed without an important break
in their pedogenesis. The existing nomenclature for paleosols and soils is inadequate
for these soils (see section 1.3.). Therefore the term «vetusol» is proposed
and used in this thesis to characterize those soils meeting the requirements
described above. Vetusols are frequently encountered in mediterranean areas and
have been described from various parts of mediterranean Europe. The introduction
of this concept facilitates the distinction of four different categories of
profiles and materials which contain indications of soil formation in the past.
— (buried) paleosols: soils the development of which took place during some
period or periods in the past, and is not active any more to-day, due to deep
burial inside stratigraphic sequences.
— pedorelicts: materials containing retransported remnants of past pedogenesis.
— polysols = «polygenetic soils»: soils which show pedogenetic phenomena
from two or more periods with marked differences in one or more of the soil
forming factors e.g. climate.
— vetusols: soils actually at the surface, which underwent the same or very
similar processes of soil formation over a generally long period of time, including
at least some part of the Pleistocene.

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APPENDIX 1; Descriptions of individual profiles.
For each profile, the location with reference to IGM 1:100.000 sheets (long. N, and lat. W of
Monte Mario), altitude, and geomorphological setting is indicated; numbers of the profiles refer to
the map in Appendix 6.
All colours have been determined when moist; the horizons are free of carbonates, unless
stated otherwise.
Alpine fringe
Garda area
Gavardo profiles - F 47 Brescia, 45°34’24”, 2°01’23”; 150 m a.s.l.; on the western wall of a
large clay pit of the Ferreti Fornace, 250 m North-West from Cascina Fienile, small locality close
to Gavardo; the quarry wall cuts the margin of a shallow terrace scarp, the Gavardo profile has
been described at its base, the Gavardo 2 profile at its top.
loc. 1. Gavardo 1
Ap -I- B 1 (Gav 7) 0 - 130 cm : brown (10 YR 5/3) silt loam; few small quartz and chert stones;
weak medium prismatic, many fine and medium pores, moderately firm, common allochtonous
Fe-Mn nodules; at the lower boundary a stone line, composed of gravels and Roman age
bricks; clear and linear boudary to:
II B2 t (Gav 6) 130-330 cm : strong brown (7.5 YR 5/6), brown mottles (10 YR 4/4), silty clay
to silty clay loam in the lower part; well developed medium prismatic, common fine pores,
firm, common Fe-Mn nodules, common thin clay cutans, common thin vertical bleached
tongues; clear and linear boundary to:
III C (Gav 5) 330-510 cm : greenish grey (5 G 6/1) lacustrine silty clay; massive; firm; few pores,
common angular cherry and crystalline stones; clear and linear boundary to:
IV B31t (GAV 4) 410-570 cm : yellowish red (5 YR 5/6) silty clay, few quartz, cherty and
weathered crystalline stones, increasing in number and size at the base of the horizon, well
developed medium angular blocky, firm, common pores, many red clay cutans; common
ferri-mangans, gradual boundary to:
IV B32t (Gav 4) 570-680 cm : yellowish red (5YR 4/6) clay loam, many stones, weak fine angular
blocky, moderately firm, many small pores, very common clay cutans common
ferri-mangans and nodules; boundary not exposed.
Gavardo 2: the profile has been described 50 m N from the Gavardo 1 profile, at the top of the
terrace scarp; the upper part, including the (AprfBl) and possibly the II B2 t horizons of
the Gavardo 1 profile have been removed by quarry works.
V B22t (Gav 3) 0-200 cm : dark red (2.5 YR 3/6) silty clay; common red fine faint mottles, few
very small angular chert stones; well developed; compound coarse prismatic and medium
angular blocky; firm; common discontinuous Fe-Mn cutans, and red (2,5 YR 4/6) ferriargillans;
clear boundary to:
V B31t (Gav 3) 200-315 cm : reddish brown (2.5 YR 4/4) to dark red (2,5 YR 3/6) silty clay;
many rounded large to small very weathered crystalline and metamorphic stones; well
developed medium angular blocky; firm; few small pores; common black irridescent Fe-Mn
cutans; many red continuous ferri-argillans; clear boundary to:
V B32t (Gav 3) 315-350 cm : yellowish red (5 YR 4/6) clay loam; very many rounded large

250 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
stones, weakly developed medium blocky, common pores, moderately firm, few discontinuous
ferri-mangans, common clay cutans; gently wavy abrupt boundary to:
VI B/C (Gav 2) 350-450 cm ; strong brown (7.5 YR 4/6), mottled (5 YR 4/6) silty clay loam,
strongly developed platy (laminae about 5 mm thick, showing wedge shaped and undulated;
pattern), few pores, firm; black irridescent branching Fe-Mn cutans on laminae surfaces,^
few yellowish red (5 YR 4/6) clay cutans; at the top, continuous iron oxides pan about 1
cm thick; wavy sharp boundary to:
VII B21t (Gav 1) 450-630 cm : dark red (2.5 YR 3/6) silty clay, well developed coarse prismatic,
very firm; few small pores, many continuous iridescent ferri-mangans on peds surfaces; few
red (2.5 YR 4/6) clay cutans; gradual boundary to:
VII B22t (Gav 1) 630-850 cm : red (2.5 YR 4/8) silty clay, very rare small angular chert
fragments, well developed compound coarse prismatic and blocky; very firm, few small
pores, many continuous ferri-mangans, many clay cutans; gradual boundary to:
VII B23t (Gav 1) 850-100 cm dark red (2.5 YR 3/6) silty clay, mottled, rare small angular chert
fragments, well developed coarse prismatic due to large slickensides, few small pores,
common ferri-mangans, few large clay cutans in interpedal fissures; boundary not exposed.
loc. 2 San Biagio profile; F48 Peschiera del Garda, 44°35’30”; 1°59’05”; 350 m a.s.l.;
S. Biagio, 200 m E from the S. Biagio cemetery, along a road cut; on the S - SE slope of a
moderately eroded moraine ridge, belonging to the Monte Faita Glacial stage.
A1 0-50 cm : yellowish brown (10 YR 4/4), strong brown (7.5 YR 4/4) loam; common small
quartz, chert, metamorphic and hmestone stones, weak granular to fine blocky friable,
common pores, weakly calcareous; clear linear boundary to:
II B22t 50-200 cm : dark red (2.5 YR 3/6) clay, few small chert and quartz fragments increasing
in number in the lower part of the horizon; well developed medium angular blocky, veiy'
firm, few pores, common small slicken sides, many continuous clay cutans; gradual
boundary to:
II B31t 200-360 cm : dark red (2.5 YR 3/6 - 5 YR 3/6) sandy clay, common very weathered
stones (mainly chert), medium angular blocky; moderately firm, common pores, common
dark red clay cutans (2.5 YR 3/4); few ferri-mangans; clear boundary to:
II B32t 360-410 cm : dark reddish brown (5 YR 3/4) clay, many weathered stones (chert,
metamorphic, volcanic and crystalline rocks) the largest decalcified marly limestones still
have a calcareous core; massive to friable, common pores, common clay cutans; clear to
sharp, wavy boundary to:
II Cca; 410-450 cm : pink (5 YR 7/3) sandy loam, many fresh stones (limestone, chert and marly
limestone, metamorphic, crystalline and volcanic rocks), massive, very firm, many pores,
calcareous many soft carbonatic concretions, slightly cementing the stones; boundary not
exposed.
loc. 3 Mocasina profile; F 47 Brescia 45°31’46”; 2°01’55”; 213 m a.s.l.; Mocasina, in a construction
pit, a few hundred metres E of the village, very eroded moraine ridge belonging to Carpenedolo
glacial stage, gently rolhng landscape.
Ap 0-50 cm dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/6) silt loam; common mainly cherty stones, weak
medium blocky, sUghtly firm, common small pores; gradual boundary to:
B1 50-80 cm brown to strong brown (7.5 YR 5/6, 5/4) silt loam few small cherty angular
fragments, moderately developed medium angular blocky, firm, small pores, few
discontinuous clay cutans; gradual boundary to:
II B21t 80-140 cm brown (7.5 YR 5/4) silt loam; well developed medium and coarse prismatic,
firm to very firm; small pores; common and continuous argillans, common vertical thin
bleached tongues; clear to sharp boundary to:
III B22t 140-190 cm brown (7.5 YR 5/4) silty clay, many medium and small chert fragments,
medium blocky, firm to very firm; few small pores, many brown red clay cutans (5 YR
4/6); clear linear boundary to:
IV B31t 190-270, dark reddish brown (5 YR 3/3) clay loam, common chert, quartz and very
weathered metamorphic stones, strong medium and coarse blocky; very firm, very few

a p p e n d ix 1
251
pores, common slicken-sides, common ferri-mangans, common clay cutans; dear wavy
boundary to:
IV Cca 270-320 cm ; brown (10 YR 5/3) sandy loam, many fresh limestone, cherty limestone,
marly limestone, metamorphic volcanic and crystalline stones; massive; firm, common
pores; weakly cemented; calcareous; boundary not exposed.
loc. 4 Torre dt Mocasina profile’, F47 Brescia; 44°31’52”; 2°02’3”; 180 m a.s.l.
Torre di Mocasina, in the steep gully erosion W of the village; the buried paleosol is developed in
the top of till (stratigraphic unit, CH 5) and covered by fluviatile gravels (CM 4).
B 31t 0-70 cm : red, brown red (2.5 YR 4/4, 4/6) clay, common stones (mainly, cherty and
quartz fragments, and very weathered metamorphic, crystalline and volcanic rocks), well
developed medium blocky; few pores, common slikensides, firm, common clay cutans,
common CaCO, nodules, slightly calcareous; upper boundary clear and linear, lower
boundary gradual to:
B 32t 70-140 cm : reddish brown (5 YR 4/4) many stones (chert, metamorphic and volcanic
rocks) sandy clay, weakley developed fine blocky; slightly firm, common pores, few
argillans; clear to sharp wavy boundary to:
Cca; 140-180 cm : fresh gravel, hardly cemented by CaC03, calcareous, hard, common pores,
boundary not exposed.
loc. 5 Terzago profile; F48 Peschiera del Garda, 45°32’27”; 20°0’00”, 240 m a.s.k;
Terzago, in a construction pit; strong eroded moraine ridge belonging to Carpenedolo glacial stage;
gently rolling landscape.
Ap 0-30 cm : dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/6) silt loam, few chert and brick fragments; very
weak subangular fine and medium blocky, common pores, slightly firm; clear boundary to:
B21t 30-150 cm : brown (7.5 YR 4/4) mottled silt loam, very weak fine medium angular blocky,
firm, common pores, few Fe-Mn nodules and clay cutans; gradual boundary to:
II B22t 150-170 cm : brown (7.5 YR 4/4) silt loam, many chert and quartz fragments, firm,
common pores, massive, many clay cutans; linear sharp boundary to:
III B22t 170-200 cm : red (2,5 YR 4/6) clay loam, few small chert and quartz fragments, well
developed medium and coarse prismatic to blocky; firm to very firm, few pores; common
clay cutans, few slicken-sides, few thin vertical bleached tongues; gradual boundary to:
III B31t 200-300 cm : yellowish red (5 YR 4/6) sandy clay, few to common (increasing with the
depth) very weathered chert, quartz, metamorphic and volcanic stones; very weak medium
prismatic; firm; common pores; common clay cutans; boundary not exposed.
loc. 6 V'al Sorda profile; F48; Peschiera del Garda 45 32’55”, 1 42’14 ; 210 m a.s.l.;
Val Sorda, deep fluvial incision 500 m W from Incaffi; the buried paleosols are included in a
complex stratigraphic sequence, observed on the right side of the valley (see section 4.6); they are
covered by a thick till of Upper Wiirmian age (Solferino stage).
Al/C 0-375 cm : dark grey (upper part) to dark brown, to brown (lower part) (10 YR 4/1, 10
YR 3/3, 10 YR 4/3) silt loam, well developed very coarse prismatic fine blocky, firm to
very firm, common small pores, calcitans in pores, non calcareous to slightly calcareous
mainly at the top; upper boundary sharp and gently undulating; lower boundary gradual to:
II Cl 375-500 cm : reddish brown (5 YR 4/3) silt loam, common small chert fragments, well
developed, fine angular blocky, common calcitans on ped faces, firm, few pores, slighly
calcareous; clear boundary to:
III C2 500-580 cm : brown (7.5 YR 4/4) sandy silt loam, common small mainly cherty angular
stones, weak fine blocky firm, common pores, slightly calcareous; linear clear boundary to:
IV B31t 580-633 cm : dark reddish brown (5 YR 3/3) clay; common stones (slightly weathered
metamorphic and volcanic rocks and chert); well developed medium blocky; firm, few
pores, common ferri-mangans in the upper part of the horizon, common slickensides mainly
in the lower part of the horizon, common to many clay cutans; slighty calcareous at the top;
clear wavy boundary to:
IV Cca 633-669 cm : very many fresh stones (limestone, cherty limestone, metamorphic and

252 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
volcanic rocks); strong brown (7.5 YR 5/6) loamy sand; massive; many pores; slightly firm;
common to many calcareous nodules; calcareous; boundary not exposed.
■ Y i - . i ; ^
loc. 7 Ciliverghe profile; F47, Brescia, 45°28’51”; 2°06’32”, 160 m a.s.l.; the profile has been
described along the motor-way Bresica-Lonato, where it cuts the southern part of the Ciliverghe
terrace, about 2000 m S from Ciliverghe village; Middle and Early Pleistocene deposits (Appendix
6) outcropping from the Late Pleistocene alluvial plain. The surface, originally gently undulating is
now strongly modified by quarry works.
Ap 0-30 cm dark brown (7.5 YR 4/4) silt loam; well developed fine blocky many pores, friable;
gradual boundary to:
B1 30-100 cm : dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/4) silty clay loam weakly mottled, well developed
medium blocky, common small pores, firm, few thin and discontinuous clay cutans, few
Fe-Mn nodules; gradual boundary to:
II B21tx 100-194 cm : dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/4) silty clay loam, strongly developed
medium prismatic to blocky; common small pores; very firm; common, one centimeter
wide, vertical tongues (yellowish brown 10 YR 6/6, the margin, light yellowish brown 10
YR 6/4, the inside part), crossing the horizon and branching out in its lower part; common
thick and continuous clay cutans clear linear boundary to:
II B22 cn 184-195 cm : very many Fe-Mn nodules, moderately firm, sharp boundary to:
II B23g 195-305 cm : light yellowish brown (2.5 Y 6/4; 10 YR 4/4) light brownish gray and
reddish brown (7.5 YR 6/6 mottles), silty clay loam, weakly developed coarse blocky; firm,
few pores, common clay cutans, common soft Fe-Mn nodules; clear lower boundary;
laterally the horizon becomes shallower and is replaced by:
II B 24 245-305 cm : strong brown (7,5 YR 5/8) silt loam; very weackly developed blocky; slightly
firm; common pores; many clay cutans on the structural surfaces; clear boundary to:
III B1 305-350 cm : brown 7,5 YR 4/4 silt clay loam, very weakly developed fine blocky, firm to
very firm, common to many ferri-mangans, few discontinuous clay cutans, clear boundary
to:
III B21 tx 350-500 cm : strong brown (7,5 YR 5/6), common brown mottles (7,5 YR 5/4), silty
clay loam; few chert fragments, coarse and medium angular well developed blocky, very
firm to firm, few pores at the top common in the lower part, common vertical tongues large
at the top 2-3 cm; branching out at the bottom, in an horizontal surface; they show
recticular pattern (brown margin 7,5 YR 5/4; grey internal part 10 YR 7/2); common to
many argillans mainly in the tongues; gradual boundary to:
IV B21 t 0-150 cm : yellowish red (5 YR 4/6) silty clay loam to silty clay, well developed coarse
and medium angular blocky; firm; common small pores, common ferri-mangans; common
to many clay cutans; common thin vertical tongues, gradual boundary to:
V B22 t 150-270 cm : yellowish - dark red (5 YR 4/6 - 2.5 YR 3/6) clay, few chert fragments,
very well developed, fine and medium angular blocky, very firm, few pores, many
ferri-mangans and argillans, clear boundary to:
V B31t 270-400 cm; dark reddish brown (2,5 YR 3/4) clay, common to many weathered stones
(decalcified sandstones, chert fragment, metamorphic and volcanic rocks) friable, firm,
common few pores; common small slicken-sides, common to many argillans; very wavy
sharp boundary to:
V Cca 400-470 cm; unaltered gravel (cherty limestone, calcareous sandstones, volcanic and
metamorphic rocks) stronghly cemented; boundary not exposed.
loc. 8 Castenedolo prefile; F47 Brescia, 44°27’41”, 2°10T8”, 120 m a.s.L; in a large clay pit NW from
the Castenedolo cemetry; gently undulating upper surface of the Pleistocene terrace, part of the B
horizons and the overlying loess cover have been removed by quarry works.
B31t (CAST 4) 0-30 cm : yellowish red (5 YR 4/6) clay loam, few to common chert fragments;
medium angular blocky, firm, common few pores; common to many ferri-mangans and clay
cutans, few small tongues; clear boundary to:
B32t (CAST 4) 30-110 cm : reddish brown sandy clay loam, common very weathered stones

a p p e n d ix 1 253
(cherty, volcanic, crystalline and metamorphic rocks) medium well developed angular
blocky, few pores, common to many argillans; sharp linear boundary to;
II C (CAST 3) 110-210 cm : strong brown (7,5 YR 5/6) mottled sandy loam, few small stones in
the lower part of the horizon, massive to weak platy, few pores, slightly firm, red (2,5 YR
5/6) argillans, common ferri-mangans; at the bottom one centimeter thick iron pan; wavy
boundary to:
III B21 (CAST 2) 210-310 cm : loamy clay, yellowish red (5 YR 4/6), very few small chert stones,
strongly developed coarse primatic and fine angular blocky; very firm, common pores; many
iridescent continuous ferri-mangans, few red (2,5 YR 5/6) argillans, common Fe-Mn
nodules, gradual boundary to:
III B22 (CAST 2) 310-400 cm; red, dark red (2,5 YR 3/6, 4/6) clay, chert fragments from few to
common (at the bottom), well developed coarse blocky and fine angular blocky, firm, few
pores, common discontinuous ferri-mangans, common slickensides; boundary not exposed.
loc. 9 Solferino profile; F 48 Peschiera del Garda, 45°22’04”, 1°54T8”; 121 m a.s.l.; on the right side
along the road Solferino - Castiglione delle Stiviere, in localita Fornace, in a construction pit, in a
small valley, cut into the moraine ridge. Part of the A horizons has been removed by quarry works.
A 11 0-42 cm : brown (7,5 YR 4/4) sand silt loam, common small to medium and common
rounded stones, more frequent in the lower part of the horizon; weak fine angular blocky;
few pores; moderately firm; calcareous; gradual boundary to:
II A12 42-103 cm ; dark reddish brown (5 YR 3/2) clay loam; common small and very small,
slightly weathered broken stones; moderately developed fine granular, common pores,
slightly firm calcareous; gradual boundary to:
II B31 103-155 cm : dark reddish brown (5 YR 3/3) clay loam, common small and slightly
weathered stones, strongly developed fine subangular blocky; common pores; firm; very
slightly calcareous; gradual boundary to:
II B32 155-223 cm : reddish brown (5 YR 4/4) clay loam, common small and medium slightly
weathered broken stones; strongly developed fine angular blocky; common fine and medium
pores; firm; small common Fe-Mn nodules, few small patchy black Fe-Mn cutans; few
discontinuous clay cutans on surfaces of stones and into pores; slighty calcareous; clear
linear boundary to:
II Cca 223-238 cm : light yellowish brown (10 YR 6/4) sandy silt loam, many small and medium,
fresh, rounded, stones; weakly cemented; weakly developed thin platy; few small pores; very
firm, very calcareous; boundary not exposed.
loc. 10 Fontamlle profile; F48 Peschiera del Garda, 45°33’41”; 1°57’09”, 295 m a.s.L; 1200 m N of
Fontanelle di Polpenazze; steep slope of moraine ridge.
A] 0-60 cm ; dark brown sandy (7.5 YR 4/4) silt loam, common stones, (cherty limestone
metamorphic, volcanic and crystalline rocks), fine weak subangular blocky, soft, common
pores, calcareous; clear wavy boundary to:
II B31 t 60-125 cm reddish brown (5 YR 4/4) clay loam, common to many stones (decalcified
marly limestone, chert, metamorphic, volcanic and metamorphic rocks slightly weathered),
well developed medium angular blocky, common small pores, firm, common clay cutans;
clear boundary to:
II Cca 125-160 cm : very pale brown (10 YR 7/4) clay loam, many unweathered stones, massive,
few pores, slightly cemented, CaC03 nodules, calcareous, boundary not exposed.
loc. 11 Konchi di Pastrengo profile; F48 Peschiera del Garda, 44’30’41”, T40’32” 140 m a.s.l.; Strada
Cerea, 300 m N from Ronchi di Pastengo; slope of a moraine ridge.
A1 0-80 cm : brown (7.5 YR 4/4) sandy loam, few to common slightly weathered stones
(limestone, cherty limestone, volcanic, metamorphic, crystalline rocks and fragments of
bricks); weak fine subangular blocky, common pores; friable; at the bottom a stone-line of
large pebbles; clear to abrupt boundary to:
II B31 t 80-120 cm : yellowish brown (7.5 YR 5/4) clay loam, common pores; slightly firm; few
clay cutans; gradual boundary to:

