Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW

Contents: 

Annals 

of Warsaw 

University 

of Life 

Sciences 

– SGGW 

Forestry and Wood Technology No 71 

Warsaw 2010 

ANDRZEJ ANTCZAK “The study of thermal degradation of softwood 

cellulose in the presence of antioxidants – FT-IR analysis” .................................................... 9 

ANTCZAK ANDRZEJ “The study of thermal degradation of softwood cellulose 

in the presence of antioxidants – SEC analysis” ................................................................... 14 

BEER PIOTR, FUCZEK DOROTA, KOWALUK GRZEGORZ, ZBIE� MARCIN 

“Possibilities and limits of the finishing of the particleboards from fibrous chips” ............... 20 

BELCHINSKAYA L.I., SEDLIACIK JAN, VARIVODIN V.A., ANISIMOV �.�. 

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BIERNACKA JUSTYNA, SEDLIA�IKOVÁ MARIANA „The analysis of 

roundwood and sawnwood production in selected European Union countries” .................... 28 

BIERNACKA JUSTYNA, SEDLIA�IKOVÁ MARIANA “Competitiveness analysis 

of wood industry sector in selected European Union countries” ........................................... 31 

BODNÁR FERDINAND, JAB�O�SKI MAREK “Stress concentration factors of an 

anisotropic elastic plate with an elliptical hole ...................................................................... 37 

BOMBIN A.M., MORDVINOV P.S. “Two special plants for drying of wood by 

superhigh frequency of electromagnetic energy” .................................................................. 42 

BORATY�SKI EMILIAN, JANKOWSKA AGNIESZKA, 

SZCZ�SNA MAGDALENA “Influence of the accelerated ageing red oak wood 

(Quercus rubra L.) on compressive strength along the fibers” .............................................. 47 

BORUSZEWSKI PIOTR, BORYSIUK PIOTR, DOBROWOLSKA EWA, 

MAMI�SKI MARIUSZ, NICEWICZ DANUTA „Interactions with water of novel 

wood-fiber material with lignins as binder” .......................................................................... 51 

BORYSIUK PIOTR, BORUSZEWSKI PIOTR, KRAJEWSKI KRZYSZTOF, 

JABLO�SKI MAREK, RUŽINSKÁ EVA „Shear strength of bonds in plywood 

made of veneers treated with pyrethroid and triazole based bio-preservatives” .................... 56 

BORYSIUK PIOTR, SZO�UCHA MARCIN, JASKÓ�OWSKI WALDEMAR, 

CZECHOWSKA JOANNA „Low-density particleboards with foamed 

polystyrene additive” ............................................................................................................ 62 

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CHUCHALA D., MISZKIEL K., ORLOWSKI K.A. „Methods of determining 

cutting forces during woodcutting” ....................................................................................... 70 

CYRANKOWSKI MARIUSZ, BAJKOWSKI BOGUS�AW “The role of lighting in 

vision systems” ..................................................................................................................... 75 

CYRANKOWSKI MARIUSZ, WROTEK HUBERT “Advanced quality control 

methods for wood” ................................................................................................................ 79 

CZARNECKI RAFA�, DUKARSKA DOROTA “Estimating the possibilities of 

applying Sida hermaphrodita Rusby to the production of low-density particleboards” ........ 83 

CZARNIAK PAWE�, WILKOWSKI JACEK, MAZUREK ANDRZEJ „Influence 

of tool wear and cutting force on machining quality during milling of 

laminated particleboard ......................................................................................................... 87 

CZECHOWSKA JOANNA, BORYSIUK PIOTR, MAMI�SKI MARIUSZ „Selected 

properties of low-density pine and poplar-pine particleboards” ............................................ 92 

DANIHELOVÁ ANNA, �ULÍK MARTIN, RUŽINSKÁ EVA, 

JAB�O�SKI MAREK, ZBIE� MARCIN “The magnetic properties spruce wood 

and their influence on wood quality” .................................................................................... 97 

2

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“�� ” ............................. 106 

DIETZ HANS, KRZOSEK S�AWOMIR “Entwicklungstendenzen bei 

Bandsägeführungen im Sägewerk” ..................................................................................... 110 

DOBROWOLSKA EWA, KOZAKIEWICZ PAWE� “Die Sägegatter in der deutschen 

Literatur des 18. Jh. Nach Sturm und Zedler” ..................................................................... 114 

DOLACIS J�NIS, ANTONS ANDIS, PAVLOVI�S GUN�RS, C�RULE DACE 

“Relationship between the anatomical structure elements and mechanical properties 

in the trunk transverse and longitudinal direction for wood of Norway spruce 

(Picea abies (L.) Karst.) growing in Latvia” ....................................................................... 126 

DOLNY STANIS�AW, ROGOZI�SKI TOMASZ „Preliminary research of the 

processes of filtering purification of the air polluted by dust arisen during tooling 

the particleboards” .............................................................................................................. 130 

DOLNY STANIS�AW, ROGOZI�SKI TOMASZ “Air pulse pressure in conditions 

of air cleaning from wood dusts by filtration” .................................................................... 134 

DOLNY STANIS�AW, ROGOZI�SKI TOMASZ “Influence of moisture content 

on the physical and aerodynamic properties of dusts from working of particleboards” ...... 138 

DRÁBEK JOSEF, SEDLIA�IKOVÁ MARIANA, BIERNACKA JUSTYNA 

“The suggesting approach to the measuring and evaluating of the efficiency of 

Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in the furniture industry” ...................................... 142 

DRO�D�EK MICHA� “Influence of isolation conditions on the degradation degree 

of scots pine wood (Pinus sylvestris L.)” ............................................................................ 147 

DUKARSKA DOROTA, ��CKA JANINA “Synthetic silica as a filler of phenolic 

resin in the manufacture of exterior plywood” .................................................................... 152 

DUKARSKA DOROTA, ��CKA JANINA, ZAJDLER MAGDALENA 

„The influence of adding of TiO2 and CaCO3 to phenolic resin upon the colour 

of glue line and properties of water-resistant plywood” ..................................................... 157 

DZIURKA DOROTA “Improved water resistance and adhesive performance of a 

commercial UF resin with small pMDI additions” ............................................................. 162 

DZIURKA DOROTA, ��CKA JANINA “Veneered lightweight particleboards for 

furniture industry” ............................................................................................................... 166 

FABISIAK EWA, CUNDERLIK IGOR, MOLI�SKI WALDEMAR 

“Ultrastructure and ultrasound wave propagation velocity in spruce (Picea abies L.) 

resonance wood” ................................................................................................................. 170 

FOJUTOWSKI ANDRZEJ, KROPACZ ALEKSANDRA, NOSKOWIAK ANDRZEJ 

“Resistance of thermomodified spruce and alder wood to moulds fungi” .......................... 177 

3

GÁBORÍK JOZEF, DUDAS JURAJ, KULÍK JOZEF “Selected properties of laminated 

wood of poplar” .................................................................................................................. 182 

GAFF MILAN, MACEK ŠTEFAN, ZEMIAR JÁN “Model analysis of laminar 

materials stressed by bending” ............................................................................................ 187 

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GOZDECKI CEZARY, KOCISZEWSKI MAREK, WILCZY�SKI ARNOLD 

“Wood-polyethylene composite with industrial wood particles” ........................................ 199 

GOZDECKI CEZARY, KOCISZEWSKI MAREK, WILCZY�SKI ARNOLD, 

MIROWSKI JACEK „Effect of wood bark content on mechanical properties 

of wood-polyethylene composite” ...................................................................................... 203 

GROBELNY TOMASZ, KARDA� DOROTA, GÓRALSKI TOMASZ 

“Perforation of blade as a way to increase the stiffness of frame saw” ............................... 207 

GROBELNY TOMASZ, KARDA� DOROTA, JASI�SKI BARTOSZ 

“Influence of rake angle of scoring saw on cutting quality” ............................................... 211 

GRZE�KIEWICZ MAREK, K�DZIERSKI ANDRZEJ, SWACZYNA IRENA, 

POLICI�SKA-SERWA ANNA „Comparative studies of varying characteristics of 

wood surfaces after exposure to natural climate and accelerated aging” ............................ 217 

GRZE�KOWIAK WOJCIECH �., BARTKOWIAK MONIKA “Flammability of 

thermally modified wood originated from the industry – part I - mass losses” ................... 221 

GRZE�KOWIAK WOJCIECH �., BARTKOWIAK MONIKA 

“Flammability of thermally modified wood originated from the industry – part II - 

temperature distribution” .................................................................................................... 225 

GRZE�KOWIAK WOJCIECH �., WI�NIEWSKI TOMASZ 

“Fire safety of fireplaces – wood based products speed of charring” .................................. 229 

H’NG P.S., CHAI L.Y., CHIN K.L., MAMI�SKI M. “Oil palm wood (Elaeis 

guineensis Jacq.) as an underutilized resource of raw materials” ........................................ 235 

JAB�O�SKI MAREK, SEDLIA�IK JÁN, RUŽINSKÁ EVA 

“Less popular application of trees and bushes growing in Poland and Slovakia” ............... 240 

JANDA�KA JOZEF, KAPJOR ANDREJ, PAPU�ÍK ŠTEFAN, 

LENHARD RICHARD “Emission and power parameters of combined heat source on 

wood biomass combustion” ................................................................................................ 245 

JANDA�KA JOZEF, HUŽVÁR JOZEF, KAPJOR ANDREJ 

“Project of micro co-generation unit on wood pellets combustion” .................................... 250 

JANDA�KA JOZEF, HOLUB�ÍK MICHAL, NOSEK RADOVAN, PILÁT PETER 

“The effect of additives for production of wood pellets” .................................................... 255 

JANDA�KA JOZEF, PILÁT PETER, NOSEK RADOVAN, �AJA ALEXANDER 

“The influence of boiler regulation to emission parameters and heat power” ..................... 261 

4

JANDA�KA JOZEF, NOSEK RADOVAN, PAPU�ÍK ŠTEFAN, 

CHABADOVÁ JANA “The influence of fuel supply to emissions parameters and 

heat power of domestic boiler” ........................................................................................... 265 

JANKOWSKA AGNIESZKA, KOZAKIEWICZ PAWE�, SZCZ�SNA MAGDALENA 

“Discoloration of bilinga (Nauclea diderrichii (De Wild. & Th.Dur.) Merr.) and iroko 

(Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C.Berg.) wood, caused by coatings and light aging” ............... 270 

JANKOWSKA AGNIESZKA “Comparative analysis of wood ageing methods” .............. 275 

JANKOWSKA AGNIESZKA, ST�PNIEWSKI SEBASTIAN “Research on colour 

change of thermal modified birch wood caused by UV and accelerated ageing ................. 280 

JASKÓ�OWSKI WALDEMAR, MAMI�SKI MARIUSZ “Emissions CO and CO2 

from particleboard filled with mineral wool in fire conditions” .......................................... 285 

JASKÓ�OWSKI WALDEMAR, BORYSIUK PIOTR “Emissions of CO and CO2 

from particleboard filled with polystyrene in fire conditions” ........................................... 291 

JASKÓ�OWSKI WALDEMAR, KOZAKIEWICZ PAWE�, SZWED MAREK 

“Thermogravimetric research on the influence of wood species on its thermal 

decomposition” ................................................................................................................... 296 

JASKÓ�OWSKI WALDEMAR, KOZAKIEWICZ PAWE�, POP�AWSKI MAREK 

“Study on the influence of thickness of dust layer to ignition temperature in selected 

types of exotic woods” ........................................................................................................ 300 

JASTRZ�B JOANNA ”Die Eigenschaften der OSB–Platten modifiziert mit 

thermoplastischen Kunststoffen in der Abhängigkeit von der Presstemperatur” ................ 304 

JASTRZ�B JOANNA “Der Einfluss des Aktivators auf die Eigenschaften der 

OSB–Platten modifiziert mit thermoplastischen Kunststoffen” ......................................... 309 

JASZCZUR ANNA, MODZELEWSKA IZABELA, KOKOSZKA AGNIESZKA, 

�O�NOWSKI PAWE� „Strength properties and biodegradation of paper products 

manufactured from broad-leaved bleached kraft pulp supplemented with starch and 

resin glue additives” ............................................................................................................ 314 

JAVOREK L., HRIC J. “The curved cutting edge wearing (back face) during 

greenwood turning “ ............................................................................................................ 319 

JAVOREK L., PAULINY D., HRIC J. “The influence of the tool design to 

cutting force “ ..................................................................................................................... 323 

JELONEK TOMASZ, TOMCZAK ARKADIUSZ “Biomechanics of Scots pine 

(Pinus sylvestris L.) trees coming from mature stands” ...................................................... 328 

JELONEK TOMASZ, PAZDROWSKI WITOLD, TOMCZAK ARKADIUSZ, 

JAKUBOWSKI MARCIN „Dynamics of heartwood formation in European larch 

(Larix decidua Mill.) in terms of age and variation in social tree position in the stand” ..... 336 

KARPOVI� ZBIGNEV, JASKÓ�OWSKI WALDEMAR, 

MA�IULAITIS ROMUALDAS, PRANIAUSKAS VLADAS “Studies on 

combustibility of treated wood with fire retardant and antiseptic solutions” .................... 342 

5

K�DZIERSKI ANDRZEJ, POLICI�SKA – SERWA ANNA 

“The effect of ageing in natural conditions on the basic properties of water-based 

paint coatings” .................................................................................................................... 347 

KHODOSOVA N.A., SEDLIACIK JAN, VARIVODIN V.A., ANISIMOV �.�. 

“�� , �� ” ........... 351 

KOWALCZYK SYLWESTER “Application of acoustic 

signals in preventing of animal damages in farming and forest cultivations” ..................... 355 

KOPECKÝ ZDEN�K, ROUSEK MIROSLAV, VESELÝ P�EMYSL 

“The noise level of circular sawblades with the irregular tooth pitch” ................................ 360 

KOWALUK GRZEGORZ, BORUSZEWSKI PIOTR, BORYSIUK PIOTR, ZBIE� 

MARCIN „Thermal characteristic of the particleboards produced from fibrous chips” ..... 367 

KOWALUK GRZEGORZ, ZBIE� MARCIN, BEER PIOTR 

“The quality of milling of the particleboards produced from fibrous chips” ....................... 371 

KOZAKIEWICZ PAWE�, SZCZ�SNA MAGDALENA, TOMCZAK 

MA�GORZATA “Shrinkage and swell in pine wood coming from XIX-th century 

constructional wood” .......................................................................................................... 374 

KOZAKIEWICZ PAWE�, MATEJAK MIECZYS�AW „Kreissägen” ............................ 378 

KOZAKIEWICZ PAWE�, DOBROWOLSKA EWA „Die Sägegatter in der deutschen 

Literatur des 18. Jh. Nach Florin und Leupold” .................................................................. 383 

KRAJ�OVI�OVÁ MÁRIA “Holzspielzeuge damals und Heute in der Slowakei” ........... 390 

KRAJEWSKI ADAM , MAZUREK ANDRZEJ “Exotic species of wood borers in 

investigations of Wood Protection Division SGGW in Warsaw in years 1997 – 2009” ..... 395 

KRAJEWSKI ADAM “The species of wood construction in historic churches in 

Mazovia region - Part 2” ..................................................................................................... 400 

KRAUSS ANDRZEJ, SZYMA�SKI WALDEMAR, PINKOWSKI GRZEGORZ 

„The radial variability of the modulus of elasticity along the grain of Scots pine wood” ... 404 

KRUTUL DONATA, ZIELENKIEWICZ TOMASZ, RADOMSKI ANDRZEJ, 

ZAWADZKI JANUSZ, DRO�D�EK MICHA�, ANTCZAK ANDRZEJ 

„Influence of urban environment originated heavy metals pollution on the content 

of extractives, cellulose and lignin in the oak wood” .......................................................... 410 

KRYSTOFIAK TOMASZ, PROSZYK STANIS�AW, LIS BARBARA, JURGA ANNA 

“Effect of thermal aging on properties of HDF boards finished in lacquer analogue 

printing technology. Part I. Coatings resistance upon thermal factors” ............................... 417 

KRYSTOFIAK TOMASZ, LIS BARBARA, PROSZYK STANIS�AW, JURGA ANNA 

“Effect of thermal aging on properties of HDF boards finished in lacquer analogue 

printing technology. Part II. Coatings resistance upon mechanical factors” ....................... 421 

KRZOSEK S�AWOMIR “Qualität von polnischem festigkeitssortierten 

Kieferschnittholz aus verschiedenen Wuchsgebieten” ........................................................ 425 

6

KUROWSKA AGNIESZKA, KOZAKIEWICZ PAWE� “Density and shear strength 

as solid wood and glued laminated timber suitability criterion for window woodwork 

manufacturing” ................................................................................................................... 429 

KUROWSKA AGNIESZKA, KOZAKIEWICZ PAWE�, BORYSIUK PIOTR 

“An attempt at the use of laboratory density analyzer for determination of solid wood 

cross section density distribution” ....................................................................................... 435 

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LIS BARBARA, KRYSTOFIAK TOMASZ, PROSZYK STANIS�AW 

“Studies of the resistance upon some factors of UV acrylic lacquer coatings 

on MDF boards. Part I. Resistance of heat and cold liquid action “ ................................... 450 

LIS BARBARA, KRYSTOFIAK TOMASZ, PROSZYK STANIS�AW 

“Studies of the resistance upon some factors of UV acrylic lacquer coatings on 

MDF boards. Part II. Mechanical factors” .......................................................................... 454 

LIS BARBARA, KRYSTOFIAK TOMASZ, PROSZYK STANIS�AW, WO�NIAK 

AGNIESZKA „Influence of thermal aging of veneering boards finished PUR lacquers 

in HC technology upon coatings properties. Part III. Resistance to thermal and 

chemical factors” ................................................................................................................ 458 

LIS BARBARA, KRYSTOFIAK TOMASZ, PROSZYK STANIS�AW, WO�NIAK 

AGNIESZKA „Influence of thermal aging of veneering boards finished of PUR lacquers 

in HC technology upon coating properties. Part IV. Wettability and adherence” ............... 462 

MAKOWSKI ANDRZEJ “Strength analysis of layered wood composite” ........................ 467 

MAKOWSKI A., NOSKOWIAK A., PAJCHROWSKI G., SZUMI�SKI G. 

“Strength and modulus of elasticity in bending of pine structural timber with square 

and round cross-section” ..................................................................................................... 473 

MAKSIMOWSKI PAWE�, ZAWADZKI JANUSZ , RADOMSKI ANDRZEJ 

“Use of pinene as component of special paints” ................................................................. 479 

MA�KOWSKI PIOTR, RADOMSKI ANDRZEJ 

“Thermal and photolytic ageing of Winacet RA” .............................................................. 484 

MA�KOWSKI PIOTR, ZIELENKIEWICZ TOMASZ, BORUSZEWSKI PIOTR 

“Iron chloride solution penetration into oak wood” ............................................................ 490 

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MATYAŠOVSKÝ JÁN, JURKOVI� PETER, DUCHOVI� PETER 

“Collagen modified hardener for melamine-formaldehyde adhesive for increasing 

water-resistance of plywood” .............................................................................................. 499 

7

MAZELA BART�OMIEJ, HOCHMA�SKA PATRYCJA, RATAJCZAK IZABELA, 

SZENTNER KINGA „Enhancing the fungal performance of wood coatings by 

pre-treatment with Na2O-SiO2 solution” ............................................................................. 504 

MIKO�AJCZAK EL�BIETA “Biomass as a source of renewable energy in Poland” ....... 509 

MIRSKI RADOS�AW, DERKOWSKI ADAM 

“Bending strength of OSB subjected to boiling test” .......................................................... 515 

Board of reviewers: 

Prof. dr hab. Bogus�aw Bajkowski 

Prof. dr hab. Piotr Beer 

Dr hab. Ewa Dobrowolska 

Prof. dr hab. Jaros�aw Górski 

Prof. dr hab. Adam Krajewski 

Prof. dr hab. Krzysztof Krajewski 

Prof. dr hab. Donata Krutul 

Dr hab. S�awomir Krzosek 

Dr hab. Hanna Pachelska 

Prof. dr hab. Andrzej Starecki 

Prof. dr hab. Irena Swaczyna 

Prof. dr hab. Wac�aw Szymanowski 

Dr hab. Piotr Witomski 

Dr hab. Janusz Zawadzki 

Dofinansowano ze �rodków Ministra Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wy�szego 

Polska Akademia Nauk Komitet Technologii Drewna 

WARSAW UNIVERSITY 

OF LIFE SCIENCES PRESS 

e-mail: wydawnictwo@sggw.pl 

ISSN 1898-5912 

SERIES EDITOR 

Ewa Dobrowolska 

Marcin Zbie� PRINT: ZPW POZKAL

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 

Forestry and Wood Technology No 71, 2010: 9-13 

(Ann. WULS-SGGW, For and Wood Technol. 71, 2010) 

The study of thermal degradation of softwood cellulose in the presence of 

antioxidants – FT-IR analysis 

ANDRZEJ ANTCZAK 

Department of Wood Science and Wood Protection, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 

Abstract: The study of thermal degradation of softwood cellulose in the presence of antioxidants – FT-IR 

analysis. The purpose of the study was examination antioxidant’s influence on cellulose crystallinity, which was 

submitted to thermal aging in 130°C. FT-IR spectroscopy was used to evaluate cellulose crystallinity. Generally, 

results obtained indicate that thermal aging of cellulose with/without antioxidant in oxygen conditions causes 

increase of cellulose crystallinity. Degradation of cellulose in the presence of THBP and EQ in 130ºC – air 

atmosphere probably proceeds mainly in amorphous regions. Addition of PG to cellulose matrix favors 

proceeding thermal cellulose degradation both in amorphous and crystalline regions. For aged cellulose in non 

extracted wood similar results were obtained. Thermal aging of cellulose with/without antioxidant in nitrogen 

atmosphere does not cause significant changes in cellulose crystallinity index. 

Keywords: thermal degradation, antioxidants, cellulose aging, FT-IR, crystallinity index 

INTRODUCTION 

Studies of cellulose degradation met with great interest in last years. This subject area 

is very important in many different industries (electrical, paper and textile) or in archives and 

libraries. To explain and understand cellulose degradation more precise and sensitive methods 

are required. 

Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy is one of this technique. Using FT-IR 

method crystallinity of cellulose can be characterized. Nelson and O’Connor [1964 a, b] 

showed that bands at 1430 and 900 cm -1 are particularly sensitive to changes in crystallinity. 

Several authors have noted that cellulose undergoes changes in crystallinity upon chemical 

and physical treatments, for example heating. The increase in crystallinity may be explained 

as crystallization in quasicrystalline amorphous regions due to rearrangement or reorientation 

of cellulose molecules inside these regions. The second reason can be rate difference of 

cellulose degradation in amorphous and crystalline regions. It is well known that the 

amorphous regions degrade more rapidly than crystalline ones. 

The purpose of the study was examination antioxidant’s influence on cellulose 

crystallinity, which was submitted to thermal aging in 130°C. FT-IR analysis application can 

give more detailed information about cellulose degradation. 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 

Research material 

- non extracted sawdust of pinewood (Pinus sylvestris L.) from sapwood zone 

- extracted sawdust of pinewood (Pinus sylvestris L.) from sapwood zone (without 

extractives) extracted by ethanol:chloroform (3:97)w mixture according to own method 

[Antczak et al. 2006] 

- cellulose – separated from above-mentioned extracted pinewood (Pinus sylvestris L.) 

by Kürschner-Hoffer method [Krutul 2002] 

- above-mentioned pinewood cellulose with antioxidant – propyl gallate (PG), 2,4,5trihydroxyphenone 

(THBP) and ethoxyquin (EQ) which were coated on cellulose fibre 

by method with stirring [Antczak et al. 2007]. The method consisted in immersing a 

sample of cellulose in 0.2% antioxidant solution in methanol and then total 

evaporation of solvent under vacuum while stirring. 

9

Structural formulas of antioxidants (propyl gallate, etoxyquin and 2,4,5trihydroxybutyrophenone) 

are presented in Fig. 1. 

C 

H 3 

CH 2 

O 

CH 3 

N 

H 

HO 

HO 

etoxyquin 

CH 3 

CH 3 

OH 

O 

10 

O 

propyl gallate 

CH 2 

CH 2 

HO 

HO 

CH 3 

O 

OH 

CH 2 

CH 2 

2,4,5 - trihydroxybutyrophenone 

Fig. 1. Structural formulas of antioxidants (propyl gallate, etoxyquin and 2,4,5-trihydroxybutyrophenone) 

Accelerated ageing tests in air atmosphere 

At the beginning non extracted and extracted pinewood from sapwood zone, cellulose 

and cellulose with antioxidant (PG, THBP, EQ) were placed in desiccator with phosphorus 

pentaoxide (P2O5) (anhydrous conditions). In this vessel samples were submitted to 

accelerated ageing tests. Ageing tests were carried out in thermal chamber (KC 100/200, 

Elkon company) at 130ºC. Samples were collected after 15 days and were prepared to FT-IR 

analysis. 

Accelerated ageing tests in nitrogen atmosphere 

In this studies cellulose samples and samples of cellulose with antioxidant (PG, THBP, 

EQ) were used only. They were placed in desiccator with P2O5. Vacuum pump was used to 

remove the air to 6.6 mbar, then desiccator was filled with the nitrogen. The procedure was 

repeated three times. After that, samples in desiccator were submitted to accelerated ageing 

tests. Ageing tests were also carried out in thermal chamber (KC 100/200, Elkon company) at 

130ºC. Samples were also collected after 15 days and were prepared to FT-IR analysis. 

FT-IR analysis 

Preparation of cellulose samples to analysis 

Heat-treated (after 15 days) and untreated (control) cellulose samples were ground to 

homogeneous powder. Disintegrated samples were embedded in potassium bromide (KBr) 

pellets and were submitted to FT-IR analysis. 

CH 3

Conditions of FT-IR analysis and determination of cellulose crystallinity index 

FT-IR analysis of cellulose samples was carried out with using Spectrum 2000 

spectrophotometer (Perkin Elmer). FT-IR analysis conditions were as follows: 

- resolution: 4 cm -1 

- range of wavenumbers: 4000-400 cm -1 

- number of scans: 16 

Determination of cellulose crystallinity index was carried out from the ratio of the peaks areas 

absorbance at 1430 and 900 cm -1 (A1430/A900). This method gives the best results and was 

often used in many publications [Nelson & O’Connor 1964 a, 1964 b, O’Connor 1969, 

Klenkova 1976, Krutul 1986, Ali et al. 2001, Carrillo et al. 2004, Krutul et al. 2005, Krutul et 

al. 2009]. Baseline for maximum peak 1431.0 cm -1 was plotted from 1497.6 cm -1 to 1408.5 

cm -1 . Whereas baseline for maximum peak 897.3 cm -1 was plotted from 913.6 cm -1 do 847.9 

cm -1 . For each cellulose sample two measurements were done. Crystallinity index was used in 

order to better explanation of thermal cellulose degradation with/without antioxidant. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

In Table 1 and 2 cellulose crystallinity index (A1430 /A900) was presented from FT-IR 

analysis. Results showed in Table 1 indicate that thermal aging of cellulose in oxygen 

conditions causes increase of cellulose crystallinity. The highest increase was observed for 

thermally aged cellulose with THBP and EQ. Moreover thermal degradation of cellulose in 

extracted and non extracted wood also causes increase of crystallinity index, but to a lesser 

extent. In other hand PG addition to cellulose matrix does not cause significant changes in 

cellulose crystallinity. 

Table 1. Crystallinity index (A1430 /A900) of cellulose, cellulose with antioxidant (EQ, PG, THBP) and cellulose 

in extracted and non extracted wood aged in 130ºC in air atmosphere after 15 days 

Sample name A1430 /A900 

cellulose (control-unaged) 2.76 

cellulose (aged) 3.03 

cellulose with THBP (aged) 3.31 

cellulose with PG (aged) 2.79 

cellulose with EQ (aged) 3.28 

cellulose in non extracted wood (aged) 2.82 

cellulose in extracted wood (aged) 2.94 

The crystallinity index might be expected to increase, since the amorphous regions 

degrade more rapidly than the crystalline ones. So, it can be concluded that degradation 

process of cellulose in the presence of THBP and EQ in 130ºC – air atmosphere probably 

proceeds mainly in amorphous regions. Addition of other antioxidant (PG) to cellulose matrix 

favors proceeding thermal degradation of cellulose both in amorphous and crystalline regions. 

For cellulose in non extracted wood similar results were obtained. It is well known that propyl 

gallate has similar chemical structure to some wood extractives. So, in these two cases 

degradation of cellulose might proceed analogically. 

11

In relation to thermal aging of cellulose with/without antioxidant in nitrogen 

atmosphere (Table 2) it can be observed that inert gas conditions does not cause significant 

changes in cellulose crystallinity index. 

Table 2. Crystallinity index (A1430 /A900) of cellulose and cellulose with antioxidant (EQ, PG, THBP) aged in 

130ºC in nitrogen atmosphere after 15 days 

Sample name A1430 /A900 

cellulose (control-unaged) 2.76 

cellulose (aged) 2.80 

cellulose with THBP (aged) 2.78 

cellulose with PG (aged) 2.86 

cellulose with EQ (aged) 2.89 

CONCLUSIONS 

On the basis of the performed studies following conclusions can be drawn: 

1. Results obtained indicate that thermal aging of cellulose with/without antioxidant in 

oxygen conditions causes increase of cellulose crystallinity. Only for cellulose with PG 

and cellulose in non extracted wood changes of crystallinity are not significant. 

2. Degradation of cellulose in the presence of THBP and EQ in 130ºC – air atmosphere 

proceeds mainly in amorphous regions. Addition of PG to cellulose matrix favors 

proceeding thermal cellulose degradation both in amorphous and crystalline regions. 

For cellulose in non extracted wood similar results were obtained. 

3. Thermal aging of cellulose with/without antioxidant in nitrogen atmosphere does not 

cause significant changes in cellulose crystallinity index. 

REFERENCES 

1. M.L. NELSON, R.T. O’CONNOR, Relation of certain infrared bands to cellulose 

crystallinity and crystal lattice type. Part I. Spectra of lattice types I, II, III and 

amorphous cellulose, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 8 (1964 a) 1311-1324. 

2. M.L. NELSON, R.T. O’CONNOR, Relation of certain infrared bands to cellulose 

crystallinity and crystal lattice type. Part II. A new infrared ratio for estimation of 

crystallinity in cellulose I and II, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 8 (1964 b) 1325-1341. 

3. ANTCZAK, A. RADOMSKI, J. ZAWADZKI, Benzene Substitution in Wood 

Analysis, Annals of Warsaw Agricultural University, Forestry and Wood Technology 

58 (2006) 15-19. 

4. D. KRUTUL, �wiczenia z chemii drewna oraz wybranych zagadnie� chemii 

organicznej, SGGW, Warszawa, 2002. 

5. ANTCZAK, A. RADOMSKI, J. ZAWADZKI, Determination of antioxidants in 

cellulose matrix, Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Forestry and Wood 

Technology 61 (2007) 15-19. 

6. R.T. O’CONNOR, Infrared absorption spectroscopy in the evaluation of cellulose and 

cellulose derivatives, Tappi 52 (1969) 566-572. 

7. N.I. KLENKOVA, Struktura i reakcjonnaja sposobnost’ cellulozy, Leningrad, 1976, 

pp. 31-52. 

12

8. D. KRUTUL, Charakterystyka celulozy w drewnie d�bowym wzd�u� osi i promienia 

pnia, Rozprawy Naukowe i Monografie, SGGW, Warszawa, 1986, p. 24. 

9. M. ALI, A.M. EMSLEY, H. HERMAN, R.J. HEYWOOD, Spectroscopic studies of 

the ageing of cellulosic paper, Polymer 42 (2001) 2893-2900. 

10. F. CARRILLO, X. COLOM, J.J. SUNOL, J. SAURINA, Structural FTIR analysis and 

thermal characterization of lyocell and viscose-type fibres, European Polymer Journal 

40 (2004) 2229-2234. 

11. D. KRUTUL, J. ZAWADZKI, A. RADOMSKI, D. KAZEM-BEK, Application of IR 

spectrophotometry in comparative investigations of spruce wood (Picea excelsa L.) 

cellulose determined by laboratory methods, Annals of Warsaw Agricultural 

University, Forestry and Wood Technology 56 (2005) 377-382. 

12. D. KRUTUL, M. DRO�D�EK, T. ZIELENKIEWICZ, A. RADOMSKI, J. 

ZAWADZKI, A. ANTCZAK, Distribution and some properties of cellulose in the 

stem of oak wood (Quercus petraea Liebl.), Annals of Warsaw University of Life 

Sciences, Forestry and Wood Technology 68 (2009) 436-443. 

Streszczenie: Badanie termicznej degradacji celulozy z drewna iglastego w obecno�ci 

przeciwutleniaczy – analiza FT-IR. Celem badania by�o sprawdzenie wp�ywu 

przeciwutleniacza na krystaliczno�� celulozy, która zosta�a poddana termicznemu starzeniu w 

130°C. Do okre�lenia krystaliczno�ci celulozy wykorzystano spektroskopi� FT-IR. 

Generalnie, otrzymane wyniki bada� wskazuj�, �e termiczne starzenie celulozy z/bez 

przeciwutleniacza w warunkach tlenowych powoduje wzrost krystaliczno�ci celulozy. 

Degradacja celulozy w obecno�ci THBP i EQ w 130°C – atmosfera powietrza, 

prawdopodobnie g�ównie przebiega w obszarach amorficznych. Dodatek PG do matrycy 

celulozy sprzyja przebiegowi termicznej degradacji celulozy zarówno w obszarach 

amorficznych jak i krystalicznych. Podobne wyniki uzyskano dla starzonej celulozy w 

drewnie nieekstrahowanym. Termiczne starzenie celulozy z/bez przeciwutleniacza w 

atmosferze azotu nie powoduje istotnych zmian w indeksie krystaliczno�ci celulozy. 

