Humane-Slaughter-Guidelines

of behavioral assessment and aversion testing and reviewed
in the context of euthanasia. 1 It is important to
understand that aversion is a measure of preference,
and while aversion does not necessarily imply that an
experience is painful, forcing animals into aversive situations
creates distress. The conditions of exposure used
for aversion studies, however, may differ from those
used for stunning or slaughter. One of the characteristics
of anesthesia in humans is the feeling that one
is having an out-of-body experience, suggesting a disconnection
between one’s sense of self and one’s awareness
of time and space. 10 Although we cannot know for
certain the subjective experiences of animals, one can
speculate similar feelings of disorientation may contribute
to the observed signs of distress with inhaled methods.
In addition, agents identified as being less aversive
(eg, Ar or N 2
gas mixtures) can still produce overt signs
of behavioral distress (eg, open-mouth breathing) for
extended periods of time prior to loss of consciousness
under certain conditions of administration (eg, gradual
displacement). 11
Unconsciousness, defined as loss of individual
awareness, occurs when the brain’s ability to integrate
information is blocked or disrupted. In animals, loss
of consciousness is functionally defined by LORR, also
called LOP. 8,12,13 This definition is quite useful because
it is an easily observable, integrated whole-animal response.
Although any physical movement occurring
during anesthesia, euthanasia, slaughter, or depopulation
is often interpreted as evidence of consciousness,
cross-species data from the anesthesia literature suggest
that both memory formation and awareness are
abolished early in the overall process relative to loss of
reflex muscle activity. 8 Thus, vocalization and nonpurposeful
movement observed after LORR or LOP with
properly applied CAS methods are not necessarily signs
of conscious perception by the animal. While generalized
seizures may be observed following effective CAS
methods, these generally follow loss of consciousness;
indeed, anesthesia, coma, and generalized seizures all
represent a loss of consciousness where both arousal
and awareness in humans are low or absent. 14 Loss of
consciousness should always precede loss of muscle
movement.
Although measurements of brain electrical function
have been used to quantify the unconscious state,
EEG data cannot provide definitive answers as to onset
of unconsciousness even when state-of-the-art equipment
is used. At some level between behavioral unresponsiveness
and the induction of a flat EEG (indicating
the cessation of the brain’s electric activity and
brain death), consciousness vanishes. However, current
EEG-based brain function monitors are limited in their
ability to directly indicate unconsciousness, especially
around the transition point. 15,16 Also, it is not always
clear which EEG patterns are indicators of activation by
stress or pain. 17 Reduction in alpha-to-delta brain wave
ratios coincides with LOP in chickens, 18,19 reinforcing
the usefulness of LOP or LORR as an easily observable
proxy for loss of animal consciousness.
Physical methods that destroy or render nonfunctional
the brain regions responsible for cortical integration
(eg, gunshot, captive bolt, cerebral induction
of epileptiform activity in the brain [eg, electric stunning],
blunt force cranial trauma, maceration) produce
instantaneous unconsciousness. When physical methods
directly destroy the brain, signs of unconsciousness
include immediate collapse (LORR or LOP) and
a several-second period of tetanic spasm, followed by
slow hind limb movements of increasing frequency. 20,21
In cattle, however, there is species variability in this response.
The corneal reflex will also be absent. 22 Signs
of effective electric stunning that induces both epileptiform
activity in the brain and cardiac arrest are LORR,
loss of menace reflex and tracking of moving objects,
extension of the limbs, opisthotonos, downward rotation
of the eyeballs, and tonic spasm changing to clonic
spasm, with eventual muscle flaccidity. 21,23 Physical
methods are inexpensive, humane, and minimize pain
if performed properly, and leave no drug residues in
the carcass. Furthermore, animals presumably experience
less fear and anxiety with methods that require
little preparatory handling. However, physical methods
usually require a more direct association of the operator
with the animals, which can be offensive to, and
upsetting for, the operator. Physical methods must be
skillfully executed to ensure a quick and humane death
because failure to do so can cause significant stress, distress,
and pain. Physical disruption methods are usually
followed by exsanguination to ensure death and
improve meat quality. Exsanguination is also a method
of inducing hypoxia, albeit indirectly.
Controlled atmosphere stunning methods also
depress the cerebral cortical neural system, producing
loss of consciousness accompanied by LORR or LOP.
Purposeful escape behaviors should not be observed
during the transition to unconsciousness. Depending
on the speed of onset of unconsciousness, signs associated
with release of conscious inhibition of motor
activity, (such as vocalization or uncoordinated muscle
contraction) may be observed at LORR or LOP. Signs
of an effective stun when the animal is in deep levels
of anesthesia include LORR or LOP, loss of eye blink
(menace reflex) and corneal reflex, and muscle flaccidity.
24 As with physical disruption methods, CAS methods
are usually followed by exsanguination to ensure
death and improve meat quality.
Decapitation and cervical dislocation are physical
methods of slaughter that require separate comment.
The interpretation of brain electric activity, which can
persist for up to 30 seconds following these methods,
25–27 has been controversial. 28 As indicated previously,
EEG cannot provide definitive answers as to the
exact onset of unconsciousness. Other studies 26,27,29–31
indicate such activity does not imply the ability to perceive
pain and conclude that loss of consciousness develops
rapidly.
In summary, the cerebral cortex or equivalent
structures and associated subcortical structures must
be functional for pain to be perceived. If the cerebral
cortex is nonfunctional because of physical disruption,
hypoxia, generalized epileptic seizure, or neuronal depression,
pain cannot be experienced. Motor activities
occurring following LORR or LOP, although potentially
distressing to observers, are not perceived by an unconscious
animal as pain or distress. Reflexive kicking in
8 AVMA Guidelines for the Humane Slaughter of Animals: 2016 Edition