254 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
II B32 120-190 cm : reddish brown (5 YR 4/4) clay loam, few to common chert and weathered
metamorphic stones; medium and fine blocky, common pores, firm, few clay cutans; few
ferri-mangans and Fe-Mn nodules; clear and wavy boundary to;
II Cca 190-210 cm : hght yellowish brown (10 YR 6/4) sandy loam; many unweathered stones
(cherty limestone, volcanic, metamorphic and crystalline rocks); massive to weak platy, firm
to very firm; slightly cemented; common pores; common small CaC03 nodules, calcareous,
boundary not exposed.
loc. 12 Ca Barcacda profile; F48, Peschiera del Garda, 45°20’58”; 1°55’34’; 85 m a.s.l.; 200 m W
from Colie Medolano; proximal outwash plain of the Late Pleistocene moraine system of the Garda
lake (Solferino stage).
Ap 0-50 cm : sandy loam dark brown (7.5 YR 4/4) common stones, common to many pores,
friable; fine subangular blocky; slightly calcareous; clear and linear boundary to:
B2 50-80 cm : sandy clay loam strong brown (5 YR 5/6), common weathered stones (chert,
decalcified marly limestone, volcanic and metamorphic rocks) medium angular blocky well
developed; firm, common pores, rare clay cutans mainly on surfaces of stones; gradual
boundary to:
Cca 80-100 cm : yellowish brown sandy loam, many unweathered stones (limestone, cherty and
marly limestone) massive, friable, common pores, common CaC03 nodules on stones,
calcareous; boundary not exposed.
loc. 13 Ca Pegoroni profile-, F61 Cremona 45°05’00”, 2°00’18”; m 25 a.s.l.; along Canale Novarolo,
200 m SSW from Ca Pegoroni (Rivarolo Mantovano); on the flat surface of the Main Level of the
plain.
Ap 1-20 cm : brown (7,5 YR 4/4) silt loam, few small stones and brick fragments; weakly
developed medium subangular blocky; common pores; firm; slightly calcareous; clear
boundary to:
B 2 20-55 cm : brown (7.5 YR 5/4; 10 YR 4/1) silt loam; very few small broken stones; weak
subangular blocky; moist; few pores; firm; few small soft calcareous nodules; slightly calcareous;
clear boundary to:
II B 2 t 55-83 cm : reddish brown (5 YR 3/4) silty clay loam; few medium fragments of neolithic
pottery; well developed medium angular blocky, and weak medium prismatic; common
small pores; firm; common clay cutans on peds and pores; small few slickensides; clear
linear boundary to:
II Cca 83-95 cm : yellowish brown (10 YR 5/4) silt loam; weakly developed fine angular blocky;
common pores; moderately firm; common CaC03 nodules mainly in the upper part of the
horizon; very calcareous, boundary not exposed.
loc. 14 Casatico di Marcaría profiles-, F62 Mantova, 45”08’10”, 1°53’46”; m 26 a.s.l.; 600 m SJE. from
the village, in a construction pit, in the area of a large Neolithic settlement; distal part of the
outwash plain connected with the Late Pleistocene moraines of the Garda system; gently
undulating landscape.
loc. 14a Profile at the margin of the settlement
Ap 0-35 cm : brown (10 YR 4/4) silty clay loam; few stones, common bricks and prehistoric
pottery fragments; coarse angular blocky, common pores, calcareous, linear clear boundary
to:
C 35-100 cm : oHve brown (2.5 YR 6/4) silt loam; brown (10 YR 4/4) mottles; massive, few
pores, few Ca C03 nodules, calcareous, boundary not exposed.
loc. 14 b Roman ditch profile
Ap 0-40 cm : same characteristics of the Ap described above.
B 40-85 cm : silty clay loam, brown (10 YR 4/3), weakly developed medium to fine subangular
blocky, few pores, slightly firm, common CaC03 nodules, calcareous; clear boundary to:
- i t -

APPENDIX 1 2 5 5
Cca 85-130 cm : light gray (10 YR 7/1) silt; massive, slightly firm, few pores; common CaC03
nodules; boundary not exposed.
loc. 14c pit TV profile
Ap 0-35 cm : dark brown (7.5 YR 3/2) clayelly silty loam; common fragments of prehistoric
pottery, bones, stones artifacts; weakley developed medium granular to medium subangular
blocky; many pores; friable; common organic cutans, calcareous; clear linear boundary to:
A12 35-40 cm : brown (10 YR 4/3) sandy loam, medium subangular blocky, many pores, slightly
firm; common CaC03 nodules, calcareous; clear boundary to:
Cca 40-50 cm light yellowish brown (10 YR 6/4) silt loam; massive, few pores, common CaC03
nodules, calcareous; not exposed lower boundary.
loc. 14d Neolithic pit profile
Ap 0-30 cm : same characteristics of the Ap described above.
B 21 30-64 cm : brown (7.5 YR 5/4) silty clay, common pottery fragments, medium blocky well
developed, firm, common pores, few Fe-Mn nodules, common clay cutans; clear concave
boundary to:
B 22 t 64-87 cm : black (10 YR 2/1) silty clay; common pottery fragments stone artifacts and
charcoals; very well developed medium blocky, few pores, slightly firm, common to few
clay cutans, clear concave boundary to:
Cca 87-100 cm : brown to pale brown (10 YR 5/3 - 6/3) silt loam, massive, few pores, slightly
firm, common to many CaC03 nodules, calcareous; boundary not exposed.
Adda area
loc. 15 Vivaldi profile; F32 Como, 44°42’10”, 3°05’50”, 250 m a.s.l.; road cut at the cross between
the road Cernusco - Missaglia and Via Vivaldi, 700 m East from Lomaniga; highly eroded moraine
ridge, gently undulating lanscape.
Ap 0-30 cm : dark brown (10 YR 3/3) silty clay loam, few fragments of bricks and broken stones;
weak fine subangular blocky; common pores, friable; clear boundary to:
B 21 t 30-70 cm : dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/6) silty clay loam; well developed medium
angular blocky; few pores; firm; common Fe-Mn nodules; few clay cutans; common light
gray (10 YR 7/1) yellow fringed vertical tongues; gradual to diffuse boundary to:
II B22 tx 70-140 cm : brown (7.5 YR 4/4) silty clay loam; reddish brown (5 YR 4/6) mottles;
rare to few (mainly at the bottom) chert fragments, well developed medium angular blocky,
common pores, firm; common Fe-Mn nodules, common continuous clay cutans; clear and
wavy boundary to:
III B21 t 140-196 cm : reddish brown (2.5 YR 4/4) clay loam, common very weathered large
stones (chert, volcanic, metamorphic and cry.stalline rocks), well developed medium blocky;
firm; few pores; common to many clay cutans, gradual boundary to:
IV B22 t 196-380 cm : red (2.5 YR 4/6) clay, rare chert and quartz fragments, strongly developed
coarse prismatic and medium angular blocky, very firm, few pores, common to many clay
cutans and ferri-mangans, few Fe-Mn nodules; boundary not exposed.
loc. 16 Camparada profile; F45 Milano 45“39’34”, 3°08’9”; 245 m a.s.h; in a road cut, 3000 m W
of the Village of Camparada; top of the eroded Camparada moraine ridge.
Ap/B21/1IB22 0-104 cm : same characteristics as the corresponding horizons of the Vivaldi profile.
Ill B 22 t 104-204 cm : red (2.5 YR 4/6) clay, common mottles, few to common cherty quartz
fragments; well developed medium and fine angular blocky; few pores; firm to very firm;
common to many ferri-mangans, few Fe-Mn nodules; many red (2.5 YR 3/6) clay cutans,
common vertical tongues, several cm wide at the top, filled by light yellowish (10 YR 6/4)
silt loam; lower boundary not exposed.
The second part of the profile has been described 50 m W of the first, in a construction pit; the
III B31 horizon has been partly removed.
Ill B31 t 0-120 cm : reddish brown, dark reddish brown (5 YR 4/4, 2.5 YR 3/4) clay, common

256 P A L E O S O L S A N D V E T U S O L S IN T H E C E N T R A L P O PLAIN
very weathered stones (chert fragment, volcanic and metamorphic rocks), well developed
medium and fine angular blocky, very firm, few pores; many reddish clay cutans; common
iridescent ferri-mangans, gradual boundary to:
III B32 t 120-360 cm: strong brown (7.5 YR 5/8) clay loam, many very weathered stones
(brocken gravel of decalcified marl, cherty limestone, metamorphic and crystalline rocks);
well developed coarse blocky; firm, common pores, few wide slicken-sides; many
continuous red (2.5 YR 3/6, 4/8); clay cutans, occasionaly 1 cm thick; boundary not
exposed.
loc. 17 Cemusco profile\ F32, Como, 45°4r48”, 3°03’28”, 275 m a.s.l., in a road cut along the road
Cernusco - MissagUa, 600 m W from the Cernusco church;
Ap 0-32 cm; dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/4) silt loam; few small fragments of bricks; weak fine
subangular blocky; common pores; soft; gradual boundary to:
B 2 32-124 cm; strong brown (7.5 YR 5/4) silty clay loam; medium subangular blocky, medium
developed; moderately firm; few pores; few thin clay cutans; gradual boundary to:
II B 21 tx 124-206 cm; reddish brown to yellowish red (5 YR 4/6) silty clay loam; well developed
medium angular blocky few small pores; very firm; few small Fe Mn nodules; common
discontlnuos ferri-mangans and clay cutans on peds and into pores; common 5 to 1 cm
wide, brownish yellow (10 YR 6/6) tongues, with strong brown (7.5 YR 5/6)borders,
showing a reticular pattern; gradual boundary to:
II B22 tx: 206-278 cm; reddish brown (5 YR 4/3) silty clay loam; few medium very weathered
stones; well developed coarse angular blocky, common small and medium pores; very firm;
many ferri-mangans and common clay cutans on peds; tongues as above; abmpt linear
boundary to:
III B31 t: 278-528 cm; dark red (2.5 YR 3/6) silty clay loam; common (in the lower part) very
weathered stones; medium to coarse angular blocky; few small pores; firm few to common
small Fe Mn nodules; many continuous Fe Mn and clay cutans; not calcareous; boundary
not exposed.
The lowest part of the profile has been observed near Pagano in the river Molgora cut: below the
III B31 horizon, with a diffuse boundary, the following is exposed:
III B32 t about 7 m thick; yellowish brown (10 YR 5/8) sandy loam, very many slightly weathered
stones (gravel of decalcified marly limestones, volcanic and metamorphic stones); massive,
soft to slightly firm, common pores; abrupt, very undulating boundary to:
III Cca «Ceppo»: Strongly cemented gravels (limestone, marly limestone, calcareous sandstones);
boundary not exposed.
loc. 18 Bivio MissagUa profile; F32 Como, 45°42’37”, 3°06’41”; 325 m a.s.l.; in a construction pit,
200 m ast from the crossing between the Cernusco-Missaglia and Lecco-Milano roads.
Gently sloping top of a «Old Diluvium» terrace.
Ap 0-27 cm : yellowish brown (10 YR 3/4) silt loam, few small fragments of bricks, chert and
quartz stones, weak subangular blocky common pores, friable; abrupt and wavy boundary
to:
B 1 27-55 cm : strong brown (7.5 YR 5/6), mottles (7.5 YR 5/8); clay loam, weakly developed
fine angular blocky; common pores; slightly firm; few clay cutans; common ferri-mangans,
gradual boundary to:
II B21 tx 55-160 cm : yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) silt loam, well developed coarse prismatic;
very firm, common pores and vescicular voids 1 cm in diameter; common to many (at the
bottom of the horizon) dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/6) and light grey (10 YR 6/1)
Fe-Mn concretions and nodules, common clay cutans, common vertical tongues; abrupt and
wavy boundary to:
II B22 t 160-180 cm : brown (7.5 YR 4/4) and light brownish gray (10 YR 6/2) silt loam, well
developed platy few pores, common iridescent ferri-mangans, common Fe-Mn nodules,
mainly at the top of the horizon; common to many clay cutans; abmpt and wavy boundary
to:
III B23 t 180-270 cm : yellowish brown (7,5 YR 5/6) sandy loam; few small weathered stones.

I a p p e n d ix 1 2 5 7
well developed; coarse angular blocky, very firm; common pores, common to many ferrimangans
and clay cutans; common oblique, bleached tongues, showing a reticular pattern;
clear boundary to:
IV B24 t 240-300 cm : yellowish brown (7.5 YR 5/4) sandy clay; light yellowish brown (7.5 YR
6/4) mottles; many weathered stones (gravel of decalcified marly limestone, chert, metamorphic
and volcanic rocks), well developed medium platy; firm, few pores; common
ferri-mangans and clay cutans, few Fe-Mn nodules; gradual boundary to:
rV B/C 300-390 cm : yellowish brown (7.5 YR 5/6) sandy loam; yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6)
mottles; many slighty weathered stones (as above); weakly developed medium blocky, few
pores; firm, common ferri-mangans and clay cutans; wavy, abrupt, erosive boundary to:
V B31 t 390-500 cm : red (2.5 YR 4/6) sandy clay; few to common (at the base) very weathered
stones (mainly quartz, chert pebbles and metamorphic and volcanic rock fragments); coarse
prismatic and well developed angular blocky; common pores, firm to very firm; common
ferri-mangans and clay cutans; boundary not exposed.
loc. 19 Porto d'Adda profile; F 46 Treviglio, 45°39’44”, 2°58’38”; m 249 a.s.l.; in a road cut close to
the village Porto d’Adda, gently undulating landscape, at the top of a «Old Diluvium terrace».
Ap/Bl 0-80 cm yellowish brown, slightly mottled, silt loam, weakly developed blocky; common
pores; friable, clear boundary to:
II B21 tx 80-240 cm; brown (7.5 YR 4/4) silt loam; well developed medium prismatic; very firm;
few pores; common clay cutans, few very thin vertical grey tongues; clear boundary to:
II B22 t 240-300 cm : brown (7.5 YR 4/4); grey (10 YR 6/2) mottles; silt loam; weakly developed
blocky; few clay cutans few ferri-mangans; abrupt wavy boundary to;
III B31 t 300-350 cm reddish brown (5 YR 4/4) silt loam, common weathered stones; well
developed medium angular blocky; few pores; firm; common clay cutans and ferri-mangans;
boundary not exposed.
loc. 20 Konco Briantino profile; F45, Milano, 45°40’00”, 3°02’59”; 248 m a.s.l. in an artificial section
in the back of a stable, 350 m N of the center of the village; on the smooth slope of a «Middle
Diluvium » terrace.
Ap/Bl 0-60 cm; dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/4) silty clay loam; few small stones and brick
fragments, common to many at the base of the horizon; weakly developed fine blocky
common pores; moderately firm; clear linear boundary to:
II B22 t; 60-170 cm: reddish brown (5 YR 4/4) clay loam; few weathered stones (mainly quartz
and chert); strongly developed medium angular blocky; few pores; very firm; common
ferri-mangans and clay cutans; diffuse boundary to:
II B31 t: 170-250 cm: reddish brown (5 YR 4/4) clay loam; common brown mottles along peds;
common weathered stones (chert, decalcified sandstones, metamorphic, volcanic and
crystalline rocks); weakly developed angular blocky common pores; moderately firm,
common clay cutans; diffuse boundary to:
II B32 t; 250-390 cm: dark brown (7,5 YR 4/2) clay loam; common to many, weathered to slightly
weathered stones; stmctureless, common pores; moderately firm; common clay cutans
common discontinuous ferri-mangans; boundary not exposed.
In a fluviatile incision near Novedrate the II B32 horizon is about 7 m thick; it has a very wavy
abrupt boundary with:
II Cca; exposed over a thickness of 1,5 m; non weathered gravels strongly cemented by CaC03
(gravel composed of limestone, cherty limestone, calcareous sandstone metamorphic,
volcanic and crystalline rocks).
loc. 21 Copreno profile; F32 Como 45°40’27”, 3°21’27”, 250 m a.s.l.; right scarp of Seveso river 200
m East of the village, 50 m East of the profile already described by Orombelli (1968); margin of
the «Diluvium medio» terrace.
A1 0-115 cm : dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/4) sandy silt loam; few small stones and fragments
of bricks and Iron age (?) pottery; weakly developed fine angular blocky; common medium
and coarse pores; friable; irregular boundary to:

258 P A L E O S O L S A N D V E T U S O L S IN T H E C E N T R A L P O PLAIN '
C1 115-145 cm : yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) sandy loam; structureless few pores; very friable;
common small distinct olive yellow (2,5 YR 7/4, 6/6) mottles; gradual boundary to:
C2 145-200 cm : brownish yellow (10 YR 6/6) sandy loam, weakly developed platy, common
horizontal ferri-mangans, few horizontal clay cutans, few pores, friable, abrupt f.rosional
boundary to:
II B21 t 200-260 cm : brown silt loam (7.5 YR 4/4) common small faint brown (10 YR 5/4)
mottles, few small quartz stones, common at the topo of the horizon; medium strongly
developed prismatic, common small pores; firm; few small discontinuous black
ferri-mangans, few thin clay cutans in pores, common clay cutons on the surfaces of stones;
few thin tubular (10 YR 7/4) vertical tongues, gradual boundary to:
III B31 t 260-300 cm : brown (7.5 YR 4/4) silt loam, common medium faint strong brown (7,5
YR 5/6) mottles, common medium weathered stones, gradualy increasing in number an size
with the depth; medium developed fine angular blocky; few large pores; common medium
fine pores; firm; diffuse boundary to:
III B32 300-380 cm : from brown (7.5 YR 5/4) to yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) sandy loam,
many to very abundant rounded weakly weathered medium and large stones; very weak
subangular blocky few pores; moderately firm; common thin clay cutans on stone faces;
boundary not exposed.
loc. 22 Kobbiate profile; F32, Como, 45°41’13”, 3°00’58”, 270 m a.s.k; in the center of the small
village, in a construction pit; flat landscape, on the top of the outwash plain connected with the
Late Pleistocene (Würm) Adda moraine system.
Ap 0-30 cm : brown (10 YR 4/3) sandy loam; few small stones; poorly developed fine subangular
blocky; few pores; slightly firm; clear linear boundary to:
B31 t 30-84 cm : brown (6.5 YR 4/4) sandy loam; common slightly weathered stones (chert,
decarbonated marly limestone, metamorphic and volcanic rocks); medium blocky; common
pores; firm; few clay cutans, mainly on surfaces of stones; gradual boundary to:
B32 t 84-140 cm : dark brown (7.5 YR 3/2); loamy sand; common to many slightly weathered
stones; weakly developed medium blocky to massive; very common pores; friable; few clay
cutans gradual boundary to:
Cca 140-210 cm : dark brown (10 YR 3/4) sand, many fresh stones (limestone; cherty limestone,
metamorphic volcanic und crystalline rock); structureless, friable many pores; few CaC03
nodules on stones; calcareous; boundary not exposed.
loc. 23 Bagaggera profiles; F32, Como, 45°42’54”; 3°4’18”, 260 m a.sJ.
Profile 1; 300 m North from Cascina Barbabella, at the gently sloping northern limit of the basin.
Ap -I- B1 0-30 cm : yellowish brown (10 YR 5/4) sandy silt loam; fine weakly developed
subangular blocky; few pores; slightly firm; not calcareous; clear boundary to:
II B21 t 30-55 cm : reddish brown (5 YR 4/4) silty clay loam; strongly developed medium angular
blocky; few pores, very firm; many small Fe Mn nodules; many discontinuous clay cutans
on peds; common bght gray bordered vertical tongues; clear boundary to:
II B22 t 55-70 cm reddish (2.5 YR 4/6) silty clay, brown (7.5 YR 4/4); yellowish brown (10 YR
5/8), light brownish-gray (10 YR 6/2) mottled; very many medium distinct mottles in ped
exteriors; moist; strongly developed platy; few small pores; very firm; many thick red
mainly horizontal clay cutans on ped surfaces; abrupt wavy boundary to:
III B21t 70-110 strong brown (7.5 YR 5/6) silty clay; moist; strongly developed medium
prismatic; few small pores; firm; few small Fe Mn nodules; many reddish brown (5 YR
4/4) clay cutans on peds; common, light gray (10 YR 7/1) brown bordered tongues, clear
boundary to:
III B22 t 110-130 cm : red (2,5 YR 4/6) brown (7.5 YR 4/4) yellowish brown (10 YR 5/8) light
brownish gray (10 YR 5/2) mottled silty clay; very many medium distinct mottles ped
exteriors; strong by developed medium platy; few small pores; very firm; many thick red
clay cutans on ped surfaces; abrupt and wavy boundary to:
IV B21 t 130-210 cm : yellowish red (5 YR 5/6) clay loam common fine red (2.5 YR 4/ü)
mottles; rare to common small weathered stones; strongly developed coarse prismatic;