Acknowledgements: This scientific study is funded from the financial resources for science in years 2008-2010 

as a research project N N309 296834 

Corresponding author: 

Andrzej Antczak 

Department of Wood Science and Wood Protection, 

Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW) 

ul. Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland 

e-mail: andrzej_antczak@sggw.pl




The study of thermal degradation of softwood cellulose in the presence of 

antioxidants – SEC analysis 

ANDRZEJ ANTCZAK 


Abstract: The study of thermal degradation of softwood cellulose in the presence of antioxidants – SEC 

analysis. The purpose of the study was examination antioxidants influence on degradation of cellulose during 

thermal ageing in 130°C. Size-exclusion chromatography was used to evaluate cellulose depolymerization. On 

the basis of these results, it was observed, that higher decrease of the polymerization degree of cellulose is in the 

air than in nitrogen atmosphere. Antioxidant addition – 0.2% (EQ, PG, THBP) to cellulose matrix considerably 

reduces the weight average polymerization degree of cellulose during thermal aging (130ºC) in air atmosphere. 

Also the presence of low molecular substances (extractives) accelerates thermo oxidative degradation of 

cellulose. On the other hand, in nitrogen atmosphere, the presence of antioxidants does not cause significant 

changes in degradation of cellulose. 

Keywords: thermal degradation, antioxidants, cellulose aging, SEC 

INTRODUCTION 

Studies of cellulose degradation met with great interest in last years. This subject area 

is very important in many different industries (electrical, paper and textile) or in archives and 

libraries. It is generally known that cellulose degradation in natural conditions runs very slow. 

In order to model long-term changes in a shorter time scale, accelerated tests are used. In 

these tests samples are artificially aged by exposing them to elevated temperatures, specified 

humidity and atmosphere conditions. 

Size exclusion chromatography (SEC) is modern analytical technique which can be 

used to study cellulose degradation. This method gives information about the weight average 

molar mass (Mw), the number average molar mass (Mn) and also, what is the most important, 

the molar mass distribution (MMD) of polymeric sample. Moreover, the degree of 

polymerization (DP) of cellulose can be obtained. 

The aim of the study was examination antioxidant’s influence on cellulose degradation 

during thermal ageing in 130°C. Natural antioxidants (extractives, lignin) and synthetic 

(especially phenolic compounds) are widely applied in a number of manufactured products to 

prevent oxidative degradation. However their effectiveness in thermal conditions still remains 

poorly understood. 


Research material 

- non extracted sawdust of pinewood (Pinus sylvestris L.) from sapwood zone 

- extracted sawdust of pinewood (Pinus sylvestris L.) from sapwood zone (without 

extractives) extracted by ethanol:chloroform (3:97)w mixture according to own method 

[Antczak et al. 2006] 

- cellulose – separated from above-mentioned extracted pinewood (Pinus sylvestris L.) 

by Kürschner-Hoffer method [Krutul 2002] 

- above-mentioned pinewood cellulose with antioxidant – propyl gallate (PG), 2,4,5trihydroxyphenone 

(THBP) and ethoxyquin (EQ) which were coated on cellulose fibre 

by method with stirring [Antczak et al. 2007]. The method consisted in immersing a 

sample of cellulose in 0.2% antioxidant solution in methanol and then total 

evaporation of solvent under vacuum while stirring. 

14

Structural formulas of antioxidants (propyl gallate, etoxyquin and 2,4,5trihydroxybutyrophenone) 

are presented in Fig. 1. 

C 

H 3 

CH 2 

O 

CH 3 

N 

H 

HO 

HO 

etoxyquin 

CH 3 

CH 3 

OH 

O 

15 

O 

propyl gallate 

CH 2 

CH 2 

HO 

HO 

CH 3 

O 

OH 

CH 2 

CH 2 

2,4,5 - trihydroxybutyrophenone 

Fig. 1. Structural formulas of antioxidants (propyl gallate, etoxyquin and 2,4,5-trihydroxybutyrophenone) 

Accelerated ageing tests in air atmosphere 

At the beginning non extracted and extracted pinewood from sapwood zone, cellulose 

and cellulose with antioxidant (PG, THBP, EQ) were placed in desiccator with phosphorus 

pentaoxide (P2O5) (anhydrous conditions). In this vessel samples were submitted to 

accelerated ageing tests. Ageing tests were carried out in thermal chamber (KC 100/200, 

Elkon company) at 130ºC. Samples were collected every 3 days during 15 days and were 

prepared to SEC analysis in order to study cellulose degradation. 

Accelerated ageing tests in nitrogen atmosphere 

In this studies cellulose samples and samples of cellulose with antioxidant (PG, THBP, 

EQ) were used only. They were placed in desiccator with P2O5. Vacuum pump was used to 

remove the air to 6.6 mbar, then desiccator was filled with the nitrogen. The procedure was 

repeated three times. After that, samples in desiccator were submitted to accelerated ageing 

tests. Ageing tests were also carried out in thermal chamber (KC 100/200, Elkon company) at 

130ºC. Samples were also collected every 3 days during 15 days and were prepared to SEC 

analysis in order to examine cellulose degradation. 

SEC analysis 

Preparation of cellulose samples to analysis 

In order to study cellulose degradation in aged non extracted and extracted wood, 

cellulose was separated by Kürschner-Hoffer method. All cellulose samples (50 mg of each) 

were treated with 50ml 0.01M sodium borohydride (NaBH4). After about 24h, cellulose was 

filtered through glass filter (G3) and washed with 5% acetic acid (20 ml) and next washed 

with water to neutral pH. After that, cellulose samples were treated with 1% sodium 

CH 3

hydroxide (NaOH) (20 ml) in nitrogen atmosphere for 1 hour using magnetic stirrer at room 

temperature (25ºC). Then cellulose was filtered and washed as earlier. This procedure 

facilitate complete dissolution of cellulose. Air-dry cellulose samples prepared in this way 

were submitted to activation and dissolution procedure. The procedure was carried out in 

vacuum Baker system SPE-12G and was as follows: 

- cellulose samples (15 mg) were placed in test-tubes (6 ml), poured distilled water (3 ml) 

and allowed to swell overnight; 

- next day the samples were carried to capillary tubes and subsequently washed with 

methanol, filtered and poured the next portion of methanol and left for 1 hour; this 

procedure with methanol was repeated twice; 

- after that, the samples were washed with N,N-dimethylacetamide (DMAc), filtered and 

poured the next portion of DMAc and left for 1 hour; this procedure was repeated and 

cellulose with DMAc was left untill the next day; 

- next day, the samples were filtered and poured 8% lithium chloride (LiCl) in DMAc (4 

ml); 

- cellulose dissolution in 8% LiCl/DMAc was realised using mixer (RM-2M, Elmi 

company); 

- after 1-2 days of dissolution, part of the sample (0.2 ml) was diluted to 0.5% LiCl 

concentration with pure DMAc (3 ml); 

- finally, prepared samples were submitted to SEC analysis. 

Conditions of SEC analysis 

SEC analysis of cellulose samples was carried out with using HPLC (High 

Performance Liquid Chromatography) system (LC-20AD, Shimadzu company), which was 

equipped with differential refractive detector (RID 10A, Shimadzu), pump (LC-20AD, 

Shimadzu) and oven (CTO-20A, Shimadzu). SEC analysis conditions were as follows: 

- 0.5% LiCl/DMAc as eluent 

- column – crosslinked polystyrene-divinylbenzene gel (PSS GRAM 10000, 10μ, 

8×300 mm) connected with guard column (PSS GRAM 10μ) 

- oven temperature: 80°C 

- flow rate: 2ml/min 

- injection volume: 200μl 

The chromatographic data were processed with PSS WinGPC scientific 2.74 software. 

Twelve narrow molecular weight polystyrene standards (Polymer Laboratories) were used to 

calibrate the column. The polystyrene standards were prepared as mixed standards in four 

separate solutions in DMAc. The first standard solution contained polystyrene of the 

following peak molecular mass: 6 850 000, 565 000 and 11 300 Da, the second contained: 

3 950 000, 170 600 and 2 960 Da, the third contained: 3 150 000, 66 000 and 1 700 Da, and 

the fourth contained: 1 290 000, 28 500 and 580 Da. This polystyrene standards were used to 

calculate molecular mass of cellulose according to Mark-Houwink universal calibration: 

[�]=K×M � , where K and � are parameters, which depend on polymer type, solvent and 

temperature. For our chromatographic conditions, that parameters are the following: for 

polystyrene K=17.35×10 -3 cm 3 /g and �=0.642 [Timpa 1991] and for cellulose K=2.78×10 -3 

cm 3 /g and �=0.957 [Bikova & Treimanis 2002]. 


Size exclusion chromatography was used to study thermal degradation of cellulose. 

This method enables determination of the weight average polymerization degree of cellulose. 

16

In Fig. 2, 3, 4 relationship between the weight average polymerization degree and aging time 

of cellulose aged in 130ºC in air and nitrogen atmosphere was presented. Results show, that in 

these aging conditions, pure cellulose is the most resistant to thermal degradation. Antioxidant 

addition – 0.2% (EQ, PG, THBP) to cellulose matrix considerably reduces the weight average 

polymerization degree of cellulose (Fig. 2). PG and THBP are the most aggressive 

antioxidants in oxygen conditions, especially at the beginning of aging process (during the 

first 6 days). EQ slower accelerates cellulose degradation. Only after 9 days considerable 

decrease of the weight average polymerization degree of cellulose with EQ is observed. 

(DPw)×10 -3 

2,7 

2,2 

1,7 

1,2 

Thermal aging in air atmosphere 

17 

R 2 = 0.9845 

R 2 = 0.9909 

cellulose 

R 2 cellulose with THBP 

= 0.9941 

R 2 = 0.9994 

0 3 6 9 12 15 18 

cellulose with EQ 

cellulose with PG 

aging time/days 

Fig. 2. Relationship between the weight average polymerization degree (DPw) and aging time of cellulose, 

cellulose with antioxidant (EQ, PG, THBP) aged in 130ºC in air atmosphere 

(DPw)×10 -3 

2,7 

2,2 

1,7 

1,2 

Thermal aging in air atmosphere 

R 2 = 0.9975 

R 2 = 0.9845 

R 2 = 0.9926 

0 3 6 9 12 15 18 


cellulose 

cellulose in extracted 

wood 

cellulose in non 

extracted wood 


cellulose in extracted and non extracted wood aged in 130ºC in air atmosphere 

Changes of the weight average polymerization degree of cellulose with PG and THBP 

are very interesting (Fig. 2). After 6 days of aging process in air atmosphere thermal 

degradation of cellulose with PG and THBP slows down. This phenomenon can be caused by 

production of more thermo stable oxidation products, which have stabilizing properties.

Another explanation can be fast consumption of antioxidant at the beginning of aging process. 

But rather the most probably reason of this phenomenon is the occurrence of amorphous 

regions, which are more susceptible to degradation. So, at the beginning of aging process, 

cellulose degradation mainly proceeds in the most accessible regions and decrease of the 

weight average polymerization degree of cellulose is the highest – for cellulose with PG and 

THBP. These assumptions are in agreement with the results of cellulose crystallinity index 

[Antczak 2010]. Results obtained for cellulose with EQ (Fig. 2) indicate that etoxyquin better 

inhibit cellulose degradation than other antioxidants, especially at the beginning of aging 

process. After 6 days cellulose degradation poceeds probably mainly in amorphous regions. 

Prove it the results of cellulose crystallinity index [Antczak 2010]. 

In relation to thermal aging of extracted and non extracted wood the results presented 

in Fig. 3 indicate that cellulose in non extracted wood is the most degraded. Similarly as for 

cellulose with synthetic antioxidants, the presence of low molecular substances (extractives) 

accelerates thermal degradation of cellulose. Increase of cellulose degradation susceptibility 

in 130ºC in air atmosphere, probably can be caused by formation additional products from 

thermal decomposition or oxidation of synthetic antioxidants and extractives. These 

substances may have radical or hydroperoxide character. Such, very reactive products may 

contribute to effective degradation of cellulose chains [Kolar 1997]. 

(DPw)×10 -3 

2,7 

2,2 

1,7 

1,2 

Thermal aging in nitrogen atmosphere 

18 

R 2 = 0.9919 

0 3 6 9 12 15 18 


cellulose 

cellulose with EQ 

cellulose with PG 

cellulose with THBP 


cellulose with antioxidant (EQ, PG, THBP) aged in 130ºC in nitrogen atmosphere 

Results of thermal aging of cellulose in nitrogen atmosphere in 130ºC (Fig. 4) indicate 

that antioxidant addition (EQ, PG, THBP) to cellulose matrix does not cause significant 

changes in degradation of cellulose. Probably, in this high temperature, synthetic antioxidants 

are less stable and rapidly undergo decomposition or evaporation, so their stabilizing activity 

is much worse. 

CONCLUSIONS 

On the basis of the performed studies following conclusions can be drawn: 

1. Antioxidant addition – 0.2% (EQ, PG, THBP) to cellulose matrix considerably reduces 

the weight average polymerization degree of cellulose during thermal aging (130ºC) in 

air atmosphere. Also the presence of low molecular substances (extractives) accelerates 

thermal degradation of cellulose.

2. Results obtained for cellulose with EQ indicate that etoxyquin in oxygen conditions 

better inhibit cellulose degradation than other antioxidants, especially at the beginning 

of aging process. 

3. Thermal aging of cellulose in nitrogen atmosphere characterizes lesser decrease of the 

weight average polymerization degree than in air atmosphere. Addition of antioxidant 

(EQ, PG, THBP) to cellulose matrix does not cause significant changes in degradation 

of cellulose. 

REFERENCES 

A. ANTCZAK, A. RADOMSKI, J. ZAWADZKI, Benzene Substitution in Wood 

Analysis, Annals of Warsaw Agricultural University, Forestry and Wood Technology 

58 (2006) 15-19. 

1. D. KRUTUL, �wiczenia z chemii drewna oraz wybranych zagadnie� chemii 

organicznej, SGGW, Warszawa, 2002. 

2. ANTCZAK, A. RADOMSKI, J. ZAWADZKI, Determination of antioxidants in 

cellulose matrix, Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Forestry and Wood 

Technology 61 (2007) 15-19. 

3. J.D. TIMPA, Application of universal calibration in gel permeation chromatography 

for molecular weight determinations of plant cell wall polymers; cotton fiber, Agrric. 

Food Chem. 39 (1991) 270-275. 

4. T. BIKOVA, A. TREIMANIS, Problems of the MMD analysis of cellulose by SEC 

using DMA/LiCl: A review, Carbohydrate Polymers 48 (2002) 23-28. 

5. ANTCZAK, The study of thermal degradation of softwood cellulose in the presence 

of antioxidants – FT-IR analysis, Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 

Forestry and Wood Technology 71 (2010) – in press 

6. J. KOLAR, Mechanism of Autoxidative Degradation of Cellulose, Restaurator 18 

(1997) 163-176. 

Streszczenie: Badanie termicznej degradacji celulozy z drewna iglastego w obecno�ci 

przeciwutleniaczy – analiza SEC. Celem badania by�o sprawdzenie wp�ywu 

przeciwutleniacza na degradacj� celulozy podczas termicznego starzenia w 130°C. Do opisu 

zjawiska degradacji celulozy wykorzystano metod� chromatografii wykluczania 

przestrzennego (SEC). Na podstawie wyników bada� stwierdzono, �e w atmosferze powietrza 

dochodzi do wi�kszego spadku stopnia polimeryzacji celulozy ni� w atmosferze azotu. 

Dodatek przeciwutleniacza – 0,2% (EQ, PG, THBP) do matrycy celulozy znacznie obni�a 

�redni wagowy stopie� polimeryzacji celulozy podczas termicznego starzenia (130°C) w 

atmosferze powietrza. Równie� obecno�� ma�ocz�steczkowych substancji (ekstrakcyjnych) 

przyspiesza termo utleniaj�c� degradacj� celulozy. Z kolei w atmosferze azotu obecno�� 

przeciwutleniaczy nie powoduje istotnych zmian w procesie degradacji celulozy. 

Acknowledgements: This scientific study is funded from the financial resources for science in years 2008-2010 

as a research project N N309 296834 






e-mail: andrzej_antczak@sggw.pl 

19




Possibilities and limits of the finishing of the particleboards from fibrous 

chips 

PIOTR BEER 1 , DOROTA FUCZEK 2 , GRZEGORZ KOWALUK 3 , MARCIN ZBIE� 4 

1 Department of Construction and Technology of Final Wood Products, Warsaw University of Life Science, 

Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland 

2 Wood–Based Materials and Glues Department, Wood Technology Institute, Winiarska Str. 1, 60-654 

Pozna�, Poland 

3 Certification Centre of Wood Industry Products, Wood Technology Institute, Winiarska Str. 1, 60-654 


4 Department of Mechanical Processing of Wood, Warsaw University of Life Science, Nowoursynowska 159, 02- 

776 Warsaw, Poland 

Abstract: Possibilities and limits of the finishing of the particleboards from fibrous chips. In the present paper 

the investigation results of the surface roughness of the particleboards produced from the fibrous chips from 

willow Salix Viminalis L. and robinia Robinia Pseudoacacia L. are described. There is no special limitations 

according to the finishing technology of the panels from fibrous chips. The surface of the panels produced from 

the fibrous chips are better than the surface of the panels made out from the industrial particles. 

Keywords: Particleboard, fibrous chip, surface, finishing, roughness. 

INTRODUCTION 

There are number of methods of finishing of the faces of the particleboards for furniture 

production. The most common industrial method is the overlapping by short-cycle laminating 

film, HPL or CPL. Another way is finishing with use of natural wood veneers. Because of the 

not attractive surface of raw particleboards, finishing of these panels with use transparent 

lacquers is practically unparalleled. The roughness of the finished surface can not be the most 

important when finishing by veneers with higher thicknesses. In case of thin overlapping 

materials, e.g. Touchwood, the finished surface should have the surface roughness well 

prepared, without appreciable cavities or irregularities. The “microchips” fractions used 

in particleboards’ face layers production, with high resination, help with achieving the proper, 

smooth surface. According to [Hiziroglu and Suzuki 2007] 1, also the density of the panels 

can influence the surface roughness. This conclusion is confirmed by [Nemli et al. 2005] 2. 

According to [Rolleri and Roffael 2009] 3 the particleboards with the outer layers made out 

from recycled particles had the roughest surfaces irrespective of the adhesive used, compare 

to the “fresh” microchips. There is no research conducted on the surface roughness in the light 

of the surface finishing method, for the particleboards produced from fibrous chips. 

The aim of this work was to investigate the surface roughness of the panels produced 

from fibrous chips from willow Salix Viminalis L. and robinia Robinia Pseudoacacia L. 


The panels from fibrous chips were prepared as it was mentioned by [Kowaluk et al. 

2010] 4. The three types of particles were used to panels production: robinia, willow and 

industrial particles. The panels were produced with two different densities: 660 and 600 

kg/m 3 . This give 6 different panel types: industrial particles (ip660 and ip600), robinia (r660 

and r600) and willow (w660 and w600). For investigations the sanded panels were taken 

before the finishing by laminate film. The measurements of the chosen parameters 

20

of the panels from fibrous chips surface roughness were conducted on MITUTOYO 

SURFTEST SJ-301 device, controlled by PC. 

RESULTS AND DISSCUSION 

The results of the measurement of the roughness of the panels produced from fibrous 

chips, as well as from industrial particles, are displayed on fig. 1 (parameters Ra and Rz) and 

fig. 2 (parameters Rp and Rv). As it is shown on fig. 1, the two highest values of Ra are for 

panels made out from industrial particles (ip660 and ip600). The lowest values of Ra are for 

panels made out from willow fibrous chips. The values of Rz have the similar tendency: 

highest for ip600 and the lowest for w660. It can be pointed that the roughness of the panels is 

getting better (the Ra and Rz) are smaller when the density of the panels is higher. 

Ra [�m] 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

ip660 ip600 r660 r600 w660 w600 

Fig. 1. The values of Ra and Rz parameters for investigated panels. 

According to the fig. 2, where the values of the Rp and Rv for the investigated panels are 

displayed, the highest values of both mentioned parameters are for ip600 and the lowest for 

w660. The tendency of the better surface with the higher panel density is also clearly visible. 

Rp [�m] 

50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Rp 

Rv 

ip660 ip600 r660 r600 w660 w600 

Fig. 1. The values of Rp and Rv parameters for investigated panels. 

21 

Ra 

Rz 

250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

200 

180 

160 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

Rz [�m] 

Rv [�m]

In the light of future finishing of the panels’ faces, more usable parameters are Rp and Rv. 

Those two parameters gives the information about the height of the peaks (Rp) and depth of 

the valleys (Rv). If the Rp is low, the finishing material, i.e. laminate sheet will be better 

supported by face of the panel. The value of the Rv provides the characteristic of the surface 

in case of the future glues or lacquers/paints demand: the deeper valleys (higher Rv value) 

needs more above mentioned liquids to become fulfilled. It can be pointed, that the panels 

with the higher density have the better surface quality to finish with the most common 

method, i.e. laminating. It should be also mentioned, that, generally, the panels made out from 

the fibrous chips have the better surface quality, compare to the panels produced from the 

industrial particles. 

CONCLUSION 

On the basis of the above mentioned results, the following conclusions and remarks can 

be formulated: 

- the quality of the surface of the panels made out from the fibrous chips, measured 

by Ra, Rz, Rp and Rv is better than the surface of the panels produced from the 

industrial particles, 

- the quality of the panels is getting better with the panels’ density increase, 

- there is no special limitation in case of the finishing method of the panels produced 

from the fibrous chips, compare to the panels made out from the industrial particles. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

This paper was financially supported by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education 

within grant number N309 1068 33. 

REFERENCES 

1. S. HIZIROGLU, S. SUZUKI, Evaluation of surface roughness of commercially 

manufactured particleboard and medium density fiberboard in Japan, Journal 

of Materials Processing Technology 184 (2007) 436–440. 

2. G. NEMLI, I. OZTURK, I. AYDIN, Some of the parameters influencing surface 

roughness of particleboard, Building and Environment 40 (2005) 1337–1340. 

3. ROLLERI, E. ROFFAEL, Surface roughness of uncoated particleboards and its 

relation with the raw material, adhesive and climatic conditions, Eur. J. Wood Prod. 

DOI 10.1007/s00107-009-0363-8 (2009). 

4. G. KOWALUK, M. ZBIE�, P. BEER, The quality of milling of the particleboards 

produced from fibrous chips, Ann. WULS-SGGW, For and Wood Technol. 71, 2010. 

22

Streszczenie: Mo�liwo�ci oraz ograniczenia wyka�czania p�yt wiórowych z wiórów 

w�óknistych. W niniejszym artykule opisano wyniki pomiarów chropowato�ci powierzchni 

p�yt wiórowych z wiórów w�óknistych z wierzby Salix Viminalis L. oraz robinii Robinia 

Pseudoacacia L. Badania nie wykaza�y szczególnych ogranicze� co do technologii 

wyka�czania powierzchni badanych p�yt, w porównaniu do przemys�owych p�yt wiórowych. 

Powierzchnia p�yt z wiórów w�óknistych charakteryzowa�a si� wy�sz� jako�ci� w porównaniu 

do powierzchni p�yt z wiórów przemys�owych. 


Certification Centre of Wood Industry Products, Wood Technology Institute, Winiarska Str. 1, 

60-654 Pozna�, Poland 

E-mail address: g_kowaluk@itd.poznan.pl (Grzegorz Kowaluk)




�� , 

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L.I. BELCHINSKAYA, JAN SEDLIACIK*, V.A. VARIVODIN, �.�. ANISIMOV 

Faculty of wood processing technology of Voronezh State Academy of forestry Engineering 

*�� , ��, �. �� 

Abstract: �� - �� 

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Keywords: ��, �� , ��, �� , 

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� �� . �� 

�� 

(��, ��, ��, �� ). �� 

�� , �� 

�� . � �� 

�� 

�� . 


� �� : �� – 

�� (�) � �� (�) – �� 

�� . 

�� 

�� 

24

�� 0,011 �� 48 �� 453 � [3]. 

�� , �� , 

�� [3], �� – 

�� . 

�� -4. 

RESULTS AND DISCUTION 

�� 

�� . �� 

�� 1 - 3 % �� . �� 

�� 1. 

�� 1. �� , ��/� 3 

�� 

�� , % 

1 2 3 

�� 0,138 0,134 0,133 

�� 0,129 0,124 0,122 

�� 2 %. 

�� (��, ��, �� ) � 

�� 2 % �� (��. 2). 

�� 2. ��-�� 

�� 

�� 

�� , 

% 

��, � 

25 

�� 

�� 

�� 20 � � 

1 

65, 

5 

55 �� 10 

��-� 

7,85 

2 

67, 

5 

55, 

5 

�� 

�� 

1 – � �� , �� -��; 

2 – � �� 

�� 

�� 

�� . �� 

�� , � �� 

�� – ��. �� 3. 

�� 3. �� 

�� 

�� 

�� 

�� 

�� , ��/� 3 

�� 

�� 

�/� �� 

��, 

�� 

�� 

�� 

��, 

�� 

�/� � � �� 

� � � � � � � � 

0,141 0,134 0,124 0,099 0,085 0,084 0,105 0,075 0,081 

��: �/� – �� ; �� – ��, �� 

�� . 

�� 

�� 5 – 12 %. �� 

�� , �� 31 %, � 

�� – �� 26 %. ��

�� 

�� (�� 38 %) � �� 

�� (�� 15%). �� 

�� , � �� 2 % 

�� , �� 

�� (� �� ). �� 

�� 44% �� , �� 

�� 35 %. 

�� 

�� (��. 4). 

�� 4. – �� 

�� 

�� 

�� 

�� 

�� , ��/� 3 

�� 

�� 

�/� �� 

26 

��, 

�� 

�� 

��, 

�� 

�/� � � �� 

� � � � � � � � 

0,124 0,120 0,112 0,087 0,076 0,072 0,091 0,056 0,073 

��: �/� – �� ; �� – ��, �� 

�� . 

�� 

�� : � – �� 3 %, � – �� 10 %. �� 

�� 38 %, � �� 

�� – �� 28 %. �� 

�� , �� 

�� 40 %, � �� 

�� 20 %. 

�� , �� 

�� 53 %, � �� – 

35 %. 

CONCLUSION 

��, �� 

�� . �� 

�� . �� 

�� , � �� – �� 

��. �� , �� 

��, �� 

40 %, � �� – �� 35 %. �� , �� 

�� (�/� + ��) �� 

�� , �� 53 % � 35% 

��. 

LITERATURE 

1. ��, ��.�. �� / ��. �. �� – �.: ��. ��-��. ��. 

�� . 1957. – 608 �.

2. �� , ��, �� , �� 

�� , �� . �� 1.1.029-98.- �.: 

�� , 1995. – 17 �. 

3. ��, �. �. �� 

��, �� / �� . �., 

�� .�., �� .�. // �� 

��. – 2009. – �.45. �2. – �.218-221. 

4. Khodosova, N.A. Formaldehyde adsorption from a gas phase on thermomodification 

zeolite / Khodosova N.A., L.I. Belchinskaya // Achievements and Perspectives of 

Modern Chemistry : Materials of II nd International Conference of the Chemical 

Society of the Republic Moldova, October 1-3, 2007 / Institute of Chemistry. – 

Chisinau, 2007. – P.37 

5. ��, �.�. �� 

�� 

��: ��-��. / �.�. �� . �. ��, �.�. 

��. – �.: ��, 1987. – �. 16-19. – (�� ; ��. 

12). 

Streszczenie: Uzyskanie skutecznej kompozycji klej�cej wype�niacza zawieraj�cego 

formaldehyd Stosowane jako wype�niacze glinokrzemian o ró�nej strukturze 

krystalograficznej. Wraz z wprowadzeniem 2% sorbentów w kleju sk�ad emisji formaldehydu 

ze sklejki zmniejszy� si� o 2,2 razy, a tym samym ogólna poprawa sytuacji ekologicznej w 

przemy�le, pomieszczeniach mieszkalnych i �rodowisku.




The analysis of roundwood and sawnwood production in selected European 

Union countries 

JUSTYNA BIERNACKA 1) , MARIANA SEDLIA�IKOVÁ 2) 

1) Department of Technology, Organisation and Management in Wood Industry, 

Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW) 

2) Department of Business Economics, 

Faculty of Wood Science and Technology, Technical University in Zvolen 

Abstract: The analysis of roundwood and sawnwood production in selected European Union countries. In this 

paper production, export and import of roundwood and sawnwood of selected European Union countries. were 

analysed. This values analysis can provide many useful data for further, more detailed analysis, primarily in the 

competitiveness analysis of individual wood industry enterprise, but also the domestic wood industry sector 

competitiveness compared to other countries. 

Keywords: roundwood, sawnwood, production analysis, competitiveness. 

INTRODUCTION 

The roundwood and sawnwood production volume analysis is very important for wood 

industry companies. It can provide many useful information for the company management, 

but the analysis may provide many data to other entities, namely the statistical offices. This 

data can be used in predicting future trends and facilitate taking appropriate strategic 

decisions. 

RESULTS 

In this paper the analysis of roundwood and sawnwood production and some values of 

export and import in three European countries: Czech Republic, Poland and Slovakia were 

analysed. In the calculation the Eurostat and OECD data from 2004 to 2008 were used. The 

results were shown in table 1. 

Table 1. Total roundwood and sawnwood annual production changes in selected European Union countries 

Country Production 

2004 

Year (2004=100%) 

2005 2006 2007 2008 

Czech Republic 

roundwood 

sawnwood 

100,00% 

100,00% 

-0,58% 

1,60% 

13,31% 

28,93% 

18,63% 

38,43% 

3,76% 

17,66% 

Poland 

roundwood 

sawnwood 

100,00% 

100,00% 

-2,41% 

-10,23% 

-1,07% 

-3,63% 

9,78% 

18,01% 

4,70% 

1,15% 

Slovakia 

roundwood 

sawnwood 

100,00% 

100,00% 

28,48% 

42,68% 

8,69% 

32,83% 

12,31% 

51,39% 

28,02% 

54,71% 

Source: Authors’ own calculation based on Eurostat data 

Table 1 data analysis shows that in year 2005, compared to the 2004 a roundwood 

production in Poland and the Czech Republic has decreased (by 2,41% and 0,58%). This 

decreases however, can be regarded as negligible, because previous years data shows that 

both countries have significantly increased the roundwood production after their accession to 

the European Union (in the Czech Republic the increase of roundwood production in 2004 

28

compared to previous year reached over 8%, while in Poland over 25%). Only the Slovak 

Republic in 2005 noted the roundwood production increase, which compared to the year of 

country's accession to the European Union reached approximately 30%. The data can indicate 

a positive evaluation of wood products market by wood-sector companies and their 

assumption of increasing the sales market as a result of opening European Union markets 

borders for central Europe countries. 

Figure 1 shows the graphic presentation of changes in the roundwood and sawnwood 

production in the three European Union countries. Figure 1 analysis shows that in recent years 

of analysed period the 2005 year’ increases of roundwood production (left scale) and 

sawnwood production (right scale) are gradually slowing down. The reason for this is 

continuous economic downturn in European and in global market. Reduction of sawnwood 

production can be seen especially in Poland and the Czech Republic. In the year 2008 

compared to the previous year the sawnwood production in these countries decreased by 

about 15%. Since 2006 only the Slovak Republic noted an upward trend of sawnwood 

production (in 2008 over the previous year production growth was just over 2%). 

35,00% 

30,00% 

25,00% 

20,00% 

15,00% 

10,00% 

5,00% 

0,00% 

-5,00% 

-10,00% 

2005 

2006 

29 

2007 

2008 

Czech Republic - roundwood production 

Poland - roundwood production 

Slovakia - roundwood production 

Czech Republic - sawnwood production 

Poland - sawnwood production 

Slovakia - sawnwood production 

65,00% 

55,00% 

45,00% 

35,00% 

25,00% 

15,00% 

5,00% 

-5,00% 

-15,00% 

Figure 1. Total roundwood and sawnwood annual production changes in Czech Republic, Poland and Slovakia 

(2004=100%) 

CONCLUSIONS 

The analysis showed, that in the initial years after Czech, Polish and Slovak accession to 

the European Union all roundwood and sawnwood production values in all mentioned 

countries had an upward trend. In comparison to the values of 2004 particularly positive 

results of changes in the roundwood production can be observed in Slovakia – throughout 

analysed period the country noted only positive values (from 8 to about 29%). A little worse 

are values of the roundwood production in the other two analysed countries, but only in recent 

years, the decrease of roundwood production can be observed. A similar situation can be 

observed in the case of sawnwood production, Slovakia has the best results once again. The

oundwood and sawnwood production growth decrease can be explained by the worsening 

market condition, both in the European Union and in world markets. The data from 

subsequent years can provide an interesting information, especially in the case of Slovakia, 

which was the only one of analysed countries which joined the euro area in 2009. 

REFERENCES 

1. NOGA M., STAWICKA M. K., 2008: Co decyduje o konkurencyjno�ci polskiej 

gospodarki?, Wyd. CeDeWu Sp. z o.o.; 

2. OLCZYK M., 2008: Konkurencyjno�� – teoria i praktyka, Wyd. CeDeWu, Warszawa; 

3. WZI�TEK-KUBIAK A., 2003: Konkurencyjno�� polskiego przemys�u, Dom 

wydawniczy Bellona, Warszawa; 

4. http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/statistics/themes 

5. http://www.oecd.org/statsportal/0,3352,en_2825_293564_1_1_1_1_1,00.html 

Streszczenie: Analiza pozyskania drewna okr�g�ego i tarcicy na przyk�adzie wybranych 

krajów Unii Europejskiej. W niniejszym opracowaniu poddano analizie zmiany wielko�ci 

pozyskania drewna okr�g�ego oraz produkcji tarcicy w wybranych krajach Unii Europejskiej, 

a mianowicie w Czechach, Polsce i na S�owacji w latach 2004 - 2008. Analiza uzyskanych 

wielko�ci dostarczy� mo�e wielu pomocnych danych do dalszych analiz, przede wszystkim 

mo�e by� przydatna w badaniach konkurencyjno�ci pojedynczych przedsi�biorstw przemys�u 

drzewnego, ale równie� konkurencyjno�ci krajowego sektora przemys�u drzewnego na tle 

innych pa�stw. 

