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Neil Brodie Antiquities Market’. In Culture Without Context, pp. 4-12. Daftari, Lisa. 2015. ‘Facebook Purges Pages Offering Priceless ISIS Plunder for Sale’. In Fox News, 11 June 2015. < http://www.foxnews.com/world/2015/06/11/facebookpurges-pages-offering-priceless-isis-plunder-for-sale/ > [accessed 22 August 2015]. Dietrich, Reinhard. 2002. ‘Cultural Property on the Move – Legally, Illegally’. In International Journal of Cultural Property, pp. 294-303. Elkins, Nathan. 2009. ‘Treasure Hunting 101 in America’s Classrooms’. In Journal of Field Archaeology, pp. 481-489. Fay, Emily. 2011. ‘Virtual Artifacts: eBay, Antiquities, and Authenticity’. In Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 27, pp. 449-464. Grimes, William. 2015. ‘EBay Begins Streaming Live Sotheby’s Auctions’. In New York Times, 1 April 2015. URL: < http://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/02/business/ebaybegins-streaming-live-sothebys-auctions.html >[accessed 22 August 2015]. Hardy, Sam. 2015. ‘Is Looting-to-Order “Just a Myth”? Open Source Analysis of Theftto-Order of Cultural Property’. In Cogent Social Sciences, forthcoming. ICE. 2008a. ‘US Arrests Army Pilot for Dealing in Stolen Egyptian Antiquities’. US Immigration and Customs Enforcement, press release, 6 February 2008. URL: < http://www.ice.gov/news/releases/us-arrests-army-pilot-dealing-stolen-egyptianantiquities-0 > [accessed 22 August 2015]. ICE. 2008b. ‘ICE Returns Stolen Antiquities to Egypt’. In US Immigration and Customs Enforcement, press release, 3 December 2008. URL: < http://www.ice.gov/news/ releases/ice-returns-stolen-antiquities-egypt > [accessed 22 August 2015]. ICE. 2013. ‘Federal Authorities Return Ancient Coins to Bulgaria’. In US Immigration and Customs Enforcement, 20 May 2013. [Press release]. URL: < http://www.ice.gov/news/ releases/federal-authorities-return-ancient-coins-bulgaria > [accessed 22 August 2015]. Kelker, Nancy L. and Karen O. Bruhns. 2010. Faking Ancient America. (Walnuet Creek: Left Coest). Lidington, Helen. 2002. ‘The Role of the Internet in Removing the “Shackles of the Saleroom”: Anytime, Anyplace, Anything, Anywhere’. In Public Archaeology, Vol. 2, pp. 67-84. Takla, Hany N. 2014. ‘The Massacre in San Jose – The Sale of Dismembered Manuscripts of Christian Egypt on eBay’. In Synaxis katholike, edited by Diliana Atanassova and Tinatin Chronz (Vienna: LIT), pp. 705-716. UNESCO. 2006. Basic Actions Concerning Cultural Objects Being Offered for Sale Over the Internet. URL: < http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ files/21559/11836509429MesuresTraficIlliciteEn.pdf/MesuresTraficIlliciteEn.pdf > [accessed 22 August 2015]. 20
The Conflict Antiquities Trade: A Historical Overview Samuel Andrew Hardy The public and professionals alike have been sensitized to the problem of conflict antiquities through the Syrian civil war. The history of the trade is sometimes traced as far back as Iraq, Afghanistan or Cambodia. Yet, such plunder forms a piece with far older programmes of State expropriation. Complex structures for antiquities trafficking by armed groups and repressive regimes, and sophisticated markets that consume violently extracted cultural assets, have existed for more than a century. Category error The standard definition, established under the United Nations (UN), is that ‘blood diamonds’ or ‘conflict diamonds’ are ‘diamonds that originate from areas controlled by forces or factions opposed to legitimate and internationally recognized governments, and are used to fund military action in opposition to those governments’ (UN 2000). However, that is inadequate even for natural resources. As Global Witness (2012: 20) have pointed out it essentially excludes the illicit trade’s role in financing the activities of other human rights abusers, e.g. it excludes forces and factions aligned with governments and governments themselves. For example, the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme for conflict-free States and enterprises recognize that, as well as Angola, the DRC and Sierra Leone, the conflict diamond trade has also afflicted Côte d’Ivoire and Liberia (Kimberley Process 2013). Yet it does not recognise the handling of diamonds that finance Robert Mugabe’s regime in Zimbabwe as trading in conflict diamonds, despite the fact that it is a source of offbudget financing for Zimbabwe’s Central Intelligence Organization (CIO), Ministry of Defence (MOD) and State-owned and internationally sanctioned Zimbabwe Defence Industries (ZDI), which ‘subverts civilian and democratic control’ of law enforcement, facilitates undemocratic management of political life and finances human rights abuses by that government or its shadow, ‘parallel government’ (Global Witness 2012: 3; 4). Furthermore, there are problems specific to the illicit trade in cultural goods as ‘cultural’ instead of ‘natural’ resources. The destruction and deprivation inherent to the looting and trafficking of cultural property mean that human rights violations are inherent to the illicit trade. And cultural assets may be extracted through State or non- State violence as ‘cultural’ instead of ‘economic’ capital. Hence, it may be helpful to use ‘blood antiquities’ and ‘conflict simultaneously but distinctly, wherein ‘blood antiquities’ are pieces of cultural property that are extracted through violence by politically motivated armed groups, and ‘conflict antiquities’ are pieces of cultural property that are handled to finance politically motivated human rights abusers. Material assets and cultural assets Consideration of the distinct treatment of plundered cultural property has persisted for practically as long as cultural property has been plundered. While the Neo-Babylonian Empire plundered Jerusalem in 597 BC, and the Achaemenid Empire incentivized its 21
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