a p p e n d ix 1 259
common small pores; firm; many continuous clay cutans on peds; common light grey,
brown bordered vertical tongues; at the top of the horÍ2on they are up to 5 cm wide; in the
lower part of the horizon the tongues become thinner and branch out; non calcareous;
gradual boundary to:
IV B22 t 210-300 cm : red (2.5 YR 4/6) clay loam; few medium gray mottles, abundant on stone
surfaces; angular fragments of weathered flysch, not in contact; the fragments have a thin
yellow cortex; they are dark red (2.5 YR 3/6) and have few small yellowish red mottles;
moist; weakly developed coarse angular blocky; strong; few continuous clay cutans on ped
faces; clear boundary to:
V B3 300-600 cm : reddish brown (2.5 YR 5/4) sandy silty weathered Cretaceous flysch; diffuse
boundary to:
V C 300-1850 cm : light olive brown (2.5 Y 5/4) weathered sandy Cretaceous flysch; rare, dark
red clay cutans along bedding surfaces; clear boundary to core stones of fresh and calcareous
flysch, in the lower part of the horizon.
Profile 2, close to a pipeline box, along the road from Bagaggera to Fornace Barbabella on a flat
terrace, not far from the terrace scarp.
Ap 0-6 cm : dark brown (10 YR 4/3, 3/3) silty clay; few small fragments of bricks; moist; fine
weakly developed subangular blocky; few fine pores, moderately firm; clear wavy boundary
to:
B 1 6-40 cm : dark brown to brown (10 YR 4/3) silty clay loam; moist; fine weakly developed
subangular blocky, moderately firm; few pores; common small Fe-Mn nodules; gradual irregular
boundary; Upper Palaeolithic artifacts and few charcoals are present in the lower part of
the horizon.
II B21 tx 40-115 cm : dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/6) silty clay loam; few fine faint mottles;
moist; strongly developed; medium angular blocky; moderately porous; very firm; common
Fe-Mn nodules; few discontinuous clay and Fe-Mn cutans on peds and in pores; common
light grey (10 YR 7/1) yellow fringed, vertical tongues crossing the horizon; common small
Fe-Mn nodules; gradual boundary to:
II B22 t 115-120 cm : yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) silty clay loam; moist; strongly developed
medium platy; slightly porous; very firm; common continuous horizontal pale brown (10
YR 7/2) clay cutans, some millimetres thick; abrupt boundary to:
III B21 t 120-181 cm : brown, dark brown (7,5 YR 4/1) silty clay loam; most; strongly developed
medium prismatic; moderatly porous; firm; common thick dark reddish brown (5 YR 2/4)
clay cutans and common Fe-Mn cutans on peds and in pores; common light grey tongues;
in the lower part they become thinner and branch out; gradual boundary to:
III B22 t 181-240 cm : yellowish brown (10 YR 5/8) clay; common medium faint dark yellowish
brown (10 YR 4/6) mottles; few small chert stones; moderately developed angular coarse
blocky; slightly porous; firm; common dark reddish brown dark red (5 YR 3/4, 2,5 YR
3/4) clay cutans, thick and continuous, on peds; gradual irregular boundary to:
III Cl 240-400 cm : yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) silty clay loam and sandy clay loam; moist; very
weakly developed coarse blocky; firm; many distinct medium sized mottles with wide light
gray reticular pattern (10 YR 7/2); few discontinuous reddish brown clay cutans only in
the upper part of the horizon; common small soft Fe-Mn concentrations; boundary not
exposed. Unit BAG 6 and the units of the fluviolacustrine sequence are presented below.
The carbonates occur again only in unit BAG 1 at a depth of about 15 meter below the present
ground surface.
Profile 3; 100 m N from Cascina Barbarella, on the quarry floor cut into the same terrace as the
pipeline profile.
The upper part of the profile is completely similar to the n. 2 profile down to a depth of 2.50 meters,
the description starts again from a pebbly horizon corresponding to the proceeding III B22 t.
IV B23 t 250-295 cm : dark brown (7.5 YR 4/4) sandy silt loam; common medium and small
rounded-subrounded slightly weathered stones; weakly developed medium and coarse
blocky; moderately porous; firm; common horizontal grey mottles; common brown clay
cutans; abrupt boundary to:

260 P A L E O S O L S A N D V E T U S O L S IN T H E C E N T R A L P O P L A I N '
,Vi^
-»ii!
V B 1 295-318 cm : strong brown (7,5 YR 5/8) silty clay loam; moist; strongly developed medium
prismatic; slightly porous; very firm; common small soft Fe-Mn concentration; many black
continuous Fe-Mn cutans on the surface of the peds, inside the peds they show dendroid
pattern; clear wavy boundary to:
VI B21 t 318-458 cm : yellowish red (5 YR 4/6) silty clay loam; dark brown (7.5 YR 4/4);
common faint medium mottles; few very small quartz angular stones; strongly developed
medium-coarse prismatic, firm common small Fe-Mn nodules at the horizon boundary;
many black Fe-Mn cutans, continuous on peds; thick, continuous brown clay cutans on
peds and in pores. At the lower boundary of the horizon, pinkish gray streaks (7.5 YR 7/2)
showing a wide reticular pattern; linear clear boundary to:
VI B22 t 458-577 cm : yellowish red (5 YR 5/8) silty clay loam; many medium distinct mottles
10 YR 7/3; very pale brown; few medium weathered stones; moist; weakly developed platy;
very slighty porous; firm; many black discontinuous Fe-Mn cutans on peds; many thick clay
cutans on peds, clear linear boundary to:
VII B21 t 577-702 cm : strong brown (7.5 YR 5/6) silt loam; few stones to common stones (in
the southern part of the outcrop), mainly chert quartz and reddish weathered sandstone;
strongly developed coarse to medium angular blocky; firm; moderately porous; common
Fe-Mn nodules in the lower part of the horizon; many red coloured clay cutans on peds and
in pores (5 YR 4/3); common small vertical tongues (10 YR 7/6); clear linear boundary.
VII B22 cn 702-727 cm : dark brown (7.5 YR 4/2) silt loam; few small stones; weakly developed
medium angular blocky; moderately firm; many black Fe-Mn nodules; porous; common clay
cutans on peds; clear linear boundary to:
VIII B2 t 727-800 cm : brown (7.5 YR 5/4) clay; common small yellowish-brown mottles (10 YR
6/4); lenses of weathered pebbles; common stones; fine angular blocky weakly developed;
moderately firm; moderately porous; common black Fe-Mn cutans and red clay cutans (5
YR 5/4) in pores, on peds and on pebble surfaces; not exposed boundary.
The unweathered lacustrine deposits of unit 4 are present below the above sequence and overlie
the Flysch of the bedrock. The contact is erosional. The bedrock shows the following characteristics:
Bg 0-170 cm : olive (2.5 YR 6/4) white (10 YR 8/1) and red (5 YR 4/2) mottled coarse quartz
sand; massive; firm; bedding is still well preserved; common pores; diffuse boundary to:
Bx 170-350 cm : pale brown (10 YR 5/8) coarse quartz sand; massive; few pores; firm to very
firm; discontinuosly cemented by silica; boundary not exposed.
Apennine fringe
loc. 24 Tiepido profile; F86, Modena, 44°31’24”, 1°33’09”, 155 m a^J.; in the bed of the Tiepido
river, on the eastern bank, 1 Km southward from Pozza; included in the Tiepido fluviatile
stratigraphic sequence, covered by silty and clayey overbank deposits and braided stream gravel.
A lb 0-50 cm : very dark graysh brown (10 YR 5/2) clay; yellowish brown mottles (10 YR 5/4);
including a fossil bone fragment; well developed fine angular blocky; firm; no pores; few
CaC03 nodules, calcareous, gradual boundary to:
II B21t 50-100 cm : dark brown (7,5 YR 4/6) clay loam; fine brown mottles (7,5 YR 5/2); well
developed fine prismatic; very few small pores; very firm; common Fe-Mn nodules; many
wide slickensides; gradual boundary to:
II B22t 100-250 cm : dark reddish brown (2,5 YR 3/4), reddish brown (2,5 YR 5/4) fine mottles;
clay loam; very small angular chert fragments; well developed fine angular blocky; few
pores; firm; common clay cutans and Fe-Mn nodules; thin pale brown (10 YR 6/3) vertical
tongues; gradual boundary to:
II B31t 250-370 cm : yellowish red to reddish brown (5 YR 4/4; 4/6) clay loam; common to many
very weathered stones, gradually increasing in number with depth; weak angular blocky;
common pores; firm; common ferri-mangans; common clay cutans; sharp linear boundary
to:
III C 370-400 cm : unweathered loose gravel (calcareous sandstone; marly limestone; volcanic rock;
chert), and sandy silt loam, structureless, very friable, calcareous; boundary not exposed.

APPENDIX 1 261
loc. 25 Ghiardo profile; F74 Reggio Emilia, 44°39’17”, r5 7 ’03” 139 m a^J., in a construction pit,
along the road Cavriago-Bibbiano (Reggio Emilia) 250 m N of Case del Ghiardo.
Top of the Ghiardo Terrace, flat to gently undulating lanscape.
Ap 0-14 cm ; light yellowish brown (10 YR 6/4) silty clay loam; weakly developed fine subangular
blocky; friable; medium and coarse common pores; clear boundary to;
A 2 14-35 cm : very pale (10 YR 7/4) brown silty clay loam; very weak fine angular blocky;
common small pores; friable, very few Fe-Mn nodules increasing in number with depth;
gradual boundary to:
B 21 35-60 cm : pale brown (10 YR 6/3) silty clay loam; common small brown (10 YR 7/4)
mottles; weak fine angular blocky; common small pores, slightly firm; few Fe-Mn concretions,
few patchy clay cutans; gradual boundary to:
B 22 cn 60-85 cm : light yellowish brown (10 YR 6/4) silty loam; very weakly developed fine
angular blocky; firm; common small and medium pores; many Fe-Mn concretions; many
clay cutans, gradual boundary to:
II B 21t 85-130 cm : yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) silty loamy clay; common medium light grey
(10 YR 7/1) mottles; strongly developed coarse prismatic; small few pores; firm; common,
2-4 cm wide (10 YR 7/2) light grey (10 YR 5/4) yellowish bordered tongues showing
reticular patterns; common small slickensides, common continuous clay cutans on peds and
In pores; clear boundary to:
II B22 cn 130-140 cm : dark brown (7,5 YR 3/2) silty clay; weakly developed medium blocky, few
small pores, very firm; few clay cutans in pores; very many Fe-Mn concretions and nodules;
clear boundary to:
III B21 t 140-160 cm : yellowish red (5 YR 5/6) silty clay loam; few small chert stones; well
developed coarse prismatic; moist; firm; few pores; many black ferri-mangans on ped
surfaces, common clay cutans on peds; gradual boundary to:
IV B 22t 160-280 cm : red (2.5 YR 5/8) silty clay loam; common brown (7.5 YR 6/6) mottles;
few small very weathered stone size chert and sandstone fragments increasing in number
with depth; well developed coarse blocky; very small pores; very firm; many patchy black
ferri-mangans on peds surfaces; common clay cutans on ped surfaces and in pores; few Ca
C03 nodules mainly in pores; slightly calcareous; gradual boundary to:
IV B31t 280-500 cm : from yellowish red (5 YR 5/6) to strong brown (7.5 YR 5/6) clay; weakly
developed blocky; many large; very weathered stones; firm; many black Fe-Mn cutans on
stone surfaces; few patchy clay cutans on peds; boundary not exposed.
loc. 26 Ghiardo }/igneto profile; F74 Reggio Emilia, 44“40T7”, 1°55’27”; 120 m a.sJ., 2 Km N-E
from the former profile, along an artificial cliff cut into the eastern scarp of the Ghiardo terrace.
Ap/Bl 0-30 cm : brown (10 YR 3/3) silt loam; common fragments of stones, bricks and
alloctonous Fe-Mn concretions; weakly developed medium and fine subangular blocky;
common to many pores; friable; few clay cutans; clear boundary to:
B2 t cn 50-52 cm : dark brown (10 YR 3/5) silt loam; many Fe-Mn nodules and concretions; weak
angular blocky; common pores, firm to very firm; few thin light yellowish brown vertical
tongues; common clay cutans; abrupt boundary to:
II B21 t 52-92 cm : yellowish red (5 YR 5/8) silty clay; common brown (7.5 YR 5/4) and light
yellowish brown (10 YR 6/2) mottles; strongly developed medium prismatic few pores;
very firm; common clay cutans; common iridescent ferri-mangans; common Fe-Mn nodules;
clear linear boundary to:
III B22 t 92-181 cm : red to yellowish red (2.5 YR 5/5 - 5 YR 4/6) silty clay; very few chert and
quartz fragments; well developed medium prismatic to medium blocky, few pores; very firm
to firm; common clay cutans; common to many iridescent ferri-mangans, common Fe-Mn
nodules; gradual boundary to:
III B31t 181-250 cm : yellowish red (5 YR 4/6) to strong brown (7.5 YR 5/6) clay loam;
common fragments of sandstones and chert; medium and fine blocky; firm; few pores;
common to many clay cutans; few to common ferri-mangans; gradual boundary to:
III B 32 t 250-450 cm : brown (7.5 YR 5/4) clayey sand; common to many stones (fragments of
decarbonated sandstone; marly limestones, diasper, volcanic rocks and chert); weak medium

262 P A L E O S O L S A N D V E T U S O L S IN T H E C E N T R A L P O P L A IN
blocky; common to many pores; slightly firm to friable; common to many clay cutans, few
ferri-mangans; abrupt wavy boundary to:
IV C ca 450-500 cm : dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/4) to olive brown (2.5 Y 4/4), loamy clay,
massive; no pores; firm; common hard Ca C03 nodules; calcareous; boundary not exposed.
i ^ H
loc. 27 Romo Profile; F72, Fiorenzuola 44“54’20”, 1°50’46”; 230 m asJ. 200 m North of Villa
Ronco (Rivergaro, PC) along a roadcut, near the scarp of the highest Pleistocene terrace.
A p 0-2 cm ; very dark grayish brown (10 YR 3/2) silty clay loam, common small weathered
stones, and allochtonous CaC03 nodules; weakly developed fine granular; moderately firm;
common pores; slightly calcarous; gradual boundary to:
II B 2 t 20-45 cm : yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) clay loam, common medium light grey (10 YR
7/1) and brown (7.5 YR 5/6) mottles; strongly developed medium to coarse angular
blocky; very slightly porous; strong common large slickensides; many thin argillans; common
1-3 cm large carbonate nodules; calcareous; abrupt boundary to:
III B21 t 45-125 cm : dark red (2.5 YR 3/6) silty clay loam; very few small cherty stones; .strongly
developed coarse angular blocky and fine angular blocky, few small pores; very firm, some
centimetres wide light reddish brown (10 YR 6/3) tongues with reticular pattern; common
large calcareous nodules in tongues; thick light grey clay cutans in tongues; common reddish
brown (2.5 YR 4/4) clay cutans on ped faces and in pores; very slightly calcareous: gradual
boundary to:
IV B22 t 125-190 cm : red (2.5 YR 4/6) silty clay loam; common small and medium very
weathered stones increasing in number and in size with the depth; well developed fine
medium angular blocky; few small pores; very firm; common small dendroid pinkinsh grey
(2.5 YR 7/2) channels; common small irregular calcareous nodules in bleached pores; many
black ferri-mangans on peds and in pores; many dark red (2.5 YR 3/6) continuous clay
cutans on peds and in pores; very slightly calcareous; gradual boundary to:
IV B31 t; 190-320 cm dark red (2.5 YR 4/6) clay loam; many, small to large, very weathered
stones; fine angular blocky; very fine pores; very firm; many black Fe-Mn cutans on the
faces of the stones; many red continuous clay cutans on peds and stone surfaces and in
pores; common thin pinkish white clay cutans in small channels; very slighty calcareous;
diffuse boundary to:
IV B32 t 320-450 cm : reddish brown (5 YR 4/4) clay; common medium large brown (7.5 YR
5/4) mottles; very abundant small to large stones, common small pores; firm, very weakly
developed fine angular blocky; many Fe-Mn cutans on peds and stone surfaces and fissures;
common discontinuous red clay cutans; lower boundary not exposed.
2,50 m below, the IV C ca crops out over a few meters. It is composed of unweathered strongly
cemented gravel (calcareous sandstone, marly limestone, volcanic rocks, chert).
loc. 28 Rex profile; F86 Modena 44°32’34”, r3 6 ’14”, m 110; in a construction pit in the back of
the parking area of the bricklin Rex (Maranello; Formigine; Modena); gently undulating Pleistocene
terrace; the highest part of the loess cover, forming the top of the profile, has been artificially
removed.
B21 t 0-40 cm brown (10 YR 4/3) clay loam, well developed fine angular to medium blocky; few
pores; firm to very firm common thin clay cutans; common Fe-Mn nodules; clear linear
boundary to:
B22 cn 40-50 cm same characteristics; the horizon is mainly composed (80-90X) of Fe-Mn concretions
and nodules from a few millimetres to one centimetre thick, common pores, very firm
to slightly cemented; abrupt linear boundary to:
II B23 ca 50-150 cm : yellowish brown (10 YR 5/4) clay; common gray brown (2.5 Y 5/2)
mottles; rare small chert and sandstone pebbles; weak medium prismatic; few pores, common
ferri-mangans; common to many Ca C03 nodules, mainly in the lower part of the
horizon, calcareous; gradual to linear clear boundary to:
III B21 t 150-220 cm : brown to reddish brown (7.5 YR 4/4) silty clay loam; common yellowish
brown mottles (10 YR 5/4); well developed medium and fine angular blocky; firm; few
pores, few to common clay cutans; common thin vertical tongues; common ferri-mangans,
common tubular Ca C03 concretion in tongues, clear to gradual boundary to:

APPENDIX 1 263
IV B31 t 220-270 cm : reddish brown (5 YR 4/4) silty clay, common very weathered small stones
(decarbonated sandstone and marly limestone, chert and volcanic rocks); well developed,
fine and medium angular blocky common to many clay cutans, common ferri-mangans,
common pores, slightly firm, gradual boundary to:
IV B32 t 270-390 cm : brown (7.5 YR 4/4) to dark yellowish brown (10 YR 3/4) clay loam; weak
fine angular blocky, common to many weathered stones as above; slightly firm to friable,
common to very common pores, many clay cutans, common to very common ferrimangans,
clear wavy boundary to:
IV C ca 390-450 cm : dark brown (10 YR 3/3) clay loam; many unweathered stones (calc,
sanstones, marly limestone and volcanic rocks); structureless; friable, many pores; i common
to many CO C03 nodules, mainly on stones, calcareous; boundary not exposed.
loc. 29a Ghiardo Cave profile; F86 Modena, 44°39’17”, 1°57’3”, 135 m asJ. in a clay pit, near the
eastern wall of the farm, 2 Km S from case del Ghiardo, 140 m a^J.; flat surface of the Pleistocene
terrace.
Ap 0-30 cm : light yellowish brown (10 YR 6/4) silt loam; few small fragments of bricks, weak
fine subangular platy; medium and fine common pores; friable; few small Fe-Mn nodules;
gradual boundary.
A 2 30-89 cm: very pale brownish yellow (10 YR 7/4, 6/6); silt loam; very weakly developed fine
subangular blocky; common pores; slightly firm; few small Fe-Mn cutans in pores; at the base of
the horizon discontinuous concentrations of Fe-Mn concretions; abmpt, linear boundary to:
II B21t 89-137 cm : brown (10 YR 4/3) yellowish brown (10 YR 5/4) silty clay loam; common
medium mottles; strongly developed medium prismatic; few small pores; moderately firm;
few small Fe-Mn nodules; few clay cutans on peds; gradual boundary to:
II B22 t 137-210 cm : brown (10 YR 4/3) clay; common small brownish yellow and yellowish
brown mottles (10 YR 6/6; 5/4); strongly developed medium prismatic; very few pores;
very firm; thin greyish brown (10 YR 5/2) vertical tongues along vertical peds; common small
Fe-Mn nodules; few medium slickensides; common day cutans; abmpt wavy boundary to:
II B23 cn 210-230 cm : dark brown (7.5 YR 3/2); very many (90?) 0,5 cm large Fe-Mn
concretions, massive, few small pores; firm; clear wavy boundary to:
III B24 230-280 cm : yellowish brown (10 YR 5/4) clay; common fine to large light olive brown
(2.5 Y 5/6) mottles; very strongly developed very coarse blocky; very firm; many large
slickensides; many Fe-Mn nodules, many Fe-Mn cutans; few large rounded Ca C03 nodules;
boundary not exposed.
loc. 29b Ghiardo Cave II profile; in a loess quarry; 400 m east from the previous profile; gently
sloping eastern margin of the Ghiardo Pleistocene terrace, 129 m as!.;
Ap 0-30 cm : yellowish brown (10 YR 6/4) silt loam; few small fragments of stones and bricks
and allochtonous Fe-Mn nodules; fine blocky; common to many pores, friable; abrupt linear
boundary to:
A2 30-40 cm : clear veUowish brown (10 YR 6/4) silt loam, few mottles; very weakly developed
subangular blocky; common pores; friable; wavy boundary to:
II B21 t 40-110 cm : yellowish brown (10 YR 6/6) silt loam; well developed medium angular
blocky to prismatic, common pores; firm; common vertical, bleached tongues; common clay
cutans; common to many Fe-Mn nodules and concretions, increasing in number and size
with depth; clear boundary to:
II B22 cn 110-125 cm : same characteristics as the former horizon but many (78-90?) Fe-Mn
nodules and concretions, clear boundary to:
III B21 t 125-150 cm : reddish brown (5 YR 4/4) clay; common yellowish brown mottles in the
upper part; few chert, quartz and sandstone fragments of stone size; coarse to medium
angular blocky; very firm; few pores; common clay cutans; common iridescent ferrimangans,
boundary not exposed.
loc. 30 Boscone di Noeeio profile; F73, Parma, 44“41’18”, 2°18’25”; 101 m a.sJ.; in a cut, along the
road Noceto - Costamezzana along the eastern scarp of a Pleistocene terrace; 300 m S from Noceto
(Parma); gently undulating surface.