Corresponding authors: 

Justyna Biernacka 

Department of Technology, Organisation and Management in Wood Industry, 

Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw Agricultural University (SGGW) 

02-787 Warsaw, ul. Nowoursynowska 166 

e-mail address: justyna_biernacka@sggw.pl 

Ing. Mariana Sedlia�iková, PhD. 

Department of Business Economics 

Faculty of Wood Science and Technology 

Technical University in Zvolen 

T. G. Masaryka 24 

960 53 Zvolen, Slovakia 

e-mail address: sedliacikova@vsld.tuzvo.sk




Competitiveness analysis of wood industry sector in selected European 

Union countries 

JUSTYNA BIERNACKA 1) , MARIANA SEDLIA�IKOVÁ 2) 

1) Department of Technology, Organisation and Management in Wood Industry, 

Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW) 

2) Department of Business Economics, 

Faculty of Wood Science and Technology, Technical University in Zvolen 

Abstract: Competitiveness analysis of wood industry sector in selected European Union countries. In this paper, 

an attempt to analyze the competitiveness of selected European Union countries were made. In analysis some 

measures of competitiveness based primarily on the quantities of exports and imports of wood products were 

used. Analysis of the results, particularly the long-term, can provide many useful information about the condition 

of the wood industry sector and its competitive position in relation to other countries. 

Keywords: competitiveness indicators, wood industry. 

INTRODUCTION 

There are many different competitiveness measures in the literature. They allow to 

measure the competitiveness of individual companies as well as whole economies. Basic 

criteria of indicators classification are shown in table 1. 

Table 1. Competitiveness indicators basic classification criteria 

Criteria Indicators 

Time 

static 

dynamic 

Method of measuring 

ex post 

ex ante 

Competitiveness type 

price competitiveness 

non-price competitiveness 

The degree and scale of global 

statistical data aggregation detail 

Source: M. Olczyk: Konkurencyjno�� – teoria i praktyka, Wyd. CeDeWu, Warszawa, 2008 

Various authors mention many different group of competitiveness indicators for whole 

economies analysis. Based on Wzi�tek-Kubiak work [Wzi�tek-Kubiak, 2003] the following 

group of international competitiveness indicators are listed: 

1. Methods of competitiveness measure in field of international trade: 

a) coverage indicators (counted as a ratio of export to import in particular 

article group) 

b) export related indicators; 

c) structural indicators; 

d) indicators based on net export; 

2. Methods of competitiveness measure related to competing processes: 

a) relative prices indicators; 

b) effectiveness indicators; 

c) sector/product market share related indicators. 

31

METHODS AND STUDY 

In this paper selected effectiveness indicators in the wood industry sector of Czech 

Republic, Poland and Slovakia were analysed. Calculation based on Eurostat and OECD data 

from 2000 to 2009 were used. 

In this paper the following indicators were calculated: 

a) Country’s percentage share in world export market 

Ei 

U � �100% 

E 

, whereas: (1) 

j 

U – country’s percentage share in world export market; 

Ei –value of country’s export; 

Ej –value of worlds export 

b) Trade balance indicator: 

S � Ei 

� Ii 


S – trade balance; 

Ei – value of country’s export; 

Ij – value of country’s import 

c) Import penetration indicator: 

Ii 

P � 

Q � Ei 

� I 


i 

P – import penetration indicator; 

Ii – value of country’s import; 

Q – value of country’s production; 

Ij – value of country’s export 

d) Coverage indicator: 

Ei 

TC � �100% 

I 


i 

TC – coverage indicator; 

Ei – value of country’s export in selected group of goods; 

Ij – value of country’s import in selected group of goods. 

RESULTS 

Values of the country’s percentage export share in world export indicator are shown in 

table 1 and figure 1. This indicator is one of the most commonly used indicators in the 

analysis of competitiveness. Analysis of the table 1’ and figure 1’ data shows that in all 

countries this ratio value is steadily increasing and this testifies about growing international 

competitiveness of these countries. 

32

Table 1. Wood and wood and cork products export market share relative to the world 

Country 

2000 2001 

Export market share relative to the world 

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 

Czech 

Republic 

0,98 1,05 1,02 1,11 1,21 1,19 1,29 1,54 1,68 

Poland 1,85 1,92 2,14 2,62 2,69 2,77 2,87 3,25 3,56 

Slovakia 0,39 0,44 0,46 0,55 0,56 0,67 0,76 0,85 0,91 

Source: Authors’ own calculation based on Eurostat and OECD data 

4,00 

3,00 

2,00 

1,00 

0,00 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 

Czech Republic Poland Slovakia 

Figure 1. Wood and wood and cork products export market share relative to the world 

As an addition to competitiveness analysis of wood industry sector in Czech Republic, 

Poland and Slovakia, indicator of trade balance was used. This measure describes the 

difference between domestic exports and imports. The results were presented in table 2 and 

figure 2. 

Values of trade balance in 2000-2007 show an upward trend for all examined countries - 

slight decreases of this indicator are noted in 2001 in all countries. In last analysed year the 

values of trade balance are decreasing, which could be caused by the global market downturn. 

Country 

2000 

Table 2. Wood and wood and cork products trade balance 

Wood and products of wood and cork trade balance 

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 

Czech 

Republic 

319,39 315,05 298,07 347,85 481,98 503,79 630,26 794,71 724,26 

Poland 712,40 674,35 764,64 1145,85 1452,44 1457,16 1591,14 1861,11 1737,38 

Slovakia 127,60 120,47 144,34 173,76 238,01 288,28 339,97 319,28 287,97 


33

2000,00 

1500,00 

1000,00 

500,00 

0,00 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 


Figure 2. Wood and wood and cork products trade balance 

The results of indicator of import penetration analysis are presented in table 3 and 

figure 3. An indicator of import penetration measures a share of import in domestic supply of 

goods. The higher indicator value means higher import share in the market total goods supply. 

For a given country a value close to 100 in a certain industry, implies that domestic demand is 

mainly fulfilled by imports and domestic production tends to be exported. A value close to 0 

means self sufficient, i.e. domestic demand is mainly satisfied by domestic production. A 

value above 100 illustrates measurement problems which may occur when combining 

production and trade data. The highest values of this indicator are noted for Slovakia and 

reached 25-34. Czech Republic and Poland reach similar values of this indicator, respectively: 

15-22 and 11-19. 

Country 

Table 3. Wood and wood and cork products import penetration indicator 

Wood and products of wood and cork Import penetration indicator 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 

Czech 

Republic 

21,44 18,58 16,01 15,74 18,79 17,40 17,10 18,15 18,06 

Poland 11,57 11,72 14,19 16,39 15,58 17,03 18,98 18,07 16,53 

Slovakia 31,64 33,46 28,50 29,28 25,03 28,21 28,80 30,00 28,80 


35,00 

30,00 

25,00 

20,00 

15,00 

10,00 

5,00 

0,00 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 


Figure 3. Wood and wood and cork products import penetration indicator 

34

Analysis of the results of table 4 can provide an interesting information. In this table 

values of the coverage indicator (see formula 4) for the 2000-2008 were included, a graphic 

illustration of data was shown on figure 4. The coverage indicator determines an exceed 

degree of the group of goods exports in their import. Indicator values higher than 100% 

means that the country generates an advantage in trade of a particular group of goods. 

The coverage indicator values are higher than 200% in most analyzed countries. It 

means that exports value exceeds more than twice the value of country's imports in this group 

of goods. Highest values of the coverage indicator are observed for Poland, especially in the 

early years of analysis. Poland reaches the highest value of this ratio in 2003, namely an 

approximately 315%. Since 2004 the results of the coverage ratio for Poland are beginning to 

fall, and a reason of this may be a difficulties in compete with better equipped EU companies. 

The coverage indicator maintains downward trend for all countries in 2007 and 2008 

year probably caused by the global economic slowdown. 

Table 4. Wood and wood and cork products export share in import 

Country 

2000 2001 2002 2003 

Year 

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 

Czech 

Republic 

233,21% 236,60% 209,85% 220,41% 221,10% 212,16% 228,84% 219,07% 195,78% 

Poland 283,67% 262,66% 270,26% 314,77% 286,46% 241,53% 233,34% 212,14% 193,50% 

Slovakia 284,03% 243,76% 228,39% 213,86% 231,73% 258,08% 209,35% 170,09% 162,06% 


350% 

300% 

250% 

200% 

150% 

100% 

50% 

0% 

CONCLUSIONS 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 


Figure 4. Wood and wood and cork products export share in import 

Analysis of the results indicate that the competitive position all analysed countries in the 

wood and wood products market appears to be stable, however some indicators in recent 

years of analysis, especially the coverage indicator, may show worsening situation in this 

sector companies. 

In this paper the data from years 2000-2008 were used and only selected indicators were 

calculated. Expanded competitiveness analysis and specific data from 2009 may provide the 

answer to a question about improve situation symptoms in world markets and thereby, an 

exports of wood and wood products. 

35

REFERENCES 

1. NOGA M., STAWICKA M. K., 2008: Co decyduje o konkurencyjno�ci polskiej 

gospodarki?, Wyd. CeDeWu Sp. z o.o.; 

2. OLCZYK M., 2008: Konkurencyjno�� – teoria i praktyka, Wyd. CeDeWu, Warszawa; 

3. SZCZAWI�SKI M., 2006: Analiza wieloczynnikowa konkurencyjno�ci przemys�u 

drzewnego na rynku Unii Europejskiej, Intercathedra No22, Pozna�, pp. 153-155; 

4. WZI�TEK-KUBIAK A., 2003: Konkurencyjno�� polskiego przemys�u, Dom 

wydawniczy Bellona, Warszawa; 

5. http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/statistics/themes 

6. http://www.oecd.org/statsportal/0,3352,en_2825_293564_1_1_1_1_1,00.html 

Streszczenie: Analiza konkurencyjno�ci przemys�u drzewnego w wybranych krajach Unii 

Europejskiej.W niniejszej pracy podj�ta zosta�a próba analizy konkurencyjno�ci wybranych 

krajów Unii Europejskiej. W analizie konkurencyjno�ci wykorzystane zosta�y g�ówne 

mierniki konkurencyjno�ci, wykorzystuj�ce g�ównie wielko�ci dotycz�ce importu i eksportu 

produktów drzewnych. Analiza wyników, zw�aszcza w d�ugim okresie, mo�e dostarczy� 

wielu u�ytecznych informacji na temat stanu sektora przemys�u drzewnego i jego pozycji 

konkurencyjnej w stosunku do innych krajów. 


Justyna Biernacka 

Department of Technology, Organisation and Management in Wood Industry, 

Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw Agricultural University (SGGW) 

02-787 Warsaw, ul. Nowoursynowska 166 

e-mail address: justyna_biernacka@sggw.pl 






960 53 Zvolen, Slovakia 

e-mail address: sedliacikova@vsld.tuzvo.sk

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW 


(Ann. WULS - SGGW, For. and Wood Technol.,71, 2010) 

Stress concentration factors of an anisotropic elastic plate with an elliptical 

hole 

FERDINAND BODNÁR 1) , MAREK JAB�O�SKI 2) 

1) Department of Mechanics and Engineering, Technical University in Zvolen, Slovakia 

2) Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 

Abstract: Stress concentration factors of an anisotropic elastic plate with an elliptical hole. The analytical 

solution of stresses around the elliptical hole boundary in two-dimensional orthotropic linear elastic plate is 

presented here. The orthotropic plate with the elliptical hole is subjected to an uniaxial inplane tension or 

pressure loading at infinity. The aim is to know the influence of the elliptical hole shape and of the principal 

directions of elasticity on concentration of stresses. Realised computations of stresses on the hole boundary and 

of the stress concentration factor are based on the linear theory of anisotropic bodies with using of a Stroh 

formalism. This solution enables to discover influence of the one of three main factors of stress concentration, 

viz. material properties, hole geometry and loading conditions. 

Keywords: Stress concentration, elliptical hole, anisotropic plate, Stroh formalism. 

INTRODUCTION 

It is well known that holes cause serious problems of stress concentrations due to the 

geometry discontinuity. These problems are even more serious in structures of materials with 

anisotropic behaviour. In order to predict the structural behaviour of these structures a 

detailed study of effect of hole geometry on stress distribution around the hole is necessary. 

Analytical solutions are available in the literature with different degree of mathematical 

complexity. Lechnickij [2] gave solutions for stress around different shapes of holes using 

series method. Savin’s approach [3] by conformal mapping and Schwartz formula is much 

simpler. Analytical calculation of stress concentrations in plane with infinite dimensions 

under mechanical loads have been performed by many authors mainly using the methods of 

complex valued stress functions and conformal mappings. Ukadgaonker and Rao [7] adapted 

Savin’s formulation to get general solution for inplane loading problem. A general solution is 

developed by introducing a general form of mapping function and an arbitrary biaxial loading 

condition into the boundary conditions. 

It is known that Stroh formalism is mathematically elegant and technically powerful in 

determining the two-dimensional deformations of anisotropic elastic solids [5], [6]. Here the 

Stroh formalism of plane strain elasticity is used for calculation of stress concentration around 

elliptical hole in anisotropic plate because the elliptic hole problem is the basis of a crack 

problem in elastic analysis. To denote the highest stress caused by the hole, the stress 

concentration factor (SCF) is used and defined to be the maximum stress at the hole boundary 

divided by the remote uniform stress. The effect of material properties on stress distribution 

around the hole was not studied here. 

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 

For a two-dimensional anisotropic linear elastic medium, the basic equations of straindisplacement, 

stresss-strain and equilibrium may be written as 

37

�uu� 1 

�ij � i, j � j, i , � ij � C ijks� 

ks , � ij, j � 0 , (1) 

2 

Where, i u , � ij and � ij are respectively, the displacement, stress and strain. The 

repeated indices imply summation; a comma stands for differentiation and C ijks are the 

elastic constants which are assumed to be fully symmetric. A general solution satisfying Eq. 

(1) has been presented [5, 6] as 

where 

� Af �z� Af �z� , � Bf �z��Bf �z� u � 

A � �aaa�, �bbb� 1 

2 

� � � � � � � � ��T 

z � f z , f z , f z 

1 

1 

2 

3 

2 

3 

� (2a) 

B � , 

3 

1 

2 

3 

f , z � x � p x , � � 1, 

2, 

3. 

(2b) 

� 

u and � , are 1 

u 1 , u2, 

u3 

and the stress 

functions �� 1 , �2, 

�3 

�. 

The stress function � i is related to the stresses by 

38 

1 

� 2 

3� column vectors denoting the displacements � � 

� i1 

� ��i, 

2 , i2 

i, 1 � � 

� . (2c) 

The superscript T denotes the transpose and the overline represents the conjugate of a 

complex number. The material eigenvalues � p , and eigenvectors � a , b� are determined by 

the following eigenrelations 

N � � p� 

, (3a) 

where 

and 

� � 

�N1 

N 2 � 

N � � 

T � , 

�N3 

N1 

� 

N �T 

R 

-1 T 

1 � , 

�a� 

� � � � , 

�b� 

-1 

N 2 T � 

ik i1k1 

C Q � , ik i1k 

2 C 

� N , 

T 

2 

-1 T 

N3 RT R �Q 

� 

� N 

(3b) 

R � , ik i2k 

2 C T � . (3c) 

� � z f , � =1, 2, 3, are three holomorphic functions of complex variables z � , which will be 

determined by the boundary conditions set for each particular problem. The surface traction 

vector t can be calculated by using Cauchy’s formula [4], i.e., ti � � ijm 

j where m j is the unit 

normal to the surface boundary. Usually, the stress components along any coordinate axes are 

calculated using the transformation law of second order tensors. An alternative approach to 

determining stress components of the rotated coordinate axes has been introduced [6]. Let (n, 

m) be the unit vector tangent and normal to a surface boundary then we have 

where 

� 

� 

mm 

nn 

T 

T 

� m ��, n , � mn � n ��, n , � m3 

� �� , n � , 3 

T 

� �n 

��, m , � nm � �m 

��, m � � mn 

T 

, n3 

� �� 

, m �3 T 

T 

n ��cos� , sin� 

, 0�, 

��sin� , cos�, 

0� 

T 

3 

� , (4a) 

m , (4b)

and the angle � is directed counterclockwise from the positive x1 -axis to the direction of n. 

Although the solutions to an anisotropic elasticity problem is, in general, expressed in terms 

of the Stroh eigenvalues and eigenvectors are complex, there are identities which express 

certain combination of the eigenvalues and eigenvectors in terms of real matrices and Barnet- 

Lothe tensors [1]. 

RESULTS OF NUMERICAL EXAMPLES 

Calculations of stress concentration factors were made for the orthotropic rectangular 

plate with an elliptical hole at the centre. Used ratios of the elliptical hole halfaxises are 

a b � 5, 

2, 

1, 

1 2 and 1 5. 

The diameter of the opening is taken to be small in comparison 

with the length of the plate sides and the principal directions of elasticity are parallel to the 

sides of the plate. The tangential wooden plate of Picea Excelsa is loaded by uniaxial tension 

at infinity in x� direction. In the first case wood fibers are parallel with x� – axis (i.e.: �= 0°) 

and in the second case the fibers are 

parallel with y�– axis (i.e.: �= 90°). 

Fig. 1 Problem configuration 

Used elasticity coefficients, Poisson�s ratios and calculated material eigenvalues for 

both solved cases are given in Table 1. 

Table 1 Material properties and calculated material eigenvalues 

Picea Excelsa 

Ex 

�MPa� 

Ey 

�MPa� 

Gxy 

�MPa� 

�yx �xy p1 p2 

� � 0� 

9290 650 870 0.420 0.033 0.0000 + 1.2581i 0.0007 + 3.0058i 

� � 90� 

650 9290 870 0.033 0.420 -0.3943 + 0.3302i 0.3944 + 0.3306i 

A hoop stress � � originates on the hole boundary. It’s distribution around the 

elliptical hole with halfaxes ratio ( a b � 1 2 ) for both solved cases is presented in Fig. 2. 

a) b) 

Fig. 2 Distribution of � � : a) �= 0°, b) �= 90° 

39

Calculated stress concentration factors for all observed elliptical hole halfaxises ratios 

and fiber orientations are given in Table 2. 

Table 2. Stress concentration factors 

Picea 

Stress concentration factor 

Excelsa a/b=5 a/b=2 a/b=1 a/b=1/2 a/b=1/5 

� � 0� 

1.85 3.13 5.26 9.53 20.61 

� � 90� 

1.13 1.33 3.13 4.37 6.26 

- 3.79 - 3.79 -3.79 -3.79 -3.79 

CONCLUSION 

When fibers orientation is along the x� – axis, (i.e.: �= 0°), compression stress �� 

around the elliptical hole is negligible. Locations with maximum values always occurs at 

� � 90� 

and 270°. Moreover, the maximum value of the stress concentration factor increases 

when the hole axes ratio a b decreases. 

In the case that wood fibers are perpendicular on loading stress direction, great 

concentration of stresses is caused by compression stress � � in locations about � � 0� 

and 

180°. These SCF are negative numbers, and moreover for all halfaxises ratios these ones are 

equal. Positive SCF increases when the hole axes ratio a b decreases but corresponding stress 

concentration factors are smaller as in the cases when �= 0°. Locations of the positive stress 

concentration factors change from angle � � 22� 

up to 158° and from 202° up to 338°. 

REFERENCES 

1. BARNETT D.M., LOTHE J. 1973. Synthesis of the sextic and the integral formalism 

for dislocations, Green’s function and surface waves in anisotropic elastic solids. 

Physica Norvegica, 7, 1973: 13-17. 

2. LECHNICKIJ S. G. 1957: Anizotropnyje plastinki. Moskva: Gostechizdat, Moskva- 

Leningrad: 1957, 463 pp. 

3. SAVIN G. N. 1951: Koncentacija naprjaženij okolo otverstij. Gostechizdat, Moskva- 

Leningrad: 1951, 496 pp. 

4. SOKOLNIKOFF I. S. 1956: Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. McGraw-Hill, New 

York: 1956. 

5. STROH A. N. 1958: Dislocations and cracks in anisotropic elasticity. Philosophical 

Magazine 7, 1958: 625- 646. 

6. TING T.C.T. 1996: Anisotropic Elasticity – Theory and Applications. Oxford Science 

Publications, New York: 1996. 

7. UKADGAONKER V. G., RAO D. K. N. 2000: A general solution for moments 

around holes in symmetric laminates. Composite Structures, 49, 2000: 41 –54. 

40

Streszczenie: Rozk�ad napr��e� w anizotropowej p�ycie spr��ystej z otworem eliptycznym. 

Praca prezentuje rozwi�zanie analityczne zagadnienia rozk�adu napr��e� w dwuwymiarowej 

spr��ystej p�ycie naoko�o eliptycznego otworu. Ortotropowa p�yta z otworem eliptycznym 

jest wystawiona na dzia�anie niesko�czonych napr��e� wieloosiowych. Celem pracy by�o 

okre�lenie wp�ywu otworu eliptycznego na rozk�ad napr��e� w p�ycie. Przeprowadzone 

obliczenia napr��e� wokó� otworu oraz wspó�czynników rozmieszczenia napr��e� bazowa�y 

na teorii cia� anizotropowych Stroha. Rozwi�zanie pozwala okre�li� wp�yw trzech g�ównych 

czynników rozk�adu napr��e�, w�a�ciwo�ci materia�u, geometrii otworu oraz typu obci��enia. 

This research was supported by Slovak Scientific Grant Agency under project No. 1/0579/08 

“Stress and strain analysis around stress concentrators in parts of wooden constructions”. 


Ferdinand Bodnár, 

Department of Mechanics and Engineering, 

Technical University in Zvolen, Slovakia, 

e-mail: bodnar@vsld.tuzvo.sk 

Marek Jab�o�ski, 

Faculty of Wood Technology, 

Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, 

02-776 Warsaw, 

159 Nowoursynowska st., 

Poland 

e-mail: marek_jablonski@sggw.pl




Two special plants for drying of wood by superhigh frequency of 

electromagnetic energy 

A.M. BOMBIN 1 , P.S. MORDVINOV 2 

1 Voronezh state Academy of Forestry Engineering, Voronezh, Russia, 

2 Post-graduate student of Russian State Commercial and Economic University, Voronezh, Russia 

Abstract: Two special plants for drying of wood by superhigh frequency of electromagnetic energy (SHF 

EME) submitted in the article. First plant drying boards 3 metre length for furniture. Second plant drying of logs 

and beams 6 metre length for production of wooden houses. Each of this plants consume minimum of electric 

energy for drying of wood with needed characteristics. Boards for furniture must have moisture 6%. Logs and 

beams must have moisture 15%. During the process of drying boards moisture going out like steam from sides of 

boards. During the process of drying of logs and beams moisture going out like water and steam from end 

surface of logs and beams. Control panel fulfilled of manycannel programmable intellectual relay type Zelio 

Logic. 

Keywords: superhigh frequency of electromagnetic energy, drying of logs, wooden house-building, drying 

boards for furniture 

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4. �� , �� 2450 

42

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43 

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200�200�6000 

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4. �� , �� 2450 

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13. �� 1 � 3 ��, �� 150 

14. �� , � � +10 ÷ +40 

15. �� 

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16. �� , �� 8 

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�� : 1 – ��, 2 – �� , 3 – ��, 4 – �� 

��. 

�� 2. �� 

�� 

�� . �� 

��: 1 – ��, 2 – �� , 3 – ��.

�� 1 – �� 

�� 2 – �� 

44

�� 

�� . �� 

�� ± 45 � . 

�� 

(1) 

D � 2 ( � � l ) , 

�� – �� ; 

l – �� . 

�� [1] 

� �� 

2 �� 

� � � 

� 

2� 

` 

2 

�� 1� 

tg � �1�� 

(2) 

�� – �� ; 

�`– �� ; 

tg � – �� . 

�� 

S 

l � , 

min 

0 

�� 

� 

2n 

�tg 

2 

(3) 

�� S – �� , �� ; 

n – �� , �� . 

(4) 

0 1 

�� 

� � 

2 

45 

� 

a 

� 

b 

1/ 

2 

0 0 

� 70 � 60 �, 

�� 0 � – �� 

�� (��) �� ; a – �� ; b 

– �� ; � – �� . 

�� l > lmin. �� l �� 

�� lmin �� . 

�� 

�� Zelio Logic. 

REFERENCES: 

1.TORGOVNIKOV G.I., 1993: Dielectric Properties of Wood and Wood-Based Materials. 

Springer-Verlag 1993 . Printed in Germany. 

,

Streszczenie: Dwa specjalne urz�dzenia do suszenia drewna energi� elektromagnetyczn� 

wysokiej cz�stotliwo�ci. Pierwsza z suszarek, przeznaczona dla meblarstwa, s�u�y do suszenia 

tarcicy o d�ugo�ci do 3 metrów, druga, przeznaczona do zak�adu produkuj�cego domy 

drewniane, do belek i k�ód o d�ugo�ci do 6 metrów. Obie suszarki zu�ywaj� minimalne ilo�ci 

energii konieczne do wysuszenia drewna do wymaganego poziomu. Deski dla meblarstwa 

musz� mie� oko�o 6% wilgotno�ci, belki i k�ody do domów drewnianych oko�o 15%. W 

trakcie sszenia k�ód oraz belek wilgo� z wn�trza drewna jako woda oraz para wydostaje si� z 

czó� materia�u. Zastosowano wielokana�owy programowalny kontroler Zelio Logic. 


prof. Bombin A.M. 

Voronezh State Academy of Forestry Engineering, 

Timiryazev St., 8, Voronezh 

394087, Russia, e-mail chem@vglta.vrn.ru 

Mordvinov P.S. 

Russian State Commercial and Economic University, 

Fr. Engelsa St., 2-18, Voronezh 

394000, Russia, e-mail chem@vglta.vrn.ru

Annals of Warsaw University of Live Sciences – SGGW 


(Ann. WULS-SGGW, For. And Wood Technol., 71, 2010) 

Influence of the accelerated ageing red oak wood (Quercus rubra L.) on 

compressive strength along the fibers 

EMILIAN BORATY�SKI, AGNIESZKA JANKOWSKA, MAGDALENA SZCZ�SNA 

Department of Wood Science and Wood Protection, Warsaw University of Live Science - SGGW 

Abstract: Because of the length of a natural process of ageing of wood, the investigation on ageing wood and its 

results are carried out using methods simulating weather conditions. Influence of the accelerated ageing on wood 

properties is not known well. The information about this need to be completed. The subject of research was 

northern red oak wood (Quercus rubra L.). As a result of research, it was proved that artificial ageing of wood 

causes the change in wood appearance, fall in its density and compression along the fibers. 

Key words: red oak, accelerated ageing of wood, wood durability. 

INTRODUCTION 

As the years pass, wood undergoes a gradual degradation as a result of influence of 

external factors, both biotic and abiotic ones. The influence of these factors results in a loss of 

initial properties of wood. Due to slowness of the process, examination ageing of wood and 

consequences of it is difficult. Substantial changes often appear in real terms of using wood 

after a lot of years (Kozakiewicz and Matejak 2006). 

From this reason, various methods of accelerated ageing were drew up in laboratories, 

simulating natural influence of weather conditions, eg. defined in PN-EN 335-1, to determine 

changes occurring in wood. These methods differ between themselves in the order and 

intensity of the effect of individual factors of the decline (Heli�ska-Raczkowska and 

Raczkowski 1971, Matejak and �wietliczny 1977; Kami�ski, Matejak and Popowska 1982; 

Matejak, Popowska and Rabiej 1983; Krzosek and Starecka 1996; Kozakiewicz K. and 

Matejak 1998). 

One of the methods, described by Matejak, Popowska and Szejka (1983), consisted in 

wood drying in temperature of 70 °C during 8 hours and soaking in water in room 

temperature during 16 hours. According to the authors, approximately 11 cycles (one cycle of 

ageing takes 24 hour) correspond to a yearly response of wood in external conditions in 

moderate climate. Tests of artificial ageing was conducted on pine, oak and beech wood have 

demonstrated that a decrease in compressive strength along the fibres with respect to one 

ageing cycle tends to be slower with a growing number of completed ageing cycles. 

So far for, research on the influence of the accelerated ageing was made on the popular 

species of wood from Europe. In relation to opening branches of the wood industry and the 

acting shortage of wood, it is necessary to undertake the research on processes occurring 

during the precipitated atmospheric corrosion and other grades of wood. 

The aim of this work was determine changes (compressive strength along the fibres) 

occurring in red oak wood (Quercus rubra L.). The knowledge acquired in this respect is 

gaining the more and more great practical significance. 

MATERIAL AND METHODS 

At assuming the lack of influences of biotic factors, a simplified method was applied 

simulating real terms of the work of wood outside drawn up through Matejak, Popowska and 

Szejka (1983). 110 artificial ageing cycles (corresponding with ageing in open air for ten 

years in the temperate climate typical of the area of Poland) were conducted in total. 

47

The scope of work included determination of the most significant properties having an 

impact, first of all, on durability and quality of wood in elements used outdoors, exposed to 

variable weather conditions. The effect of a gradual degradation of wood caused by variable 

thermal and moisture conditions was determined on the basis of tests of wood density 

(according to Polish Standard PN-77/D-04101) and wood compressive strength along the 

fibres (according to Polish Standard PN-79/D-04102). The use of slightly smaller dimensions 

of samples, i.e. 15 x 15 x 22 mm, was a departure from the above-mentioned norms. The 

deviation from demands of the Polish Standard concerning the sample size occurred in view 

of the fact that no relationship existed between the compressive strength along the fibres and 

the size of samples when they geometrically similar and when section of the samples 

contained at least a couple of annual increments. Testers of wood of every kind were being 

acquired from one board, getting so-called „identical samples”. Thanks to that a density 

moved close and a structure were kept for so that happening changes in the ageing process are 

a main factor deciding on examined properties. 

RESULTS 

The samples of the tested wood species developed a colour changes as a result of 

accelerated ageing. At first the colour was becoming darker, and then wood was assuming the 

colour grey-ashen. As a result of the ageing process on the surface of wood cracks appeared. 

As first running cracks were turning up at radial direction, and then in tangential direction. 

Coming into existence of cracks of surface layers of wood, leading to the degradation 

of this material, is a result of uneven drying outside and of inner layers generating strong 

desorption stresses. 

The ageing has caused a decrease in density of the tested wood species. The higher the 

number of ageing cycles, the bigger the difference in density between the unaged wood and 

the wood treated by the process. Artificial ageing caused wood fall in the density in case of 

red oak wood from the initial average value of 804 kg/m 3 up to 771 kg/m 3 what constitutes c. 

12,7 %. It is possible to suppose this fall is triggered above all with scouring the row of nonstructural 

substances from cell walls and to a lesser degree with partial hydrolysis 

hemicelluloses and celluloses in layers surface of samples. In order to illustrate the impact of 

accelerated ageing on density of the tested wood species, an approximate percentage decrease 

corresponding to one cycle of the process has been determined (fig. 1). The first artificial 

wood ageing cycles had the biggest impact on density. Non-structural substances were being 

washed out from the wood cell walls in the most intensive way. The decrease in density 

related to one ageing cycle tended to be smaller with a growing number of artificial ageing 

cycles completed and was nearing a constant value (asymptotically to zero). 

With the increase number of cycles of ageing, at the testing compressive strength 

along the fibres an image is changing scrap of samples – from pressing for oblong cracks. The 

change of character of damage is attesting to the fall in the strength of wood triggered process 

artificial ageing. Analyzing the average values of wood compressive strength along the fibres, 

it has been observed that artificial ageing caused a decrease in strength of red oak wood from 

initial value 64,3 MPa to 57,9 MPa (fall about c. 7,1 %). The decrease in wood compressive 

strength is caused by changes occurring in the wood structure. Cyclic changes in thermal and 

moisture conditions resulted in strong stresses exceeding internal cohesion forces of the 

wood. It caused this occurrence of fractures in cell walls. Loss of mass also took place to the 

effect of washing the row of nonstructural substances out of cell walls and relaxing the 

skeleton lignin- cellulose. In order to illustrate the impact of ageing on compressive strength 

along the fibres, an approximate percentage decrease of this feature corresponding to one 

cycle was determined (fig. 2). The nature of the changes is the same as in the case of density. 

48

The first ageing cycles had the biggest influence on compression along the fibres due 

to the fact that the initial rapid changes in moisture cause the strongest sorption stresses and 

consequently an intensive development of cracks. With a growing number of artificial ageing 

cycles, as similarly as in case of the density, fall in the strength with reference to one cycle 

ageing he is more and more small and he is making his way asymptotic towards the constant 

value. It is probably a consequence of it that in separated (small) elements arising as a result 

of earlier tearing samples (during the first cycles ageing), desorption stresses weren't already 

so high and they didn't trigger more further deepening fractures and in the process of lowering 

the strength. With acting ageing changes of the strength of wood were more and more small. 

Fig. 1. Relative decrease of the red oak (Quercus 

rubra L.) density in conversion to one aging cycle 

depending on the number of aging cycles 

49 

Fig. 2. Relative decrease of the red oak (Quercus 

rubra L.) compressive strength along the fibres in 

conversion to one aging cycle depending on the 

number of aging cycles 

CONCLUSION 

The research conducted on influence of the accelerated ageing northern red oak wood 

(Quercus rubra L.) on its density and compressive along the fibres, allow to reach the 

following conclusions: 

1. Precipitated application of the method artificial ageing of wood simulating real terms of 

this work for determining changes of the property of wood in the realistically short time 

and in the process predicting keeping it allows. 

2. The ageing has causes a decrease in density of the red oak wood. The decrease in density 

related to one ageing cycle tended to be smaller with a growing number of artificial 

ageing cycles completed and was nearing a constant value (asymptotically to zero). 

3. The accelerated ageing process causes a considerable decrease in compressive strength 

along the fibres. The decrease in the wood strength tends to be bigger with a longer period 

of wood treatment by the ageing process.

REFERENCES: 

1. HELI�SKA-RACZKOWSKA L., RACZKOWSKI J.,1971: Niektóre zagadnienia 

przyspieszonego starzenia drewna. Roczniki WSR w Poznaniu 6. 

2. KAMI�SKI M., MATEJAK M., POPOWSKA E., 1982: Einfluss des Alterns von 

Holz unter künstlichen Klimabedingungen auf seine Druckfestigkeit längs der Faser. 

Holzforschung und Holzvermertung, Heft 2, s. 21-24. 

3. KOZAKIEWICZ K., MATEJAK M., 1998: Wp�yw procesu sztucznego starzenia na 

wytrzyma�o�� drewna na �ciskanie wzd�u� w�ókien. Przemys� Drzewny 10/1998: s. 

26-28. 

4. KOZAKIEWICZ P., MATEJAK M., 2006: Klimat a drewno zabytkowe. Wyd. 

SGGW Warszawa. 

5. KRZOSEK S., STERECKA D., 1996: Modu� spr��ysto�ci jako kryterium oceny 

zmian wytrzyma�o�ci drewna sztucznie starzonego. Mat. z X Konferencji Naukowej 

Wydzia�u Technologii Drewna SGGW nt.: Drewno – tworzywo in�ynierskie. Wyd. 

Fundacji Rozwój SGGW Warszawa 1996: s. 65-72. 

6. MATEJAK M., POPOWSKA E., RABIEJ R., 1983: Starzenie drewna i konstrukcji 

drewnianych. Przemys� Drzewny 2/1983: s. 17-19. 

7. MATEJAK M., POPOWSKA E., SZEJKA E., 1983: Vergleichende Untersuchungen 

über Methoden des beschleunigten Alterns von Holz, Holzforschung und 

Holzvermertung, Heft 5, s. 117-119. 

8. MATEJAK M., �WIETLICZNY M., 1977: Odporno�� tworzyw drzewnych na 

dzia�anie czynników klimatycznych. Zeszyty naukowe SGGW-AR w Warszawie, 

Technologia Drewna, 8, Warszawa 1977: s. 101-114. 

9. PN-EN 335-1: Trwa�o�� drewna i materia�ów drewnopochodnych. Definicja klas 

zagro�enia ataku biologicznego. 

10. PN-79/D-04102 Drewno. Oznaczenie wytrzyma�o�ci na �ciskanie wzd�u� w�ókien. 

11. PN-77/D-04101 Drewno. Oznaczanie g�sto�ci. 

12. PN-79/D-04100 Drewno. Oznaczenie wilgotno�ci. 

Streszczenie: Wp�yw sztucznego starzenia drewna d�bu czerwonego (Quercus rubra L.) na 

wytrzyma�o�� na �ciskanie wzd�u� w�ókien. Z powodu d�ugo�ci trwania naturalnego procesu 

starzenia opracowano wiele metod postarzania drewna symuluj�cych jego prace w 

naturalnych warunkach zewn�trznych. Jeden cykl procesu starzenia obejmowa� moczenie 

próbek w wodzie przez 16 godzin i suszenie w temperaturze 343 K przez 8 godzin. Ogó�em 

przeprowadzono 110 cykli sztucznego starzenia, co w przybli�eniu odpowiada 

dziesi�cioletniej pracy drewna na zewn�trz w klimacie umiarkowanym, typowym dla obszaru 

Polski. Do bada� u�yto drewna d�bu czerwonego (Quercus rubra L.). Wykazano, �e sztuczne 

starzenie powoduje zmian� wygl�du drewna (zamiana barwy i chropowato�ci powierzchni), 

spadek wytrzyma�o�ci na �ciskanie wzd�u� w�ókien oraz ubytek masy (spadek g�sto�ci). 

Zmniejszanie si� g�sto�ci i wytrzyma�o�ci na �ciskanie wzd�u� w�ókien drewna jest 

najwyra�niejsze w pierwszych cyklach starzenia. Wraz z post�puj�cym starzeniem 

zachodz�ce zmiany s� coraz mniejsze. 


Agnieszka Jankowska, Magdalena Szcz�sna 

Department of Wood Sciences and Wood Protection, 



Ul. Nowoursynowska 159, 

02-776 Warsaw, Poland 

e-mail: agnieszka_milewska@sggw.pl, e-mail: magdalena_szczesna@sggw.pl




Interactions with water of novel wood-fiber material with lignins as binder 

BORUSZEWSKI PIOTR, BORYSIUK PIOTR, DOBROWOLSKA EWA, MAMI�SKI 

MARIUSZ, NICEWICZ DANUTA 

Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 

Abstract: Interactions with water of novel wood-fiber material with lignins as binder. A biocomposite made of 

wood fiber compounded with lignins was manufactured in an injection moulding process. The sorption 

behaviour of the material when in contact with water was examined and compared to typical high density 

hardboard. It was found that interactions with water of the novel material were reduced. 

Keywords: lignin, hardboard, injection moulding process 

INTRODUCTION 

Wood based fibrous materials like medium density fiberboard, insulation board and 

hardboard have been well known and recognized as ecomonic and versetile materials. All of 

them are derived from defibrated wood i.e. fiber pulp invented by Asplund (Anon 1997). 

Recently, biocomposites based on wood and biopolymers became the field of research 

which scientists’ attention has been paid to. The concept is to compound thermoplastic 

materials with lignocellulosic fibers or isolated components of wood (Pritchard 2004, Selke 

and Wachman 2004, Mohanty et al. 2000, Maya and Sabu 2008). 

It is known that natural resources provide large amounts of biopolymers like 

polysaccharides (e.g. starch), proteins (e.g. collagen) and others (e.g. lignin) (Stevens 2002). 

The latter is the most abundant aromatic polymer occuring in nature. Its content in 

wood ranges from 20 % to 30 %, so that its stock from paper manufacturing is as high as 80 

million tones. Having in mind that lignin is thermplastic - glass transition temperature is 110- 

130 o C (Irvine 1984, Kelly et al. 1987) and flow temperature ca. 170 o C (Olsen and Packett 

1999). 

It is reported in literature that lignin could be used as a binder for fibrous materials (Li 

et al. 1997, Chakar and Ragauskas 2004, Kadla and Kubo 2004, Le Digabel and Ave´rous 

2006, Guigo et al. 2009, Haensel et al. 2009, 2010) as well as its binding efficacy could be 

increased by enzymatic treatments (Widsten and Kandelbauer 2008). 

Thus, a novel wood-fiber lignin-bonded material was developed and examined in 

terms of interactions with water. The results of the experiments were described below. 

METHODIC 

The objective of the studies was to compare the selected properties of injected 

fibrous lignin-bonded composites with those of traditional hardboards. Two types of 

laboratory-made materials were used in the experiments: 

� Biocomposite panels (4 mm thick, density 1250 kg/m 3 ) made through injection of wood 

fibers compounded with lignin (manufactured in Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, 

Chemnitz University of Technology). 

� Hardboard (4 mm thick, density 1250 kg/m 3 ) made through traditional wet metod 

(manufactured in Faculty of Wood Technology Warsaw University of Life Sciences – 

SGGW). 

51

The biocomposite lignin-bonded panels were manufactured from pellets (5x5x5 mm 3 ) 

by injecting moulding. The material was composed of lignin (Indulin AT), wood fibers and 

natural additives improving processing. Panels of dimensions 220 x 150 x 4 mm 3 were 

formed in a Krauss Maffei 380 CX. Maximum pressure ranged from 110 to 160 MPa. 

Maximum process temperature 160 o C. 

Hardboards (300 x 150 x 4 mm 3 ) were made of the pulp of freeness 45 DS as 1.5% wt 

suspension in water. Phenol-formaldehyde glue load was 2% based on dry wood weight. 

After draining, the boards were pressed at 200 o C according to the following regimé: 19 MPa – 

4 min � 3 MPa 4 min � 19 MPa – 5 min. Pressing parameters were set empirically during 

the initial experiments. Prior to tests, the panels were condition.ed at 20 ± 2 o C and 65 ± 5% 

RH for 7 days. 

The following parameters were examined: 

� Thickness swelling and water absorptivity after 2 and 24 h of water soaking (according to 

EN 317:1999) 

� Water sorption dynamics 

� Surface absorption (according to EN 382-2:2001) 

� Water wetting and surface energy. Contact angles were measured using Phoenix 300 

contact angle analyzer (Surface Electro Optics, Korea) equipped with CCD camera and 

microscopic lenses. Surface energy calculations were based on the acid-base method. 

Diiodomethane, formamide and water were used as reference liquids. 

Significance of differences were tested by t-Student test with 95 % confidence level. 

RESULTS 

The results of the respective tests are shown in Tables 1 and 2 as well as in Figures 1 

and 2. The densities of the investigated panels were comparable (Table 1) – the differences 

did not exceed 7%. The obtained results for thickness swelling and water absorptivity shown 

in Table 1 reveal highly hydrophobic nature of injected biocomposite panels. The parameters 

determined for that material were lower by 90% than those of the hardboards. The 

observation can be explained by hydrophobicity of lignin. 

Table 1. Thickness swelling and water absorptivity 

Average Swelling [%] Absorptivity [%] 

Panel type density 

[kg/m 3 ] 

2 h x 24 h x 2 h x 24 h x 

Biocomposite ligninbonded 

panels 

1283 1.9 

11 

4.4 

3 

1.3 

6 

4.2 

3 

Hardboard 

x – variation coefficient [%] 

1201 24.3 15 41.2 10 27.7 16 44.6 8 

The observed sorption dynamics of the biocomposite lignin-bonded panels was lower 

by 50% when compered to hardboard. (Fig. 1). The reference hardboard after 1 hr achieved 

51% of the maximum soak-level and 87% after 6 hrs. The respective results for the ligninbonded 

biocomposite were 24% and 46% of the maximum soak-level. The tested 

biocomposites exhibited linear increase in moisture content within 24 hr test, while that for 

the hardboard occurred to be logarythmic. The high correlation coefficients confirm that 

52

observatuion (R 2 = 0,9882 for biocomposite lignin-bonded panels and 0,9513 for the 

hardboard). 

Fig 1. Sorption dynamics of the studied panels 

The properties tabulated in Table 2 also allow to describe interactions of the material 

with water, and - what is important - remain in accordance with the other results. 

Table 2. Surface properties of the studied panels 

Panel type 

Surface absorption 

[g/m 2 ] 

Contact angle � 

Biocomposite ligninbonded 

panels 

21 51.7 ± 4.9 o 58.4 

Hardboard 927 37.8 ± 3.4 o 59.5 

a) b) 

53 

Total free surface energy 

�tot [mJ/m 2 ] 

Fig 2. Images of water droplets deposited onto: a) biocomposite lignin-bonded panels, b) hardboard 

Surface properties of the studied materials were shown in Table 2. Both surface 

sorption, swelling and water absorption determined for the biocomposite panels were 44 times

lower that those for the reference hardboards which proves significantly reduced water 

sorption for the biocomposite. In addition, the assumption is in agreement with the contact 

angles which for the injected biocomposites were by 14º higher than those for the hardboards 

(fig. 2) Also, higher hydrophobicity of the lignin-bonded panels confirms the lower total free 

surface energy. 

However, it should be stressed that high water contact angles may indicate poor 

wetting with aqueous adhesives, thus, some problems during finishing or bonding may occur. 

SUMMARY 

The injected fibrous lignin-bonded composites were found to be new materials 

featured with required hydrophobic nature higher than that of the traditional hardboards. 

The described lignin-bonded biocomposites may possibly be applied where water 

resistance is required and no high loads bearing occurs. And, last but not least, advantage of 

the injected lignin-wood fiber composites is a possibility of 3D forming during injection. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

This work was carried out as a part of the ERA-IB-project: Improvement of strength 

properties and reduction of emission of volatile organic compounds by enzymatic 

modification of lignin containing biopolymers and composites (VOC reduction of lignin 

containing materials). 

REFERENCES 

1. ANON (1997): Fiber Processing Pioneer. The World of Fiber Processing, 2, 8–11. 

2. CHAKAR F S, RAGAUSKAS A J (2004): Review of current and future softwood kraft 

lignin process chemistry. Industrial Crops and Products 20, 131–141. 

3. GUIGO N, VINCENT L, MIJA A, NAEGELE H, SBIRRAZZUOLI N (2009): Innovative 

green nanocomposites based on silicate clays / lignin / natural fibres. Composites Science 

and Technology 69, 1979–1984. 

4. HAENSEL T, COMOUTH A, LORENZ P, AHMED S I-U, KRISCHOK S, ZYDZIAK 

N, KAUFFMANN A, SCHAEFER A (2009): Pyrolysis of cellulose and lignin. Applied 

Surface Science 255, 8183–8189. 

5. HAENSEL T, COMOUTH A, ZYDZIAK N, BOSCH E, KAUFFMANN A, PFITZER J, 

KRISCHOK S, SCHAEFER A, AHMED S I-U (2010): Pyrolysis of wood-based polymer 

compounds. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 87, 124–128. 

6. KADLA J F, KUBO S (2004): Lignin-based polymer blends: analysis of intermolecular 

interactions in lignin – synthetic polymer blends. Composites: Part A 35, 395–400. 

7. LE DIGABEL F and AVE´ROUS L (2006): Effects of lignin content on the properties of 

lignocellulose-based biocomposites. Carbohydrate Polymers 66, 537–545. 

8. LI Y, MLYNAR J, SARKANEN S (1997): The First 85% Kraft Lignin-Based 

Thermoplastics. Journal of Polymer Science Part B: Polymer Physics 12 (35), 1899–1910. 

9. MAYA J J and SABU T (2008): Biofibres and biocomposites. Carbohydrate Polymers 71, 

343–364 

10. MOHANTY A K, MISRA M, HINRICHSEN G (2000): Biofibres, biodegradable 

polymers and biocomposites: An overview. Macromolecular Materials and Engineering 

276/277, 1–24 

11. OLSEN P O and PLACKETT D V (1999): Perspectives on the performance of natural 

plant fibers presented at natural fibres performance forum, Copenhagen, May 27 – 28. 

http://www.ienica.net/fibresseminar/olsen.pdf 

12. PRITCHARD G (2004): Two technologies merge: wood plastic composites. Reinforced 

plastics 6, 26–29. 

54

13. SELKE S E and WACHMAN I (2004): Wood fiber / polyolefin composites. Composites: 

Part A, 35, 321–326. 

14. STEVENS E S (2002): Green Plastics. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 

15. WIDSTEN P, KANDELBAUER A (2008): Laccase applications in the forest products 

industry: A review. Enzyme and Microbial Technology 42, 293–307. 

16. IRVINE G.M., CSIRO 1984: The glass transitions of lignin and hemicellulose and their 

measurement by differential thermal analysis. TAPPI Journal 67, 5, 118-121 

17. KELLEY S.S., RIALS T.G., GLASSER W.G. 1987: Relaxation behaviour of the 

amorphous components of wood. Journal of Materials Science 22, 2, 617-624 

Streszczenie: W�a�ciwo�ci sorpcyjne materia�ów w�óknistych spajanych lignin�. W ramach 

bada� wykorzystano biokompozyty w�ókniste spajane lignin� wytworzone metod� iniekcji. 

Dla badanych materia�ów oznaczono w�a�ciwo�ci sorpcyjne i porównano je z w�a�ciwo�ciami 

p�yt pil�niowych twardych. Ustalono, �e biokompozyty w�ókniste spajane lignin� 

charakteryzuja si� wy�sz� hydrofobowo�ci� w stosunku do p�yt pil�niowych twardych. 


Boruszewski Piotr, Borysiuk Piotr, Dobrowolska Ewa, Mami�ski Mariusz, Nicewicz Danuta 





Poland 

e-mail: piotr_boruszewski@sggw.pl 

e-mail: potr_borysiuk@sggw.pl 

e-mail: ewa_dobrowolska@sggw.pl 

e-mail: danuta_nicewicz@sggw.pl




Shear strength of bonds in plywood made of veneers treated with 

pyrethroid and triazole based bio-preservatives. 

PIOTR BORYSIUK 1) , PIOTR BORUSZEWSKI 1) , KRZYSZTOF KRAJEWSKI 1) , MAREK 

JABLO�SKI 1) , EVA RUŽINSKÁ 2) 

1) 


2) 

Department of Environmental Technology, Faculty of Environmental and Manufacturing Technology, 

Technical University in Zvolen, Slovakia 

Abstract: Shear strength of bonds in plywood made of veneers treated with pyretroid and triazole based biopreservatives. 

Pine and beech veneers were protected with preservatives containing pyrethroids (cypermerine, 

biphentrine) and triazole (tebuconazole, propiconazole). Protected veneers were pressed into three layer plywood 

with urea-formaldehyde and phenolic-formaldehyde resins. It was determined that bond quality of pine plywood 

deteriorates in comparison to control samples independently of glue used. In case of beech plywood 

preservation decreases strength with urea-formaldehyde resin, with phenol-formaldehyde strength is increased. 

Key words: plywood preservation, gluing, wood staining fungi 

INTRODUCTION 

Full utilization of wood and wood-based materials as a constructional materials is 

limited by susceptibility to biodegradation. This phenomena may be limited by 

biopreservation, temporarily protecting wood. Market offers wide range of protective 

insecticides and fungicides, like pyrethroid-based (third generation of insecticides, lethal for 

insects and not harmful to humans and warm-blooded animals) or triazole-based 

(preservatives from fungicide group. Biologically protecting preservatives can be used for 

plywood treatment. This can be done in two ways, treatment of ready-made product or veneer 

protecting in the production phase. Second case requires extensive tests of preservation 

influence on veneer gluability. 

METHODIC 

During performed test, pine veneers (moisture content 5 %, density 470 kg/m 3 ) and 

beech veneers (moisture content 6 %, density 660 kg/m 3 ) of 1,8 mm thickness were preserved 

with water solutions of tested biopreservatives. Table 1 shows treatment description and 

average load. Preservatives were brushed into veneer on both sides, after that veneers were 

seasoned for 14 days. In the same time control, unpreserved veneers were prepared. 

After seasoning veneers were tested against water wetting angle (�). Wetting angle 

tests were made on Surface Electro Optics Phoenix 300 goniometer. Analyzer is quipped with 

digital microscopic camera and stepper motor, which enables precise drop dosing. Wetting 

angles for all veneers tested were determined after 1 second after dropping. 

56

Table 1. Veneers’ preservation variants 

Variant Description 

veneers preserved with water-based treatment 

load * 

Variant A containing cypermethrine (C22H19Cl2NO3) and 

propiconazole (C15H17Cl2N3O2) 

8,7 g/m 2 / 350 g/m 2 

veneers preserved with water-based treatment 

Variant B 

containing biphentrine (C23H22ClF3O2), 

tebuconazole (C16H22ClN3O ) and propiconazole 

(C15H17Cl2N3O2) 

14,7 g/m 2 / 340 g/m 2 

Variant K control samples, unpreserved 

* dry preservative mass/ preservative solution mass on 1 m 2 of veneer 

With prepared veneers three layer plywood was made, with urea-formaldehyde (UF) 

and phenol-formaldehyde (PF) resin. Recipes of glue and pressing parameters are shown in 

table 2. Viscosity of glue mass was tested with Brookfield apparatus (spindle 64, 50 rpm). 

Table 2. Glue mass recipes and pressing parameters.. 

Parameter Pine veneer Beech veneer 

Glue recipe 

UF – resin 100 w.p., filler (rye flour) 15 w.p., hardener (10 % 

solution (NH4)2SO4) 4 w.p., water10 w.p. 

PF – resin100 w.p., filler (rye flour with tanning agents) 15 

w.p., water 10 w.p. 

Glue load 160 g/m 2 

Pressure 1,0 MPa 1,4 MPa 

Temperature 110 o C 130 o C 

Pressing time 6 min 

After pressing plywood was seasoned for 7 days and then cut into shear strength test 

samples in accordance to PN-EN 314-1:2007 standard. 20 samples were tested for each 

variant. 

RESULTS 

Wetting angle test results are presented in table 3 and on figures 1 and 2. Shear 

strength est results are presented in table 4 and on figures 3 – 6. Wetting angle testing gives 

possibility of glue spread assessment on protected veneer’s surface. Wetting angle is an 

indicator of wetting solution interaction on the base. Lower values testifies of better material 

wettability which enables better coating. At the same time glue may penetrate into base too 

deeply, causing thin joints of lower strength. 

Table 3. Water wetting angles of tested veneers. 

Variant 

pine veneer 

wetting angle 

beech veneer 

A 52,8 O ± 5,7 O 48,4 O ± 5,1 O 

B 42,1 O ± 5,8 O 47,0 O ± 5,7 O 

K 77,8 O ± 5,4 O 68,6 O ± 5,6 O 

57

Fig. 1. Water dropped on pine veneer (treated with A, B preservatives and untreated) 

Fig. 2. Water dropped on beech veneer (treated with A, B preservatives and untreated) 

In case of tested veneers, preservation with any preservative caused lowering of 

wetting angle (table 3, fig. 1 and 2). With treated pine veneers glued with both UF and PF 

resin shear strength decrease was observed in comparison with unprotected samples. Strength 

loss was noticed when dry (by 10 – 15 %) and after soaking (by 11 – 56 %) (table 4, fig 3, 

4). With beech veneers strength loss was visible only with UF (by 0 – 26 % when dry and 14 

– 71 % after soaking). Application of PF resin for veneer gluing increased shear strength of 

the joints both when dry (by 13 – 17 %) and after soaking (by 44 %). 

Preserved veneers bonded with UF resin show significant strength loss probably due to 

excessive glue penetration in to wood, causing thin joint. Pine veneers penetrate even better 

with its low density and coarse surface. It is necessary to remark that glues showed different 

viscosity, UF – 1520 cP and PF – 2088 cP, which takes its part in the final joint performance. 

In case of impregnated beech veneers application of PF caused better glue spread and lower 

penetrating effect which increased shear strength in comparison to control samples in dry and 

wet state. It is necessary to remark that in all cases value of 1 N/mm 2 , required by the PN – 

EN 314-2:2001 standard, was exceeded. 

Table 4. Shear strength of the joints. 

Shear strength of the joints 

Pine veneer Beech veneer 

dry wet dry wet 

[N/mm 2 ] 

z 

wood 

failure [N/mm2 ] 

z 

wood 

failure 

[N/mm 2 ] 

z 

wood 

failure 

[N/mm 2 UF resin 

] 

z 

wood 

failure 

A 1,8 13 30 0,8 16 0 1,9 16 0 1,2 16 0 

B 1,7 10 20 0,4 18 0 1,4 12 0 0,4 19 0 

K 2,0 13 40 0,9 17 0 

PF resin 

1,9 18 20 1,4 18 0 

A 2,2 20 60 1,3 16 10 2,8 9 50 2,3 15 20 

B 2,2 13 60 1,5 19 10 2,7 9 50 2,3 18 20 

K 2,6 17 70 1,9 16 30 2,4 10 60 1,6 14 30 

z – variation coefficient [%], average wood failure [%] 

Variant 

58

Shear strength [N/mm 2 ] 

3,5 

3,0 

2,5 

2,0 

1,5 

1,0 

0,5 

0,0 

K A B 

59 

Variant 

Fig. 3. Pine plywood shear strength in dry state 


3,5 

3,0 

2,5 

2,0 

1,5 

1,0 

0,5 

0,0 

K A B 

Variant 

Fig. 4. Pine plywood shear strength in wet state 


3,5 

3,0 

2,5 

2,0 

1,5 

1,0 

0,5 

0,0 

K A B 

Variant 

Fig. 5. Beech plywood shear strength in dry state 

UF PF 

UF PF 

UF PF


3,5 

3,0 

2,5 

2,0 

1,5 

1,0 

0,5 

0,0 

K A B 

Variant 

Fig. 6. Beech plywood shear strength in wet state 

SUMMARY 

60 

UF PF 

Shear strength of glue joints in plywood made of veneers preserved with pyrethroid 

(biphentrine, cypermethrine) and triazole (tebuconazole, propiconazole) based preservatives 

depends on wood species and glue type. Gluing quality of plywood made of preserved pine 

veneers decreases in comparison to unprotected samples. In case of beech plywood 

preservation with mentioned chemicals decreases strength with UF resin applied, but 

increases with PF resin. Impregnation of veneers with pyrethroid (biphentrine, cypermethrine) 

and triazole (tebuconazole, propiconazole) based preservatives increases their wettability. 

REFERENCES 

1. AYDIN_I., COLAKOGLU G. 2007: Variation in surface roughness, wettability and 

some plywood properties after preservative treatment with boron compounds. 

Building and Environment 42, 3837–3840. 

2. BORYSIUK P., DZIURKA D., JAB�O�SKI M., ZBIE� M. 2008: CGluability of 

pine wood protected with bio and fire preservaties”. VII th International Symposium 

Composite Wood Materials Zvolen, June 25-27, 104–108. 

3. DANIHELOVÁ A., JAB�O�SKI M., SEDLIA�IK J., RUŽINSKÁ E., 2010: „Shear 

strength of urea-formaldehyde, phenol-formaldehyde and polyvinyl acetate glue bonds 

in fungi and insect-preserved pine plywood”. Annals of Warsaw University of Life 

Sciences – SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology No 70, 2010 s. 63-66. 

4. DIESLE A., KRAUSE A., BOLLMUS S., MILITZ H. 2009: Gluing ability of 

plywood produced with DMDHEU-modified veneers of Fagus sp., Betula sp., and 

Picea sp. International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 29, 206–209. 

5. DOMA�SKI M., DZIURKA D., JAB�O�SKI M., KRAJEWSKI K. 2007: „Shear 

strength of selected glue types in pine wood protected with multipurpose bio and fireproofing 

FIRESMART BIO P/PO� preservative”. Annals of Warsaw University of 

Life Sciences – SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology No 61, 178–181. 

6. DZIURKA D., JAB�O�SKI M., OSIPIUK J., SEDLIA�IK J., ZBIE� M. 2006: 

„Shear strenght of Melfemo S melamine-urea-phenol-formaldehyde glue bonds in pine 

wood preserved with fire-proof agents”. VI th International Symposium Composite 

Wood Materials Zvolen, June 21-23., 113–116.

7. JAB�O�SKI M., OSIPIUK J., DOMA�SKI M. 2003: „Die Scherfestigkeit von 

Leimfugen (aus Melamin-Harnstoffleim „Dynomel L-435) bei 

antipyrensalzbehandeltem Kiefernholz”. Annals of Warsaw Agricul. Univ. Forestry 

and Wood Technology No 54, 87–90. 

8. JAB�O�SKI M., RUŽINSKÁ E., ZBIE� M., 2009: „Treatment of pine wood with 

selected reservatives and its influence on strength of glue bonds”. Annals of Warsaw 

University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology No 67 2009 s. 

126-130. 

9. WYTWER T., STARECKI A., 1995: „Wp�yw �rodka ognioochronnego Fungitoxu NP 

na w�a�ciwo�ci sklejki bukowej”. Materia�y konferencyjne na XII Sympozjum 

„Pokroky vo výrobe a použiti lepidiel v drevopriemysle”, Zvolen, 6 - 8.09., 263–270. 

Streszczenie: Wytrzyma�o�� spoin na �cinanie w sklejkach wytworzonych z fornirów 

zabezpieczanych �rodkami biochronnymi opartymi na pyretroidach i triazolach. W ramach 

bada� zabezpieczono forniry sosnowe i bukowe preparatami zawieraj�cymi pyretroidy 

(cypermetryn�, bifentryn�) i triazole (tebukonazol, propikonazol). Z przygotowanych 

fornirów wytworzono 3 warstwowe sklejki przy wykorzystaniu klejów UF i PF. Ustalono, �e 

jako�� sklejenia dla sklejek wytworzonych z fornirów sosnowych ulega pogorszeniu w 

stosunku do sklejek kontrolnych niezale�nie od zastosowanego kleju. W przypadku sklejek 

bukowych impregnacja w/w �rodkami wp�ywa ujemnie na warto�ci wytrzyma�o�ci spoin na 

�cinanie przy zastosowaniu �ywicy UF, za� korzystnie przy zastosowaniu �ywicy PF. 


Piotr Borysiuk, Piotr Boruszewski, Krzysztof Krajewski, Marek Jab�o�ski, 





Poland 


e-mail: piotr_boruszewski@sggw.pl 

e-mail: krzysztof_krajewski@sggw.pl 

e-mail: marek_jablonski@sggw.pl 

Eva Ružinská, 

Faculty of Environmental and Manufacturing Technology, 

Department of Environmental Technology 


e-mail: evaruzin@vsld.tuzvo.sk




Low-density particleboards with foamed polystyrene additive 

PIOTR BORYSIUK 1) , MARCIN SZO�UCHA, WALDEMAR JASKÓ�OWSKI 2) , 

JOANNA CZECHOWSKA 1) 


2) The Main School of Fire Service (SGSP) 

Abstract: Low-density particleboards with foamed polystyrene additive. Particleboards with density of 

500 kg/m 3 of industrial softwood chips, bonded with urea-formaldehyde glue have been manufactured for this 

study. Foamed polystyrene in amounts of 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% has been added to the chips 

provided for core layer so that the assumed density of the board could be maintained. Selected physical and 

mechanical properties of the manufactured particleboards have been examined. It has been found that addition of 

foamed polystyrene to the core layer of the board in amount of 20% will result in increase of MOR and decrease 

of MOE. Thickness swelling and absorbability of the board decreases along with increase in content of 

polystyrene. 

Keywords: low density particleboards, foamed polystyrene 

INTRODUCTION 

Particleboards, now being one of the basic materials for furniture industry, are 

characterized by favorable strength parameters on one hand and “relatively high” specific 

weight on the other. Density of typical particleboards, depending on their thickness, ranges 

between 650 kg/m 3 and 750 kg/m 3 , which goes over to relatively high unit weight: 11.7 kg/m 2 

–13.5 kg/m 2 (for 18 mm thick boards). In certain applications (e.g. with large board elements) 

the parameters are an essential disadvantage of this popular wood based panels. An attempt to 

cope with and eliminate this “disadvantage” when making use of the particleboards is 

manufacturing of lowered density particleboards (500 kg/m 3 and less). In this case however, 

this generally affects/causes decrease in their strength parameters significantly. Decrease in 

density is accompanied with increase in roughness of the board structure also. The solution 

might be implementation of additional light filler which would strengthen the inner structure 

of the boards and contribute to their quality improvement. Foamed polystyrene in a form of 

granules has been applied as a filler in the framework of this study. 

METHODIC 

Three layer particleboards with density of 500 kg/m 3 and thickness of 18 mm were 

manufactured in the scope of the research. Foamed polystyrene in a form of granules in 

amount of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% was added to core layer of the boards so that the 

assumed density of the board could be maintained. A control variant of particleboard – 

without foamed polystyrene additive, was manufactured for comparison. Totally 6 variants of 

the boards bonded with UF resin were manufactured. Board manufacturing parameters are 

presented in table 1. 

62

Table 1. Board manufacturing parameters 

Parameter Value 

Glue rates: Wz / Ww 12 % / 8 % 

Contents of layers: Wz / Ww 50 % / 50 % 

Recipe of glue UF resin – 100 wt., hardener (10 % NH4Cl aqueous 

solution) – 4 wt., water – 15 wt. 

Pressing temperature 180 o C 

Maximum unit pressure 2,5 MPa 

Pressing factor 18 s/mm 

Wz – face layer, Ww – core layer 

After manufacturing, the boards were subject to 7 day conditioning in laboratory 

conditions and then specimen were taken for further examinations. The following properties 

were determined for the manufactured boards: 

� density and density profiles (Laboratory Density Analyser DAX GreCon) 

� MOR i MOE (PN-EN 310:1994) 

� IB (PN-EN 319:1999) 

� thickness swelling and absorbability after 2 and 24 h soaking (PN-EN 317:1999) 

For each of the determined parameters, 10 repetitions were made for each variant. 

Significance differences of the obtained values were checked with the use of T-Student Test 

for significance level of 95%. 

RESULTS 

The results of the carried out examinations have been presented in tables 2 and 3 and 

in fig. 1. The manufactured particleboards were characterized by approximate average 

densities in scope of 482 – 517 kg/m 3 . Generally it is assumed that when comparing 

properties of the boards, the differences in their density should nor exceed 10%, for the 

examined boards maximum differences in density would not exceed 7%. The noted decrease 

in density of the boards was related to the increase in their thickness after pressing due to 

greater re-deformation of the boards. It was caused by addition, to core layer of the board, of 

greater amount of “elastic” polystyrene granules. It resulted in considerable drop in density of 

the core layer (max. by 27% with respect to the board without polystyrene additive). And 

increase in density of the face layers of the boards (max. by 21% with respect to the board 

without polystyrene additive), which could be seen on the density profiles of particular 

variants of the boards (fig. 1). The increased density of the face layers resulted from the fact 

that the polystyrene granules worked as “support” for the chips and thus caused greater 

compression of the face layers. It should be noted at this point that all board variants were 

characterized by typical “U” shape density profile. 