264 P A L E O S O L S A N D V E T U S O L S IN T H E C E N T R A L P O P L A IN
Ap 0-18 cm : dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/3) silt loam; few small fragments of brick;
moderately developed fine subangular blocky; friable; common to many pores; gradual
boundary to:
A2 18-25 cm : dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/4) silty clay loam; dark yellowish brown (10 YR
4/6) mottles; weakly developed fine subangular blocky; common to many pores; friable; few
small Fe-Mn concretions; clear boundary to;
B21 t 25-75 cm : brown (10 YR 5/3) to yellowish brown (10 YR 5/4) silty clay loam; brown (10
YR 4/6) mottles; weakly developed fine to medium prismatic; common pores; moderately
firm; few vertical bleached tongues; common clay cutans; common Fe-Mn nodules and
concretions; clear boundary to:
B22 cn 75-80 cm : same characteristics as the former horizon, but very many Fe-Mn nodules and
concretions; clear boundary to:
II B21 t 80-140 cm : yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) silty clay; few mottles; medium prismatic to
angular blocky; few pores; firm; common slickensides; common clay cutans; few small Ca
C03 nodules; slightly calcareous; gradual boundary to:
II B22 g 140-170 cm ; clear greyish brown (2.5 Y 6/2) silty clay; medium angular blocky; firm to
very firm; few pores; common slickensides; few Ca C03 nodules; slightly calcareous, abrupt
very undulating boundary to:
II B23 cn 170-222 cm : Fe-Mn nodules, discontinuously cemented, including hard Ca C03 nodules;
abrupt boundary to:
III B3 g 222-227 cm : clear greyish brown (2.5 Y 6/2) clay; massive; few pores; firm to very firm;
common slickensides and Ca C03 nodules; boundary not exposed.
y ' ^ ' i
. • -t ^
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loc. 31 Niviano Costello profile; ¥12 Fiorenzuola, 44°56’13”, 2°48’58” 130 m a il. in a construction
pit 250 m E - SE, from Niviano Castello, close to the Piacenza-Rivergaro road; flat top of the
Pleistocene terrace of Niviano.
Ap 0-30 cm : dark brown (10 YR 3/3) silt loam, few small brick fragments and allohctonous
Fe-Mn nodules; weakly developed fine subangular blocky; many pores, friable; clear boundary
to:
B ll 30-50 cm : brown (10 YR 4/3) silt loam; weakly developed fine subangular blocky; many
pores; friable; few discontinuous clay cutans; clear boundary to:
B12 cn 50-55 cm : same characteristics as the former horizon, but common Fe-Mn nodules; clear
to abrupt linear boundary to:
II B21 t 55-76 cm : dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/4); silt loam mottles (10 YR 4/6); well
developed medium angular blocky to prismatic; common pores; moderately firm; common
clay cutans; common ferri-mangans and Fe-Mn nodules; gradual boundary to:
II B 22 t 76-150 cm: yellowish brown (10 YR 5/4) clay loam; common mottles; well developed
medium prismatic; at the top, weakly developed laminar; very few pores; very firm; common
clay cutans; few Fe-Mn nodules, clear boundary to:
II B23 cn; 150-175 cm; many Fe-Mn nodules; non cemented; linear abrupt boundary to:
III B21 t; 175-190 cm; yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) clay; well developed medium angular blocky,
firm, few pores, common clay cutans, common Fe-Mn nodules, boundary not exposed.
loc. 32 Merline projile; ¥12, Fiorenzuola; 44°57’10”, 2°53’58”, 135 m a.s.1.; in a road cut along the
Tidone - Piacenza road, 500 m Est from Merline village; margin of the Gazzola Pleistocene terrace,
gently undulating landscape.
Ap 0-30 cm: dark brown (10 YR 4/3) silt loam; few small brick and stone fragments; weakly
developed fine subangular blocky many pores; friable; clear boundary to:
B21 30-70 cm: yellowish brown (10 YR 5/4) silt loam, well developed fine to medium angular
blocky; slightly firm; common pores; some thin clay cutans; few Fe-Mn nodules; clear
boundary to:
B22 X
70-90 cm: dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/4) silt loam; medium blocky; very firm; few
pores; common thin clay cutans; common small Fe-Mn nodules; clear boundary to:
B23 t 90-145 cm: dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/4); faint mottles; silt loam, well developed
medium angular blocky; common pores; firm; common to many clay cutans; common
Fe-Mn nodules; thin vertical bleached tongues; clear boundary to:

APPENDIX 1 265
B24 cn 145-165 cm: same characteristics but many Fe-Mn nodules and concretions; clear boundary
to:
II B21 t 165-215 cm: dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/6) clay loam; common mottles; well
developed medium angular blocky; firm; few pores; common clay cutans and Fe-Mn nodules;
clear boundary to:
II B22 cn 215-250 cm: same characteristics but many slightly cemented Fe-Mn nodules and
concretions; abrupt boundary to;
III B21 t 240-270 cm: reddish brown (5 YR 4/4) mottled clay; well developed medium to coarse
blocky; few pores; firm to very firm; common red clay cutans; common iri4escent ferrimangans;
common small Fe-Mn nodules; not boundary exposed.
loc. 33 SpUamberto profile; F87 Bologna; 44°33’08”, 1°25’43”, 40 m asJ., on an eroded surface, on
the right bank of the river Panaro, 2000 m W of the bridge of Spilamberto (Modena); at the top
of the Spilamberto Upper Pleistocene alluvial fan; buried by Holocene alluvial sediments.
Cl 0-120 cm : yellowish brown (10 YR 5/4) loamy clay; structureless; no pores; firm; at its top
the layer supports a Neolithic settlement, abrupt undulating boundary to:
II B2 t 120-152 cm : reddish brown (5 YR 4/4) silt loam, few decalcified and slightly weathered
stones; well developed fine angular blocky to prismatic; common pores; firm; few clay
cutans; common discontinuous ferri-mangans, calcitans in larger pores; slighty calcareous;
clear boundary to:
III B2 t 152-195 cm ; reddish brown (5 YR 4/4) clay loam; common to many decalcified stones
(decalcified marly limestone; sandstone, chert, volcanic rocks); well developed fine angular
blocky; firm; few pores; common clay cutans on peds and stone surfaces; few small slickensides;
very slightly calcareous at the base of the horizon; abrupt gently undulating boundary
to:
III C ca 195-235 cm : greyish brown (10 YR 5/2) sandy loam; many unweathered stones (marly
limestone, sandstones); structureless; common pores; common Ca C03 nodules on lower
faces of stones; boundary not exposed.
loc. 34 Cavriago profile; F74, Reggio Emilia, 44°44’25”, 1°55’07”, 50 m a.s.l.; 3 Km N of Cavriago
(Reggio Emilia) in a gravel quarry closed to the acqua duct tower; top of the Cavriago Late
Pleistocene alluvial fan, gently sloping landscape.
Ap 0-40 cm : dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/4) silty clay loam, weakly developed fine subangular
blocky; few pores, moderately firm; very calcarous; clear linear boundary to:
B1 40-60 cm : dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/4) silty clay loam, few small brick fragments; very
weakly developed fine blocky, few small pores, firm; few pores with black organic cutans;
calcareous; gradual boundary to:
II B2 t 60-92 cm : reddish brown (5 YR 4/4), silty clay loam; few small weathered stones; well
developed fine angular blocky; few pores, very firm; few small slickensides; few small clay
cutans on peds and in pores; slightly calcareous, gradual boundary to:
III B3 t 92-134 cm : reddish brown (5 YR 4/4); clay loam; common to many slightly weathered
stones; well developed medium angular blocky; very few pores; firm; common discontinuous
black Fe-Mn cutans on surfaces of stones and along fissures; many clay cutans mainly
on stone surfaces; very slightly calcareous gradual boundary to:
III C ca 134-200 cm very dark grayish brown (10 YR 3/2); loamy sand; very abundant medium
large non weathered stones; massive; common medium pores; friable, common small carbonate
nodules on stones; calcareous; boundary not exposed.
loc. 35 Settima profile; F72 Fiorenzuola, 44°59’59”, 2°47’16”, 90 m asJ. in a road cut, along the
road Piacenza - Rivergaro, 1300 m N from Settima; on the gently sloping surface of the Piacenza
Late Pleistocene alluvial fan.
Ap 0-50 cm : dark brown clay loam (10 YR 3/3); few stones and brick fragments, but at the lower
boundary, stone line composed of large fragments of Roman Age bricks and tiles; weakly
developed medium subangular blocky; common to many pores; slightly firm, calcareous;
clear boundary to:

266 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
II B2 t 50-90 cm : reddish brown (5 YR 4/4) silty clay loam; well developed fine angular blocky;
common pores; firm; few clay cutans; few ferri-mangans; linear clear boundary to:
III B3 t 90-160 cm : dark reddish brown (5 YR 3/3) silty clay loam; common to many decalcified
and slightly weathered stones (dec. marly limestone and sandstone, volcanic rocks, chert);
well developed fine angular blocky; fine few pores; common clay cutans; clear wavy boundary
to;
III C ca 160-200 cm: dark brown (10 YR 3/3) loamy sand, many unweathered stones (marly
limestone, sanstone, volcanic rockes); structureless; common pores; friable; few Ca C03
concretions on stones, calcareous; boundary not exposed.
loc. 36 Savignanoprofile; F87 Bologna, 44°28’34”, r2 5 ’17”, 105 m a.sJ.; in a construction pit 25 m
W from the town - hall bulling of Savignano; on the gently sloping surface of the Holocene alluvial
fan of Savignano.
Ap 0-35 cm : brown (10 YR 5/3) sandy clay; coarse angular blocky; few brick fragments; common
pores; firm; calcareous; gradual boundary to:
A1 35-60 cm : dark brown (10 YR 3/3) clay; well developed medium prismatic; few pores; at the
lower boundary common medium to large stones; calcareous; clear boundary to:
II B3 60-68 cm : dark brown (10 YR 3/2); mottled (2.5 Y 4/4) olive brown, sandy clay, common
slightly weathered stones (decalcified marly limestone and sandstone); weakly developed
medium to fine angular blocky; common pores; slighthly firm; common Fe-Mn ferrimangans;
very few discontinuous clay cutans; clear boundary to;
II C ca 88-120 cm ; olive brown (2.5 Y 4/4) loamy sand; many unweathered stones (marly
limestone and sanstone); structureless; porous; friable; in the upper part of the horizon few
Ca C03 nodules; calcareous; boundary not exposed.
Isolated terraces
loc. 37 Melotta prefile; F46 Treviglio, 45”23’24”; 2°37’56”; 85 m a iJ.; in a clay pit, in the vicinity
of Melotta (Soncino, MI); on the isolated terrace of Romanengo.
Ap 0-30 cm: brown (10 YR 7/3) silty loam; some brown fragments; well developed medium
blocky, few pores; firm; abrupt boundary to:
A2 30-50 cm: very pale brown (10 YR 7/3) silt loam; very weakly developed fine angular blocky,
friable; common pores; common Fe-Mn nodules; clear wavy boundary to:
B21 tx 50-83 cm: brown (10 YR 5/3) silt loam; many dark brown (7.5 YR 4/4) mottles; coarse
to medium prismatic; common pores; firm to very firm; common vertical tongues; common
clay cutans, gradual boundary to:
B22 t 83-134 cm: yellowish brown silt loam (10 YR 5/6); medium angular blocky to prismatic;
common fine pores; firm; many clay cutans and common ferri-mangans; abrupt linear
bondary to:
B23 cm 134-147 cm: very many dark brown (7.5 YR 3/2) Fe-Mn concretions and nodules; hardly
cemented, undulating boundary to:
II Cgca 147-200 cm: dark greyish brown (2.5 Y 4/2) clay, large brownish yellow mottles (10 YR
6/6); coarse prismatic; very few pores; firm, common hard Ca C03 concretions; very
calcareous; abrupt boundary to unweathered sand layer.
loc. 38 Zorlesco profile; F60 Piacenza 45°11’51”, 2°51’00”, 67 m a.sJ.; in a clay pit 500 m West of
Zorlesco, on the flat top of the isolated terrace of Zorlesco.
20-30 cm; reworked material.
B21 30-90 cm: dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/4) silt loam, common fine brown (10 YR 4/3)
mottles; well developed medium angular blocky; many pores; firm; common small Fe-Mn
nodules; few clay cutans gradual boundary to:
11 B22 t 90-235 cm: dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/4) silty clay loam; common to many and
medium strong brown (7.5 YR 5/6) light yellowish brown (2.5 Y 6/4) mottles; well
developed coarse prismatic; few pores; firm; common wide vescicular voids, few Fe-Mn
nodules, common clay cutans mainly in vescicular voids; common vertical, some centimetres
wide, pale brown (10 YR 6/3) tongues; gradual boundary to:

A P P E N D I X 1 267
II B23 cn 235-250 cm: dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/4) silty clay loam; moist; well developed
medium angular blocky; few small pores; very firm; many hard Fe-Mn concretions and
nodules; few thin clay cutans on peds; clear gently wavy boundary to:
III B321 t 250-315 cm: strong brown (7.5 YR 5/6) clay loam, dry; well developed coarse angular
blocky; few small pores; common small vescicular voids; very firm; brown (7.5 YR 4/2)
common continuous clay cutans on peds and thick clay cutans in small vescicular voids; few
light yellowish brown (10 YR 6/4) thin tongues; clear boundary to:
III B3 g 315-405 cm: light gray (2.5 YR 7/2) clay loam-clay; common fine and medium brownish
yellow mottles; well developed coarse prismatic; very few small pores; very firm; common
black Fe-Mn cutans on peds; many black dendroid ferrimangans in peds; few patchy clay
cutans on peds; abrupt (erosional) gently wavy boundary to:
IV C 405-650: yellowish brown calcareous sands (10 YR 5/8), with oxizided brown to strata light
olive brown: massive; well sorted; cross laminated (30-35° dipping).
A PPE N D IX la : Brief descriptions of individual profiles.
In this part of Appendix 1 those exposures and profiles are listed, which were not described
in detail, but are nevertheless discussed in the text and/or recorded in the map and figures. The
geographic coordinates, the altitude, the geomorphological setting and the main pedological characteristics
are given.
Alpine fringe
loc. 39 M onte R otondo; F47; Brescia; 45°22T0”, 2°01T9”, 105 m a.sJ.. On the western slope of a
strongly eroded moraine ridge of the Garda system, belonging to the Carpenedolo stage, a
120 cm thick loess sheet (brown 7,5 YR 4/4, silt loam) covers a paleosol developed in
moraine gravels (reddish 2.5 YR 4/4, clay) (see Mocasina profile); the boundary to the
unweathered and slightly cemented till is not exposed. Late Lower Palaeolithic artifacts were
found between the eroded paleosol and the loess cover; the site is described in detail by
Coltorti and Cremaschi (1978).
Loc. 40 Medole\ F62; Mantova; 45°19’52”, 2°58’02”; 64 m a.s.l. On the gently undulating top of
the proximal part of the outwash plain of the Garda system, a construction pit exposed a
Ap/B2 profile developed in limestone gravel; the B2 is leached of carbonates, sandy clay
loam in texture and brown in colour (7.5 YR 4/4).
Loc. 41 Pedergnano-, F47; Brescia; 45°36’42”, 2°26’52”; 130 m a.s.l. On the Southern slope of a
eroded moraine ridge of the Iseo lake system, correlated with the Sedana stage, a road cut
exposed: 0-150 cm; colluvium (brown dark 10 YR 3/4, sandy clay loam) including Roman
age bricks and pottery; 150-200 cm, discontinuous B2 horizon, developed in till (reddish
brown - 7.5 YR 4/6, decarbonated clay loam).
Apennine fringe
Loc. 42 B orzano; F86 Modena, 44°36’23”, 1°48’46”, 150 m a.s.1. At the surface of the gently
shoping Middle Pleistocene terrace, a construction pit exposed the following profile: Ap
0-40 cm; reworked loess (dark 10 YR 3/3 - brown silty clay loam); II B l, II B21t, II B22
cn 40-90 cm; slightly weathered loess (yellow 10 YR 7/6 silt loam silty clay loam); 111 B22,
III B23 ca, 90-190 cm, fluviatile loam (yellowish brown 10 YR 6/8 - clay loam) II B2t,
190-220 cm; top of the «Collecchio vetusol» (yellowish red - 5 YR 6/6 - clay loam). The
profile is described in detail by Cremaschi (1978).
Loc. 43 Borzano la C ittadella: the same geographic data as the former profile. The profile has been
observed 350 m N of the former; along a road cut: Ap 0-20 cm; dark brown (10 YR 3/3)
silty clay loam; II B21; 20-60 cm; weathered loess (yellowish brown (10 YR 8/4) cloay
loam; 11 B22 cn; 60-80 cm; Fe-Mn nodules; HI B3 ca 80-140 cm; fluviatile clay (yellowish
brown 10 YR 5/8 - clay); 140-350 -I- cm unweathered gravel.