Table 2. Strength parameters of the manufactured boards 

Polystyrene 

addition 

Density MOR MOE IB 

[%] [kg/m 3 ] z [N/mm 2 ] z [N/mm 2 ] z [N/mm 2 ] z 

0 517 6 5,3 14 1057 12 0,18 15 

5 515 6 5,8 16 1122 10 0,18 15 

10 516 7 7,6 11 954 6 0,21 13 

15 505 8 8,0 10 986 11 0,18 21 

20 487 4 9,2 5 717 4 0,14 22 

25 482 5 8,0 10 731 6 0,19 21 

z – variation coefficient [%] 

63

Fig. 1. Density profiles of the manufactured boards 

Considering the strength parameters of the manufactured boards it can be generally 

stated that increased content of foamed polystyrene in core layer affected increase of MOR 

and simultaneous decrease of MOE (table 2). In case of MOR, for all board variants, apart 

from the boards with 5% foamed polystyrene additive, the noted increase was statistically 

significant. It amounted to max. 74% for the boards containing 20% foamed polystyrene 

additive as compared with the control variant boards. This effect can be related to the above 

mentioned increase in density of face layers of the boards. In case of MOE, statistically 

significant decrease as compared with the control boards was noted for the boards with 10%, 

20% and 25% polystyrene additive. It was max. 32%. The reason for MOE decrease is 

increased elasticity of the board, caused by implementing, in its core layer, of polystyrene 

characterized by low MOE value. 

As a result of polystyrene addition to core layer of particleboards, the IB value, 

between control variant and that with 25% participation of polystyrene, did not change 

significantly. The strength fluctuations surely resulted from uneven distribution of 

polystyrene granules at the cross section of the board. 

Table 3. Thickness swelling and absorbability of the manufactured boards 

Polystyrene Thickness swelling Absorbability 

addition 2 h 24 h 2 h 24 h 

[%] [%] z [%] z [%] z [%] z 

0 13,7 9 16,8 7 113,8 9 124,4 7 

5 13,3 11 16,5 9 105,5 5 112,5 5 

10 13,7 12 16,1 6 94,8 7 105,6 8 

15 12,8 13 15,2 9 86,6 4 95,6 5 

20 11,3 17 13,0 13 76,9 11 91,4 10 

25 10,2 27 11,8 6 73,0 12 86,8 7 

z – variation coefficient [%] 

64

Analyzing the thickness swelling and absorbability of the boards after 2 and 24 hrs 

soaking in water it can be stated that along with increased content of polystyrene in the board, 

the parameters decrease. For thickness swelling, the statistically significant decrease, as 

compared with the control boards, was noted for the boards with 20% and 25% content of 

polystyrene and amounted to about 26% after 2 hrs and 30% after 24 hrs soaking in water. For 

absorbability, all variants were characterized by statistically significant drop of the values as 

compared with the control boards. It was max. 36% after 2 hrs and 30% after 24 hrs of 

soaking in water for the boards with 25% polystyrene content. The improved hydrophobic 

properties results from the fact that the foamed polystyrene, filling the core structure of the 

board does nor absorb water practically and is not subject to swelling under the influence of 

water. Simultaneously it “blocked” water access to core part of the boards. 

SUMMARY 

On the basis of the research carried out it can be generally stated that foamed 

polystyrene in a form of granules can be used as a filler for manufacturing of particleboards 

with lowered density. The additive affects increase of MOR and decrease in thickness 

swelling and absorbability of the boards. The research carried out showed that favorable 

content of polystyrene in core layer of the manufactured particle boards amounted to 15%- 

20%. The increase in content above 20% affected greater re-deformation tendency in the 

boards after pressing, which resulted in decrease in their density. Foamed polystyrene additive 

in amount up to 20% will nor affect the IB of the boards significantly and will cause MOE 

decrease. 

REFERENCES 

1. CZECHOWSKA J., BORYSIUK P., MAMI�SKI M., JASKÓ�OWSKI W. 2010: 

Some properties of low-density particleboards filled with pop-corn. Annals of Warsaw 

University of Life Sciences - SGGW. Forestry and Wood Technology 70, 52–56 

2. CZECHOWSKA J., BORYSIUK P., MAMI�SKI M., BORUSZEWSKI P. 2008: 

Low-density particleboards filled with waste PUR foam. Annals of Warsaw 

University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 63, 156–160 

3. HIKIERT M. A. 2008: Nowe materia�y drewnopochodne dla meblarstwa i nie tylko, 

Meble materia�y i akcesoria, (91), s. 130 –133 

4. NIEMZ P. 1993: Physik des Holzes und der Holzwerkstoffe. DRW-Verlag. 

5. STOSCH M. 2009: Leichtbau – Werkstoffe, Technologie, Verarbaitung. BM Bau- und 

Möbelschreiner, BM Special, Konradin Verlag, Leinfelden-Echterdingen, Germany. 

6. THOEMEN H. 2008: Lightweight panels for the European furniture industry: Some 

recent developments, Proceedings of Cost E49 Conference: Lightweight wood-based 

composites Production, properties and usage, Slovenia, 23 – 25 June, 1–14. 

7. WONG E., ZHANG M., WANG Q., KAWAI S. 1999: Formation of the density 

profile and its effects on the properties of particleboard, Wood Science and 

Technology Vol. 33, 327–340. 

65

Streszczenie: Lekkie p�yty wiórowe z dodatkiem spienionego polistyrenu. W ramach pracy 

wytworzono p�yty wiórowe o g�sto�ci 500 kg/m3 z wiórów przemys�owych iglastych 

zaklejonych klejem mocznikowo – formaldehydowym. Do wiórów przeznaczonych na 

warstw� �rodkow� dodano spieniony polistyren w ilo�ci 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25% w ten 

sposób aby zachowa� za�o�on� g�sto�� p�yty. Zbadano wybrane w�a�ciwo�ci fizyczne i 

mechaniczne wytworzonych p�yt. Ustalono, �e dodanie spienionego polistyrenu do warstwy 

�rodkowej p�yty w ilo�ci 20% zwi�ksza MOR oraz obni�a MOE. Wraz ze wzrostem 

zawarto�ci polistyrenu, zmniejsza si� sp�cznienie i nasi�kliwo�� p�yty. 


Piotr Borysiuk, Joanna Czechowska 





Poland 


e-mail: joanna_czechowska@sggw.pl 

Waldemar Jaskó�owski, 

The Main School of Fire Service, 

Department of Combustion and Fire Theory, 

52/54 S�owackiego St., 


Poland 

e-mail: wjaskolowski@sgsp.edu.pl




�� -�� 

�� 

�� 

�� – �� 

Abstract: Features of physical and mechanical properties of wood knots. In the article are considered features 

of knots and their influence on physical and mechanical properties. Found that wood density and compression 

strength along fibers in wood knots twice the same indicators in the wood of a tree trunk. 

Keywords: Knots, tracheids, shrinkage, tensile strength 

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1.�� .�. 1969: ��-�� . 

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2. �� . �. 2001: �� . �� 

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3.�� .�. 1960: �� , ��.- �� 

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Streszczenie: Fizyczne i mechaniczne w�a�ciwo�ci s�ków. Artyku� przedstawia w�asno�ci 

s�ków i ich wp�yw na fizyczne i mechaniczne w�asno�ci drewna. Wykazano �e g�sto�� oraz 

wytrzyma�o�� na �ciskanie s�ków wzd�u� w�ókien jest dwukrotnie wy�sza ni� drewna w 

pniu. 


Natalia Byiskih 

Department od Wood Processing 

National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, 

Kyiv,vul.Geroiv Oborony 15,03041, Ukraine 

OPinchewska@gmail.com




Methods of determining cutting forces during woodcutting 

D. CHUCHALA 1 , K. MISZKIEL 2 , K.A. ORLOWSKI 3 

1 Radmor S.A. - Zak�ad Mechaniczny , ul. Hutnicza 3, 81-212 Gdynia 

2 JS Fabryka Przek�adni Spó�ka z o.o., ul. Grodzka 147, Bierkowo, 76-200 S�upsk 

3 Gdansk University of Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Manufacturing 

Engineering and Automation, Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdansk, Poland 

Abstract: Methods of determining cutting forces during woodcutting. In this paper basic methods of 

determining the woodcutting forces, which underwent modification with the progress resulting from research of 

the process are presented. The methods were divided into two groups: the classic approach and an innovative 

approach using fracture mechanics, which take into account the different properties which affect the cutting 

process. The classic method based on the specific cutting resistance and also a new approach which bases on 

modern fracture mechanics, in which the effect of fracture toughness of the machined material is taken into 

account, are characterised. 

Keywords: wood, cutting force, specific cutting resistance, toughness fracture 

INTRODUCTION 

The methods of woodworking by cutting undergoes changes within the space of years. 

The modifications enclose also the tools. This development is caused by intention to restrict 

waste of raw material, loss of energy and increase accuracy of dimension [1 Orlowski]. The 

continuous development of woodcutting’s technologies is accompanying by the new more 

adequate to actual conditions methods of cutting forces determining. The almost all of them 

are based on specific cutting resistance kc [MPa]. Some, as this presented by Orlicz (1988), 

was elaborated a few decades ago, but in some cases are the best choice. The others, more 

high-tech are based on contemporary fracture mechanic, which includes specific work of 

surface formation R [J/m 2 ] [3 Atkins]. Orlowski (2003) suggested some modification to the 

method of determining of the specific cutting resistance formulated by Orlicz (1988) and 

proposed instead of the classical cutting resistance a new coefficient called a surface-friction 

cutting resistance. It is especially useful for determination of cutting forces and cutting power 

consumption during woodcutting with narrow kerf saws. 

Nomenclature 

AD cross- sectional area of the cut [mm 2 ] 

FC cutting force, parallel to the cut surface [N] 

FV 

FS 

thrust force (passive), do FC [N] 

shear force, [N] 

St kerf (overall set, width of cut) [mm or m] 

R fracture toughness, specific work of fracture [J/m 2 ] 

Q friction factor [-] 

cr coefficient taking into account a kind of wood [-] 

cw coefficient taking into account a moisture content of wood [-] 

c� coefficient taking into account a cutting angle [-] 

cg coefficient taking into account a chip thickness [-] 

cs coefficient taking into account a dulling of the tool [-] 

ct coefficient taking into account a wood temperature [-] 

cv coefficient taking into account a machining velocity [-] 

ck coefficient taking into account a dimensions and a shape of cutting edge [-] 

cn coefficient taking into account a pressure on wood in front of a cutting tool [-] 

cf coefficient taking into account a wood-cutting edge friction effect [-] 

feed per tooth (uncut chip thickness, depth of cut) [mm] 

fz 

70

kc specific surface cutting resistance [MPa] 

k� basic value of specific surface cutting resistance taking into account a positions of machining with 

reference to grain direction [MPa] 

to uncut chip thickness (depth of cut) [mm] 

�c orientation of primary shear plane with respect to cut surface [ o ] 

�� friction angle given by tan -1 � = ��, [rad] 

� shear strain along primary shear plane [-] 

�f tool rake angle (measured form the normal to the cut surface) [ o ] or [rad] 

� coefficient of Coulomb friction on rake face of tool [-] 

�y shear yield stress along primary shear plane [Pa] 

�r directional angle of a work movement [°] 

�k directional angle of a cutting edge [°] 

directional angle of a chip thickness [°] 

�k 

CLASSICAL APPROACH 

The forces during woodcutting are usually determined in a function of specific surface 

cutting resistance. One of the method of evaluating is based on its experimental values 

determined in defined conditions of both the flank surface and the rake during machining with 

elementary cutting tool and the corrective factors taking deviation from the basic conditions 

into consideration. 

k c cr 

�c 

w �c 

� �c 

g �c 

s �c 

t �c 

v �c 

k �c 

n �c 

f 

� � k 

(1) 

This method was diffused by Manžos and Orlicz [2 Orlicz]. The literature announces the 

values of specific surface cutting resistances for three main directions (fig. 1): transversal k � , 

longitudinal � k and perpendicular k � . 

Fig. 1. The main directions of cutting edge (a) and the directional angles defined its position (b) [2 Orlicz]. 

In order to determine the value of specific surface machining resistance in any direction 

of cutting edge it is necessary to use the equation [2 Orlicz]: 

k�=k ·cos 2 �r+ k ·cos 2 �k + k ·cos 2 �g 

The cutting force per one saw’s cutting edge is determined as: 

71 

� 

(2)

F � k � A 

(3) 

c 

The presented method is fully tabled and was successfully applied by Gorski (2001), who 

studied the woodcutting process with the chain electric saw. 

The way to determine cutting forces elaborated by Orlicz (1988) takes into consideration 

only phenomena on the primary cutting edge. However, during woodcutting also seconadary 

cutting edges take part in the process, what is especially noticeable during machining by using 

thin saws. The preliminary researches carried out by Orlowski (2003) recommended taking in 

this case the new model of specific cutting resistance, so-called surface-friction cutting 

resistance. The specific surface cutting resistance on the primary cutting edge kcS and the 

specific surface cutting resistance on the secondary cutting edges 2k'cS’ are its components. 

They are closely connected with the length of the cutting edge, so a relationship on specific 

surface-friction machining resistance has the form: 

c 

72 

D 

k � 

' 

" 

c� 

� k cS � S t � 2k 

cS ' f z 

(4) 

Presented in Eq. (4) specific resistances per the unit length of the primary cutting edge (k'cS) 

and the secondary cutting edge (k”cS’) are engaged in sawing process in defined changeability 

range of analyzed factors [1 Orlowski]. 

AN APPROACH WITH FRACTURE TOUGHNESS APPLICATION 

Many years of experimental research in cutting both wood and other materials carried out 

by Atkins'a (2003, 2005, 2009), gave a rise to the conclusion that the forces occurring in the 

process of cutting depend not only on the blade geometry and basic material properties, but at 

a large extent on the processes related to fracture mechanics. Fracture toughness R [J/m2] is 

a property which represents the fracture mechanics in this approach [3, 6 Atkins]. Fracture 

toughness is also known as - the energy needed to produce a unit crack surface during cutting 

(the critical energy release rate) [7 Ashby and Jones]. 

Fig. 2 Simplified geometric model of the cutting zone (Atkins, 2009). 

Atkins (2003) using the original equation of Ernst-Merchant (describing the angle of 

shear), based on the results of their research, and additionally assuming a rectangular 

arrangement of the cutting tool (fig. 2) developed an equation of forces acting in the cutting 

process [3, 5, 6 Atkins]. The usefulness of this new model in the application to narrow-kerf 

saw blades in the case of wood sawing was studied by Orlowski and Atkins (2007). Cutting 

force can be in this approach described as follows:

� y �� 

� S t �t 

0 R � S t 

F c� 

� 

Q Q 

where Q is the correction factor of friction conditions, described by the relationship: 

And � - shear strain along the shear plane, is: 

� � � �� 

� sin � � �sin 

� c � 

Q � �1 

� 

(6) 

�� 

cos � � � � f �cos 

� c � � f � 

cos � f 

� � 

(7) 

cos 

��c��f��sin � c 

And eventually �c is the angle of shear plane with respect to cut surface, which could be 

determined in the simplified approach with the Ernst-Merchant equation: 

� � � 1 

� c � � � � � 

� 4 � 2 

73 

�� However, in fact �c is a complex function in which also raw material properties such as 

fracture toughness R and shear yield stress along primary shear plane �y are involved [3, 6 

Atkins], and may be calculated only numerically [9 Orlowski and Ochrymiuk]. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The methods for determining the cutting forces presented in this paper have shown the 

gradual development of this issue. Nevertheless up till now a classical approach to 

determining cutting forces is still the most popular method. On the other hand, both Orlowski 

(2003) and Atkins (2003) by developing their models based on the results of experimental 

studies, developed the basic relationships, by widening the group of properties having 

a significant impact upon the process of cutting force estimation, in the case of Atkins also to 

other machining processes. The new models are not as popular as the classic ones, but with 

the emerging research findings further confirming its validity, could be an effective tool to 

determine the energetic effects of the wood cutting process. 

REFERENCES 

[1] ORLOWSKI K., Materia�ooszcz�dne i dok�adne przecinanie drewna pi�ami, Monografie- 

Politechnika Gda�ska 40, Wydawnictwo PG, Gda�sk, 2003. 

[2] ORLICZ T., Obróbka drewna narz�dziami tn�cymi, wyd. VI, Skrypt SGGW-AR, 

Warszawa, 1988. 

[3] ATKINS, A.G., Modelling metal cutting using modern ductile fracture mechanics: 

quantitative explanations for some longstanding problems. International Journal 

of Mechanical Sciences, 45(2003): 373-396. 

[4] GÓRSKI J., Proces ci�cia drewna elektryczn� pilark� �a�cuchow�, Rozprawy naukowe 

i monografie, Wydawnictwo SGGW, Warszawa, 1988. 

[5] ATKINS, A.G., Toughness and cutting: a new way of simultaneously determining ductile 

fracture toughness and strength. Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 72(2005):849-860. 

� � 

f 

(5) 

(8)

[6] ATKINS, T., The Science and engineering of cutting. The mechanics and processes of 

separating, scratching and puncturing biomaterials, metals and non-metals, Butterworth- 

Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier, Oxford, UK, 2009. 

[7] ASHBY M.F., JONES D.R.H., Materia�y in�ynierskie. W�asno�ci i zastosowanie 1 

(Engineering materials. Properties and applications 1), Wydawnictwo Naukowo-Techniczne, 

Warszawa, 1995. 

[8] OR�OWSKI, K.A., ATKINS, A.G., Determination of the cutting power of the sawing 

process using both preliminary sawing data and modern fracture mechanics, Proceedings of 

third international symposium on wood machining. Lausanne (Switzerland) 21-23 May 2007: 

39-42 

[9] ORLOWSKI, K.A., OCHRYMIUK T., The prediction method of the shear angle in the 

cutting zone during wood sawing. Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 

Forestry and Wood Technology No 71, 2010: (Ann. WULS-SGGW, For and Wood Technol. 

71, 2010) (in press) 

Streszczenie: Sposoby okre�lania si� przy przecinaniu drewna. W artykule przedstawiono 

podstawowe metody okre�lania si� przy przecinaniu drewna, które ulega�y modyfikacjom 

wraz z post�pem wynikaj�cym z bada� nad tym procesem. Przedstawione metody 

podzielono na dwie grupy: podej�cie klasyczne oraz nowatorskie podej�cie z zastosowaniem 

mechaniki p�kania, które uwzgl�dniaj� ró�ne w�asno�ci maj�ce wp�yw na proces przecinania. 

Podej�cie klasyczne reprezentuj� metody opieraj�ce si� na w�a�ciwym powierzchniowym 

oporze skrawania, podczas gdy w nowym uj�ciu opartym na mechanice p�kania uwzgl�dnia 

si� wp�yw wi�zko�ci materia�u obrabianego. 


Gdansk University of Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Manufacturing 

Engineering and Automation, Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdansk, Poland 

E-mail address: korlowsk@pg.gda.pl (Kazimierz Orlowski)




The role of lighting in vision systems 

MARIUSZ CYRANKOWSKI, BOGUS�AW BAJKOWSKI 

Department of Mechanical Woodworking , Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW 

Abstract: „The Role of Lighting in Vision Systems”. The article discusses matters related to lighting as part of 

vision systems both in terms of the importance of lighting for the accuracy of visual inspection and in terms of 

various technical solutions. 

Keywords: vision systems, lighting, wood. 

INTRODUCTION 

The selection of a component lighting array is very important for the quality of image 

recorded by the camera. The choice of illuminators should address factors such as object 

geometry, surface structure, or the unique features of the whole array. There are many 

illuminator models, such as toroidal LED arrays (Fig. 1) or rectangular LED matrices. 

Camera 

Target 

Toroidal 

illuminator 

Fig. 1: Toroidal LED illuminator 

Source: www.automatyka2b.pl 

Dome-shaped illuminators (Fig. 2) are recommended for convex and glossy objects. 

Camera 

Target 

Domical 

illuminator 

Fig. 2: Domical illuminators provide diffused lighting with reduced glare 


75

Today, LEDs are the most common light source for vision systems. LEDs can be configured 

in various arrays and operated in either continuous or stroboscopic mode. Another popular 

light source are laser line generators. These are helpful in dimensioning products. Visual 

inspection systems use various object lighting techniques apart from different light sources. 

BASIC CLASSIFICATION OF ILLUMINATORS 

The basic classification of illuminators is performed using a solid angle that defines the 

surface of a sphere that transmitted light. Depending on the size of the solid angle, lighting 

can be either focused (small angle) or diffused (large angle). 

Focused (spot) lighting (point-like lighting) is easy to provide as illuminators are typically 

compact and can be placed near the target. LEDs or waveguide outputs can be used as the 

light source(s). These produce strong light. Spot lighting provides sharp images and highlights 

all unique surface features. 

Diffused lighting is, by definition, cast at a large solid angle around the target. Fluorescent 

tubes or linear LED arrays are the examples of such illuminators. (A diffuser placed in front 

of a spot light can be used as an alternative.) The benefit of such illuminators is that they 

provide good glare-free visibility of reflective surfaces. 

LIGHT AND DARK FIELD LIGHTING 

The light field lighting method consists in casting light on the target surface at a certain angle 

(Fig. 3). Most vision systems use this simple lighting configuration. 

Target 

Camera 

and lens 

Backlight 

Collinear light 

Light field 

Dark field 

Fig. 3: Various lighting techniques 


Collinear lighting that requires an additional beam divider (Fig. 4) is a variation of this 

technique. Light rays reflected from the divider are cast on the whole target surface at 

approximately right angle. 

76

Camera 

Target 

Beam divider 

Light 

source 

Diffuser 

Fig. 4: Collinear illuminator 


The other technique, so-called “dark field lighting”, casts light from the side of, and in 

parallel to, the target surface. This method reveals the texture, including contamination, 

scratches and other imperfections. In practice, this effect can be achieved by placing an 

annular array of LEDs around and almost flush with the target (Fig. 5). 

Camera 

Small 

angle of 

incidence 

Dark field 

illuminator 

Target 

Fig. 5: A Nerlite Dark-Field illuminator consists of a line of LEDs placed at a 70° or 90° angle relative to the 

surface-perpendicular axis 


Backlighting the target is the third technique (Fig. 6). It is used in two cases: for candling 

transparent and translucent items and for tracing the contours of opaque objects. 

Camera 

Backlight 

Target 

Fig. 6: Object backlighting 


77

However, the latter use is more frequent. The resulting image, binary and two-dimensional, is 

relatively easy to process. 

SUMMARY 

Lighting plays a fundamental role in any vision system as it is the light that makes the most of 

the quality of the camera-recorded image. The machine vision system cannot do without a 

light source. Light, whether natural or artificial, “makes the world visible” both to our eyes 

and to the cameras of a visual monitoring system. 

Any visual monitoring system depends on the quality of its monitoring devices and, on the 

other hand, evenness and intensity of lighting of the target. Lighting is critical to not only the 

quality of the image but also the very ability of an industrial camera to capture the target. 

REFERENCES 

1. DZBE�SKI W., 1984: Nieniszcz�ce badania mechanicznych w�a�ciwo�ci iglastej tarcicy 

konstrukcyjnej wybranymi metodami statycznymi i dynamicznymi. Wyd. SGGW-AR, 

Warszawa 

2. FORINTEK CANADA CORP.,2005: An Evaluation of the Detection Capacity of 

Automated Defect Detection Systems, nr 3, 

3. GRÖNLUND U., 1995: Quality improvements in forest products industry. Dissertation. 

Luleå University of Technology. Sweden 

4. LYCKEN A., 2006: Appearance Grading of Sawn Timber, http://www.ltu.se/ske 

5. NYSTRÖM J., 2003: Automatic measurement of fiber orientation in softwoods by using 

the tracheid effect, Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, Volume 41, Issues 1-3, 

December, 91-99 

6. �NSALAM C., et al.: Defect inspection of wood surfaces, 

vpa.sabanciuniv.edu/modules/aytulercil/rrDIWS.pdf 

7. WYK L., TURNER J., 2003: Evaluation of defect scanners for chop saws, Sawmilling, nr 

7 

Streszczenie: The Role of Lighting in Vision Systems. W artykule przedstawiono zagadnienia 

zwi�zane z o�wietleniem w systemach wizyjnych, zarówno od strony jego znaczenia dla 

poprawno�ci inspekcji wizyjnej, jak i od strony jego ró�nych rozwi�za� technicznych. 


Bogus�aw Bajkowski, Mariusz Cyrankowski 

Wood Mechanical Processing Department , 

Wood Industry Mechanisation and Automation Institute , 

e-mail: boguslaw_bajkowski@sggw.pl 

e-mail: mariusz_cyrankowski@sggw.pl 

Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW 

02-776 Warsaw , 

Nowoursynowska 159 

Poland




Advanced quality control methods for wood 

MARIUSZ CYRANKOWSKI, HUBERT WROTEK 

Department of Mechanical Woodworking , Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW 

Abstract: „Advanced Quality Control Methods for Wood”. The work discusses selected wood and wood-base 

material quality evaluation methods. It presents and explains flaw detection methods and selected methods for 

measuring physical quantities of wood materials used for contactless detection of wood faults. Further, the paper 

elaborates on possible future developments in wood quality control methods. 

Keywords: nondestructive testing, flaw detection, wood. 

INTRODUCTION 

Recent developments in industry mechanization and automation created a demand for 

implementing automated wood quality control (QC) processes in place of the conventional 

random tests. The physical properties of wood subject to testing include moisture content, 

color, gloss, density, hardness and wood structure. Typically, nondestructive contact or 

contactless methods are used for automated wood QC (determination of physical properties) 

in industrial settings. 

Contact methods: Measuring sensors/gauges touch the target (e.g., for the measurement of 

moisture content based on wood resistivity or capacitance). 

Contactless methods: Tests can be performed continuously and in-line (e.g., moisture content 

measurement with microwaves or detection of metal splinters). 

The latter are preferred and, in fact, most popular, as the process is noninvasive and 

performed in-line. These methods will be improved and developed with the best wood QC 

performance in mind. 

SELECTED METHODS OF ADVANCED WOOD QUALITY CONTROL 

Flaw detection and selected microwave technologies are used for determining physical 

properties and detecting faults: 

� Microwave metrology using 3-30 GHz microwaves 

Microwave technologies play an important role in moisture monitoring applications where 

contact methods are unsuitable. Microwave hygrometers use 3-30 GHz frequencies. This 

technology enables noninvasive moisture content monitoring in real time, which provides real 

benefits in monitoring production processes. 

The method measures the electromagnetic wave phase shift and wave attenuation in wood 

that depend on electric permittivity of the material consisting of dry mass and water. 

Comparing the results enables the determination of the total quantity of water and, thus, 

moisture content. 

Another moisture content measuring method is based on resonance frequency registration. 

The change of frequency and resonator quality factor are the indicators. 

� Radiological flaw detection – detection of internal wood flaws by means of X- or 

gamma-rays passing through the tested material 

These methods use ionizing radiation, the absorption of which by the material depends on the 

type, density and faults of the material and sample thickness. Typically, the methods detect 

internal flaws in intermediate and finished wood products with thickness up to 300 mm. 

Flaws can be detected due to structural differences of wood, which significantly affects X-ray 

absorbability. Cracks or larval galleries (voids) absorb less radiation and appear lighter while 

knots and metallic objects absorb more radiation that the surrounding normal layers and 

appear darker. Darker and lighter areas are visible on the image recorded on a photographic or 

79

luminescent plate, which reflect the type and location of various flaws and structural 

differences. 

� Infrared (IR) flaw detection – application of IR and thermometric paint 

Methods using infrared radiation are useful in detecting structural flaws in thin solid wood or 

gluing flaws in laminated wood. Infrared radiation undetectable to the human eye emitted by 

heated objects within the 0.74-2000 micrometer wavelength range is absorbed by up to 6 mm 

thick wood layers. 

The limited depth of IR penetration is the disadvantage of the method. 

The sample is placed between an IR radiator and a receiver. Wood absorbs a part of IR 

radiation and the remaining part penetrates to the receiver (typically a complex registration 

system). Again, the image contains lighter and darker spots reflecting heterogeneous wood 

structure. IR flaw detectors are used for automatic detecting cracks and porosities and for 

controlling veneer laying and cutting processes. Samples of laminated wood (e.g., plywood) 

may be covered with thermometric paints (the color of which responds to temperature 

changes) to facilitate quality control. 

� Sonic flaw detection based on propagation of elastic longitudinal and transverse 20- 

500 kHz sound waves in wood 

Sonic methods include the measurement of propagation of 16 Hz to 20 kHz sound waves in 

wood that depends on elastic properties of the medium. The characteristics of sound 

propagation can reveal flaws in structural elements. Typical sonic flaw detection methods are 

based on wave attenuation or propagation speed measurements. 

� Ultrasonic flaw detection using 20-500 kHz longitudinal waves 

Ultrasounds are sound waves with frequency larger than 20 kHz. Although the equipment is 

much more “capable”, only ultrasounds with frequency below 1 MHz (typically within the 

20-200 kHz range) are used for wood and wood-base materials and raw materials or 

intermediate products. For higher frequencies, the effect of wave dissipation (caused by 

partial reflections from tracheids or fibers) is too strong. The higher the frequency, the 

stronger is the effect, so attenuation in the material – and the acceptable distance between the 

transmitter and receiver – decreases. This means higher ultrasound range is unsuitable for 

testing large or long wooden components. 

We distinguish three basic types of ultrasonic tests: the echo, transmission and resonance 

methods. 

� Optical flaw detection used for detecting surface faults using photoelectric or 

photoluminescent measuring devices 

Optical flaw detectors – consisting of optoelectronic devices such as cathode-ray 

oscilloscopes, photomultipliers, lasers, etc. – use photoconductivity and photoluminescence of 

wood. 

The beam of coherent light reflected from the sample interferes with the reference beam (e.g., 

on the photographic film plane). This interference produces an image consisting of apparently 

random holographic combination of diffraction lines and rings. The image is registered on the 

film. Once the hologram is lighted with coherent reproducing light cast from the same 

direction as the reference beam, light becomes diffracted and the waves produce a 3-D image. 

This holographic method is used in wood industry for testing materials and components of 

structures, such as vibrating parts of resonance boxes of musical instruments, or for detecting 

internal wood flaws. 

� Optical/Visual Methods 

Recent optical developments include a few alternative methods for contactless testing the 

strength of planks. The existing automatic sawn timber evaluators combine multiple visual 

technologies. Devices are used that for optic measurement of sawn wood vibration for 

80

evaluation of rigidity. However, after examining flaw defection effectiveness of these 

systems, their performance failed to live up to expectations. 

The most promising sawn wood testing method is based on the so-called “tracheid effect”. 

Wood fibers operate as optical waveguides. When a beam of laser light is cast on wood 

surface, part of the light is reflected directly from the surface and the rest penetrates to the 

outermost layers of the surface and is dissipated in the material. 

The attenuation of the transmitted part of light propagating in wood via cell walls is stronger 

than the attenuation of light passing through cell lumens. Transmitted light propagated 

through the outermost layers of the surface of wood will finally emerge from the surface in 

the area surrounding the laser beam spot. This returned light forms an elliptical spot on the 

surface. The longer axis of the ellipse is oriented fiberwise. For a laser beam diameter smaller 

than 1 mm the ellipse can be approx. 10 mm long fiberwise. This phenomenon was called 

“tracheid effect” because it was first observed for tracheids of coniferous wood. 

Dissipated laser light reflected along individual wood fibers produces an image of tracheids. 

The tracheid effect can be used for detecting various wood flaws, such as healthy knots, 

decay, compression wood or bark. Such flaws have the structure of cells that reduce light 

transmittance or, for healthy knots, have different orientation. The image reflects the structure 

of cells that reduce light transmittance or, for healthy knots, cells with different orientation. 

SUMMARY 

Concluding from the foregoing overview of the selected wood QC methods, we should expect 

short- and long-term developments in fault identification and measuring technologies using 

noninvasive and contactless methods. 

These methods enable continuous in-line measurement without need for preparing samples in 

laboratories and automatic production control in real time and eliminate the risk material 

fouling or damaging during the measurement. 

REFERENCES 

1. DZBE�SKI W., 1984: Nieniszcz�ce badania mechanicznych w�a�ciwo�ci iglastej 

tarcicy konstrukcyjnej wybranymi metodami statycznymi i dynamicznymi. Wyd. 

SGGW-AR, Warszawa 

2. FORINTEK CANADA CORP.,2005: An Evaluation of the Detection Capacity of 

Automated Defect Detection Systems, nr 3, 

3. GRÖNLUND U., 1995: Quality improvements in forest products industry. 

Dissertation. Luleå University of Technology. Sweden 

4. JAWOROWSKA M., 2008, Mikrofalowe pomiary zawarto�ci wilgotno�ci, 

http://automatykab2b.pl/technika/2117-mikrofalowe-pomiary-zawartosci-wilgotnosci 

5. LYCKEN A., 2006: Appearance Grading of Sawn Timber, http://www.ltu.se/ske 

6. NYSTRÖM J., 2003: Automatic measurement of fiber orientation in softwoods by 

using the tracheid effect, Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, Volume 41, Issues 

1-3, December, 91-99 

7. �NSALAM C., et al.: Defect inspection of wood surfaces, 

vpa.sabanciuniv.edu/modules/aytulercil/rrDIWS.pdf 

8. WYK L., TURNER J., 2003: Evaluation of defect scanners for chop saws, 

Sawmilling, nr 7 

81

Streszczenie: „Advanced Quality Control Methods for Wood”. W pracy przedstawiono 

wybrane metody oceny jako�ci drewna oraz oceny jako�ci materia�ów drewnopochodnych. 

Przedstawiono i scharakteryzowano defektoskopi� oraz wybrane sposoby pomiaru wielko�ci 

fizycznych materia�ów drzewnych s�u��ce do wykrywania wad drewna metod� bezstykow�. 

Wskazano kierunki mo�liwego rozwoju metod s�u��cych do kontroli jako�ci materia�ów 

drzewnych. 