268 P A L E O S O L S A N D V E T U S O L S IN T H E C E N T R A L P O P L A IN
Loc. 4 4 Collecchio'. on the gently sloping surface of a Middle Pleistocene terrace Ferrari and Magaldi
(1968) described and studied the profile in detail: F73 Parma, 44°44’32”. 2”14’38”, 135 m
a.s.L; A2 + B21t B22 cn, 0-75 cm: slightly weathered loess (from very pale brown (10 YR
7/4) silt loam to (10 YR 6/4) light yellowish brown silty clay loam); 11 B21t + II B22t;
75-165 cm: weathered loess, with laminar structure in the II B22t (10 YR 6/6 brownish
yellow to 5 YR 5/6 yellowish red clay); 111 B21 -I- III B22, 165-325 cm, strongly weathered
gravel yellowish red clay to silty clay, (5 YR 5/6).
Loc. 4 5 Fiorano'. F86 Modena, 44°32’18”, 1°38’10”; 115 m a.s.l. In a clay pit the following sequence
was exposed: 0-80 cm, Ap, loamy clay; 80-150 cm, A lb, clayey textured, including iron
Age pottery; 150-150 cm, massive sandy loam; 150-170 cm. Alb, loamy clay, including
archaeological evidences of Neolithic age; 170-600 cm, loamy sand with discontinuous
planar bedding and scattered lenses of small pebbles; 600-640 cm. Alb dark grey (10 YR
3/1) clay, prismatic well developed, Ca C03 nodules on the ped surfaces. The humic acid
extracted from the horizon have been dated (C14 method) to 11845 ± 105 BP (Alessio et
alii, 1980); 680-800 cm massive sandy loam; 800-1000 cm (boundary not exposed) coarse,
clast supported, gravel; at the top a B3 horizon, sandy clayey, brownish (7.5 YR 4/4) very
eroded at the top.
Loc. 4 6 Caseína Camminata\ F72 Fiorenzuola D’Arda, 44°57’26”, 2°52’57”; 140 m a.s.L, on the flat
Pleistocene terrace on the left (western) bank of the Trebbia river, along the trench of the
road which connects Cascina Camminata to the Trebbia bed, the following profile was
observed; Ap -I- B21 -I- B22 cn, 0-110 cm, slightly weathered loess (yellowish brown 10 YR
4/4 - silt loam to silty clay loam); 11 B21 + II B22 t g, mottled, 110-240 cm, weathered
loess (brown 7.5 YR 4/4, silty clay loam); II B21 240-280 cm; «Collecchio paleosol» (red
2.5 YR 3/6 clay); IV B22 -I- -I- B31 + B32, 280-600 cm; gravelly horizons of the Collecchio
paleosols (red to reddish brown 2.5 YR 4/4, 5 YR 5/6 clay and clay loam); the lower
boundary is not exposed; at the depth of seven meters strongly cemented gravel crops out.
Garda outwash plain
Loc. 4 7 S. Martino dell’argine\ F62, Mantova 45°05’26”, r56T90”; 30 m a.s.l. On the flat and gently
undulating top of the Main Level of the plain, a constructin pit exposed: Ap -I- B1 0-56 cm,
colluvial dark brown to brown (10 YR 3/3 7.5 YR 5/4) silt loam; II B2t, 56-80 cm:
reddish bown (5 YR 3/4) silty clay loam; II C ca 80-95 cm; brown (10 YR 5/4) silt loam.
Middle Neolithic pits are included in the II B2t horizon (see Ca Pegoroni profile).
Loc. 4 8 Spineda\ F62, Mantova, 45°03’22”, r56T6”; 23 m a.s.l. At the upper margin of the scarp
surrounding the «Main Level of the Plain », an archaeological excavation exposed: Ap -I-
All: 0-90 cm; very dark grey (10 YR 3/1) silty clay loam, including a large number of
bones, charcoals and Bronze age pottery fragments (fill of a large pit); II B2t 90-110 cm
reddish brown (5 YR 3/4) silty clay loam; II C ca: brown (10 YR 5/4) silt loam.
Loc. 4 9 Fontanella mantovana-, F61, Cremona, 45°1 T2400, 2°06’38”, 42 m a.s.l. At the upper part of
the scarp surronding the «Main level of the plain», a large sand quarry exposed: Ap ■‘r B1
0-70 cm; dark brown (10 YR 3/3) silt loam; II B2t 70-130 cm; reddish brown (5 YR 3/4)
sandy silt clay; 11 C ca: 130-160 cm; pale brown (10 YR 6/3) sandy loam; fine sand four
meters thick with planar discontinuous stratification and thin silty clay interlayers, are
exposed below.
Isolated terraces
Loc. 50 Costa ¥agioli\ F60, Piacenza, 45°9’35”, 2°38’40”, 67 m a.s.l.; at the flat top of the isolated
terrace near Castelpusterlengo, in a ditch the following horizons were exposed: Ap 0-40 cm;
reworked loess (brown 10 YR 5/3 - silty loam); B 2 40-110 cm; slightly weathered loess
(brown 7.5 YR 5/6 silt loam).

A P P E N D I X 1
2 6 9
Loe. 51 Monte Netto-, F47 Brescia 44"27’32”, 2”17’54”, 121 m a.s.l. Monte Netto is a large terrace
in the Lombardian plain. On its gently undulating top in a clay pit near Cascina S. Bernardo
the following profile is exposed; A2 + B21 + B22 cn, 0-110 cm slightly weathered loess
(brown 10 YR 5/3 - 7.5 10 YR 5/4 silt loam) II B21 + II B22t mottled, 110-200 cm;
weathered loess (dark yellowish brown 10 YR 4/4) silty clay loam); III B2 200-250 cm,
paleosol developed in fluviatile sand (reddish brown 5 YR 4/4 sandy clay).

APPENDIX 2: Textural and chemical analysis o f fine-earth (less than 2 mm) and gravel.
Textural analysis. Grain size of the coarse fraction has been determined by wet sieving,
petrographic determination has been carried out on stones larger than 2 cm and smaller than 5 cm
in mean diameter.
The sample for the fine earth analysis has been pretreated with H202 in order to destroy
organic matter; peptisation was carried out by Sodium hexametaphosphate; particle size fractions
have been determined by sieving and aerometer (AFNOR method); the limit of grain size classes
are: sand: 2 mm - 0,062 mm ( - 1/4 phi); silt: 0,062 mm - 0,002 mm (4/9 phi); clay: less than
0,002 mm (9 phi).
Observations in thin sections strongly indicate that the method followed lead to underestimation
of clay content in those samples which have a pseudosand structure and are relatively high in
free iron content.
pH. Has been determined using and electric pH meter with glass electrode in a suspension of
25 ml H20 and in 25 ml 0,01 M Ca Cl^ with 10 gr fine earth, after shaking for 2 hours.
Organic carbon. Or. C. was estimated by oxidation of organic matter with decromic acid and
titration of the excess dicromic acid with a ferrous sulfate solution (Walkey-Black method).
Ca CO . Carbonate content has been determinated using the Dietrich Frilling calcimeter; the
principle of the method is the destruction of carbonates by hydrochloric acid in a weighed
apparatus open to air.
Free iron. The free iron has been extracted by a dithionite solution, determined by the OAophenantroHne
colorimetric method and is expressed in I Fe 203 on oven dry base.
Cation exchange capacity; base saturation. The cation exhange capacity (C.E.C.) has been determined
by saturation of the absorption complex by means of a solution of Ba Cl , buffered to pH 8;
the Ba"*^ cations, in the Ba'*^ saturated soil, are displaced by Mg^ by means of a standard solution
of Mg SO,j; in the solution, subsequently, the residual Mg^ was determined by complexometric
titration; and consequently the ammount of the Mg"*^ which displaced the Ba“*^, and the C.E.C. was
calculated.
The sum of the exchangable cations (Ca, Mg, Na, K) has been determined in an ammonium
acetate solution, resulting from leaching of the soil sample, by means of complexometric titration
and flame spectrophotometer; CEC and TEC are expressed in m.e.q. on 100 gr of dry soil;
moreover Xbase saturation has been calculated. For further details see: Societa Italiana della Scienza
del Suolo, 1977.

J
Appendix 2, table la - Textual and chemical analysis of fine-earth (less than 2 mm).
Table 1/a
G o v a r d o S a n d S i lt C la y p H p H O r g .C C a C 0 3 F e 2 0 3 C l l i v e r g h e S a n d S i lt C la y p H p H O r g .C C a C 0 3 F e 2 0 3
F > ro file ( I ) % % % H 2 0 C a C I2 % % % p r o f i l e (7 ) % % % H 2 0 C a C I2 % % %
II B 2 t ( t ) 4 .2 4 9 .7 4 6.1 6 .7 5 .7 0 .1 3 _ 4 .2 B l 6 .2 6 7 .5 2 6 .3 5 .5 4 .7 0 .2 1 _ 4 .6
li B 2 t(b ) 4 .3 6 2 .5 3 3 .2 6 .4 5 .5 0 .1 2 - 4 .2 II B 2 l t x 9.1 6 7 .2 2 3 .7 5 .6 4 .6 0 .1 2 - 4 .6
I V B 3 l t 1 3.6 4 8 .3 38.1 6 .5 5 .6 - - 5 .1 IIB 2 2 g 4.1 6 4 .4 3 1 .5 6 .2 5 .0 0 .1 2 - 4 .6
V B 2 2 t 4 .9 5 2 .4 4 2 .7 6 .7 5 .4 - - 5 .2 I1B 2 4 1 0 .6 7 1 .9 1 7.5 6.1 5.1 0 .1 5 - 7 .8
V B 3 l t 1 2.5 54.1 3 3 .4 6 .5 5 .6 - - 6 .3 Ml B l 1 1.5 6 6 .3 2 2 .2 5 .6 4 .8 0 .2 0 - 4 .9
V B 3 2 t 4 3 .4 4 0 .0 1 6.6 6.1 5 .7 _ _ 3 .8 111 B 2 l t x 1 5 .6 6 1 .0 2 3 .4 6.1 5.1 t r _ 4 .1
V I B / C 2 .5 6 3 .9 3 3 .6 6.1 5 .6 _ _ 2 .3 III B 2 2 t 1 0 .0 6 1 .0 2 9 .0 6 .2 5 .0 _ _ 4 .4
V II B 2 I ( t ) 5 .0 5 3 .2 4 1 .8 6 .2 5 .7 _ _ 18.1 IV B 2 l t ( t ) I 1.2 5 7 .3 3 1 .5 5 .7 4 .9 t r - 5 .8
V II B 21 (b ) 4 .2 53.1 4 2 .7 6.1 5 .6 _ _ 5 .3 IV B 2 l t ( b ) 1 2 .0 5 1 .0 3 7 .0 5 .7 4 .9 - - 6 .7
V II B 2 2 3 .4 4 9 .5 4 7.1 6 .3 5 .7 _ _ 5 .3 V B 2 2 t 1 5.5 4 3 .1 4 1 .4 5 .9 5 .0 - - 7 .5
V II B 2 3 2 .5 4 7 .5 5 0 .0 6 .4 5 .8 _ - 2 .6 V B 3 l t ( t ) 1 5 .7 2 4 .6 5 9 .7 6.1 5.1 - - 9 .2
V B 3 l K b ) 1 9 .4 3 7 .5 4 3.1 6.1 5.1 - - 7 .6
S . B io g io
p r o f i l e (2 )
S o lie r in o
II B 2 2 t 2 0 .2 2 0 .4 5 9 .4 7 .6 7 .0 _ - 8 .9 p r o f i l e (9 )
II B 3 l t 3 1 .3 2 2 .6 4 6.1 7 .5 6 .9 - - 5.1
A l 1 4 7 .1 3 9 ,9
>
1 3.0 8 .3 7 .7 0 .6 1 1 6 .2 1.8
1“
M o c a s in o 11 A I 2 3 5 .2 4 3 .9 2 0 .9 8 .0 7 .3 0 .8 1 - 1.6 m
p r o f i l e (3 ) li B 3 I 3 1 .7 4 4 .5 2 3 .8 8 .0 7 .3 t r - O
1.7
C/5
II B 3 2
3 4 .6 4 2 .3 2 3.1 7 .6 7 .2 -
1.9
I V B 3 I t 1 9.2 35.1 4 5 .7 7 .2 6 .4 - - 7 .9
o
II C C a
4 6 .5 3 9 .9 1 3.6 8 .4 7 .7
5 2.1 0 .4
n
CP
T o r r e d i
M o c a s in a
>
C a ' P e g o r o n i
z
p r o f i l e (4 ) p r o f i l e (1 3 ) o
<
B 3 l t 16.8 24.1 59.1 7 ,8 7 .0 - - 6 .0 A p 2 5 .2 5 5 .5 I 9 . I 7 .8 n d 0 .8 3 1.0
m
B 2 1 7.2
T e r z a g o
6 6 .7 16.1 7 .5 n d 0 .8 0 H
2 .0
c
II B 2 t
p r o f i l e (5 )
10.5 5 2 .5 3 7 .0 7 .5 n d t r _ 4 .5 CP
II C C a 2 5 .0 6 9 .6 5 .4 8 .2 n d
_
4 3 .9 0 .5 o
III B 31 t 2 1 .2 4 4 .9 3 3 .9 7 .2 6 ,4
_ _
6 .7
1“
C a s a t ic o ,
CP
V a l S o r d a N e o l i t h i c z
p r o f i l e ( • ) (6 ) p i t F ^ o f i l e (1 4 ) H
A / C { l ) 1 1.0 7 3 .6 1 5.4 7 .8 n d 1 .4 2 2 .4 n d B 2 l t ( t ) 5 .9 5 6 .2 3 7 .9 6 .6 n d 0 .4 8 0 .7
z
m
(2 ) 1 1.9 7 7 .8 1 0.3 8 .0 n d 0 .8 6 1.0 n d B 2 l t ( b ) 4 .6 6 0 .2 3 5 .2 6 .5 n d 0 .7 5 0 .8 o
(3 ) 1 0.9 7 7 .6 1 1.5 7 .9 n d 0 .7 8 1.7 n d B 2 2 t
m
8 .6 5 4 .8 3 6 .6 6 .9 n d 0 .8 1 l.( 2 .6
2
(4 ) 1 6 .0 7 8 .7 5 .3 7 .9 n d 0 .7 5 4 .6 n d C C a 1 0.5 7 2.1 1 7 .4 8 .0 n d 4 4 .2 0 .2 H
(5 ) 1 8 .4 7 6 .7 4 .9 7 .8 n d 0 .6 7 2 .5 n d
J3
(6 ) 17.3 7 7 .9 4 .8 7 .4 n d 0 .3 8 t r n d
IV P i t
>
r ~
M C I (7 ) 2 1 .8 7 3 .2 5 .0 7 .7 n d 0 .4 5 t r n d
p r o f i l e (1 4 )
•V
IIIC 2 ( 8 ) 1 9.0 5 9.1 2 1 .9 8 .0 7 .5 0 .2 7 3 .0 n d A I 2 6 .6 5 8 .8 3 4 .6 7 .8 n d 2 .3 7 Í 9 . 9 0 .6 7
O
IV B 3 l t 2 5 .5 3 1 .0 4 3 .5 7 .0 6 .5 - - 7 .7 C C a 1 0.5 7 2.1 1 7.4 8 .0 n d - 4 4 .2 0 .2
“D
r~
it)= to p ; (b ) = b o t t o m . (•) d a t a o f A / C • II C l a r e d e d u c e d f r o m F ra e n z J e (1 9 6 5 ) . Z
T able 1/b
R o m a n d i t c h S a n d S i l t C la y p H p H O r g . C C a C 0 3 F e 2 0 3
p r o f i l e (1 4 ) % % % H 2 0 C a C 1 2 % % %
B 1 2 .2 6 7 .1 2 0 .7 8 .0 n d 0 .8 5 3 2 .9 0 .6
V i v a l d i
p r o f i l e ( 1 5 )
IV B 2 l t
IV B 2 2 t
V B 3
19 .4
2 7 . i
2 7 .1
2 8 .9
p e d o r e l i c t s 3 5 .2
V C 6 3 .4
4 5 .5
5 I . 2
4 1 .5
4 0 .9
3 4 .2
2 5 .2
3 5 . 1
2 7 .7
3 I . 4
3 0 .2
3 0 .6
I 1.1
4 .9
5 .0
5 .2
5 .2
5 .3
5 .4
n d
n d
n d
n d
n d
n d
4 .6
3 .5
3 .9
3 .8
3 .6
2 .9
>
Tl
-0
m
g
X
11 B 2 l t 1 8 .2 5 2 .0 2 9 .8 6 .2 5 .7 0 .2 1 3 .5
11 B 2 2 tx 6 .9 5 1.1 2 9.1 5 .7 5 .4 - - 6 .0
IV B 2 2 t 1 9 .7 3 8 .3 4 2 .0 5.1 4 .2 - - 8 .5
C o m p a r a d a
p r o f i l e (1 6 )
B 2 l t 8 .7 6 7 .7 2 .3 6 4 .5 4 .0 0 .3 0 6 .8
III B 2 2 t 5 .8 6 2 .1 2 3.1 5.1 4 .2 - - 8 .3
M i B 3 l t 2 3 .2 3 7 .3 3 9 .5 4 .5 4 .0 - - 1 0 .5
III B 3 2 t 3 6 .7 3 0 .2 3 3.1 4 .7 4.1 - - 8 .5
C e r n u s c o
p r o f i l e (1 7 )
B o g o g g e r a
A p
B l
II B 2 l t x ( t )
II B 2 2 t
III B 2 l t
III C l
III C 2
III C 3
8 .4
19 .4
10.6
12.1
9 .2
17.1
19 .4
5 1 .4
2 5 .3
6 7 .5
5 8 . 1
5 9 .5
6 9 .4
6 0 .3
4 9 . 1
5 6 .9
3 7 .2
2 5 .2
5 0 .3
13 .2
3 3 .5
2 1 .3
20.0
2 7 .6
3 9 .7
2 6 .0
4 3 .4
2 3 .4
2 4 .4
19 .3
5 . 1
5 .8
6.0
5 .4
5 .2
5 .3
5 .3
5 .3
5 .3
5 .4
n d
n d
n d
n d
n d
n d
n d
n d
n d
n d
1.4 8
0 .5 6
0 .3 3
0.22
0 .2 6
3 .0
3 .7
3 .9
4 .3
8 .3
5 .3
4 .5
4 .3
5 .3
6.6
11 B 2 l t x 7 .4 6 0 .5 3 2 .1 6 .0 5 .7 0 .5 1 3 .0
II B 2 2 t x 8 .6 5 9 .9 3 1 .5 6 .3 5 .8 - - 3 .7
111 B 2 2 t 1 3 .9 6 2 .1 2 4 .0 5 .7 5 .4 - - 4.1
III B 3 l t ( t ) 1 5 .2 5 5 .2 2 9 .6 5 .7 5 .4 - - 4 .5
Ml B 3 l t (b ) 1 9 .5 5 4 .8 2 5 .7 5 .8 5.5 - - 4 .5
P o r t o c T A d d a
p r o f i l e (1 9 )
A p / B I 1 l . l 7 4 .7 1 4 .2 6 .6 n d 0 .8 nd
II B 2 l t x 9 .2 7 5 .5 1 5 .3 7 .0 nd 0 .7 - nd
11 B 2 2 t. 1 1 .5 6 8 .0 2 0 .5 6 .6 n d 0 .5 - n d
I ll B 3 2 t 1 7 .2 6 6 .3 16.5 5 .8 n d - - n d
C o p r e n o
p r o f i l e (2 1 )
II B 2 l t 1 1.7 7 4 .2 14.1 5 .2 4 .4 0 .2 1 5 .0
B a g o g g e r a
!V B 2 3 t
V B l
V I B 2 2 t ( t )
V I B 2 2 t (b )
V II B 2 l t
R o n c o B r i o n t i n o
pw^ofile (20)
A p / B I
II B 2 2 t
III B 3 l t
III B 3 2 t ( t )
4 2 . 1
9 .2
4 . 1
15 .5
1 0 .7
3 5 .6
2 0 .5
3 3 .0
2 5 .4
3 4 .5
3 4 .0
3 8 . 1
5 9 .8
6 5 .3
5 5 .7
6 0 .4
19 .4
6 0 .0
4 8 .3
4 3 .6
3 8 .4
3 6 .0
19 .8
31.0
3 0 .6
2 8 .8
2 8 .9
4 5 .0
19 .5
I 8 .7
31.0
2 7 . 1
3 0 .0
5 .3
5 .4
5 .3
5 .3
6.1
6 .4
5 .3
4 .8
5 .2
5 .6
5 .5
n d
n d
n d
n d
n d
n d
4 .7
4 .3
4 .6
4 .9
5 .0
2 .0 3
O.l I
t r
4 .3
4 .8
4 .9
5 .2
6.2
8.2
2.6
3 .8
3 .7
3 .8
3 .0
B a g o g g e r a
p r o f i l e I (2 3 )
A p + 8 1
II B 2 l t
I! B 2 2 t
III B 2 l t
2 2 .1 5 8 .8 1 9 .9 5 .4 n d 1 .5 4 - 2 .6
1 7 .4 5 3 .7 2 8 .9 5 .3 n d 0 .3 1 - 4 .8
1 8 .6 4 6 .3 3 5 .1 5 .1 n d t r - 4 .6
2 4 .5 5 4.1 2 1 .4 4 .9 n d - - 3 .5
R o b b i o t e
p r o f i l e ( 2 2 )
A p 7 3 .0 1 6 .8 1 0 .2 6 .7 6 .2 1 .2 4 1 .7
B 3 1 t 2 1 .9 3 6 .6 4 2 .0 2 1 .4 6 .5 6 .0 0 0 .4 6 -
B 3 2 t 5 5 .8 2 4 .7 1 9 .5 7.1 6 .4 0 .2 5 2 .0
C C a 4 8 .5 4 3 .4 8.1 8.1 7 .5 t r 0 .9
( t ) = t o p ( b ) = b o t to m