Mariusz Cyrankowski, Hubert Wrotek 

Wood Mechanical Processing Department , 

Wood Industry Mechanisation and Automation Institute , 

e-mail: hubert_wrotek@sggw.pl 

e-mail: mariusz_cyrankowski@sggw.pl 

Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW 

02-776 Warsaw ,Nowoursynowska 159, 

Poland


Forest and Wood Technology No 71, 2010: 83-86 


Estimating the possibilities of applying Sida hermaphrodita Rusby to the 

production of low-density particleboards 

RAFA� CZARNECKI, DOROTA DUKARSKA 

Department of Wood-Based Materials, Poznan University of Life Sciences. 

Abstract: Estimating the possibilities of applying Sida hermaphrodita Rusby to the production of low density 

particleboards. The paper investigates the possibility of producing low-density particleboards (600 and 

500 kg/m 3 in relation to the original value of 700 kg/m 3 ) with use of Sida hermaphrodita Rusby. The degree of 

substituting wood particles with Sida was 25% in case of UF and MUPF resins, 10% in case of PMDI resin and 

100% for all the investigated resins. The obtained results lead to the conclusion that low-density particleboards 

produced with use of Sida hermaphrodita Rusby do not differ much from boards made entirely from wood 

particles. 

Key words: particleboard, Sida hermaphrodita Rusby, density 

INTRODUCTION 

For a number of years researchers have been working on possible uses of non-wood 

lignocellulose materials in the production of particleboards and fibreboards, as the resources 

of these plants are estimated to be much wider than the needs of wood-based industry. In spite 

of worse properties of these particles, they can be successfully applied in the production of 

boards with good mechanical properties. Among numerous naturally occurring fibrous 

materials, cereal straw is of the greatest significance (Dalen 1999, Grigoriou 2000, Bekhta 

2003). This material has been the most thoroughly investigated, yet it is not the only one to 

be applied. Boards can be produced from particles of annual and perennial plants, such as 

linen, hemp, colza, sugar cane, bamboo, sunflower, jute and cotton (Koz�owski et al. 2001, 

Papadopoulus et al. 2002, Guler and Ozen 2004). 

More and more attention is focused on fast-growing species used for energy purposes. One of 

promising plants, along with quite commonly widespread basket willow, topinambur, reed 

canary grass or miscanthus, is Sida hermaphrodita Rusby, which can be a potential material 

also in the production of wood-based boards. 

Sida hermaphrodita Rusby has the form of a dense roots bush with a few dozen of stems with 

the length of 400 cm and diameter of 5 to 35 cm. The plant is reproduced by means of root 

cuttings, stem cuttings or seeds. The plant is not very demanding in terms of soil and climate 

conditions, and it can be cultivated for 15-20 years. It is a plant of a great yielding potential 

and it has attracted interest of power industry. The plant can also be successfully applied in 

the production of pulp, which is used in pulp and paper industry (Ma�ko 1996, B�czy�ska 

and Stanis�awczyk 1988, Borkowska and Styk 2006). The pulp obtained from Sida 

hermaphrodita Rusby may be used as an insulating material and in the production of 

agglomerated materials (Ma�ko and Noskowiak 2002). 

Taking into consideration the great potential of Sida hermaphrodita Rusby and the growing 

deficiency of timber, the researchers from the Department of Wood-Based Materials of 

Poznan University of Life Sciences conduct investigations whose purpose is to explore the 

possibility of producing particleboards with use of this plant and with various kinds of resins. 

The aim of the present research is to investigate the possibility of manufacturing lowdensity 

particleboards with use of Sida hermaphrodita Rusby. 

83


In order to produce the boards, pulverized stems of Sida hermafrodita Rusby were 

used as well as pine particles. The characteristics of the pine and Sida particles are presented 

in Table 1. 

Table 1. Moisture content and dimension of pine and Sida particles used in the investigations 

Investigated properties Pine particles 

Sida hermaphrodita 

Rusby particles 

Moisture content 2.0 2.7 

Average dimension, (l x b x a) 10.54 × 1.80 ×0.51 6.63 × 2.02 × 0.88 

The boards were glued with UF, MUPF and PMDI resins. Single-layer particleboards were 

manufactured in laboratory conditions, with use of the following constant parameters: 

� thickness of the boards: 12 mm 

� density of the boards: 700, 600 and 500 kg/m 3 

� dimension of the boards: 600 × 500 mm 

� pressing temperature: 200 o C 

� maximum unit pressure of pressing: 2.5 N/mm 2 

� pressing time: 22s per mm of the board thickness 

� resin level: UF and MUPF – 12%, PMDI – 8% 

� degree of substituting Sida for wood particles: 25% for UF and MUPF resins, 10% for 

PMDI resin and 100% for the applied resins. 

In case of UF and MUPF resins, a curing agent NH4NO3 was used; it was added in the 

amount of 2% in relation to dry mass of the resin. The manufactured particleboards were 

subjected to the following tests: 

� bending strength and modulus of elasticity in bending according to EN 310 

� internal bond according to EN 319 

� internal bond after the boil test according to EN 1087-1 (only for MUPF and PMDI) 

� swelling in thickness after 24h according to EN 317 

� formaldehyde content according to EN 120 (only for UF and MUPF) 

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 

The results of the investigations upon properties of boards with various density 

produced with use of Sida hermaphrodita Rusby are shown in Tables 2 and 3. They show 

that, regardless of the density of boards glued with PMDI resin, the increase in the amount of 

Sida particles results in the deterioration of all the mechanical and resistance properties. 

Particleboards glued with UF and MUPF behave differently. For each density value, bending 

strength and modulus of elasticity in bending decrease. No such effect is observed for internal 

bond before and after the boil test. For all the investigated values of density, the increase in 

the amount of Sida does not deteriorate these values, but it even improves them. 

In case of boards glued with UF resin, Sida hermaphrodita Rusby significantly deteriorates 

their short-term resistance to the action of water measured by swelling in thickness after 24h. 

For boards glued with MUPF, this effect is not that strong. The observations are the same for 

boards with various density levels. 

Regardless of the density of the boards glued with UF and MUPF, the formaldehyde content 

is within the permissible limits. Yet, the increase in the amount of Sida results in the growth 

of this value in case of boards glued with MUPF resin. 

84

Table 2. The influence of density of particleboards produced with use of Sida hermaphrodita Rusby 

upon their mechanical properties 

Density 

[kg/m 3 ] 

700 

600 

500 

Bending strength Modulus of elasticity Internal bond 

N/mm 2 

Substitution 

degree 

[%] UF MUPF PMDI UF MUPF PMDI UF MUPF PMDI 

0 15.1 18.1 20.1 3160 3110 3010 0.81 1.09 1.50 

25/10* 14.0 17.8 16.9 2580 2880 2950 0.88 1.05 1.39 

100 11.5 16.4 15.6 1920 2300 2360 0.80 1.23 1.36 

0 10.0 11.8 14.4 2170 2380 2380 0.65 0.73 1.38 

25/10* 8.1 11.7 13.9 1370 2230 2270 0.53 0.79 1.27 

100 6.3 10.7 10.9 1199 1830 1830 0.79 1.01 1.21 

0 6.3 7.6 8.6 1350 1610 1630 0.49 0.47 0.91 

25/10* 5.4 7.9 7.8 980 1570 1450 0.50 0.49 0.83 

100 5.2 7.3 5.3 959 1300 1020 0.63 0.68 0.76 

* – 25% in case of UF and MUPF, 10% in case of PMDI 

Table 3. The influence of density of particleboards produced with use of Sida hermaphrodita Rusby 

upon resistance properties and formaldehyde content 

Density, 

kg/m 3 

700 

600 

500 

Internal bond after 

Swelling in thickness Formaldehyde content 

boil test 

N/mm 2 Substitution 

degree, 

% mg CH2O/100g d.m.b. 

% 

UF MUPF PMDI UF MUPF PMDI UF MUPF PMDI 

0 - 0.16 1.38 34.8 23.6 18.8 4.43 4,23 - 

25/10* - 0.22 0.92 37.8 26.1 22.3 4.23 5.61 - 

100 - 0.23 0.32 53.4 31.4 25.4 4.59 7.05 - 

0 - 0.12 0.95 23.8 21.9 16.0 4.31 3.36 - 

25/10* - 0.15 0.73 30.8 23.1 19.6 4.12 6.79 - 

100 - 0.17 0.26 43.1 28.1 22.9 4.26 5.50 - 

0 - 0.11 0.53 18.6 18.9 14.2 3.66 3.10 - 

25/10* - 0.10 0.43 29.6 19.0 15.8 3.82 4.30 - 

100 - 0.16 0.19 34.7 26.5 26.9 4.78 4.60 - 

* – 25% in case of UF and MUPF, 10% in case of PMDI 

CONCLUSIONS 

Sida hermaphrodita Rusby can be treated as an almost full-value material for the 

production of particleboards, as the vast majority of the obtained results show. Only when 

PMDI resin is used as a bonding agent, a full substitution of Sida for wood particles does not 

seem possible. 

Apart form formaldehyde content, the investigated properties quite expectedly deteriorate, as 

the amount of Sida increases. However, the observed tendencies of these changes are the 

same for the density values of 700, 600 and 500 kg/m 3 . It leads to the conclusion that lowdensity 

boards made with use of Sida hermaphrodita Rusby do not differ considerably from 

those made entirely from wood particles. 

85

REFERENCES 

1. B�CZY�SKA K., STANIS�AWCZYK P., 1988: Informacja dotycz�ca wst�pnej analizy 

chemicznej �odyg sidy. Instytut Celulozowo - Papierniczy, �ód�. 

2. BEKHTA P., 2003: P�yty ze s�omy: stan obecny i perspektywy rozwoju. Biuletyn 

Informacyjny OBRPPD w Czarnej Wodzie 1-2: 12-18. 

3. BORKOWSKA H, STYK B., 2006: �lazowiec pensylwa�ski. Uprawa i wykorzystanie. 

Wydawnictwo AR, Lublin. 

4. DALEN H., 1999: Raw material and process factors to consider when producing board with 

straw. Panel World, 18: 20-22. 

5. GRIGORIOU A., 2000: Straw-wood composites bonded with various adhesive systems. 

Wood Science and Technology 34: 355-365. 

6. GULER C., OZEN R., 2004: Some properties of particleboards made from cotton stalks 

(Gossypirum hiristum L.). Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff, 62: 40-43. 

7. KOZ�OWSKI R., MIELENIAK B., PRZEPIERA A., 2001: Odpady ro�lin 

jednorocznych jako materia�y surowcowe do produkcji p�yt lignocelulozowych. Przemys� 

Drzewny 3: 17-21. 

8. MA�KO P., 1996: Sposób usuwania z gleby zanieczyszcze�, zw�aszcza metali ci��kich 

oraz wykorzystanie powstaj�cej biomasy do celów przemys�owych. Patent PL 177699. 

9. MA�KO P., NOSKOWIAK A., 2002: Sposób wytwarzania materia�ów aglomerowanych 

z biomasy w postaci p�yty lub elementu profilowanego oraz materia�y aglomerowane z 

biomasy w postaci p�yty lub elementu profilowanego. Patent PL 198570. 

10. PAPADOPOULOS A.N., HILL C.A.S., GKARAVELI A., NTALOS G.A., 

KARASTERGIOU S.P., 2004: Bamboo chips (Bambusa vulgaris) as an alternative 

lignocellulosic raw material for particleboards manufacture. Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 

62: 36-39. 

Streszczenie: Ocena mo�liwo�ci wykorzystania �lazowca pensylwa�skiego do wytwarzania 

p�yt wiórowych o obni�onej g�sto�ci. Zbadano mo�liwo�� wykorzystania �lazowca 

pensylwa�skiego do wytwarzania p�yt wiórowych o obni�onej g�sto�ci (600 i 500 kg/m 3 w 

stosunku do pierwotnej warto�ci 700 kg/m 3 ). Stopie� substytucji wiórów drzewnych 

�lazowcem wynosi� 25% w przypadku �ywic UF i MUPF, 10% w przypadku �ywicy PMDI 

oraz 100% dla wszystkich zastosowanych �ywic. Uzyskane wyniki pozwalaj� na 

stwierdzenie, �e p�yty o obni�onej g�sto�ci wytworzone z udzia�em �lazowca 

pensylwa�skiego nie wykazuj� istotnych ró�nic w stosunku do analogicznych p�yt 

wytwarzanych wy��cznie z drewna. 


Rafa� Czarnecki, Dorota Dukarska 

Pozna� University of Life Sciences 

Department of Wood-Based Materials 

Wojska Polskiego 38/42 

60-627 Pozna�, 

Poland 

e-mail: rczarnec@up.poznan.pl 

e-mail: ddukar@up.poznan.pl


Forestry and Wood Technology No , 2010: 87-91 

(Ann. WULS–SGGW, For and Wood Technol. , 2010) 

Influence of tool wear and cutting force on machining quality during 

milling of laminated particleboard 

PAWE� CZARNIAK, JACEK WILKOWSKI, ANDRZEJ MAZUREK 

Wood Mechanical Processing Department, Warsaw University of Life Sciences– SGGW 

Abstract: Influence of tool wear and cutting force on machining quality during milling of laminated 

particleboard. Two standard router bits with tipped edges from sintered carbide, with the same geometry but 

made by two different producers, were used in work. Machining was began with brand new tools. Standard 

laminate chipboard was subjected to milling. Measurement of cutting forces with usage of multi component 

piezoelectric sensor was carried out during machining. In the whole tool life was monitored direct tool wear 

indicator VBmax and number of laminate chips on the edge of grooves, which is typical indicator of machining 

quality, was counted. There were proved statistically significant of correlation dependence between following 

pairs of factors: tool wear versus machining quality, tool wear versus cutting force (components Fx and Fy) and 

cutting force (components Fx and Fy) versus machining quality. These correlations turned out stronger for tool 

1. 

Key words: tool wear, cutting force, machining quality, laminated particleboard 

INTRODUCTION 

Relationship between tool wear and machining quality is not strong during laminated 

chipboards milling what results from great inhomogeneous of material and influence of 

different factors such as degree of outer chip layers gluing or quality and properties of 

melamine cover used to finish laminated chipboard. Extremely relevant are the differences in 

durability to tearing of outer layers in machined material [Porankiewicz 1993, Porankiewicz 

and Tanaka 2001]. This variety to a high extent decides about machined surface quality which 

can be expressed as number of chips on the chipboard edge per 1m. This measure is widely 

used for example by [Boehme and Munz 1987; Lemaster et al. 2000]. Changes of edge 

geometry, during process of tool wearing, deteriorate his cutting properties. Direct tool 

indicators [Salje et al. 1985; Szwajka and Górski 2006] describe these changes in the most 

objective way. Maximal width of abrasion on clearance face i.e. VBmax belong to them 

[Wilkowski and Górski 2006]. In above work were investigated correlation dependences 

between relevant factors during milling of laminated chipboards such as tool wear, machining 

quality and cutting forces. There were correlated following indicators: VBmax, number of 

chips per 1m and values of two components of cutting forces, both parallel to feed direction 

force Fx and perpendicular to feed direction force Fy . 


Two router bits equipped with two edges made from sintered carbide were used in 

experiment. Both tool had the same edge geometry but came from different producers. 

Diameter of tool amounted 12mm, length of working part 51mm (the whole length 102mm). 

Machining was conducted on standard working center CNC (BUSELLATO JET 130). Three 

layers laminated chipboard (Kronopol-U511) widely used in furniture production was milled 

in researches. Grooves with width which corresponds to diameter of working part of tool and 

87

depth 6mm were made. Measurement of cutting force components (component Fx parallel and 

component Fy perpendicular to the feed direction) and tool wearing (in working cycle) was 

carried out in each cycle. Schema of experimental procedure with cutting parameters was 

showed in Fig.1. Cutting parameters during measurement and tool wearing were the same. 

Measurement platform was equipped with multi component piezoelectric transducer – Kistler 

Type 9601A3. Measurement signals were registered with sampling frequencies 50kHz on 

acquisition card NI PCI-6111 installed in PC. Measurement of direct tool wear indicator 

(VBmax maximal wear of clearance face) took place between cycles with usage of 

microscope. Assessment of machining quality consisted in visual counting of chips on groove 

edges and conversing these values on 1m. 


Fig.1. Scheme of experimental procedure 

Wear curves of investigated router bits are showed in Fig.2. Both tools wear with 

similar intensity in the stage of run in. Tool 1 achieved higher value of VBmax (0,19mm) than 

tool 2 after feed distance about 130m (end of the wearing). The level of VBmax had the 

influence on chip number. These relationships proved significant differences between 

particular tools and determination coefficient were respectively: 0,71 i 0,46 (Fig.3). For tool 2 

which was blunted to lower extent was observed better quality but linear correlations were 

weaker than for tool 1 (R 2 =0,46). There were obtained strong dependencies between indicator 

VBmax and components Fx i Fy of cutting force (Fig.4 and Fig.5). Similarly as in Fig.3, 

determination coefficients were higher for tool 1. Equally strong relationships were obtained 

particularly between components of cutting force and machining quality (Fig.6 and Fig.7). 

Coefficient R 2 got the values in range 0,76 do 0,87 and it was equally high as well for tool 1 

as for tool 2. 

88

Fig.2. Wear curves for tool 1 and 2 Fig.3. Influence of tool wear on machining quality 

Fig.4. Influence of tool wear on component Fx Fig.5. Influence of tool wear on component Fy 

Fig.6. Influence of component Fx on machining quality Fig.7. Influence of component Fy on 

machining quality 

89

CONCLUSION 

Results of researches allow to formulate following conclusions: 

1. Statistically significant relationships were received between tool wear and component 

Fx and Fy of cutting force. Moreover, strong correlations were noticed between 

component Fx and Fy of cutting force and machining quality. In general with growth 

of tool wear, cutting force components were increasing and machining quality became 

worse with tool wear. 

2. Relationship between tool wear and machining quality turned out very strong only in 

case of one tool. 

3. Linear correlations of analyzed relationships were clearly higher for tool 1 than for 

tool 2.. 

REFERENCES 

1. BOEHME C., MUNZ U., 1987: Zerspanungsverhalten u. Vreschleisswirkung von 

Normal-u Sonderplatten mit einheitlichen Beschichtung bei Anwendung 

unterschiedlicher Zerspannungsverfahren. Fraunhofer Institut fur Holzforschung, WKI- 

Bericht 17, Braunschweig 106 

2. LEMASTER R.L., LU L., JACKSON S., 2000: The use of process monitoring 

techniques on CNC wood router. Part 2. Use of vibration accelerometer to monitor tool 

wear and workpiece quality. 

3. PORANKIEWICZ B., 1993: The relation between some mechanical properties and edge 

quality when milling melamine coated particleboard. 11 the International Wood 

machining Seminar, Oslo, Norway, 515-519 

4. PORANKIEWICZ B., TANAKA C., 2001: The work piece edge quality after milling 

melamine-coated particleboard. Mem. Facul. Sci. Eng. Shimane Univ. A, 35: 139-147 

5. SALJE E., DRUCKHAMMER J., STUHMEIER W., 1985: Neue Erkenntnisse beim 

Frasen von Spanplatten mit unterschiedlichen Schnittbedingungen. Holz Roh-u. Werkst. 

43:501-506 

6. SZWAJKA K., GÓRSKI J., 2006: Evaluation tool condition of milling wood on the basis 

of vibration signal. International Symposium on Instrumentation Science and 

Technology. Journal of Physics: Conference Series 48 

7. WILKOWSKI J., GÓRSKI J., 2006: The influence of cutting edge wear on the quality of 

machined surface during the milling of wood-based materials. International Scientific 

Conference to the 10th anniversary of FEVT foundation “Trends of wood working, forest 

and environmental technology development and their applications in manufacturing 

process” Technical University in Zvolen – Faculty of Environmental and Manufacturing 

Technologies - Zvolen, s.391-394 

Streszczenie : Wp�yw zu�ycia narz�dzia i si� skrawania na jako�� obróbki podczas frezowania 

p�yty wiórowej laminowanej. W badaniach wykorzystano dwa standartowe frezy trzpieniowe 

z nak�adkami z w�glików spiekanych, o tej samej geometrii, wyprodukowane przez dwóch 

ró�nych producentów. Obróbk� rozpoczynano narz�dziami fabrycznie nowymi. Frezowano 

p�yt� wiórow� laminowan�. W czasie obróbki dokonywano pomiaru si� skarania z u�yciem 

wielosk�adowego czujnika piezoelektrycznego. W ca�ym okresie trwa�o�ci narz�dzi mierzono 

bezpo�rednie wska�niki zu�ycia VBmax oraz zliczano wyrwania laminatu na kraw�dzi p�yty 

b�d�ce typowym wska�nikiem jako�ci obróbki. Wykazano istotne statystycznie zale�no�ci 

90

korelacyjne mi�dzy parami czynników: zu�ycie narz�dzia – jako�� obróbki, zu�ycie narz�dzia 

– si�a skrawania (sk�adowe Fx i Fy), si�a skrawania (sk�adowe Fx i Fy) – jako�� obróbki. 

Korelacje by�y istotnie wy�sze dla narz�dzia nr 1. 


Pawe� Czarniak 

e-mail: pawel_czarniak@sggw.pl 

Jacek Wilkowski 

e-mail: jacek_wilkowski@sggw.pl 

Andrzej Mazurek 

e-mail: andrzej_mazurek@sggw.pl 

Faculty of Wood Technology SGGW 

Wood Mechanical Processing Department 

ul. Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland




Selected properties of low-density pine and poplar-pine particleboards 

JOANNA CZECHOWSKA, PIOTR BORYSIUK, MARIUSZ MAMI�SKI 


Abstract: Selected properties of low-density pine and poplar-pine particleboards. Threelayer 

18-mm thick particleboards of density 550 kg/m 3 were prepared in two series of 

different material composition: (1) particleboards made of pine flakes (both face and core 

layers) and (2) particleboards made of poplar (face layer) and pine (core layer) flakes. The 

real-time measured pressing parameters (pressure, temperature, mat thickness) were analyzed 

as well as the mechanical and physical properties of the boards were examined according to 

the respective standards. It was found that different mat composition altered only heat transfer 

while the other parameters remained unaffected. Poplar-pine boards occurred to be superior to 

purely pine boards. 

Keywords: low-density particleboard 

INTRODUCTION 

Type of the raw material used and pressing parameters are the most important factors 

affecting the properties of the resultant particleboards. As far as the wooden material is 

concerned, the crucial role play: (1) the species used, since the higher density is, the lower 

mechanical properties of the composite can be achieved. (Suchsland and Woodson 1991) and 

(2) wood flakes characteristics (length, slenderness ratio, specific surface area). On the other 

hand, pressing parameters (pressure, temperature and time) influence the cross-sectional 

density profile which also determines the mechanical properties of composites [Zudrags 2009, 

Wong et al 1999, Moslemi 1974]. 

The studies were aimed at manufacturing and examination of low-density (550 kg/m 3 ) 

particleboards as well as pressing parameters were analyzed. 


Three-layer 18-mm thick particleboards of density 550 kg/m 3 were prepared in two series of 

different material composition: (1) particleboards made of pine flakes (both face and core 

layers) and (2) particleboards made of poplar (face layer) and pine (core layer) flakes. 

Moisture contents: poplar 3.5%, pine 5.0% (core layer) and 4.5% (face layer). A commercial 

UF resin was used as a binder hardened with 10% ammonium sulphate (3% for face layers, 

4% for core layer – based on resin solids). Glue rates were as follows: face layer 12%, core 

layer 8%. A paraffin emulsion was used as hydrophobing agent (1% based on dry wood). 

Pressing parameters: 

� maximum unit pressure – 2.5 MPa, 

� temperature 180°C, 

� pressing factor 18 s/mm, 

� press closing rate 2 mm/s . 

Pressing conditions (temperature, pressure, mat thickness) were computer-controlled in real 

time. Selected mechanical (MOR, MOE, IB) and physical (thickness swelling and density 

profile) properties of the manufactured boards were examined. 

92

RESULTS 

The changes in pressing parameters are shown in Fig. 1, while physical and mechanical 

properties of the particleboards are shown in Figs. 2-4. 

Fig. 1 Pressing parameters during manufacturing of the studied boards 

Pressing regimes set for pine and poplar-pine particleboards can be described by three curves: 

pressing, temperature and mat thickness (Fig. 1). One can see that pressing curves are similar 

for both series, however, the factor possible to affect the pressure is thickness of the mats 

which is determined by bulk density of the flakes. But, despite the differences in mats 

thickness (60 mm for pine and 70 mm for poplar), no alternations in pressing curves were 

observed. 

In all cases, target thickness of the mats was achieved after 20-28 s under maximum unit 

pressure 1.88 MPa. What should be noticed, the maximum target pressure 2.5 MPa was not 

necessary. 

On the contrary to pressing curves, the temperature curves measured within the core layer for 

both series can be distinguished. More intense heat transfer was observed for pine mats, so 

that 100°C was achieved after 140s, while in poplar-pine mat 100°C was achieved after 

158 s. The differences can be associated with the insulating properties of the material as well 

as with cross-sectional density profile of the boards (Fig. 2). Pine wood exhibits higher 

thermal conductivity coefficient than poplar does, thus, poplar face layers probably lowered 

93

heat transfer from platens to the core of the mat. In addition, face layers of poplar-pine boards 

exhibited higher densities (maximum 806 kg/m 3 ) which hindered steam migration into the 

core of the boards. 

Density [kg/m 3 ] 

900 

800 

700 

600 

500 

400 

300 

200 

100 

pine particleboard 

poplar - pine particleboard 

0 

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 

Thickness [mm] 

Fig. 2 A cross-sectional density distribution in three-layer particleboards 

As Figs. 3 and 4 indicate, the mechanical properties of the poplar-pine boards overwhelmed 

those of the pine boards. MOR and MOE of the poplar-pine series were higher by 4.63 

N/mm 2 and 574 N/mm 2 , respectively, when compared to the pine series. Also, it is worth 

noting that the requirements of the PN EN 312 for P2 type boards were met. 

Using poplar flakes of density lower than that of the pine (450 kg/m 3 and 520 kg/m 3 , 

respectively) allowed for their higher compression rate and subsequently developed greater 

contact area affected MOR and MOE. The alternations in compression were presented in Fig. 

2. 

Fig. 3 MOR and MOE of the boards 

94

The obtained IB and thickness swelling values were higher for the poplar-pine series (Fig. 4). 

It is not surprising, since internal bond of the core layer is mainly determined by the glue rate 

and compression rate. However, when density profiles of both series are compared, no 

significant differences can be seen, thus, the IB values should be comparable. In fact, IB of 

the poplar-pine boards was higher by 0.11 N/mm 2 than that of the pine series. This 

discrepancy is difficult to explain and is a subject for further studies. 

Fig. 4 IB and swelling after 24 – hr water soaking 

CONCLUSIONS 

The obtained results allow to conclude that composition of the mat subjected to pressing 

affect the heat transfer and pressing time. No significant influences on pressure or mat 

thickness curves were observed. For both poplar-pine and pine boards, cross-sectional density 

profile was typically U-shaped, however, the face layers of the poplar-pine boards exhibited 

higher compression rate when compared to pine boards. 

It was shown that using poplar flakes for face layers and pine for core layer allowed for 

manufacturing particleboards of mechanical properties superior to purely pine boards. 

REFERENCES: 

1. Moslemi A.A. 1974:Particleboard Volume 1: Materials, Southern Illinois University 

Press, USA 

2. Suchsland O., Woodson G. E., 1991: Fibreboards manufacturing practices in United 

States. Forest Products Research Society, USA 

3. Wong E., Zhang M., Wang Q., Kawai S., 1999: Formation of the density profile and 

its effects on the properties of particleboard, Wood Science and Technology Vol. 33, 

September, p. 327-340. 

4. PN-EN 310:1994 P�yty drewnopochodne – Oznaczanie modu�u spr��ysto�ci przy 

zginaniu 

i wytrzyma�o�ci na zginanie. 

5. PN-EN 312:2005 P�yty wiórowe - Wymagania techniczne 

95

6. PN-EN 317:1993 P�yty wiórowe i p�yty pil�niowe – Oznaczanie sp�cznienia na 

grubo�� po moczeniu w wodzie 

7. PN-EN 319:1999 P�yty wiórowe i p�yty pil�niowe – Oznaczanie wytrzyma�o�ci na 

rozci�ganie w kierunku prostopad�ym do p�aszczyzn p�yty 

8. Zudrags K., Medved S., Alma M.H. 2009: Mechanical properties of wood – based 

panels, Chapter 4, Performance in use and new products of wood based composites, 

Brunel University Press, London 

Streszczenie: Wybrane w�a�ciwo�ci sosnowych i topolowo – sosnowych p�yt wiórowych 

o obni�onej g�sto�ci. W ramach pracy wykonano trójwarstwowe p�yty wiórowe o obni�onej 

550kg/m 3 z drewna sosny oraz topoli i sosny (wióry topolowe zastosowano na warstw� 

zewn�trzn� p�yt). Dla otrzymanych tworzyw zbadano przebieg parametrów prasowania 

(ci�nienie, temperatura, grubo�� kobierców) oraz okre�lono zgodnie z obowi�zuj�cymi 

normami w�a�ciwo�ci fizyczne i mechaniczne. Ustalono, �e p�yty wykazuj� zró�nicowanie 

pod wzgl�dem szybko�ci przegrzewania kobierców do temperatury ok. 100°C, odno�nie 

pozosta�ych parametrów prasowania ró�nic nie dostrze�ono. P�yty topolowo – sosnowe 

uzyska�y korzystniejsze w�a�ciwo�ci fizyczne i mechaniczne w porównaniu z p�ytami 

sosnowymi. 


Joanna Czechowska 





Poland 

e-mail: joanna_czechowska@sggw.pl



(Ann. WULS-SGGW, For. and Wood Technol. 71, 2010) 

The magnetic properties spruce wood and their influence on wood quality 

ANNA DANIHELOVÁ 1) , MARTIN �ULÍK 1) , EVA RUŽINSKÁ 1) , MAREK JAB�O�SKI 2) , 

MARCIN ZBIE� 2) 

1) Technical University in Zvolen, Slovakia 

2) Warszaw University of Life Science – SGGW, Poland 

Abstract: The magnetic properties spruce wood and their influence on wood quality. The contribution is 

focused on the study of magnetic properties of spruce wood and their influence on the physical and acoustic 

characteristics (PACH) of wood: density – �, Young's modulus – E and acoustic constant – A. For the 

examination of these properties were used three methods – the resonant dynamic method, method of the 

Wheaston bridge and the method of induction of electric current in the coil. 

Keywords: Magnetic properties, spruce wood, Young's modulus, density, Courie temperature. 

INTRODUCTION 

Natural materials, which include wood and wood-based materials, have wide range of 

application. Wood is used in the production musical instruments, as an interior facing and as a 

construction material. Growing demand and the growing shortage of quality wood oblige us 

make use of wood more effective and rational. Therefore is necessary to have a perfect 

knowledge of its structure and properties. 

The magnetic properties of wood can be compared to the magnetic properties of 

sedimentary rocks. The sediments containing ferromagnetic particles, which can be 

considered elementary magnets, are in the quiet environment deposited in accordance with the 

orientation of the geomagnetic field, i.e. in the direction north - south. Their magnetic 

moments are added together and sedimentary rock shows a macroscopic magnetic moment. 

A similar process takes place in wood. The tree sucks from the soil nutrients and also 

small ferromagnetic particles. These particles are stored in wood texture. So wood can show 

very weak, but measurable macroscopic magnetization. We assume that magnetization affects 

the wood properties. 

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF WOOD 

Among physical characteristics of each substance include also magnetic susceptibility 

and magnetic polarization. The both are its basic magnetic properties. The magnetic 

susceptibility determines the relationship between magnetization of material (M) and intensity 

of magnetic field (H). 

M � � x � 

(1) 

Magnetic susceptibility is the ability of substances to be magnetized. The magnetization 

expresses whether the substance is magnetized or not. The magnetic susceptibility of 

diamagnetic substances is negative, the ferromagnetic and paramagnetic positive. The wood is 

a diamagnetic material (� < 0), has a very small absolute value � = (- 0,2.10 -6 …... - 0,6.10 -6 ). 


Norway spruce (Picea abies L. Karts), which was being investigated came from the 

locality Hronec. At investigation of relevant properties were used two methods. 

The measurements of physical and acoustic properties have been realized by the resonant 

dynamic method on our original equipment REZONATOR (Fig.1). Equipment works on the 

principle of studying the stationary acoustic waves in wooden boards and rods. 

REZONATOR is complex equipment designed for determination of the respective physical 

97

and acoustical characteristics (density, modulus of elasticity, acoustic constant, logarithmic 

decrement). Measurements were made on the specimens shape of rod, cut along the fibers. 

Magnetic susceptibility (� ) of specimens was measured using a KLY-2 kappabridge 

(Agico, Brno). This device was employed also for the measurements of the change (� ) during 

their Curie temperature (Tc) measurements. Magnetization (M) of wood was measured with 

the spiner magnetometer JR-4. Specimens were shaped to the cube of 20 mm edge. All 

specimens were subjected to progressive demagnetization in alternative fields. The external 

magnetic field was compensated by the Helmholtz coils and controled by a flux-gate 

magnetometer. Thermal cleaning was carried out starting from 20 °C to 150 °C in steps of 50 

°C. Thermal cleaning was carried out in vacuum using a magnetic MAVACS (magnetic 

vacuum control system) – Fig.2. 

Fig. 1. Measuring equipment REZONATOR Fig. 2. Measuring equipment MAVACS 


Tab. 1 shows the average magnetic susceptibility and magnetic polarization – 

J (magnetization) with standard deviation of measurement. Magnetic susceptibility of spruce 

wood is negative and magnetic polarization is very low. A characteristic feature of nearly all 

the measured samples is the fact that during the thermal demagnetization almost did not 

change the value of magnetic susceptibility. Demonstrates that the curve �T/�0, which are 

practically straight lines. This means that during the gradual heating of wood to a temperature 

of 150 °C there is no change (chemical or phase) of ferromagnetic material contained in it [2]. 