APPENDIX 2 275
Appendix 2, tahk 2 - Cation exchange capacity; base saturation in X.
C.E.C. T.E.C. sat.
m.e.q. 100 gr %
Gavardo profile (1) V B3I t 19.3 lO.I 52
V B22 t 24.1 10.3 43
VII B22 22.5 12.1 54
San Biogio profile (2) II B3I t 27.1 20.1 74
1 Val Sorda profile (6) IV B3I t 31.3 24.3 77
Ciliverghe profile (7) Bl 19.4 10.5 54
B2I t 16.1 8.2 51
1 1IB24 t 19.6 9.6 49
IV B2I f 18.8 10.9 58
i
V B3I f 31.8 19.7 62
1 Calvagese pedoreüct. 24.0 lO.I 42
■j Solferino profile (9) II B31 14.7 12.1 82
i Vivaldi profile {15) IV B22 t 16.1 4.4 27
t Comparada prof Me (1 6) III B3I t 18.3 3.3 18
® Cernusco profile (17) III B3I t 14.7 6.6 45
! Ronco Briantino profile (20) III B3I t 11.3 5.6 49
Robbiate profile (22) B31 t 13.4 7.6 57
Bagaggera profile (23) II B2I t 13.2 4.5 34
IV B2I t 10.6 4.1 38
V B3 17.1 2.9 17
Bagaggera 2 & 3 profiles (23) Bl 9.8 1.7 17
\ III B22 t 18.5 6.8 37
VII B2I t 20.7 11.9 57
Tiepido profile (24) II B22 t 26.9 20.2 75
' Ghiardo profile (25) A2 22.3 10.3 46
*
B l 1 20.0 7.9 39
11 B2I t 24.9 18.8 68
t III B2I 28.3 17.5 62
IV B22 t 27.6 17.1 62
IV B3I t 34.2 15.8 46
Ronco profile (27) III B2I t 18.7 14.9 80
Rex profile (28) III B2I t 27.4 21.6 79
IV B3I t 34.1 26.2 77
Ghiardo Cave profile (29) Ap 1 ’
A2 15.5 12.2 79
II B2I t 29.9 24.7 82
II B22 t 28.2 25.3 90
II B23 cn 23.8 21.7 91
III B24 34.1 34.7 soft
Boscone profile (30) Ap 27.3 13.3 49
A2 23.9 16.3 68
B2I t 30.5 19.6 64
B22 cn 32.9 21.6 65
II B2I f 35.4 26.1 74
II B22 g 41.8 30.2 72
III B2 cn 41.0 29.2 71
III B3 g 48.9 40.9 83
Settima profile (35) III B3 t 30.5 21.3 70

2 7 6 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
Appendix 2, table 5 - Stones and fine earth contents; grain size distribution of
the fraction coarser than 2 mm.
P ro file s
S tones
%
F in e
E a rth
%
m m
4 0 -2 6
m m
26-1 1
m m
1 1-2
M o c a s in a (3) II B2 t 67 33 30 26 44
III B 3 I t 16 84 42 22 36
V a l S ord a (é) IV B 3 I t 21 79 _
29 71
IV C C a 60 40 23 23 54
C iliv e r g h e (7) V B 2 2 t 0.2 98 .8 — — t r
V B 3 I t ( t) 6 94 — 1 1 89 j
V B 3 I t (b) 40 60 66 20 14 1
C o m p a ra d a (16) III B 22 t 15 85 — 15 85 t
III B 3 I t 8 92 18 17 65
it
C e rn u s c o (1 7) III B 22 t 2 98 _ _
t r 1
III B 3 I t 20 80 12 27 61 j
R o n c o B . (20) A p /B I 1 99 _ _
i
II B 2 2 t 12 88 — 41 59 \
III B 3 I t 17 83 — 53 47 ¡
III B 3 I t (t) 30 70 — 40 60 1
III B 32 t (b) 45 55 — 48 52 3
C o p re n o (2 1) III B 32 65 35 42 14 34 j
R o b b ia te (22) A p 28 72 19 55 26
B 31 t 27 73 33 20 47 J
B 32 t 39 61 17 35 48 :
C C a 70 30 13 46 41
T ie p id o (24) II B 2 2 t 1 99 — — t r í
II B 3 I t 17 83 — 49 51
III C 85 15 58 30 12
G h ia rd o V . (26) III B 22 t 2 98 — — —
III B 3 I t 30 70 15 43 42
R o n c o (27) IV B 22 t 2 98 — 65 35
IV B 3 I t 49 51 54 27 19
IV B 32 t 70 30 38 40 22
R e x (28) IV B 3 I t 19 81 24 14 62
IV B 32 t 24 76 36 18 46
IV C C a 75 25 56 22 22
C a v ria g o (34) III B 3 t 44 66 60 22 18
III C C a 90 10 76 15 9
S e ttim a (35) III B3 t 32 68 10 30 60
III C C a 85 15 62 18 20
(t)= to p (b )= b o tto m

APPENDIX 3: X-ray analyses
The X-ray diffraction analyses (film method) of disoriented clay samples were carried out with
a quadruple Guinier - de Wolif camera, on clay fraction (less than 2 microns). The clay fraction
was separated by sedimentation, after pretreatment identical to that for grain size analysis.
Clay separates were satured with X-ray exposures were made of samples mixed with
glycerol and of samples heated to 550° C.
The films were interpreted visually (semi-quantitatively); the relative intensity of the reflections
is indicated by the symbol -1-, and for non clay minerals by x.
-l-l-f = very strong reflection
= strong reflection
-I- = weak but distinct reflection
tr = trace
? = indistinct reflection
Quartz is expressed in estimated weight pergentage; 11 A stands for partially 2:1 mineral, 7 A
(kandite minerals) includes kaolinlte and meta-halloysite.

278 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
Table }/a
G ovar do profile (I)
II B2 t (t)
II B2 t (b)
V B22 t
V B3I t
V B32 t
VI B/C
VII B2I
VII B22
S. Biagio profile (2)
II B22 t
II B3I t
Mocasina profile (3)
IV B3I t
Torre di Mocasina
profi le (4)
B 31 t
Val Sorda profile (6)
Smectite Verm iculite C hlorite lllite IIÄ 7Ä Quartz Hematite
IV B3I t
(+) - + + 2-4 tr
Ciliverghe profile (7)
II B24
III Bl
III B2I tx
IV B2I t
V B22 t
V B3I t
Solferino profile (9)
A l I
II A I2
II B3I
II B32
Comparada profile (16)
B2I tx
II B22 tx
III B3I t
III B32 t
Cernusco profile (17)
II B2I tx
II B22 tx
III B22 t
III B3I t (t)
III B3I t (b)
— +(+)
Ronco Briontino profile (20)
II B22 t
III B3I t
III B32 t
Copreno profile (21)
II B2I t
+(+)
(+)
+(+)
+(+)
+(+)
+(+)
+(+)
+(+)
+(+)
t ( + )
+(+)
++
r(+ )
++
+(+) +
++
4-6
4-6
4-6
4-6
4-6
4-6
4-6
4-6
(+) +(+)
___
{+)
— + 4-6 tr
(r) + — (+) — (+) 4-6 tr
- + -- + - + 4-6 tr
- tr -- + -- - 3-5 tr
(+) + + + 3-5 tr
___ ___
(+)
+ 4-6 tr
__
___ —
(+) +(+) + 5-8 tr
__
tr __ (+)
— + 4-6 tr
__
tr
___ +
__ + 4-6 tr
- tr + (+) + 1-3 tr
tr ++ + +(+) 5-8 tr
tr ++ + +(+)
— 5-8 tr
tr ++ (+)
— + 5-8 tr
7 ++ tr +(+) — + 5-8 tr
+(+) tr (+) -- + 3-5 tr
9 9
+(+)
(+) — +(+) 2-4 tr
tr _ +(+) — +(+) 2-4 tr
- tr +(+) — +(+) 2-4 tr
++ +(+) (+) 4-6 tr
__ ++ + A*) _ r(+ ) 4-6 tr
_ +(+) (+) +(+) r{+) 4-6 tr
__
+(+) tr +(+) — *U) 4-6 tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
9 4-6 tr
tr + --
(+)
— +(+) 5-8 (x)
tr + — (+)
— ++ 5-8 (x)
tr + — + — ++(+) 5-8 (x)
tr ++(+) +(+) (+) _ (+) 4-6 tr
(t)= to p (b )= b o tto m

APPENDIX
3
279
Table 3/h
Robbiate profile (22)
B3I t
C Ca
Bogoggera profile I (23)
II B22 t
III B22 t
IV B22 t
pedorelicts
VB 3 (t)
VB 3 (b)
Bogoggera profile 3 (23)
IV B23 t
V Bl t
VI B22 t
VIII B2 t
Tiepido profile (24)
II B2I t
II B22 t
II B3I t
III C
Ghiordo V. profile (26)
III B22 t
III B3I t
III B32 t
Ronco profile (27)
III B2I t
IV B22 t
IV B3I t
IV B32 t
Rex profile (28)
III B2I t
IV B3I t
IV C Co
Ghiordo Cove profile (29)
Ap
A2
II B2I t
II B22 t
III B24
Settima profile (35)
Ap
II B2 t
III B3 t
Melotto profile (37)
A2
B21 tx
B22 t
II Cg Ca
c tite V erm iculite C h lorite Illite 1lA 7A
tr ++ + (+)
(+) -- +(+) ++ — tr
tr + + (+)
.. +(+)
tr (+) tr (+) — ++
tr (+) tr + — +(+)
tr (+) tr (+) — +
tr {+) — (+) — +
— tr + + — +
9 + ++ +(+)
_ + _ + — +(+)
_ +(+) _ + — +
- (+) - ++ " +(+)
(+) + ++ _ +
tr + — ++ -- +
tr + _ + — +
+ +(+) — +(+) — +
9
(+) +(+)
( +)
(+) + __ (+) ( +) +(+)
(+) + " (+) ( +) +(+)
(+) tr +
_
(+) tr _ (+) -- +
(+) tr _ (+) — (+)
(+) (+) — (+) — (+)
+ + + (+) (+)
+ + _ + + (+)
+ — r(+) ( +) (+)
tr ++ tr tr tr
tr ++ (+) tr — tr
+ tr — tr
+ _ tr -- tr
(+) - tr “ tr
+
(+) +(+)
—
+ tr + — +
(+) +(+) tr + — +
tr tr +(+)
_ +
tr tr +(+) — +
tr +(+)
_ +(+) — +
tr + — +(+) — +
Quartz
5- 8tr
tr
6- 10
3-5 tr
2- 4tr
3- 5 (x)
3-5 XX
1-3 x(x)
5-8 XX
4- 6tr
5- 8tr
4- 6 tr
5- 8tr
8-12
8-12
8-12
6-10
2- 4 (x)
3- 5 (x)
3-5 tr
6-10
6-10
5-8
5-8
5-8
4-6
4-6
5-8
5-8
5-8
5-8
2-4
6-10
6-10
6-10
5-8
4- 6
5- 8
3-5
Hematite
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
!
.ij
(t)= to p (b )= b o tto m

280 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
1
Appendix 2, table 4 - Petrographic composition of the gravel.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
j S. B la glo (2) II B22 t — 2 — — — 20 — 78
II B 3 I t — 29 — — — 14 3 54
i
II C Ca 75 — — — — 1 6 12
1 M ocasina (3) B 2 I t 8 11 _ _ 6 15 22 58
1 IV B 3 I t — 49 _ _ 7 2 1 45
IV C Ca 78 — — — 1 5 7 9
i Terzago (5) III B 3 I t - — — 8 — 7 1 84
j Val Sorda (é) IV B 3 I t ~ 2 _ — — 60 9 18
: 1 IV C Ca 85 — — — — 4 1 3
1 C iliv e rg h e (7) V B22 t ~ t r — — — — tr
V B 3 I t (t)
V B31 t (b)
V C Ca
S o lfe rin o (9) II B 3I — — — — — — — —
II C Ca 46 _ — _ _ 37 15 2
C om parada (1 6) III B22 t — 20 — 5 — 60 7 8
III B 3 I t — 59 — 7 — 27 3 4
C ernusco (17) III B22 t __ tr — t r — tr — tr
III B 3I t — 10 — 53 — 32 — 5
R onco B. (20) A p /B I — _ _ _ — t r — —
II B22 t — 10 — — — 73 — 17
III B 3I t — 10 - - — — 70 2 18
III B32 t (t) — 7 — — — 69 4 20
III B32 t (b) - 23 - 5 — 62 1 19
C opreno (21) III B 3 I t - 39 - — - 61 — -
R o b b la te (22) A p — 1 — 12 — 86 — 1
B 3 I t — 10 - - 8 — 43 32 7
B32 t — 8 — 4 — 64 19 5
C Ca 32 - 12 — — 52 3 1
G hiardo V. (26) III B 3I t 70 — 3 24 1 — 2
R onco (27) IV B22 t _ _ _ 68 7 — — 25
IV B 3I t — 8 — 70 9 — — 13
IV B32 t — 11 - - 77 6 — I 5
IV C Ca 54 - 18 — 3 - 21 4
R ex (28) IV B 3 I t _ 21 _ 51 26 _ 2 _
IV B32 t — 55 - - 24 13 — 7 1
IV C Ca 80 — 13 — 3 - 4 —
C a vria g o (34) III B3 t — 41 — 28 18 — — 13
III C Ca 72 — 11 — 4 2 1 10
S e ttim a (35) III B3 t _ 15 _ 62 _ _ 1 22
III C Ca 37 — 42 — 3 — 17 1
12
I
49
3
U M a rly L im e s to n e %; 2 = D e c a lc ifie d M a rly L im e s to n e ; 3 = C a rb o n a tic Sandstone %;
4 = D e c a lc ifie d C a rb o n a tic Sandstone %■ 5=Sandstone %; 6= C ry s ta llin e and m e ta m o rp h ic
ro c k s %; 7= V o lc a n ic rocks% ; 8 = C h e rt % (t)= to p (b )= b o tto m

APPENDIX 4: Heavy mineral analyses
Sand fractions (250-63 microns) were treated with HCl 25« and boiled with oxalic acid, in
order to remove all iron-manganese coatings; subsequently the heavy minerals were separated by
using bromoform (s.g. 2.88-289). The heavy minerals were mounted on a glass - slide by means
of Canada Balsam. Line count traverses with regular spaced lines were followed across the mineral
mounts.
In each mount the percentages of opaques, transparent minerals and micas were determined,
and three hundred transparent minerals were counted.
The heavy minerals were generally easily identified by means of current petrographic techniques
(Milner, 1962; Parfenoff et alii, 1970).
The weathering index (W.I.) was calculated on the basis of a large number of mineral species
in order to reduce as far as possible the effects of the differences in composition of parent materials.
The degree of stability of each mineral species was deduced from Brewer (1976):
W J. = ZZirc. + Tour. -VTi oxides + Staur. -I- Garn./2 And + Amph. -I- Pyr. + Sill. + Epid.
List of abbreviations;
Op. = opaques
Tr. = transparent minerals
Mic. = micas
Zirc. = zircon
Tour. = tourmaline
Anat.-fBrook. = anastase and brookite
Rut. = rutile
Tit. = titanite
Ep.+Zois. = epidotes and zoisite
Staur. = staurolite
Garn. = garnet
Kyan. = kyanite
And. = andalusite
Chlor. = chloritoid
Sill. = sillimanite
Amph. = amphiboles
Glauc. = glaucophane
Pyr. = pyroxenes
Spin. = spinel

Table 4/a
G o v a r d o
p r o f i l e ( I )
II B 2 I t
IV B 3 I t
V B 2 2 t
V B 3 I t
V I B / C
V II B 2 I
V II B 2 2
V II B 2 3
S . B i o g i o
p r o f i l e (2 )
II B 2 2 t
o
u
S
10 36 54
44 40 16
50 26 24
69 21 10
57 29 14
57 41 2
42 20 38
40 35 25
32 64 4
D | 8
H

Tah/e 4/c
B o g o g g e r o
p r o f i l e 1 (2 3 )
A p + B I
II B 2 l t
II B 2 2 t
III B 2 I t
IV B 2 I t ( t )
I V B 2 I t ( b )
IV B 2 2 t ( t )
IV B 2 2 t (b )
V B 3
V C
B a g o g g e r a
p r o f i l e 2 (2 3 )
A p
B l
II B 2 I t x
II B 2 2 t
III B 2 I t
III B 2 2 t
III C l
U N I T
U n i t
U n i t 3
U n i t I
7 b
7 a
B a g o g g e r a
p r o f i l e 3 (2 3 )
IV B 2 3 t
V B l
V I B 2 2 t ( t )
V I B 2 2 t (b )
V II B 2 I t
V II I B 2 t
C e p p o
P a d e r n o
C e p p o
T r e z z o
C e p p o
" p o l ig e n i c o ”
B ^ 'g o m o F ly s c h
o
N u
u u D
+ DD c c
o ■d
_o
Cl D
? ? D
o
c JZ
E
_o
>v
o is N 1-
T)
1“
m
O
CP
O
r"
CP
>
<
m
H
C
CP
O
H
I
m
o
m
>
“D
O
Table 4/d
T i e p i d o
p r o f i l e ( 2 4 )
Q,
O
K
u
is
d
N
D
o
t- < CD
D
(T H
'5
N +d.
iU
D
O
cn
c
o
O
c
oX ■d c<
_o
JZ
U
II B2I t 58 19 23 13 11 8 2 2 16 3 20 1 _ 1 1 9 5 _ 7 2.22
II B22 t (t) 89 7 4 10 6 11 3 5 14 1 14 + _ 2 1 5 2 _ 37 3.54
II B22 t (b) 75 22 3 10 28 6 3 2 11 3 21 1 _ 2 _ 6 1 _ 4 4.29
II B3I t 79 14 7 5 10 12 2 2 17 3 24 _ 3 1 11 2 1 7 2.12
III c 80 14 6 4 3 2 2 + 19 3 19 - -- 2 1 28 1 1 1 1.00
C O
JZ
<
y
0
o
¿
CL
c
‘a
C O
i
>
-D ■D
m
z
5
X
cn
C h io r d o
p r o f i l e (2 5 )
,
A2 35 19 46 4
1 4 40 2 3 3 3 1 30 7 1 0.26
Bl 1 25 9 66 3 3 + 2 — 28 1 4 1 2 1 3 45 6 1 0.20
B 12 cn 18 6 76 15 2 3 32 1 3 __ — 1 6 30 5 2 0.33
II B2I t 27 10 63 3 3 — 2 29 3 1 __ 1 3 48 5 2 _ 0.15
III B2I t 14 33 S3 19 10 1 10 — 15 5 3 3 __ __ _ 22 10 2 1.12
IV B22 t 4 46 50 15 6 3 9 __ 14 3 10 2 __ 4 1 26 6 _ 1 0.96
IV B3I t 27 65 48 19 4 3 3 — 28 3 29 6 4 - 2 1.12
G h i a r d o V .
p r o f i l e ( 2 6 )
II B2I t (t) 14 24 62 2 8 5 1 1 20 4 1 2 3 2 35 6 10 0.74
II B2I t (b) 36 20 44 3 16 6 + 2 24 _ + 25 12 9 0.80
III B22 t 33 14 52 19 9 2 10 __ 13 5 3 4 _ __ 22 11 2 1.17
III B3I t 64 28 8 18 4 1 3 — 28 3 30 6 4 — 3 1.63
R o n c o
p r o f i l e ( 2 7 )
III B 2 I t ( t ) 6 2 16 2 2 7 IS 2 1 2 0 I 3 12 2 3 7 1 .2 7
III B 2 I f (b ) 7 4 2 0 6 4 4 6 — 1 16 1 4 1 __ __ 1 5 __ 5 7 3 .5 4
IV B 2 2 t 9 0 5 5 3 2 5 + + 3 2 __ __ 8 5 n d
IV B 3 I t 5 0 4 5 5 7 2 51 — 4 0 0 .6 6
R e x
p r o f i l e (2 8 )
III B 2 t t 12 3 0 5 8 3 6 7 2 2 8 2 10 + 6 2 0 4 1 1 0 .8 8
IV B 3 2 t 2 4 2 7 4 9 4 5 9 — 1 2 4 1 18 — — 6 1 15 3 __ 2 3 1 .3 2
IV C a 12 5 0 8 3 2 5 3 — 2 2 2 12 — — 3 1 2 7 3 + 17 0 .8 8

APPENDIX 5: Brief micromorphological descriptions
Thin sections have been studied and described according to Brewer (1976) main characteristics
have been listed below; they include;
—skeleton grains; lithorelicts, including charcoal; pedorelicts; voids; basic fabric; colour and main
characteristics of plasma; plasmic fabric and pedological features (cutans, glabulae and pedotubules).
The following types of cutans have been distinguished:
cutans A: A l, ferri-argillans; A2, argillans; A3, siltans; A4, matrans; A5, complex cutans (A1 +
A3 + A4); A6, grainy cutans; A7, sesquans; A8, stress cutans.
cutans B: B l, neoargillans; B2, neosesquans.
cutans C: C l, calcitans; C2, neocalcitans; C3, quasicalcitans.
dist. indicates disturbed cutans.
A semiquantitative estimate of voids, lithorelicts, pedorelicts and pedological features is given
as follow:
(FF) very few, (F) few, (C) common, (CC) very common, (M) many, (MM) very many.
Pseudogleying in plasma is indicate with ox ./red. (ox. = oxidated area; red. = reduced area).
Main lithotypes in skeleton grains and pedorelicts are indicated as follw: Q = quartz, F = feldspar,
CH = chert, SA = sandstone, O = ophiolites, M = micas; Met = metamorphic rocks.

Skeleton
grains
Gavardo profile (1)
Il B2 t (t) moderately
sorted
Q + M +F,
silt and sand
Q(FF)
II B2 t (b) —do- Q(F),
charcoal
(F)
IV B31 t
V B22t
pxDorly
sorted
Q -1- F sand
poorly
sorted
Lithorelicts Pedorelicts Voids Basic fabric Plasma Plasmic fabric Cutans A Cutan s B Cutans C Glabulae Other
features
Q + F
angular
(C)
Q + CH
angular
Q sand (FF)
V B31 t -do- —do— rounded
fragments
from VII
B22 (M)
V B32t
VI B/C
VII B21 (t)
-dobut
(C) F
moderately
sorted
Q-t-F-l-M
sand silt
Q fine
sand
polylithologic
(M)
VII B21 (b) —do- CH angular
fragments
(F)
-dobut
(C)
channels (F)
chambers (F)
—dobut
(C)
chambers (C)
vughs(C)
channels (C)
vugbs(C)
planes (F)
channels (F)
channels (C)
chambers (C)
channel
(CC)
planes (F)
vughs (FF)
mammilated
vughs(C)
planes +
channels (C)
porphyroskelic
light brown
ox. —red.
silasepic
insepic
—do— -do- vosepic
mosepic
-do-
—do-
—do-
yellowbrown
ox. —red.
brown
red
red
brown
silasepic
vo-mosepic
argillasepic
in-skelsepic
skel-bimasepic
-do-
dark red
dark brown
isotic
undulic
vughs(C) —do— -do- undulic
silasepic
VII B22 —do- -do- — vughs(C)
channels (C)
-do- red brown silasepic
(undulic)
VII B23 -do- -do-
—
—do- —do— —do— argillasepic
(insepic)
A1 (M)
A6 (F)
A7 (F)
A5(M)
A6 (F)
A1 (M)
A2 (C)
A2 (C)
A5(C)
A1 (M)
AS (C)
AI (M)
AI (FF)
AS (FF)
AI (FF)
B2(F)
-do-
-do-
—do-
B2 (C)
B2(C)
Fe-Mn nodules
and
concretions
(C)
Fe-Mn nodules
(C)
papules
(C)
Fe Mn nodules
(C)
Fe-Mn nodules
(C)
—do-
Al (F)
A7(C)
B2(C)
-do-
Al (F-C) -do- Fe-Mn nodules
(C)
papules (F)
areas of
washed
silt
fluidal
pattern
of M grains
-do- brown argillasepic,
insepic
—do— pale silasepic
brown
red. —ox.
-do-
pedotubules
(F)
granular
micropedality
S. Biagio profile (2)
II B22 t
poorly
sorted
angular Q sand
CH + Q
angular
(C)
III B31 t -do- poly lithologic
(M)
skew-craze
planes (C)
craze
planes
(M)
III B32 t —do- —do- planes (M)
channels (F^
CHS
pedorelict
^ o - CH + Q +
+ Met
A = (C)
B = (F)
A = planes
(F)
channels (F)
B = vughs (FF)
porphyroskelic
red brown
argillasepic
(insepic)
A1 (M)
A8(C)
AS (C)
-do- —do- -do- A1 (MM)
-do- -do— argillasepic,
bimasepic
-do-
A = dark
red
B = dark
brown
A = argillasepic
(unistrial)
B = isoticundulic
A1 (M)
A8 (C)
A1
Fe-Mn nodules
(C)
Fe-Mn nodules
(C)
papules (C)
Fe-Mn nodules
(C)
papules (C)
A = papules B = micrope-
(C) dality
B —Fe-Mn
nodules (C)
CaC03 nodules
(Q
Mocasina profile (3)
II B21 t moderately
sorted
Q-t-F-l-M
silt and
sand
angular
CH (F)
III B22 t -do- angular
CH (MM)
t(t)
poorly
sorted
0 sand
polylithologic
(C)
rounded
fragment
from
IV B31
vughs(C)
chamber (C)
channels (C)
-do-
planes
(M)
t(b) -do- —do- planes (M)
chambers (F)
channels (F)
porphyroskelic
agglomeroplasmic
(chitonic)
porphyroskelic
clear
brown
clear
brown
dark red
brown
insepic
insepic
masepic
vo-masepic
-do- -do- bimasepic
vo-masepic
A1(C)
A4 (F)
A1 (M)
AS (MM)
A6 (F)
A1 (M)
A8(C)
A1 (M)
A7 (F)
B1 (FF)
papules
(FF)
Fe Mn nodules
(F)
-do-
Fe Mn nodules
(C)
-do-

Skeleton
grains
Val Sorda profile (6)
A/C
III C2
well
sorted
Q-t-M + F
sand and silt
poorly
sorted
Q sand
Lithorelicts Pedorelicts Voids Basic fabric Plasma Plasmic fabric Cutans A Cutans B Cutans C Glabulae Other
features
—
— vescicular
vughs(C)
channels (C)
Q + Me +
+ C(C)
IV B31 t -do- polylithologic
(M)
intertextic brown asepic to
argillasepic
—
“
acicular
Cl
in voids
isotubules
(C)
Ciliverghe profile (7)
B1
moderately
sorted
Q + M + F,
fine sand
CH and
Q(FF)
vughs(C)
channels (C)
from channels (C) porphyroskelic
brown (insepic) cutans (F)
C2(C) M
yellow argillasepic stress
Cl (C) papules
rV B31 t (C) planes (F)
CaC03
nodules (C)
planes (M) -do- red brown mosepic A1(C) papules (F)
porphyroskelic
clear brown
insepic
silasepic
into
tongues
A1(C)
A5(F)
—doand
silt
11 B21 tx -do- -do- vughs(F) —do- —do— silasepic A1(F)
A2 (C) in
tongues
A5(M)
II B22 g -do- CH + Q (F)
charcoal
(F)
II B24
poorly
sorted
sand
and silt
planes (C)
vughs(F)
channels (F)
-do—
clear
brown
red. > ox.
CH + Q (C) -do- -do- clear
brown
ox. > red.
masepic
—do-
A1(C)
A2(C)
A5 (F)
A1(C)
A5(F)
A6(C)
A7 (M)
B1(F)
B2 (C)
Fe-Mn nodules,
papules
(F)
Fe-Mn nodules
papules (C)
isotubules
(F)
B1(C) -do- Iluidal
patterns
of mica
flakes
B2 (C)
papules
(C)
"D
> r~m
O
03
o
I“
03
>
Z
D
<
m
C
H
03
O
X
m
o m
X >I““0O■D
r*
>
z
III B1
III B21 tx (t)
III B21 tx(b)
moderately
sorted
Q + M + F
sand and silt
-do-
-do-
(F)
charcoal
(F )
CH (FF)
but large
fragments
-do—
V B31 t
IV B21 t (t) moderately Q + F (FF)
sorted
Q + F + M
sand and silt
IV B21 t (b) —do— —do—
but
(C)
V B221 poorly polylithosorted
logic (CC)
sand
—do-
-do-
vughs(F)
from vughs(M)
IV B21 t (C) channels (C)
channels (C)
planes (C)
planes (F)
channels (C)
chambers (C)
-do-
— planes (C)
but (M)
agglomero- clear brown silasepic A1 A2 (FF) — — Fe-Mn nodu- —
plasmic A7(F) les (C)
— papules F
porphy- clear brown —do— A1(C) B2 (C) _ —do- —
roskelic yellow A2 (FF) but more
red ./ox. A5 (M) papules
A6(C)
—do- —do- -do~ A1(F) —do- — papules (C) —
A6(C)
A4 (F)
porphy- clear brown insepic A1 (M)
roskelic red ./ox. A5(C)
— — papules (C) —
in thin
A7(C)
tongues
—do— —do­ —do- —do— — — papules (F) —
but more
A5
—do— ted brown vo-skelsepic A1 (M) — — papules —
AS (CC)
(FF)
A7(C)
A6(C)
—do— brown red argillasepic A1 (MM)
>
ID
m
■D
z
D
X
Castenedolo profile (8)
B31 t
III B21
III B22
poorly
sorted
Q + F sand
Q sand
-do-
CH (C)
CH (FF)
-do-
vughs and
planes (C)
ortovughs
(F)
vughs (C)
planes (F)
channels (F)
poFphy- reddish argillasepic A1 (CC) Fe Mn nodu- —
roskelic brown (insepic) AS (5) les (C)
-do- dark brown undulic
A7 (F)
papules (F)
A1 (FF) B1(C) — Fe Mn no- isotubules (C)
-do- red undulic
A7 (CC) dules (C) micropedality
A1 (F) — — papules (F) —
(argillasepic) disturbed

Solferino profile (9)
Skeleton Lithorelicts Pedorelicts Voids Basic fabric Plasma Plasmic fabric Cutans A Cutans B Cutans C Glabulae Other
features
A ll poorly sorted polylitho- — metavughs porphy- dark brown mullicol — — C2(F) — fecal
sand and silt logic (C) (M) roskelic (silasepic) pellets (F)
channels (M)
II A12 —do- —do— — vughs(M) —do— dark brown silasepic — — — Fe-Mn no- —
dulcs (F)
II B31 —do- -do- — vughs(C) —do- clear brown silasepic A1(F) - — —do—
—
channels (C) insepic stress
cutans (F)
II Cca —do- -do- — elongated intertextic grey cry Stic — — Cl (M) — —
but (M) vughs(C) banded fabric T3 >
r~
m
O O)
Ca* Pegoroni profile (13)
O 1“
B2 poorly charcoal (C) — chambers (F) porphy- brown insepic A8 (FF) — — Fe-Mn no- — > z
sorted silt channels (C) roskelic dules (F) a
CaC03 <
nodules (F)
H C
—
II B2t -do- — — channels (CC) —do- reddish schel-vo- A l (C) - — — ÜD
-masepic A2(C) 1”
CO
z
Casa tico Neolithic pit profile (14)
B22t -do- CH + pottery — metadiambers 1 -do- brown masepic Al (C) - — Fe-MN no-
. _
fragments (CC) A2(C) dules (F) X
(F) channels (CC) A8(F) r"
“0
o
Tl
1“
>
H
X
m
o
m
z
IV Pit profile (14)
A12
-do-
charcoal
Met -1- Q
(C)
chambers
(CC)
—do— dark/brown silasepic papules (FF)
Fe-Mn nodules
(F)
CaC03
nodules (C)
isotubules
(Q
>
T3
g
X
1profile (14)
-do-
vughs(C)
channels (C)
chambers (C)
—do- brown silasepic Cl (C)
C2 (C)
-do-
B21 t
II B22 tx
III B21 t
le (15)
moderately
sorted
Q + C-l-M
sand and
silt
-do-
very
poorly
sorted
Q sand
Q + CH
(F)
porphyroskelic
-docharcoal
(F)
CH + Met +
+ Q (MM)
from IV
B22 t (C)
metavughs
(C)
channels
chambers
(FF)
clear brown insepic A1 (M) —
A5 (M)
papules
(C)
— vughs (CC) -do- -do- -do- -do- — — Fe-Mn nodules
(F)
channels (C) -do- red brown schel-vo- A1 dist. (M) B2 (F)
Fe-Mn nodules
chambers (C)
-masepic A5 (C)
(C)
planes (F)
papules (CC)
—
Camparada profile (16)
B21
moderately
sorted
Q + F + M
sand and
silt
Q(F) channels (C) porphyro- clear brown
metavughs skelic ox. > red.
(F)
insepic
A1(C)
A5(F)
— papules (C) areas of
washed silt;
fluidal
patterns
of mica grains

Skeleton
grains
II B22 -do- Q(FF) from
III B22 (C)
III B22 t
poorly
sorted
Q sand
Lithorelicts Pedorelicts Voids Basic fabric Plasma Plasmic fabric Cutans A Cutans B Cutans C Glabulae Other
features
polylithologic
(C)
IV B22 t (t) -do— Q + CH
(C)
IVB22t(b) -do-
metavughs
(CC)
channels (F)
chan\bers
(CC)
channels (CC)
chambers
(CC)
-do- clear brown vomasepic A5 (C)
A1(C)
-do- red brown argillasepic
(insepic)
A5,(MM
A1(C)
A7(F)
— -do- -do- -do- argillasepic A1 A6 (C)
A5 (C-F)
-do- -do- -do- —do— argillasepic A1 dist. (M)
(undulic) A2(C)
papules (F)
Fe Mn nodules
(C)
Fe-Mn nodules
(C)
—do-
CD
JS.
Cemusco profile (17)
“ D
II B22 t
poorly
sorted
Q + F sand
CH(C)
■
channels (C)
chambers (C)
planes (C/F)
-do- -do- argillasepic
(insepic)
A1 (C) dist.
A5(M)
A7 (F)
B1(C)
■
Fe-Mn nodules
(F)
papules (C)
■
1“
m
O
CO
O
III B3I t(t) -do- poly lithologic
(M)
III B3I t(b) -do- CH + Q
(CC)
III B32 t —do- poly lithologic
(M)
Bivio MissagUa profile (18)
II B21 tx
moderately
sorted
Q + F + M
sand and silt
channels and
chambers (C)
— -do- -do— -do- skel-vo-
-masepic
channels (M) intertextic reddish skelsepic
brown
metavughs
(F )
porphiroskelic
A1(C)
AS (C)
clear brown mosepic A1(C)
A5 (M)
A6 (C)
A7 (F)
—do- brown vo-mosepic A1 (M)
A5 (M)
A7(F)
A6 (F)
—do-
A1 (CC) B2(C) — Fe-Mn nodules
papules (F)
—
— Fc-Mn nodu- fluidal
les (C) pattern
papules (C) of micas
a
CO
z
m
b m
X I
>
“Ö
O
"D
I“
>
III B23 t
IV B24 t
VB31 t
—do- — — metavughs
(F)
-dobut
lees
sorted
very poorly
sorted
Q + F sand
Q + CH
(Q
polylithologic
(M)
— metavughs
channels (F)
planes (F)
rounded
frag, isotic
plasma (F)
-do- -do- -do- A2/A1 (M)
A5 (M)
A7(F)
-do- —do- (bi) masepic A2 (F)
A5 (CC)
-do- -do- reddish
brown
A7(C)
A1 (CC)
A5 (CC)
>
"D
"D
m
z
o
—do- —do- X
Ü1
— — -do— -dowashed
silt
vo-mo-skelsepic
-doprofile
(19)
II B21 tx
II B22t
moderately
sorted
Q + F
sand + silt
—do—
Q(F),
charcoal
(H)
charcoal
(F)
— metavughs
(F)
— metavughs
(Q
channels (C)
planes (C/F)
porphyroskelic
clear brown insepic A1 (F/C)
A5(C)
A6 (F)
Fe-Mn nodules
(C)
papules (C)
-do- -do- -do- -do- -do—
fluidal
pattern
of micas
Ronco Br. profile (20)
m
111 B31 t —do- Q + CH
(C)
III B32 t -do- poly lithologic
(CC)
— channels (C)
chambers (C)
—
—do-
reddishbrown
vo-mosepic
vughs(C)
—do- -do- brown insepic
(argillasepic)
A1 (M)
A5(M)
AI(C)
A5(C)
— -do—
B2 (F) — Fe-Mn nodules
(F)
Copreno profile (21)
C2
moderately
sorted
Q + M + F
sand
— — vughs(FF) granular
(interxtic)
red clear argillasepic
yellow
ox; brown
banded fabric
AI(F)
A6 (F)
B2 (F) — —

II B21 t
Skeleton
grains
poorly
sorted
Q + M sand
Lithorelicts Pedorelicts Voids Bacis fabric Plasma Plasmic fabric Cutans A Cutans B Cutans C Glabulae Other
features
vughs(C)
porphyroskelic
reddish
brown
insepic AI(C) papules (C)
CO
O)
Robbiate profile (22)
B31t
-do-
chambers
(CC)
channels (C)
-do— clear brown silasepic A1 (F/C)
A4 (F)
AS (FF)
papules (F)
Bagaggera profile 1 (23)
II B21 t
poorly
sorted
Q sand
III B21 t -do— angular
Q(C)
rounded
fragments
from III B21
and IV B22
(M)
metavughs
(C)
planes (C)
channels (F)
metavughs
(F)
porphyroskelic
-do—
clear brown
ox: brown
red: pale
yellow
silasepic
(insepic)
ox: argillasepic
red: vo-mosepic
bi-masepic
-do— -do- ox: insepic
red masepic
A1(C)
AS (CC)
A1 (M)
A2 (F)
AS (C)
A1(C)
AS (M)
IV B21 t -do- — — —do— -do— -do- -do— A1(C)
AS(C)
IV B22 t —do— angular Q
and CH
V B3
VCg
well sorted
Q coarse
sand
Q + F weathered
coarse sand
rounded channels (C)
fragments wide metafrom
VB3 (M) vughs(C)
metavughs
(C)
papules (M)
Fe-Mn nodules
(F)
areas of
washed
silt
TJ
>
1“
m
O
CO
papules (M) 1”
CO
>
z
o
<
— — papules (C) areas of
washed silt
CO
z
—do-
H
—do— —do— -do- -do- I
m
o
m
red-brown undulic AI (FF) B2 (C) H JJ>1“
III B22 t -do- -do- -doplanar
distributions
agglomeroplasmic
—do- -do- mycrocristalline
cry Stic
silans (F),
A7 (F)
B2 (F)
m
H
C
CO
o
O
Tl
r~
>
Z
Bagaggera profile 2 (23)
B1
II B21 tx
II B22 t
III B21 t
III B22 t
moderately —
sorted
Q and M silt
-do- charcoal (C)
poorly
sorted
0 sand
angular
Q
(C)
metavughs agglome- clear brown silasepic
(C) roplasmic
-dochannels
(FF)
metavughs
(C)
vughs(C)
planes (C)
— vughs(M)
planes (C)
channels (C)
-do- -do- vughs(C)
channels (C)
porphyroskelic
—do-
ox: brown
red: yellow
ox: insepic
red: skelsepic
masepic
—do-
-do- -do- a little
redder
A1(C)
A6 (M)
A1(C)
A6 (M)
bi-masepic
-do- brown masepic A2 (M)
AS (F)
A7(F)
B1(C)
A5(M)
sesquans
(F)
—do-
neosesquans
(Q
Fe-Mn nodules
(F)
papules (C) fluí dal
nodules Fe patterns
Fe Mn (F) of naica grains
papules —
Fe Mn nodules
(C)
papules (C)
Fe-Mn nodules
(C)
area of
washed
silt
>
“D
■0
m
z
o
X
C7I
profile 3 (23)
IV B23 t
V B1
VI B21 t
VII B21 t
VIII B2 t
poorly
sorted
Q -t- F sand
moderately
sorted
Q-t-M + F
sand and silt
-do-
CH + Q +
+ Met (M)
— metavughs
(C)
— — vughs(FF)
channels (F)
-do- Q + CH (F) rounded
fragments
VIII B2 (F)
metavughs
(Q
channels (F)
vughs(C)
-do- Q + CH (M) planes (C)
channels (C)
vughs (C)
porphyroskelic
ox ./red.
brown
yellow
vo-mascpic
A1 (M)
A2 (M)
—do- pale brown silasepic A1 (FF)
A2 (FF)
-do- ox ./red.
brown
yellow
insepic
—do- strong brown masepic
(unistrial)
A1(C)
A7(C)
A1(C)
A5(C)
A7(C)
—do- -do— masepic A1 (M)
AS (M)
— —
Fe-Mn nodules
(FF)
Fe-Mn noduies
(C)
_
_
Fe-Mn no- —
duies (C)
papules (C) —