However magnetization during the heating sharply changes its direction (curved line JT/J0) 

and also magnitude (Fig. 3). Measured and calculated values of the physical and acoustic 

characteristics (PACH) at a temperature of 20 º C before and after demagnetization are in Tab. 

2. 

Tab. 1 Magnetic susceptibility – �, magnetic polarization – J 

n � [×10 -6 u.SI] J [nT] 

Norway spruce 31 –8.62 � 0.72 0.126 � 0.193 

98

Norway 

spruce 

Tab. 2 Physical and acoustic characteristics of Norway spruce [1] 

� 

[kg.m -3 ] 

99 

Ex 

[GPa] 

A 

[m 4 .kg -1 .s -1 ] 

c 

[m/s] 

before 

demagnetization 

MV 

SD 

CV [%] 

477 

55,95 

11,73 

15,95 

3,23 

20,27 

12,16 

1,06 

8,70 

5 751 

301,98 

5,25 

after 

demagnetization 

MV 

SD 

CV [%] 

469 

57,53 

12,27 

16,08 

3,50 

21,75 

12,51 

1,01 

8,05 

5 819 

307,50 

5,28 

Fig. 3. Graph of demagnetization and Fig. 4. 3D graph of physical and acoustic characteristics 

stereo-projection of remanence magnetization 

CONCLUSION 

Our results show that the influence of magnetic properties on PACH of spruce wood is 

not negligible [3]. Next research will be directed at the magnetic characteristics of the wood 

of oriented test specimens (north - south) and samples of the various parts of the tree (trunk, 

branches, etc.). 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

Research was supported of The Slovak Ministry of Education, proj. No: 1/0841/08, 

Wood characteristics as objective means of quality evaluation for special wood products 

making. 

REFERENCES 

1. T. DÁVID, Magnetizmus a jeho vplyv na fyzikálno-akustické charakteristiky 

smrekového a bazového dreva pre hudobné nástroje. Diplomová práca. Zvolen, 2010, 

84 s. 

2. M. N�MEC, �. KRIŠ�ÁK, Magnetické vlastnosti smrekového dreva a ich vplyv na 

kvalitu dreva pre hudobné nástroje. In NOISE AND VIBRATIONS IN PRACTICE:

PROCEEDINGS OF THE 15 TH INTERNATIONAL ACOUSTIC CONFERENCE, 

Ko�ovce. Bratislava. Nakladate�stvo STU, 2010, s. 85 – 88. 

Streszczenie: W�a�ciwo�ci magnetyczne drewna �wierkowego i ich wp�yw na jako�� drewna. 

Praca koncentruje si� na badaniu w�a�ciwo�ci magnetycznych drewna �wierkowego i ich 

wp�ywu na fizyczne i akustyczne w�asno�ci drewna: g�sto�� - �, modu� Younga - E i sta�a 

akustyczna - A. Do badania tych w�a�ciwo�ci zosta�y wykorzystane trzy sposoby - 

dynamiczna rezonansowa, metod� mostu Wheastone’a i metod� indukcji pr�du w cewce. 


Anna Danihelová a , Martin �ulík a , Eva Ružinská b 

a Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology 

b Faculty of Environmental and Manufacturing Technology, 


T.G.Masaryka 24, 96053 Zvolen, Slovakia 

adanihel@vsld.tuzvo.sk, culik@vsld.tuzvo.sk, evaruzin@vsld.tuzvo.sk 

Marek Jab�o�ski, Marcin Zbie�, 



07-776 Warsaw, 159 Nowoursynowska st., Poland 

marek_jablonski@sggw.pl, marcin_zbiec@sggw.pl



(Ann. WULS–SGGW, For.and Wood Technol. 71, 2010) 

�� 

�� 

�� 1 , �� 2 , �� 1 

1 

�� , �� – ��, 

�� 

2 

�� , �� – ��, �� 

Abstract: Computation of the thermal diffusivity of frozen wood. Mathematical description of the thermal 

diffusivity of wood, which contains an ice from freezing of bounded and free water in it, has been suggested. In 

the present paper this description is used for computation of the thermal diffusivity of six wood species. 

The suggested mathematical description can be used for the computation of the different processes of 

hydro-heat treatment of wood with aim of optimization of their technology and automatic control. 

Key words: frozen wood, mathematical description, thermal diffusivity, free water, bounded water 

�� 

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�� 

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�� 

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�� a W (� m 2 .s -1 ) �� [2] 

� 

W 

a W � 

, (1) 

( cW 

� cBW 

) �W 

�� W �� , W.m -1 .K -1 . �� 

�� [2, 5, 6, 7]; 

cW - �� , J.kg -1 .K -1 . �� 

�� [1, 2, 4, 6]; 

101

�W - �� , kg.m -3 . �� e �� [2]; 

c �W - �� , �� - 

�� , J.kg -1 .K -1 . �� [2] 

�0, 0567�T�271, 

15�� 

4 

exp 

c � 1, 8938. 

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�� U > U BW FSP 

NFW , (2) 

1� 

U 

�� U – �� , kg.kg -1 ; 

U - �� , �� [1, 2, 4]: 

NFW 

�U�0, 12�exp�0, 

0567� 

� 271, 

15�� 

U NFW � 0, 12 � FSP 

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U FSP - �� , kg.kg -1 . 

�� . 1 �� (1) - (3) �� 

�� aWC �� - 

�� , � �� t � U �� U FSP = 0,31 kg.kg -1 . 

�� a wc.10 7 , 

m 2 .s -1 

3,4 

3,2 

3 

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2,6 

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2,2 

2 

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1 

0,8 

-40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 

�� t , 0 C 

102 

U = 0 

U = 0,1 

U = 0,2 

U = 0,3 

U = 0,4 

U = 0,6 

U = 0,8 

U = 1,0 

U = 1,2 kg/kg 

��. 1. �� aWC 

�� t � U 

�� .1 ��, �� aWC � �� t �� 

�� – 

�� t �� aWC �� aWC 

�� 

�� cBW �� t. �� , �� aWC 

�� t �� aWC 

�� . �� aWC � �� t � �� 

�� .

�� aWC � f ( U ) �� 

�� U, �� 

��U. 

�� aWC ��U�� 

�� – 

a 

�� U �� aWC �� WC 

�� c BW . �� 

�� U = 0,3 kg.kg -1 � t > 

90 0 C, �� aWC �� aWC 

�� U = 0,2 kg.kg -1 . �� 

�� [3], �� 

�� 

�� . 

�� .1 ��, �� aWC �� U = 0,2 

kg.kg -1 �� t = -17,25 0 �, �� (� = 255,9 K) 

� U FSP = 0,31 kg.kg -1 , �� (3) �� 

�� U NFW = 0,2 kg.kg -1 . �� aWC 

�� U = 0,3 kg.kg -1 �� t = -2,95 0 �, �� 

�� (� = 270,2 K) �� (3) �� U NFW = 0,3 kg.kg -1 . �� 

�� U > U FSP �� aWC 

�� t = - 2,0 0 �. �� 

�� aWC �� , �� 

�� , �� 

� �� . 

�� , �� , �� 

�� , �.�. �� U > U FSP , � �� 

271,15 K < T � 272,15 K �� 

�� [2] 

� 

W 

a W � 

, (4) 

( cW 

� cFW 

) �W 

�� c FW - �� , �� , 

J.kg -1 .K -1 . �� [1, 2, 4]: 

5 U �U 

FSP 

cFW 

� 3, 

34. 

10 �� U > U FSP . (5) 

1� 

U 

�� . 2 �� (4) �� 

�� aWC �� , 

�� , � �� U > U FSP . �� 

�� B � U FSP �� 

�� [2]. 

�� .2 ��, �� U, �� U FSP , 

�� aWC � �� -2 0 � < t � -1 0 C �� , �� 

103

�� , �� 

�� , �.�. �� , �� -2 0 � (��. ��.1). 

�� U �� U FSP �� aWC �� 

��: �� 20 � 30 �� U � 2U FSP , �� 30 � 40 �� U � 3U FSP ��.�. �� 

�� U > U FSP �� 

�� c FW , �� (4). 

�� 

a wc.10 7 , m 2 .s -1 

2 

1,8 

1,6 

1,4 

1,2 

1 

0,8 

0,6 

0,4 

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0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1 1,1 1,2 

�� U , kg.kg -1 

104 

�� 

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�� 

-2 0 � < t � -1 0 C �� , �� 

�� , �� 

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�� [2, 3, 8, etc.]. 

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Acknowledgement: This work was supported by the Scientific Research Sector of the 

University of Forestry, Sofia - project 105 / 2008, and Grant Agency KEGA - SR - project 

KEGA-SR �.1/6164/08. 

�� 

1. ��, �. 2002: �� 

� �� . International scientific conference “Technologies of wood 

processing”. Zvolen; 58-65. 

2. ��, �., 2003: �� 

�� . �� .�.�., ��, �., 358 c. 

3. ��, �. �. 1968: �� . �., ��; 255 c. 

4. DELIISKI, N. 1990: Mathematische Beschreibung der spezifischen Wärmekapazität des 

aufgetauten und gefrorenen Holzes. VIII International Symposium ‘’Fundamental 

Research of Wood’’, Warszawa; 229-233. 

5. DELIYSKI, N. 1994: Mathematical description of the thermal conductivity coefficient of 

defrozen and frozen wood. 2 nd Internation�l Symposium “Wood Structure and Properties 

‘94” Zvolen; 127-133. 

6. DELIISKI, N. 2004: Modeling and automatic control of heat energy consumption 

required for thermal treatment of logs. Drvna Industria, Volume 55, � 4; 181-199. 

7. DZURENDA, L. 1983: Výpo�et koeficienta teplotnej vodivosti dreva. Drevo, � 11: 

8. STEINCHAGEN, H. P. 1991: Heat transfer computation for a long, frozen log heated in 

agitated water or steam - a practical rec�ipe. Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff, � 7-8. 

Streszczenie: Obliczenia dyfuzyjno�ci drewna zmro�onego. Zaproponowano model 

matematyczny dyfuzyjno�ci drewna zawieraj�cego lód z wody wolnej i zwi�zanej. Artyku� 

prezentuje obliczenia dla 6 gatunków drewna. Zaproponowany model matematyczny mo�e 

by� u�yty w wyliczeniach procesów hydrotermicznej obróbki drewna w celu optymalizacji i 

automatyzacji sterowania. 


Nencho Deliiski, Faculty of Forest Industry, University of Forestry, 

Kliment Ohridski Bd. 10, 1756 Sofia, BULGARIA, deliiski@netbg.com 

Ladislav Dzurenda, Faculty of Wood Technology, Technical University of Zvolen, 

T.G.Masarika 24, 96053 Zvolen, SLOVAKIA, dzurenda@vsld.tuzvo.sk 

Slavcho Sokolovski, Faculty of Forest Industry, University of Forestry, 

Kliment Ohridski Bd. 10, 1756 Sofia, BULGARIA, slav_sokolovski@yahoo.com



(Ann. WULS–SGGW, For.and Wood Technol. 71, 2010) 

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Abstract: Mathematical description of the dew point of humidity air. Using available in the literature different 

equations for calculation of the dew point and the partial pressure of humidity air, a mathematical description 

and studies of the dew point of humidity air has been made. The influence of relative humidity and the 

temperature is taken into consideration. 

The mathematical description of the dew point can be used for the computation of the different processes 

of hydro-heat treatment of wood with aim of optimization of their technology and automatic control. 

Key words: mathematical description, wood, relative humidity, temperature, partial pressure, dew point 

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Acknowledgement: This work was supported by the Scientific Research Sector of the 

University of Forestry, Sofia - project 105 / 2008, and Grant Agency KEGA - SR - project 

KEGA-SR �.1/6164/08. 

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1. ��, �. 1993: �� . ��, �., 299 �. 

2. http://www.hygrooptima.com/humidity.html 

Streszczenie: Opis matematyczny punktu rosy wilgotnego powietrza. Przy u�yciu równa� 

dost�pnych w literaturze zagadnienia opracowano model matematyczny punktu rosy 

wilgotnego powietrza. Uwzgl�dniono równie� wp�yw wilgotno�ci wzgl�dnej oraz 

temperatury. Opis matematyczny punktu rosy mo�e s�u�y� obliczeniom procesów 

hydrotermicznej obróbki drewna w celu optymalizacji i automatyzacji technologii. 


Nencho Deliiski, Faculty of Forest Industry, University of Forestry, 

Kliment Ohridski Bd. 10, 1756 Sofia, BULGARIA, deliiski@netbg.com 

Ladislav Dzurenda, Faculty of Wood Technology, Technical University of Zvolen, 

T.G.Masarika 24, 96053 Zvolen, SLOVAKIA, dzurenda@vsld.tuzvo.sk 

Svetla Kirkova, Faculty of Forest Industry, University of Forestry, 

Kliment Ohridski Bd. 10, 1756 Sofia, BULGARIA, s.kirkova@abv.bg




Entwicklungstendenzen bei Bandsägeführungen im Sägewerk 

HANS DIETZ 1) S�AWOMIR KRZOSEK 2) 

1) 

Institut für Werkzeugmaschinen Universität Stuttgart (IfW) 

2) 

Lehrstuhl für Holzkunde und Holzschutz, Fakultät für Holztechnologie, Warschauer Naturwissenschaftliche 

Universität – SGGW 

Abstract: Entwicklungstendenzen bei Bandsägeführungen im Sägewerk. In dem Referat werden Möglichkeiten 

zur Verbesserung der Schnittwarentoleranzen von Schnittware aus Bandsägewerken angesprochen. Insbesondere 

wird eine realisierte magnetische Bandsägeführung vorgestellt, die auf der Basis eines geschlossenen 

Regelkreises die Schnittbahn des Sägeblattes korrigiert. 

Schlüsselwörter: Sägewerk, Bandsäge, Scanning, Bogenschnitt, Astigkeit, Ausbeute, Schnittwarentoleranz, 

Bandsägeführung, 

ÜBERBLICK 

Die Produktion von Schnittware in Sägewerken unterliegt zunehmend stärkeren 

Toleranzanforderungen. Bisher haben Sägewerke auf der Basis von Kreissägen den 

Anforderungen besser eher entsprochen. Allerdings mit der Einschränkung einer begrenzten 

Schnitthöhe beim ersten Schnitt durch das Rundholz. 

Da man beobachtet hat, dass auch frisch geschliffene Sägeblätter in der Regel eine 

Tendenz zeigen, nach einer Seite stärker abzuweichen, wurden Druck-Führungen geschaffen, 

die das abweichende Sägeblatt gegenüber der Schnittbahn jeweils nach der einen oder 

anderen Seite neigen. Das ist aber keine Regelung, die die Schnittbahn wirklich korrigiert. 

Aus dieser logischen Einsicht wurden verschiedene Ideen entwickelt, die alle auf der 

Beeinflussung der Schnittbahn durch Magnetkräfte beruhen. Davon sollen zwei nicht 

realisierte und eine realisierte dargestellt werden. 

Ein Vorschlag setzt voraus, dass das Sägeblatt selbst einen Magneten mit Polen 

darstellt, also gezogen oder gedrückt werden kann. Das System ist nicht realisierbar, da 

Bandsägeblätter dünn sind; die resultierenden Kräfte deshalb zu klein sind. 

Gemäß einem anderen Vorschlag soll die Schnittbahn eines konventionell betriebenen 

Sägeblattes durch ziehende Magnetkräfte, die senkrecht zur Schnittebene durch das Holz 

wirken, beeinflusst werden.; Diese Methode scheitert im Moment daran, dass die 

geometrischen Gegebenheiten z.T. unvorstellbare Magnetkräfte, mithin unwirtschaftliche 

Einrichtungen erfordern würden. 

Die im Folgenden vorgestellte Methode zur Korrektur von Schnittbahnfehlern durch 

Regelvorgänge benützt anstatt der üblichen Druckführungen neu geschaffene 

Magnetführungen zu beiden Seiten des Sägeblattes und des Schnittgutes. Dies soll 

nachfolgend dargestellt werden. 

110

MAGNETISCHE SÄGEBLATTFÜHUNG; THEORIE 

Die nachfolgenden Prinzipien zeigen in 

Bild 1 eine konventionelle Bandsäge mit Druckführung und in. 

Bild 2 eine neue Bandsäge, deren Sägeband durch einen magnetischen Regelkreis geführt ist 

Bild 1. Konventionelle Bandsäge mit Bild 2. Neue Bandsäge mit Magnetführungen 

Druckführungen 

In Bild 1 fallen die angegebenen Biegespannungen auf. Sie werden einerseits durch 

die Biegung des Sägeblattes um die Bandrollen erzeugt; andererseits aber entstehen auch 

Biegespannungen durch die Druckführungen, die das Sägeband beidseits des Schnittgutes 

stabilisieren. In Bild 2 erzeugen die beidseits des Sägeblattes angeordneten Magnete keine 

Spannung im Bandführungsbereich. Die Biegespannung im Bereich der Bandrollen ist gleich. 

Um zu verdeutlichen, welche Unterschiede zwischen den beiden Systemen in Bild 

1/Bild 2 auftreten, soll eine Bandsäge mit Rollendurchmesser 1600 mm und Sägebanddicke 

1,65 mm und 200 N/mm² Blattspannung angenommen werden. Bei der konventionellen 

Bandsäge gemäß Bild 1 entstehen je Sägeblattumlauf 2x 400 N/mm² im Bereich der 

Bandsägerollen und 2x 310 N/mm² im Bereich der Druckführungen. Die Bandsäge mit 

Magnetführungen erzeugt im Bereich der Führungen keine zusätzliche Spannung; es 

entstehen je Sägeblattumlauf nur noch 2x 400 N/mm². Das sind nur noch etwa 56 % der 

Dauerbelastung im Vergleich zur konventionellen Bandsäge mit Druckführungen. Der Vorteil 

geringerer Dauerbelastung des Sägeblattes kann im praktischen Betrieb umgesetzt werden in 

� längeren Sägeblatteinsatz oder 

� höhere Schnittgeschwindigkeit bei gleicher Einsatzdauer oder 

� höhere Sägeblattspannung bei gleicher Einsatzdauer oder 

� dickere Sägeblätter 

� einer Mischung aus den obigen Vorteilen. 

Neben obigen Vorteilen ist die wesentlich verbesserte Schnittgenauigkeit nicht zu 

vergessen, die das Ziel dieser Innovation ist. 

111

MAGNETISCHE SÄGEBLATTFÜHUNG; PRAXIS 

Die Bilder 3 und 5 zeigen eine Quadro-Bandsäge, in der die Sägen 1 und 2 mit 

konventionellen Druckführungen und die Sägen 3 und 4 mit berührungslosen 

Magnetführungen ausgerüstet sind. Die Magnetsysteme sind seit 13 Monaten in Betrieb. Der 

praktische Vorteil im betreffenden Betrieb zeigt sich laut Sägewerksleitung in wesentlich 

besserer Schnittwarengenauigkeit (Bild 6) bei ca. 15 % höherer Leistung. Die Standzeit der 

Sägeblätter gegen Rissbildung ist im Vergleich zu den Druckführungen deutlich verbessert. 

Bild 3. Ausschnitt aus einer Quadrobandsäge Bild 4. Kontrollfunktionen in Leitstand 

•Sägen 1 und 2 mit Druckführungen • Position des Sägeblattes 

• Sägen 1 und 2 mit Magnetführungen • Sägeblattabweichung von Ideallinie 

• Tendenz der Sägeblattabweichung 

• Lenkausschlag im Magneten 

• Magnetkraft beim Lenkausschlags 

Da es sich um ein elektronisches Regelsystem handelt, können im Betrieb alle 

wichtigen Funktionen beobachtet werden und notfalls korrigiert werden. Für den 

Anlagenführer steht deshalb ein Bildschirm wie in Bild 4 gezeigt zur Verfügung, aus dem er 

jederzeit über den Betriebszustand des Systems informiert wird. 

Bild 5. Magnet-Führung im Betrieb Bild 6. Standardabweichung und Differenz Minimumm- 

Und Maximum -Werte 

LITERATUR 

1. DIETZ H., 2007; Vortrag bei CORMA (Corporation Chilena de la Madera),06.-10. 

November 2007; Ausbeuteerhöhung durch bogenfolgendes Spanen. 

2. DIETZ H., 2005; Vortrag auf dem 45. Internationalen Winterseminar in Rosenheim 

Ausbeuteerhöhung durch bogenfolgendes Spanen. 

112

3. DIETZ H., 2003: Der Markt verlangt eine Modernisierung der Sägewerkstechnik; 

Rynok trebujet obnowljenija lesopilnych proiswodstw; Russische Sonderausgabe 

Holzzentralblatt, 129. Jg., September, Seite 10. 

4. DIETZ H., 2003: Jedem das seine; Holzkurier, Jg. 58, Nr. 36, Seite 8-9. 

5. DIETZ H., 2004: Mehr Ausbeute durch aktive Bogenbearbeitung; Holzzentralblatt, 

130. Jg., Nr. 61, Seite 799. 

6. DIETZ H., KRZOSEK S., 2005: Roboquad – idealna maszyna dla �redniego 

tartaku. „Gazeta Przemys�u Drzewnego”, nr 6, str. 56. 

7. DIETZ H., KRZOSEK S., 2004: Vergleichende Untersuchung der 

Leistungsfähigkeit und Wirtschaftlichkeit von Band-und Kreissägen im Sägewerk. 

Annals of Warsaw Agricultural University. Forestry and Wood Technology, No 55, 

Seite 112 – 118. 

Streszczenie: Tendencje rozwoju prowadnic pi� ta�mowych w tartaku. W artykule 

zaprezentowano mo�liwo�ci podwy�szenia dok�adno�ci wymiarowej tarcicy produkowanej w 

tartakach przy zastosowaniu pilarek ta�mowych. Przedstawiono innowacyjne rozwi�zanie 

polegaj�ce na zastosowaniu magnetycznych prowadnic pi� ta�mowych oraz efekty jego 

zastosowania w stosunku do prowadnic konwencjonalnych. 


Hans Dietz, 

Institut für Werkzeugmaschinen 

Universität Stuttgart, 

Holzgartenstraße 17, 

D-70174 Stuttgart, 

e – mail: hans.dietz@ewd.de 

S�awomir Krzosek, 

Katedra Nauki o Drewnie 

i Ochrony Drewna, 

Wydzia� Technologii Drewna SGGW, 

ul. Nowoursynowska 159, 

02 – 776 Warszawa, 

e– mail: slawomir_krzosek@sggw.pl



(Ann. WULS – SGGW, For. And Wood Technol. 71, 2010) 

Die Sägegatter in der deutschen Literatur des 18. Jh. 

Nach Sturm und Zedler 

EWA DOBROWOLSKA, PAWE� KOZAKIEWICZ 

Fakultät für Holztechnologie der Warschauer Naturwissenschaftlichen Universität – SGGW 

Abstrakt: Die Sägegatter in der deutschen Literatur des 18. Jh. Nach Sturm und Zedler. In dem Artikel wurden 

zwei wichtige Veröffentlichungen deutscher Autoren zitiert, die über den Bau und die Konstruktion von 

Sägegattern berichten. Die erste Arbeit veröffentlichte 1718 der Mühlenbaumeister Sturm in Augsburg, die 

zweite ist ein Universal-Lexikon aller Wissenschaften und Künste von Johann Heinrich Zedler aus dem Jahre 

1733. 

Schlüsselwörter: Holz, Sägegatter, Geschichte 

Interessant und wichtig wären Daten über die Erfindung der Sägemühle, d.h. einer 

durch ein Wasser- oder Windrad angetriebenen Sägemaschine. Sägemühlen, von Wasser 

angetrieben, scheint man schon im 4. Jahrhundert und zwar an dem kleinen Fluß Roer oder 

Ruer in Deutschland angewendet zu haben; denn wenn auch Ausonius eigentlich von 

Mühlen, welche zum Schneiden von Steinen dienten, redet, so ist es doch wahrscheinlich, 

dass man diese zugleich oder doch später als Brettsägemühlen angewendet hat. (Ausonius 

Decimus Magnus * Burdigala (Bordeaux) † das. etwa 395 n. Chr. Er schrieb Gedichte, 

Briefe in Poesie und Prosa, Epigramme, Gedichte auf eine jenseits des Rheins erbeutete 

Kriegsgefangene, das Schwabenmädchen Bisulla u.a. In der Form vollendet, sind die 

Gedichte inhaltlich meist unbedeutend. Am berühmtesten ist seine „Mosella“, ein 

Preisgedicht auf die Mosel mit der Kaiserstadt Trier.) 

Die erste positive Nachricht über eine bestandene Sägemühle findet man in der 

vortrefflichen Kunst- und Handwerksgeschichte der Stadt Augsburg, in welcher bemerkt 

wird, dass im Jahre 1337 in und um Augsburg solche Mühlen vorhanden waren. 

Die erste Abbildung einer der deutschen Holzsägemühlen trägt die Jahreszahl 1612 

und findet sich im 3. Teil von Zeising´s Theatrum Machinarum (Zeising, Heinrich, 1612: 

Theatri Machinarum Erster Theil. In welchem Vilerley Künstliche MACHINA in 

unterschiedlichen Küpfferstücken zu sehen sindt durch welche iegliche schwere last mit 

vortheil kan bewegt erhoben gezogen und geführet werden. Daneben eigentlicher erklerung 

einer ieden küpfferplatten in sonderheit. Auch mit vorgehenden gründlichen bericht von wag 

und gewicht. Und zum beschluß wie eine Künstliche bewegung zu machen darinnen des 

gantzen Himmels lauff fürzustellenn. Allen denen, die sich mechanischen kunste, fürnemlich 

bauens, befleissen, im druck zusammen geordnet. Durch Henricum Zeising der Architectur 

Studiosum. In Verlegung Hennig Grossen des iüngern Buchhaendl.). Das erste Werk, worin 

sich brauchbare, für Constructeure von Holzsägemaschinen verwendbare Zeichnungen 

vorfanden, veröffentlichte 1718 der Mühlenbaumeister Sturm in Augsburg. 

In den folgenden Artikeln (Die Sägegatter in der Literatur...) möchten die Autoren eine 

kurze Auswahl der in deutscher Sprache erschienenen Beiträge über die Sägegatter 

veröffentlichen, um den Leser mit einem Ausschnitt der Sägegattergeschichte bekannt zu 

machen. 

114

Nach Sturm [1738] 

Tab. XXXIII. biß XXXVI . inclusive... 

Das erste Requisitum nun ist, daß die Sägen so wohl in dem auffziehen als in dem 

niederziehen schneiden sollten. Dieses ist biß diese Stunde noch in keiner Säge-Mühl erhalten 

worden, dessen Ursache ist, weil sie biß dato alle so gebauet worden, daß der Rahm, worinnen 

die Säge- Blätter eingesetzet sind, gar schwer an sich selbst in die Höhe zu ziehen ist, 

dahingegen er durch seine Schwere selbst willig wieder abwartz gehet, daher seine Last, wenn 

er ohne schneiden in die Höhe gehoben wird, der Last gleich ist , wenn er abwarts gehen und 

zugleich schneiden soll. 

Wie aber die Sperr- Räder, wodurch der Schlitten mit dem darauff liegenden Säge- 

Block gegen die Sägen herunter gehet und schneidet, so wäre das andere Requisitum, im Fall 

man das erste Requisitum erhalten köntte, daß man auch das Sperr- Rad so einrichtete, daß es 

den Schlitten continuirlich im auff- und niedersteigen fortziehe, welches gar nicht so leicht zu 

erhalten ist. 

Das dritte Requisitum ist, daß der Säge- Rahm leicht und stille, ohne viel Friction und 

rumpeln, hin und wieder gezogen werde. An diesem Requisito fehlet es allen Säge- Mühlen 

annach sehr, weil sie alle durch den gekröpften Hacken gezogen werden. Den weil die 

Stange, durch welche der Säge- Rahm gehoben, wie in den Wasser- Mühlen, oder gezogen 

wird, wie in den Wind- Mühlen, an dem Säge- Rahm durch ein Gewinde fest gemachtet ist, 

und immer eine Stelle behält, hingegen mit dem andern Ende, womit sie an dem gekröpfften 

Hacken hänget, mit demselben immer im Kreiß herum gehet, so ziehet oder schiebet sie fast 

immer perpendiculariter, sondern immer schrägs oder oblique, und dazu nach einem sich 

stets veränderten Winckel, welche Bewegung ohne sehr starcke Friction nicht geschehen 

kan, da hingegen, wann der Säge- rahm immerfort ganzu perpendicuklariter auf und nieder 

gezogen oder geschoben würde, nicht nur daran alles viel länger dauren könnte, sondern auch 

kaum die Helffte Kraft zu der Bewegung nöthig thäte, weil es insonderheit bey den Mühlen, 

die mit Wasser getrieben werden, ein sehr importanter Vortheil wäre. 

Das vierte Requisitum ist, daß man einen Block allezeit auf einmal in so viel Theile 

zerschneiden könne als man vorgenommen hat, oder daß wenn man nur einen oder zwey 

Schnitt durch einen Block thut, man zwey oder drey Blöcke in so viel besondern Säge- 

Rahmen schneiden könne. Dieses finden wir in der That an den Schneide- Mühlen zu Berlin, 

Hamburg, und vielen Holländischen, die von Wind getrieben werden. Nun ist noch die Frage, 

ob man dieses nicht auch auf Mühlen zuwegen bringe könne, welche von Wasser getrieben 

werden, welches ich zu bejahen allerdings kein Bedencken trage, wenn man eine raisonable 

Quantität von Wasser hat, und alle Friction so viel vermieden wird, als ich es bishero deutlich 

genug an die Hand gegeben habe. 

Das fünfte Requisitum ist, daß man die Säge-Blöcke durch die Mühle selbst mit 

Hülffe von wenig Menschen könne auf die Mühle und auf den Schlitten, und wenn er 

geschnitten worden, auch wiederum herab bringen. Dieses geschiehet bey allen Holländischen 

Mühlen, die wir auch in diesem Stücke nachahmen wollen, und also hoffen gute Anleitung zu 

geben, daß man inskünfftige bessere Sägmühlen in Teutschland bekommen, und es selbst den 

Holländern darinnen zuvorthun möge. 

TAB. XXXIII. 

In dieser Tabell stelle ich ganz deutlich vor Augen, wie in Holland die Säge-Blöck auf 

den Schlitten gezogen werden durch ein Sperr-Rad, und wie es auf dem Schlitten gegen die 

Säge geführet wird durch ein ander Sperr- Rad, und zwar wenn die Säge sowohl auff- als 

abwerts schneidet. 

Dieses Sperr- Rad A pfleget 490 Zähne zu haben, jeden ½ Zoll breit,.... 

115

An der Spille dieses Rades sitzet zugleich ein Getriebe B. von 7 Stäben, welche 1� 

von einander stehen, welches in eine gezähnte eiserne Stange eingreiffet, welche längs unter 

dem Schlitten angemachet ist, und an ihren Zähnen gleiche Theilung hat CD. Es wird dieses 

Eisen mitten, oder besser näher an einer Seíte unter dem Schlitten angemachet , an einem 

Ende D. mit einem Hacken, der sich um eine eiserne Queer- Stange schläget, am andern 

Ende mit einem runden Loch, welches in einen Kloben gestecket, und mit einem 

durchgeschlagenen Nagel befestiget wird, damit man es leichtlich wieder könne loßmachen. 

Recht über dem Getriebe muß diese Stange noch mit einer Klammer befestiget werden, damit 

sie nicht aus dem Getriebe ausspringe. Die Bewegung dieses Rades geschiehet durch 

Hülffe der Treib-Hacken IL. und KM. welche unten bey L. und M. gespalten sind, daß sie 

über das Rad greiffen, oben aber einen Kloben haben bey I. und K. womit sie an den Vectem 

oder die Heb-Stange FG. einer vor dem Ruhe- Punckt H. der andere hinter demselben. Dieses 

Vectis FG. gehet durch einen eisernen Ring N. der an dem Säge- Rahm fest sitzet, und also, 

wenn dieser gehet, den Vectem mit beweget. Wie weit aber die Puncten I. von H. ab seyn 

müssen, wird am besten in einem jedem Casu durch Erfahrung gefunden, indeme der Kloben 

I. angehalten, und der Säg- Rahm gantz langsam auff- und nieder gezogen wird, so findet sich 

gar leicht, wo man den Kloben fest machen müße, damit der Treib- Hacken das Rad just 

einen halben Zoll, das ist eine Zahn- Breite fortschiebe. 

Das andere Rad O. welches dienet den Block auf den Schlitten auffzuziehen, und 

wenn er geschnitten worden, wiederum abzuziehen, ist eben auf diese Weise gemachet, außer 

daß es keine so subtile Theilung, und keine Getriebe, sondern eine wenigst Fuß dicke Spindel 

116

hat. Je grösser nun der Radius, dieses Rades gegen seine Welle ist, je weniger Kraft brauchet 

man die schwereren Blöcke zu ziehen, aber desto langsamer gehet es auch mit jedem ziehen 

zu, wie es allen bekannt ist, die nur die ersten Elementa der Mechanica gelernet haben. Die 

Erfahrung aber hat in Holland die Räder gut befunden, daran 44. Zähne jeder vier Zollbreit 

ist, aus welcher Zahl nach oben angewiesenem Fundament der Radius leicht gefunden wird, 

daß er müsse 2. Fuß 4 1 /5 Zoll halten. 

Auf die Welle dieser Räder werden nun zwei Thauen auffgewunden P. und Q. gegen 

einander. Das Thau P. geht gerade hinaus nach dem Bloch, der auffgebracht werden soll, das 

andere Q. gehet durch das andere Ende der Säg-Mühle durch biß, über den Platz, dahin der 

geschnittene Block soll gezogen werden, und nachdem es daselbst um eine befestigte Rolle 

gezogen worden, wieder zurück an den geschnittenen Block. 

Tab. XXXIV. 