Tiepido profile (24)
Skeleton Lithorelicts Pedorelicts Voids Bads fabric Plasma Plasmic fabric Cutans A Cutans B Cutans C Glabulae Other
grains
features
II B21 t poorly CH(FF) — channels (F) porphy- dark brown masepic A5 (F) — — Fe-Mn no- —
sotted vughs(F) roskelic A8 (F) dules (CC)
Q sand (C)
11 B22 t —do— CH + Q (F) — channels (C) —do- —do- —do— A1(F) B1 (F) — -do- micropechambers
(C) A4(F) dality
II B31 t -do— Q + CH + — -do- -do- —do- argillasepic Al (M) B2(F) — —do-
—
+ SA + 0 but (M)
(M)
Ghiardo Vigneto profile (26)
II B2I t poorly Q(FF) — channels (C) porphy- brown ox. = argüía- Al (M) — — Fe-Mn no- —
sorted chambers (C) roskelic red. > ox. sepi A2(C) dules (F)
Q sand planes (C) red. = vo- A5(C) papules (C)
masepic A8(C)
III B22 t -do- Q(F) — -do- —do- brown -do— -do- — — -do-
—
yellow
red. = ox.
III B31 t -do- Q + CH (C) — -do- -do- brown ox. = argüía- A1(C) — — -do- —
yellow sepic inse- A2(M)
red. > ox. pie, red.= A5(M)
bimasepic A8 (C)
m B32 t —do- polylitho-
—
channels (CC) —do- —do— -do- A l (MM)
—
— papules —
logic (M) chambers (CC) deformed
>
1“
m
a>
O
O 1“
Ü3 >ZO
■0
Ronco profile (27)
III B21 t poorly rounded — vughs(C) porphy- dark red ox: argüía- Al (CF) — C1 in papules (F) —
sorted chert channels + roskelic ox. > red. sepic, red: A2 (CC) pores (C)
Q sand (C) (FF) chambers (C) bi-masepic A5(C)
o
-D
> ■D
-ü
g
X
Rex profile (28)
III B22 t —do- skew and -do- -do- masepic A2 (F) -do— Fe-Mn noducra2e
les (C-M)
planes (C)
papules (F)
— —
IV B22 t -do- Q + CH (F) (FF) vughs (C) reddish —do— A1(C) — —
ox. < red.
A2(C)
—
IV B31 t -do- polylitho- — channels + — red and -do- Al (MM) — — papules
logic (M) chambers (C) yellow
A5 (M)
(C-M)
ox. = red.
IV Cea -do- -do- — vughs(F) — spartitic crystic
III B21 t poorly Q + CH — channels + porphy- clear brown (bi)masepic A2(C) B2 (F) — Fe-Mn nodu- —
sorted (FF) chambers + roskelic ox. > red. A8 (CC) les (C)
IV B31 t
Q sand
vughs (CC)
-do- polyli- — —do— -do- clear ox. = insepic Al (M)
thologic (C) brown red. = (bi) A5 (CC)
— — -do- —
ox. = red. masepic
—
IV B32 t -do- -do- — wide —do- brown argillasepic -do- — — —dochannels
(insepic) A7 (C7)
chambers
vughs (CC)
IV Cea -do- —do- — wide -do- micro- crystic — — C1 +C2 -do— —
but (M)
channels
granular
many
chambers
vughs (C)
Ghiardo Cave profile (29)
A2 moderatly
___ __ metavughs porphy- light brown silasepic A1(F) — — papules (C) isotubules
sorted (C) roskelic insepic A2(F) Fe-Mn no-
Q + F + M
vesicles (C)
dules (C)
sand and silt
—
II B21 t -do- — — metavughs -do- brown/ycUow' vo-masepic A2(C) neostrians Fe-Mn nodu-
(C) banded les (C)
planes (C)
fabric

Skeleton
grains
Lithorelicts Pedorelicts Voids Bads fabric Plasma Plasmic fabric Cutans A Cutans B Cutans C Glabulae Other
features
Il B23 en —do— angular — skew -do- light (bi)masepic A2 (F) — — Fe-Mn nodu-
—
Q(F) planes and yellow A1(F) les and
metavughs brown A6 (F) concentra-
-do- (C) A8 (C) tions (MM)
III B24 but poorly — — skew pla- -do— yellow/ -do- — B1(F) — Fe-Mn nodu- —
sorted nes (C) brown les (M)
ox. = red.
Settimo profile (35)
Ap poorly CH + SA — channels (C) porphy- clear silasepic — — — Fe-Mn nodu- isotubusorted
(Q planes (C) roskelic brown (mullicol) les allochto- les (C)
Q + F sand vughs(C) nous (F)
II B2 —do- -do- — vughs (F) -do- —do— in-skel- A1 (FF) — — Fe-Mn no- —
channels (C) vosepic dules (C)
III B3 t -do- polyli- — planes (C) -do- brown argillasepic Al (M)
—
— Fe-Mn nodu- —
thologic channels (C) (vo-masepic) A4 (F) les (C)
Melotta profile (37)
A2 moderately — — metavughs intertextic ox. —insepic ox. = insepic Al (FF) — — papules (F) isotusorted
(CC) red. —pale red. = siia- A5(C) Fe-Mn nodu- bules (F)
silt yellow sepic A6 (CC) les (F)
red. > ox.
B21 X -do- — — ortovughs intertextic —do- insepic A2 (F) B1 (F) — -do- isotu-
(C) porphy- A6 (C) bules (F)
roskelic
A5(F)
B 22 t —do- — — chambers porphy- ox. = red. bi-masepic Al (FF) B1 (C) — Fe-Mn nodu- —
channels roskelic A8 (CC) les (F)
(CC)
vughs (F)
“O
>
o
CO
o
CO
I”
>
Z
D
<
m
H
C
CO
o
X
m
o
m
X
>
I“
TJ
O
"D
I“
>
>
"D
-D
g
X
B23 en -do— channels (C)
vughs (CC)
II Cgca
well
sorted
Q-t-F silt
—do-
—do—
but
ox. > red.
Q(F) planes (F) —do— yellowish
brown
argillasepic
(insepic)
bi-masepic
(ominisepic)
A2 (C) B2 (C) Fe-Mn,noduand
concentrations
(MM)
Fe-Mn nodu- -
les (FF)
Collecchio profile (44)
A2
moderately
sorted
Q 4- F fine
sand and
coarse silt
vughs (C)
channels (C)
B ll —do— —do—
but more
vughs
B12 en -do- Q fragment
(FF)
II B21 t poorly charcoal
sorted (F)
Q + F sand
II B22 t
intertextic
porphyroskelic
clear
brown
silasepic
— -do- -do- dark brown masepic A1 (C)
A5(F)
channels (C) —do— brown ox. = argillasepic,
A1 (M)
chambers
ox. —red.
red.= broken
(CC)
—bimasepic
planes (C)
channels (C)
chambers (C)
-do—
Fe-Mn nodules
(C)
ox/red.
alternating
laminar
pattem
—do-
ox. = A1 (C)
broken A1 (M)
red, = A8 (C)
A6 (C)
-do- insepic A1 (F) Fe-Mn nodules
(C)
papules (C)
B2 (C)
Fe-Mn nodules
(M)
papules (M)

APPENDIX 7: Prehistoric cultures in Northern Italy from Early Palaeolithic to Neolithic.
In the present investigations the abundant archaeological materials found in the area studied,
have been used to date the stratigraphic sequences in which they occur. In order to justify the
chronostratigraphic significance attributed to these materials, a general outline will be presented of
the successive prehistoric cultures from the Middle Pleistocene onward. This outline is based on
recent literature to which is referred for detailed information. The palaeoethnological and palaeoanthropological
implications of the archaeological materials will not be discussed as such topics
are beyond the scope of this thesis.
Early Palaeolithic. The strong weathering to which the sites of this age were subjected caused
the disappearance of all but the lithic artifacts. These, although sometimes not in situ, represent the
only traces of the Early Palaeolithic cultures. Only incidentally (Cremaschi and Christopher, 1984)
it has been possible to recognize some structures and hearths associated with the artifacts. At
present, on the basis of their different geological position and different typology, two groups can
be recognized in the assemblages of lithic artifacts from the Early Palaeolithic (Cremaschi and
Peretto, 1977; Coltorti et alii, 1982):
1) Assemblage of flakes of Clactonian and Protolevalloisian technique associated with handaxes. Some artifacts
come mostly from the Middle Pleistocene alluvial fans of the Apennine fringe and from the Late
Tertiary plateau of the Lessini Mountains (Monte Gazzo and Ca Palui); they are embedded in a
polygenetic soil of the «Terra Rossa» type (Magaldi and Sauro, 1982).
The assemblage consists of large Clactonian flakes with smooth and flat or corticate platform
as well as of other artifacts, among which blades made with the Protolevalloisian technique. Massive
handaxes with waving edges have been collected in association with this assemblage.
In Italy numerous examples exists of similar industries, like the Gargano assemblages (Palma
di Cesnola, 1967, 1971) and those of Valle Giumentina and Madonna del Freddo (Abruzzo)
(Ramilli, 1982, 1974). Nevertheless there are no good datings for this group of assemblages: the
stratigraphic position indicates a Middle Pleistocene age. Similar artifacts have been found in the
Pleistocene sequence of Fontana Ranuccio (Lazio); tuff layers associated with these artifacts have
been dated to 458.000 Y.BP by K/Ar analyses (Peretto and Piperno, 1985; Segre et alii, 1982).
2) Industry of Eevallois technique on flakes associated with handaxes. This assemblage has been found in
hundreds of sites at the Apennine fringe and has also been recorded in the Lessini Mountains, in
the Quinzano quarries and at Gazzo Veronese (Cremaschi and Peretto, 1977; Peretto, 1984). It is
systematically associated with late Middle Pleistocene loesses or with other indications of a steppe
environment (Cremaschi, 1979; Cremaschi and Christopher, 1984).
Typologically the assemblage is characterized by the «debitage Levallois». It consists of artifacts
on flakes, of discoidal cores and of handaxes. The tools are mainly made from non-Levallois
flakes and consist of side-scrapers, lateral and latero-transversal scrapers. Rarer are the nockfed
flakes, the Tajac and Quinson points and a small group of leptolithic artifacts (end-scrapers and
multiple detachment burins). The discoidal cores occur in large numbers. The handaxes are always
very rare but, in comparison with the above mentioned assemblage, they are thinner and have
rectilinear edges.
Similar lithic assemblages are well known in Central and Southern Italy (Radmilli, 1974; Palma
di Cesnola, 1967), and can be compared with those of Southern France (Les Salons, Fontaseche)
(De Lumley, 1971), of the Massif Central (Orgnac) (Combier, 1976) and of Northern France

304 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
(Vallée de la Senne) (Tuffreau, 1976). Although geochronometric datings are lacking, these assemblages
are generally dated as late Middle Pleistocene (Late Riss) on the basis of the geological
context.
r «feel's^
Middle Palaeolithic. The beginning of the Middle Palaeolithic, according to several authors
(Valoch, 1971; Chaline, 1972; Broglio, 1984) is placed inside the Riss-Würm interglacial («Eemian»).
Several sites belonging to the Mousterian culture are known in Northern Italy. They are
very rare in the Lombard Alpine and Apennine fringes, and are clearly concentrated in the Lessini
plateau and in the Berici hills (Veneto region), in open-air as well in rock shelters (Peretto, 1984).
These sites provided thick and complex stratigraphic sequences in which flint artifacts are associated
with faunal remnants and archaeological structures (living floor, chipping areas, hearth...).
Among the most important sites, explored from the nineteen sixties onward and still under
investigation, are the shelters of Ponte di Veia, Mexzena, Tagliente, Zampieri and the Broion and S.
Bernardino caves (Broglio, 1984b; Bartolomei and Broglio, 1964; Leonard! and Broglio, 1965;
Broglio, 1964; Peretto, 1984). Sedimentological, paleopedological, paleontological and palynological
investigations on the archaeological strata filling the shelters, indicate that Middle Palaeolithic
cultures were confronted with a major environmental change, which took place during the first
part of the Late Pleistocene, i.e. from a temperate forest to a cold and dry steppe with loess
sedimentation (Bartolomei et alii, 1982; Cattani, 1976; Cattani and Miskowky, 1984).
The Middle Palaeolithic period is characterized by the spreading of the Mousterian cultures.
Its lithic technique differs from the older ones by the absence (or very rare occurrence) of
handaxes, by a more limited occurrence of the levallois technique, by a generally smaller size of the
artifacts and by more frequent occurrence of retouched artifacts, made by simple or (more rarely)
by «écaillé» retouche.
The tools consist of points and scrapers (lateral, rectilinear, transversal and déjeté), carineted
tools (limaces), nocked artifacts and to a lesser extent leptolithic tools (burins and end-scraprer).
The analyses of the Veneto pluristratigraphic sequences has shown that an evolutionary trend exists
in the Mousterian lithic assemblages in Northern Italy (Broglio, 1948a; Peretto, 1984). The oldest
assemblages show a still rather high «debitage Levallois» which progressively decreases and almost
disappears in the more recent levels. The percentage of nocked artifacts, on the contrary, increases
in time and their increased presence characterizes the more recent phases. While Leonard! and
Broglio (1965) correlated the Mousterian cultures with the French ones by recognizing a «Charentien
oriental» and a «La Quina Mousterien», in more recent studies the same authors as well as
others (Peretto, 1984), prefer to stress the individuality of the Northern Italian Mousterian culture.
Only two radiocarbon datings are available for the Mousterian sites of this region. They refer
to charcoals of the hearths of the level I of the Broion cave and have provided ages of 46,400 ±
1500 and 40,000 ± 1270 BP (Broglio, 1964b).
Upper Palaeolithic. As in most of Central and Western Europe, the appearance of the Upper
Palaeolithic cultures in Northern Italy concides with the Denekamp-Arcy interstadial (Broglio,
1984a). The distribution of the sites from this period roughly coincides with that of Mousterian
sites.
A few assemblages of Upper Palaeolithic artifacts have been found during the fieldwork for
this thesis in the loesses of the western part of the Apennine fringe.
In the Riparo Tagliente, Upper Palaeolithic living floors are particulary well, preserved
(Guerreschi, 1983).
From the palaeonvironmental point of view the Upper Palaeolithic hunter communities seem
adapted to the steppe and prairie environments developed at the margin of the Po Plain during the
last glacial stage of the Late Pleistocene. During the Late Glacial period, when glacial conditions
only occurred inside the Alpine chain, a remarkable shift of sites to previously glaciated areas can
be observed (Broglio et alii, 1983).
The most distinctive characteristics of the lithic industries of the Upper Palaeolithic are the
prevalence of the laminar detachment technique, the wide occurrence of tools obtained with the
microlamellar detachment technique (burins, carinated and scrapers) and the great differentiation
of the tools (various types of burins, end-scrapers, truncations, bees, backed points and bladed,
backed geometries and foliated implements) (Broglio, 1984a).

APPENDIX 7 305
Aurignacian artifacts, the oldest evidence for Upper Palaeolithic cultures presently know in
Northern Italy, have been found in the Tagliente shelter and in the Monte Avena settlement
(Broglio, 1984a); in these sites the lithic industry is characterized by «Dufours lamellesit and by
ahiseaux» and (igravettesii as well as by carinated end-scrapers.
In Northern Italy local facies of the Italic Epigravettian are present which are parallels of the
Solutrean and Magdalenian cultures of Central Europe (Bisi et alii, 1983).
In the Grotta Paina (Berici hills) (Bartolomei et alii, 1985) a Middle Epigravettian industry
has been discovered; it is characterized by aGravettesii and by foliated and «cran» points. The Late
Epigrattian industry is much better documented. It comprises three subsequent lithic assemblages
(Guerreschi 1983b, 1984). In the older one end-scrapers, especially the long types, prevail over
burins; truncations and «microgravettes» are also abundant.
On the contrary in the second phase end-scrapers short types mainly prevail over burins;
truncations increase as well as backed points. Very rarely geometric implements are present.
The third phase, in which end-scrapers still prevail over burins, is characterized by a strong
increase of the geometric backed implements. Microburins of the ordinary type become abundant.
The artifacts progressively decrease in size, while the standardisation of the geometric implements
progressively improves. In the Riparo Tagliente site the associated hearths, from the first and the
second phase, date from (T 15) 13,430 ± 180 BP and (T 10-8) 12,040 ± 170 BP respectively
(Bartolometi et aHi, 1983). The third phase, mainly present in the Alpine sites, dates back to late
Tardiglacial younger Dryas (Cremaschi and Lanzingher, 1984).
Mesolithic. The stratigraphic sequence at the site of Isola Santa (Biagi et alii, 1980) and the
Romagnano (Trento) suggests that the Final Epigravettian industry developed in continuity into
the Early Mesolithic complex of the Preboreal and Early Boreal.
The distribution of the Mesolithic sites in Northern Italy is completely different from that of
the Upper Palaeolithic, due to the changed environmental conditions and to different subsistence
strategies.
In the mountain areas, both in the Alps and in the Apennines, sites are distributed along
passes and natural high mountain routes, or near small lakes. These sites can mostly be interpreted
as short-lived seasonal camps. Other sites, in the Serchio valley (Isola Santa and Piazzana) and
along the Adige Valley (Ceraino, Romagnano, Pra de Stel) (Biagi et alii, 1980; Broglio, 1983) can
be interpreted as base camps.
In the Po Plain the sites lie on top of the terraces, both at the Alpine and at the Apennine
margins, and have been sporadically buried by the alluvial plain.
The lithic assemblages show a rather homogeneous character for the whole area; the fact that
artifacts are often composed of materials coming from sources up to a hundred kilometres from the
site where they were found, indicates a strong mobility of the groups of Mesolithic hunters
(Cremaschi, 1978; Broglio and Lunz, 1983).
The appearance of the Sauveterrian lithic assemblage dates back to the early VIII millenium.
It is characterized by microlithic and hypermicrolithic triangles and «Sauveterre» points as well as
by backed points.
At the Boreal-Atlantic transition a new Tardenoisian tradition appears, characterized first by
hypermicroliths and trapezes and later only by trapezes. At Sasso di Manerba (Biagi et alii, 1980)
the trapezes have been found with pottery and represent the end of the sequence.
Neolithic. The first Neolithic villages appear in Northern Italy at the end of the 5th millennium
b.c. north of the Po; they are öfter located on fluvial terraces or on the shores of small intermorainic
lakes. On the northern edge of the Apennines they are formed on wide fluvial fans (Biagi,
1980). They belong to two different cultures: the Fiorano, distributed South and North east of the
Po, and that of Vho, north of the same river (Bagolini and Biagi, 1975, 1976). The site of Vho,
Campo Ceresole, which lies on a terrace once surrounded by swamps and marshy areas, as
indicated by the environmental data (Biagi et alii, 1984; Cattani, 1975). The site extended over at
least 20,000 m^ (Bagolini et alii, 1977). It has been dated to 4220 ± 110 b.c. (I 11445), while the
nearby settlement of Ostiano, Dugali Alti (Biagi, 1980), produced a 14C of 4140± 110 b.c. (Bln
2795). The Cecina Site, in the Staffora Valley, gave a date of 2980 ± 130 b.c. (liar 5123).

306 PALEOSOLS AND VETUSOLS IN THE CENTRAL PO PLAIN
Early Neolithic people seem to have preferred to settle on the Holocene level areas of the Po
valley as well as on the partly drained alluvial plain soils of the Apennine fringe.
The soils form same of these sites, like Vho and Ostiano, show clear evidence of hydromorphy
whereas well drained soils were selected by the neoUthic settlers of the IVth millennium b.c. The
dominant woodland covering of the Po plain at that time was composed of oak, ash, wild pear and
sorb with maple and lime. Pedunculate oak {Quercus robur) seems to be the commonest oak species.
Some of these sites, such as Cavraina and Tobiera Cascina, show evidence of Turkey Oak {Quercus
cerris), while pine and poplar appear at Cecima in the Apennine area.
The Square Mouthed Pottery Culture makes its appearance at the beginning of the IVth
millennium b.c. It reached its apex at the middle of the millennium, to decline soon afterwards
(Bagolini and Biagi, 1980) with the spread of the Chassey and Lagozza Cultures from the South
West. The villages of this Culture in the Central Po valley, are often located on fluvial terraces.
Many of these have been discovered in the region between the old bed of the Oglio river and the
lowlands extending towards the Po. Settlements of this culture have also been found in the moraine
ridges of Lake Garda, both on top of the moraines and along the shores of the small lakes. In this
region the economy of the Square Mouthed Pottery people shows radical changes from that of the
preceding Early Neolithic communities as can be seen also from the different flint sources
exploited (Biagi et alii, 1985). It was based on domesticated animals, especially cattle, at the
beginning of the IVth millennium b.c., and sheep/goats in the later phases (Biagi et alii, 1985).
There seems to be a tendency towards the fragmentation of the mixed oak forest certainly due to
the expansion of the human settlements. Between the IVth and Illrd millennium b.c. most of the
sites of the Central Po Valley were abandoned.
Most of the archaeological materials, described in this thesis, have already been extensively
delt with in other papers, which are indicated in the text and to which reference is made for their
typology and dating. The identification of not yet pubhshed materials, with regard to their typology
and age, has been supervised by C. Peretto for the Early and Middle Palaeolithic, by A. Guerreschi
for the Late Palaeolithic and by P. Biagi for the more recent periods.

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