In dieser Tabelle wird hauptsächlich die Anhängung des Sägerahms an den gekröpften 

Hacken, mit eineigen Remediis der Friction, und anderer guten Vortheile vorgestellet. In 

derselben zeiget nun Fig. 1. die weise, wie insgemein bey uns die Sägerahmen (als ABCD.) 

mit einer eisernen Stange HI. an einen gekröpfften Hacken K. gemachet werden. Dieser 

Hacken wird aufs höchste 10. aufs mindste 8. Zoll ausgebogen, damit der Sägrahm 16. bis 20. 

Zoll weit auf und nieder gehe. Noch habe ich in dieser Figur dazu gemachet, wie man den 

Sägrahm zurichten müsse, damit große und kleine Sägen können darein gesetzet werden, 

indem die beyde Queerhöltzer DE. und FG. also darein versetzet werden, daß man sie hinauff 

und herab schieben könne in de. und fg. und daselbst wieder beyderseits mit eisernen Stiften 

durch die dazu gebohrte Löcher befestigen. Ferner ist dabey angezeiget, wie man etlicvhe 

zarte Säger- Blätter zugleich einsetzen kann, einen Block dadurch in dünne Bretter zu Tischer 

Arbeit, und sonst auf einmal zu zerschneiden, nemlich durch Hülffe der beyden Eisen MN. 

und OP. die bey M und O. wie Kämme eingeschnitten sind, darein die Säge-Blätter gesetzet, 

und durch einen durchgeschobenen Nagel befestiget werden, das untere Eisen wird dem an 

den Sägerahm bey N. mit einem eisernen Keyl, das obere bey P, mit einer Schraube 

angezogen, die Sögen rechtschaffen fest zu spannen. 

Die zweite Figur giebet deutlich das Inconveniens zu erkennen, welches aus dieser Art 

die Sägen zu treiben erwächset, wovon ich eben schon Meldung gethan. Denn, so der 

gekröpffte Hacken KI nach der Seite stehet, so treibt er die Stange HI, an dem Ende I, 

perpendiculariter in die Höhe, da doch ihre Linea directionis nach I. zugehet, der Punct´H. 

aber auch nicht anderst als perpendiculariter in die Höhe gehen kann, weil er an dem 

Sägrahmen stehet, der in seinen Faltzen eingeschlossen stehend nicht anderst gehen kann, da 

er hingegen nach i. würde hinüber getrieben werden, wenn er nicht eingeschlossen wäre, 

woraus klar ist, daß diese Bewegung nicht ohne große Friction und Schwerigkeit geschehen 

könne, welche auch die Sägrahmen mit ihrem poltern und Knarren deutlich genug zu 

erkennen geben. 

Derowegen hab ich ín der 3ten Figur eine Art an die Hand gegeben, welche schon viel 

egaler und stiller treibet. Auf diese Erfindung bin ich gebracht worden durch den gekröpfften 

Hacken in einem frey schwebenden Oval Ring, welchen Zeising p. 111 seines Theatri 

Machinarum Fig. 13. 14. 15. in Kupfer vorgestellet, in dem Text aber nicht mit einem Wort 

beschrieben. Dann ob es gleich vor Augen lag, daß dieselbige Construction gar nicht 

practicabel war, brachte sie mich doch auf die in gegenwärtiger Figur vorgestellte 

Construktion, die ich in Modellen sehr gut befunden, daher ich auch einen eben so guten 

Effect davon in dem großen hoffe. Es bestehet aber alles in einem Loch, das an beyden 

Enden rund, eben so hoch als der gekröpffte Hacken, und zweymahl so lang als die Kröpffung 

hoch ist, welches Loch mit Kupffer auszufüttern ist oder mit Messing. Es muß dieses Loch 

in einem Brett oder stück Holz seyn, das in Faltzen beyderseits eingeschlossen ist, und 

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darinnen auf und Abgehet. Bey dieser Figur habe zugleich eine andere Art gezeiget, wo man 

mit stärckern Sägeblättern einen Block auf einmahl in stärckere Bretter zerschneiden will, 

wie man die Sägen jede besonders einsetzen soll, doch daß sie unten und oben durch starcke 

Bleche ab gehen, als in der vierten Figur vorgebildet sind, damit man sie zu aller Zeit in 

gleicher Distanz behalte und immer eine Dicke von Brettern schneide. Wenn man also nur 4. 

paar solche Eisen hat, kann man viererley Sorten Bretter schneiden, nemlich nach der 

Oberländischen Eintheilung gantze drey viertel- und halbe Spund-Dielen oder Bretter und 

ordinari- Tischer- Bretter. 

Die 5te Figur giebet nun ferner zu erkennen, wie man das vortrefflich, in Büchern 

schon lang vorgestellete, und von einigen Künstlern mit großen Nutzen ins Werck gerichtete. 

dem ungeachtet aber doch noch gar wenig bekante mittel, welches ich oben schon bey den 

Papier- Mühlen an die Pumpen und Rechen appliciret habe, auch an den Sägen appliciren, 

und daselbst mit großer Unterbrechung der Friction appliciret habe, auch an den Sägen 

appliciren, und daselbst mit großer Unterbrechung der Friction, und folgewnds mit großer 

Erspahrung der Bewegungs Krafft, und mit langer Conservation der Machine gebrauchen 

könne. Es wird nemlich das Getriebe A. von 10. Stäben nur mit fünffen besetzet, die übrigen 

fünff hinweg gelassen, der Radius des Getriebes biß an das Centrum der Stäbe ist 8. Zoll, so 

ist die Theilung oder Distanz der Stäbe bey nahe 5. Zoll,. Dazu wird ein Rahm BC. gemachet, 

desen beyde äußere Schenckel C.I. in eben dem Faltz auf nieder gehen, in welchem der 

Sägerahm beweget wird, die beyde mittlere C.2. hingegen begreiffen oben beschriebenes 

Getriebe in sich durch Hülffe von zehen Zähnen, darein die Stäbe des Getriebes so just passen 

als nur möglich ist, deren fünff auf einer Seite, fünff auf er andern Seite stehen, doch so daß 

die Zähne der einen Seite just mitten auf die zwischen Spatia der andern Seite eintreffen. 

Dieser Rahm wird nun unten an den Sägrahm ohne alles Gewinde fest gemachet, so wird er 

recht leicht und stille können hin und wieder getrieben werden. Dich solches noch besser u 

effectuiren, kann man an den Seiten des Rahms, womit er in dem Faltz beyderseits lauffet 

eiserne oder meßnige Rollen anmachen, um aller Friction desto besser vorzubauen, und an 

den Sägerahm Gewichte D. und E. anhängen, die just dem Sägerahmen, und dem worinnen 

das Getriebe umlauffet miteinander die Gleich- Wage halten wodurch erhalten wird, daß der 

Sägerahm mit gleicher Krafft auf und nieder gezogen wird, und so wohl im auf als absteigen 

gleicher Weise arbeitet und schneidet. 

Die 6te Figur, giebet noch eine andere Art die Sägerahmen zu reciprociren an die 

Hand. Es werden nehmlich an den Sägerahm beyderseits gezahnere Eisen AB. befestiget, und 

darein Getriebe versetzet C. die auch nur an einer Helffte mit Stäben dörffen versehen seyn. 

Zu äußerst an einer oder noch besser an beyden Seiten werden schwere Schwängel DE: 

angehänget. Indeme nun diese Schwängel beweget werden, treiben sie durch die Getriebe C. 

den Sägrahm auf und nieder, und wenn die Schwängel einmahl in die Bewegung gebracht 

sind, können sie mit geringer Mühe darinnen erhalten werden. Aber der Sägrahm muß 

zuforderst durch Contrepoids im auf und niedergehen in eine accurate Gleich-Waage gebracht 

seyn, wie denn solche Contrepoids bey Sägmühlen fast vor ein Essentiales und nöthiges 

Stücke zu halten sind. Man könnte diese manier Sägen zu treiben mir großen Nutzen 

gebrauchen an statt des Sägens mit der Hand, wo es die Mühe nicht lohnet Sägemühlen zu 

bauen, also daß man solche Hand-Mühlen von einem Ort zu dem andern leicht bringen, und 

wenn nur die Blöcke, durch Männer auffgebracht werden, und die Schwängel einmal in 

Schwung gebracht werden, nachmahls durch einen Knaben fortreiben könne, weil es nur eine 

schwache Impression gebrauchet bey einer Vibration, die Schwängel immer in gleich starcken 

Schwung zu erhalten. Der Schlitten mit guten Rollen versehen, kan auf den Faltzen zweyer 

anderer ein wenig abwarts gelegten Balcken durch Gewichte fortgezogen werden, nach der 

Art, wie es in Böckleri Theatro Machinarum Fig. 63 vorgestellet ist, und also eine solche Säg- 

Mühle, darauf Höltzer höchstens 14 Fuß lang geschnitten werden, so leicht zusammen 

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gerichtet und von einem Ort an den andern gebracht werden, als eine große Pfahlramme, 

daher diese Invention gar hoch zu schätzen ist, zu der ich Anlaß aus einer solchen Machine 

mit einem Schängel genommen, die ich zu Dömitz gesehen, welche aber impracticabel 

gewesen. In gegenwärtiger Figur habe ich eine Manier gezeigt solche Sägen mit sehr wenig 

Wasser zu treiben, wenn man nemlich ein Holtz IK. dergestallt umtriebe, daß bey jeder 

Vibration, wenn der Schwengel eben wieder zurücke gehen wollte, dasselbige daran schlüge, 

und also den natürlichen Abgang der Krafft der Vibrationen jederzeit ersetzete, 

Tab. XXXV. 

Wenn man so viel Wasser zu einer Säg- Mühle hat, daß man eine große Gewalt mit 

treiben kann, c. gr. wann man einen Bach hätte der zum wenigsten 3. Fuß tief und 5. Fuß 

breit Wasser führet, und 5. bis 8. Fuß fall hat, könte man mit großer Menage und 

vortrefflichem Nutzen die hier vorgestellte Mühle bauen, die sich einem jeden Machinen 

verständigen alsobald durch ihre Simplicität recommendieren kan. Es ist der Sägrahm AB. 

daran so schwer zu machen, daß wenn er in die Höhe gezogen worden, durch seine eigene 

Last herab dringet und das Holz schneidet. Wie groß das Gewicht seyn müßte, ist leicht zu 

ermessen, wenn man der stärckesten zwey Männer Krafft schätzet, welche sie haben müssen 

einen Block von dem härtesten Holz, der 2 ½ dick zu schneiden, und daraus abzunemhen, daß 

ein Sägrahm schwer genug ist, wenn er zwey Centner zum schneiden und höchstens einen 

Centner schwer zu Überwindung der Friction gemachet wird. Dieser Rahm wird durch zwey 

Seile oder Riemen ohne Ende gezogen, welche über die Rollen EH. und FG. gezogen sind, 

deren oberste man auch wohl also zurichten könnte, welches in dem Riß nicht angedeutet ist, 

daß man sie durch Schrauben in die Höhe ziehen, und die Riemen dadurch nach belieben fest 

angezogen oder nachgelassen werden könten. An der Spille der untern Rollen H. und G. sitzet 

ein Sternrad I. dessen Theilungs Cirkul um ein klein gemerckigen weniger als 1. Fuß 4. Zoll 

am Radio hat, und in zwanzig Theile à 5. Zoll getheilet ist, darauf nur fünff Zähne würklich 

gemachet, die übrigen aber hinweg gelassen sind. Dieses zu treiben sitzet an der Welle des 

Wasser- Rades K. ein Getriebe zu 30. Stäben eingetheilet, daher der Radius des Theilungs- 

Cirkuls um ein gar weniges kleiner als 2. Fuß ist. Es sind aber wechsels Weise fünff Stäne 

weggelassen. Wenn derowegen die fünff Stäbe von M. zu N., die fünff Zähne des Stern- 

Rades durchlauffen, und also den Punct P. an die Stelle O, gebracht haben, so ist der 

Sägerahm 20. Zoll hoch gehoben, so bald sich aber die Stäbe und Zähne auseinander gelöset 

haben, fället der Sägerahm wieder herunter, und ziehet damit das Sternrad an seine alte Stelle, 

indessen aber kömmmt das Getriebe L. mit dem Stabe Q, wieder an den Zahn O. und hebet 

damit den Sägerahm wieder in die Höhe, und so fort an. 

Tab. XXXVI. 

Noch eine Art die Sägen zu treiben, habe ich in dieser Tabelle vorstellen, und zugleich 

etwas weniges von dem Schlitten melden wollen, damit die Materia von den Sägmühle 

vollständig abgehandelt würde. So wird nun hier der Standriß und eine Helffte des 

Grundrisses von dem untern, nebst einer Helffte des Grundrisses von dem obern Stock 

folgende umstände deutlich anzeigen, daß die Mühle zwei Gänge hat. An jedem Gang wird 

der Sägrahm A. getrieben durch Hülffe eines gezahnten Eisens BC. (welches desto besser zu 

erkennen die Wasserrad- Welle mit ihrem Getriebe nicht gantz ausschattiret worden) durch 

Getriebe DE. ( so nur in dem untern Grundriß zu sehen) welches auf zwantzig Stäbe getheilet 

ist, aber würcklich nur fünff davon hat. Die Weite der Stäbe von eines Mitte bis zu des andern 

ist 5. Zoll. An diesen Getrieben sitzen außen Kammräder, von gleicher Größe und Theilung, 

und kommen fünff von ihren Zähnen mit den Stäben der Getriebe just überein, die folgende 

fünff Zähne an beyden Seiten sind auch ausgelassen, aber die letzten, welche den ersten 

gerad gegen über stehen, sind wiederum daran gemachet, Jedes dieser Kammräder wird nicht 

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umsondern hin und wieder getrieben durch zwey Getriebe HI. so an der Welle des 

Wasserrades sitzen, und auf 40. Stäbe getheilet sind, aber wechsel Weiß sind fünff Stäbe 

eingesetzet, und fünff wiederum weggelassen. Und zwar ist zu mercken, daß beyde Getriebe 

solcher Gestakt angesetzet werden müssen, daß die Theilungs Puncten an beyden accurat 

gegen einander zutreffen, und wo an einem fünff Stäbe weggelassen sind, sie hingegen an 

dem andern stehen, welches eine so gleiche, ungezwungene und recht perpendiculare 

Reciprocation der Sägrahmen bringet, als schwerlich einige andere Art leisten kan. Denn der 

Sägrahm wird recht in der Mitten und dazu gantz perpendiculariter gehoben, und weil die 

beyden Getroiebe in der That nur eines sind, und an einer Spindel sitzen, findet auch sonst 

sich keine sonderliche Gelegenheit zur Friction. 

Von dem Schlitten, von welchem oben bereits das principaleste erinnert worden, wie 

er nehmlich durch das Treib-Rad und die eiserne gezahnte Stange fortgezogen werde, ist nur 

etwas weniges noch zu melden. Es wäre vorerst die Weise nicht zu verachten, da er durch 

angehängte Gewichte gezogen wird, wenn man leichtlich Stellen bekommen könne, da das 

Gewicht immerfort hinabgehen könnte, zweytes nicht so beschwerlich wäre, die Gewichte 

alsdenn wiederum in die Höhe zu bringen, und drittens der Zug nicht ein wenig ungleich 

wäre, weil die Gewichte, je tieffer sie hinunter kommen, ach desto schwerer werden. Denn 

sonst wäre sie gar simpel und von wenig Kosten, Der Schlitten muß bekannter Massen auf 

Rollen gehen, da nur die Frage noch ist, ob es besser sey einen glatten Boden in der 

Sägemühle zu legen, und die Rollen unter dem Schlitten zu befestigen, oder die Rollen in dem 

Boden zu befestigen, und den Schlitten darüber passieren zu lassen. Da halte ich nun, wenn 

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man den Schlitten nicht also zurichten will, daß man ihn, nach dem Unterschied der darauf 

kommenden Blöcke weit und enge machen könne, kein großer Unterschied sey, ohne daß 

man weniger Rollen nöthig hat, wenn man sie unter den Schlitten befestiget. Ich hielte aber 

davor, daß es dienlich wäre, um desto gewisser und gerader zu schneiden, wenn man den 

Schlitten enger und weiter machen könnte, welches gar leicht geschehen kann, wie bey P. ist 

entworffen worden, wenn nemlich in den Queer- Höltzern Faltzen gemachet würden, darinnen 

die untere Höltzer näher wenn der Block auffgebracht worden andere Höltzer legete, und 

durch Keyligen fest an den Block antreibe, so läge er gantz fest in dem Situ, darinnen er 

anfangs geleget worden, und brauchete es weiter keines anklammerens. 

Die Bret= oder Schneide= oder Säge=Mühle 

Nach Zedler [1733] 

Die Bret= oder Schneide= oder Säge=Mühle ist ein recht nützliches Werck, wo es ein 

bequemes Treib=Wasser und Gefälle, auch viel haubares unweit herzuführendes Gehölze 

haben kan, dieweil man allezeit die Breter, so wohl des harten, als des weichen Holzes, nicht 

allein zu allem Bauen höchst von nöthen hat, sondern man kan dieselben in Ermangelung des 

Baues, in grossen Städten an die Tischler, Schreiner und Zimmerleute, ja fast an die meisten 

Handwercker zu ihrer Nothdurfft häuffig vor bare Zahlung verkaufen, und werden von 

Eichen=Holtze dicke Pfosten zu Mühl= und Camm=Rädern, Laveten derer Canonen und 

Mortiers, Bären Kasten, Aufzug= und Fall=Brücken, Fall=Thüren und Fänge wilder 

reissender Thiere, und dergleichen festen Arbeit, als auch von eichenen Bretern die wohl 

verwahrte Kasten, Laden, Thüren, Schränke und Fenster=Rähmen, ja wohl auch endlich die 

Särge wohl bemittelter Leute, gemacht. Von der Buche und Esche werden die Mandeln oder 

Rollen, ingleichen schöne Tisch=Blätter und dergleichen verfertiget. Aus Bircken=Brettern, 

werden verschiedene musikalische Instrumente gemacht. Die Erlenen=Breter dienen zu 

immerwährender Nässe, als Fisch=Kasten, Ahl=Fängen und dergleichen. Die Aespen oder 

Linden, weil sie gar zu weich, sind zu anders nichts dienlich, als wohl inuenierte Modelle 

daraus zu schneiden und hierzu nach Bedürffniß dicke Pfosten oder dünne Breter schneiden 

zu lassen. Die Tannene=Bretter, weil sie leicht, weiß, zart und schön sind, geben viel 

musikalische Instrumente, wie im Alten Testament geschehen; desgleichen, weil sie leicht 

und zart, werden hieraus Reise=Coffre, ingleichen Laden, Schräncke und dergleichen mehr 

gearbeitet. Die Fichtene Bretter dienen zu Spinden derer Stuben, Kammern und 

Korn=Böden; doch hält man die Kiefern, weil sie hartziger, vor dauerhafter. 

Ein jeder Bret=Stamm, (Bret=Stamm, so wird der Schaft eines Baumes, welcher sich 

zu Bretern Schickt, genennet; Denn aus diesen werden etliche Bret=Klötzer, hieraus aber auf 

einer Schneide= oder Sägemühle Breter von verschiedener Länge, Breite und Dicke 

geschnitten) so hierzu tüchtig ausgelesen werden soll, muß nothwendig einen starcken, 

wenigstens Klaffter dick geraden, und ohne alle Aeste, glatt und reinen Schafft oder Stamm 

haben, nach des Bodens Gelegenheit, von zwei biß drey Klötzer hoch gewachsen, deren 

jegliches 8. biß 10 Ellen lang sey, und da auch nur ein Klotz davon zu nutzen, muß solcher 

doch rein, von starcken Aesten, weder weiß=klüfftig, noch faul=fleckigt, schwammigt, oder 

Kern=schäligt seyn, weil es sonst nur hervon fleckigte, ästige, oder untaugliche Breter geben 

wurde, da im Aushobeln der Ast ausspringet und ein Loch machet, ob gleich nicht anfänglich, 

doch mit der Zeit, wenn es dürre worden. Ingleichen darff das Tangel=Holtz keine 

Harz=Gallen oder Pechrisse haben, weil solche rothe gerstige Flecken verursachen, auch nicht 

schwammigt oder knötigt seyn, welches alles der Augenschein deutlicher zu erkennen geben 

kan und der Praxis hierbey am besten lehren wird. 

Was nun die Bret=Mühle an treibendem Gezeug betrifft, erfordert selbige fürnemlich 

einen verständigen Wasser=Müller, solches leichte und ohne beschwerlichen Vorgelege 

anzugeben, wie dann ein jeder seine Erfindung hat. Insgemein und vornehmlich muß das 

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Wasser=Rad, nach Höhe seines Gefälles, wie auch Breite und Menge des Wassers, entweder 

mit weiten, oder engen Schauffeln, von dünnen, leichten Tannen=Bretern gemachet seyn, 

damit es nicht zu schwer, sondern fein flüchtig und schnell umlaufe, und die Welle, mit dem 

daran gemachten innern Stirn=Rade und Kämmen zugleich umtreibe, welche Kämme die 

Kumpt=Welle und das Schwanz=Rad treiben, und so dann am Ende derselben den 

Krumm=Zapfen umdrehen, daß solcher, wie an einem Schleiff=Stein, den Lencker, welcher 

unterm Gatter angemacht, das Gatter und die Bret=Säge zugleich auf und niederschübe und 

den Bret=Klotz durchschneide. Weil nun die Säge in ihrer Bewegung auf und nieder 

beständig an einem Orte bleibet, so muß der Bret=Klotz alle Schnitte gegen die Säge rücken, 

und wird hierzu das Schübe=Zeug durch das Gatter eben beweget, daß die Schübe=Stange 

den Zahn=Ring eingreiffe und fortrücke, welcher das Getriebe und Stirn=Rädgen unter sich 

umtreibet. Die Welle an dem Stirn=Rädgen hat darneben ein Getriebe, welches über sich den 

Kamm=Baum an dem Wagen ergreiffet und solchen allgemach fortschübet; wenn nun der auf 

solchem Wagen fest geklammerte Bret=Klotz einmal durchgeschnitten, wird der Wagen 

zurück geschoben, so entweder von dem Müller oder vermittelst eines absonderlichen 

Getriebes nach eines jeden Erfindung geschiehet, und der Klotz loßgemacht, nach Stärke 

derer Breter oder Pfosten, vorn und hinten gestellet, und zum neuen Schnitt angesetzet wird. 

Wann denn der Klotz mit seinen Brettern geschnitten, wird es am füglichsten 

berechnet, wenn es zusammen mit seinen Schwarten, wie es gewesen, vorgezeiget wird: Oder 

es werden sonst auch die Breter, damit sie desto besser in der Luft trocknen, gebührlich 

angeschräncket, und entweder zum Bauen und nöthigen Gebrauch, oder zum Verkauff fertig 

gehalten: Letzlich ist nöthig zu erinnern, daß die im Wald abgehauene Bret=Klötzer nicht 

allzulang in ihrer Rinde auf blosser Erde und angezogener Feuchtigkeit liegen bleiben, denn 

sonsten dieselben leichtlich unter der Rinde im Splint blau anlauffen oder ganz verstocken 

möchten, daß hieraus nur lauter untüchtige Breter und vergebliche Mühe zu schneiden wäre: 

Wofern sie aber liegen sollen, muß man die Rinde davon abschälen und sie auf Träger zu 

legen, am allerbesten aber ist es, daß man sie gantz frisch schneide, da sie denn dauerhaffter 

sind. In denen Säge=Spänen halten sich die Schlangen gerne auf. 

Wo die Waldungen groß, und offtmahls viel tausend Klafftern in Brüchen und 

Sümpfen verderben, die sonst zu Nutz gebracht werden können, so ist es gar rahtsam 

Schneide=Mühlen anzulegen, indem man hierdurch das Holtz gar wohl nutzen und vertreiben 

kan. Es ist aber doch auch nicht dienlich, die Höltzer mit allzuvielen Bret=Mühlen zu 

überhäuffen, sondern man muß hierbey sein Absehen auf solche Waldungen richten, wo die 

Höltzer nicht genutzet werden können, oder sonst in grossem Ueberschuß zu finden sind. 

Man muß bey denen Schneide=Mühlen alle Brüche und dürren Höltzer, so die Bloche 

geben, mit dazu anwenden: Zu Vermeidung alles Unterschleiffes muß man jeden Bloch zuvor 

mit dem Wald=Eisen bezeichnen und zuposten, und wird der Bloch nach einem gewissen 

Preiß von dene Schneide=Müllern erhandelt. In Ansehung des Preisses hat man vor Alters bey 

Verkauffung solcher Bloche den Herrschaftlichen Nutzen nicht sonderlich beobachtet, 

massen man in denen Privilegiis derer Schneide=Mühlen findet, wie solche Bloche ohne 

Unterscheid vor 1.Gr.6. Pf. auch 4 Gr. bezahlet, und die Giebel=Bloche zweye vor einen 

gerechnet worden, darinnen der Herrschaft gar viel Schaden geschehen: es ist dahero viel 

vorteilhaffter, wenn die Bloche nach dem Modell gerechnet werden. Das Modell ist aber 

dasjenige, nach welchem die Breter zu schneiden denen Müllern vorgeschrieben ist. So 

bestehet das Modell eines drey viertheiligen Bretes in 16. Zollen und 14. Schuhen Wird nun 

nach dem Maaß der 16. Zoll auch die Dicke des Blochs ausgemessen, welches man an dem 

einen Ende des Blochs ins Kreutz zu thun pfleget, so heist ein solcher Bloch ein 

Dreyvierteltheil=Bloch, welcher mit 4. Gr. bezahlet wird. Je dicker solcher Bloch ist, je mehr 

muß der Preiß steigen, und zwar alle 4. Zoll um 2. gr. da den zuweile ein Bloch auf 16. gr. 

kan gebracht werden. Hingegen so ein Bloch unter 16. Zoll ist, kommt solcher vor 2. gr. 

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dieses ist der rechte Preiß, wodurch weder Herrschaft noch Unterthanen einigen Schaden 

haben können. Was die übrigen Unkosten anlanget, die der Müller anwenden muß, ehe er die 

Bloche zur Mühle bekommt, so muß er 9. bis 10. pf. geben, den Bloch zu machen, das 

Schock Bloche zu schläuffen 20. Thaler Wenn andere Leute auf der Mühle Breter schneiden 

lassen, so geben sie von der Diele 3. Heller. Hingegen wird der Herrschaft gemeiniglich 

ausbedungen, zu ihrem Bauen um die Helffte zu schneiden. 

Die Müller dürften die Breter nicht nach eigenem gefallen so lang und breit machen, 

wie sie wollen sondern es müssen die Dielen nach Herrschaftlichen Zoll und Modell 

geschnitten werden. Es gibt derer Breter viererley, als erstlich die Schwarte, darnach das 

Schwarten=Bret, welche beyde kein vorgeschriebenes Modell haben, ferner das Schmahl=B., 

so 12. Zoll in die Breite, und in die Dicke einen Zoll haben muß, und endlich das 

Dreyviertheil=Bret, welches in die Breite 16. Zoll, und in die Dicke 1 1/2 Zoll hat. Alle 

müssen in die Länge 14. Schuh haben. Nachdem die Breter bestelet werden, nachdem machen 

sie solche 16. 17. 18. bis 20 Schuhe lang, jedoch auch nicht länger , weil der Wagen auf der 

Schneide=Mühle nicht länger ist. Solche Breter werden alsdenn nach der Güte um 1 gr. 14. 

16. 18. auch 20 pf. ingleichen 2. gr verkaufft. Aus denen Blochen werden ferner Bohlen 

geschnitten, die aber kein ordentliches Modell haben, sondern nachdem sie bestellet werden, 

auch dicke oder dünne, breit oder schmal sind, und giebt es daher zwey-Zollige, 

drittehalb=Zollige, drey=Zollige Bohlen und so fort. Wenn man aber wissen will, wie viel 

Breter aus einem jeden Bloche können geschnitten werden, so muß man erstlich solche 

Bloche in Bohlen austheilen, und ausmessen, da man denn bald wissen kan, wie viel Breter 

aus dem Bloche selbst gemacht werden können, massen ein voll Schock oder 60. Stück 

zwey=Zollige dreyviertheil Bohlen, nachgehends an dreyviertheil=Brettern 3 Wald=Schock 

das Wald=Schock zu 40 Stück gerechnet, geben muß, an Schmal=Bretern giebt es 180 Stück 

oder drey volle Schock. So viel Waare kan wiederum mit 15. dreyviertheil Blochen dem 

Schneide=Müller ersetzet werden, da denn das Schneider=Lohn mit eingerechnet wird. Aus 

einem vollen Schock schmalen anderthalbzolligen Bohlen kan man ein voll Schock und 30. 

Stück schmale Dielen bringen, und wird diese Waare auf dem Stamm mit achtehalb Blochen 

ersetzet. Also kan man auch, wenn man Bloche erst in Dreyviertheil=Bretern rechnet, 

alsdenn wissen, wie viel solches schmale Breter gebe, nemlich ein voll Schock 

Dreyviertheil=Breter von 14. Schuh lang, 15 Zoll Breit, und einen Zoll dicke, machen 90. 

Stück 90. schmale Breter, und wird solche Waare gleichfalls auf dem Stamme mit achtehalb 

Blochen ersetzet. Sechtzig Stück schmale Brete, so 12 Zoll breit, und 1 Zoll starck sind 

machen 5. Bloche, auf jedem Bloch 12. Stück Breter gerechnet. Es pflegt also alle diese 

Waare mit Blochen ersetzt zu werden, wenn die Herrschaft solche zu ihren Gebäuden 

gebrauchet. 

Noch ist zu mercken, daß die Schneide=Müller mit allem Fleiß verhüten müssen, daß 

die Wasser nicht durch die Säge=Spähne verderbet, oder die Teiche, so etwan dran gelegen, 

damit ausgefüllet werden, sondern man muß sie jedesmal ausschaffen, damit keine in die 

Gräben oder Flüsse kommen, weil solche denen Fischen überaus schädlich. Im übrigen 

müssen sich die Schneide=Müller aller Orten nach denen Forst=Ordungen jedes Ortes zu 

bezeigen wissen. 

LITERATURVERZEICHNIS 

Sturm Leonhardt Christoph 1738: Vollständige Mühlen Baukunst Darinnen werden. I. 

Alle Grundreguln so zu der Praxi nöthig, die doch gar wenigen recht bekannt sind freülich 

angewiesen; II. Die Vortheile die man bey Anlegung der Wasserräder alle Sorten von 

Maschinen zutreiben in acht nehmen muß, Auf den höchsten Grad der Vollkommenheit 

gebracht; III. Was insonderheit an Korn- Graupen- Papier- Öhl- Pulfer- Täg- Steinschneide- 

Bohr- Schleiff- Senken- Kessel- Eisendrath- Dächsel- und Dreschmühlen Zuverbessern, 

123

aufrichtig entdeckt. Also daß dieses Werck wohl vor eine Entdeckung der aller raresten und 

vortrefflichsten Mechanischen Vortheile in der Praxi darff angegeben werden. Kammer- und 

Policey- Räthen- Beamten- Statt- Magistraten, Kaufleüthen und allen sowohl der großen 

Oeconomie als Mechanischer Künste beflissenen Zum Nutzen getreulich eröffnet von 

Leonhardt Christoph Sturm Ausgpurg Verlegt von Jeremias Wolff Kunsthändlern, A o 1738. 

Cum Ptivilegio Sac. Cas. Majestatis. 

Zedler Johann Heinrich, 1733: Großes vollständiges Universal=Lexicon aller 

Wissenschaften und Künste, Welche bißhero durch menschlichen Verstand und Witz 

erfunden und verbessert worden, Darinnen so wohl die Geographisch-Politische Beschreibung 

der Erd- Kreyses, nach allen Monarchien, Käyserthümern, Königreichen, Fürstenthümer, 

Republiken , freyen Herrschaften, Ländern, Städten, See=Häfen, Festungen, Schlössern, 

Flecken, Aemtern, Klöstern, Gebürgen, Pässen, Wäldern, Meeren, Seen, Inseln, Flüssen, und 

Canälen; samt der natürlichen Abhandlung von dem Reich der Natur, nach allen 

himmlischen, lufftigen, wässerigen und irrdischen Cörpern, und allen hierinnen befindlichen 

Gesteinen., Planeten, Thieren, Pflanzen, Metallen, Mineralien, Saltzen und Steinen etc. Als 

auch eine ausführliche Historisch-genealogische Nachricht von den Durchlauchten und 

berühmtesten Geschlechtern in der Welt, Dem Leben und Thaten der Käyser, Könige, 

Thurfürsten und Fürsten, grosser Helden, Staats-Minister, Kriegs-Obersten zu Wasser und zu 

Lande, den vornehmen geist= und weltlichen Ritter=Orden etc. Ingleichen von allen Staats= 

Kriegs= Rechts=Policey und Haußhaltungs=Geschäften des Adelichen und bürgerlichen 

Standes, der Kauffmannschaft, Handthierungen, Künste und Gewerbe, ihren Innungen, 

Zünften und Gebräuchen, Schiffsfahrten, Jagden. Fischereyen, Berg=Wein=Acker=Bau und 

Viehzucht etc. Wie nicht weniger die völlige Vorstellung aller in den Kirchen=Geschichten 

berühmten Alt=Väter, Propheten. Apostel, Päbste, Cardinale, Bischöffe, Prälaten und 

Gottes=Gelehrten , wie auch Concilien, Synoden, Orden, Wallfahrten, Verfolgungen der 

Kirchen, Märtyrer, Heiligen, Sectierer und Ketzer aller Zeiten und Länder, Endlich auch ein 

vollkommener Inbegriff der allergelehresten Männer, berümter Universitäten, Academien, 

Societäten und der von ihnen gemachten Entdeckungen, ferner der Mythologie, Alterthümer, 

Müntz=Wissenschaft, Philosophie, Mathematic, Theologie, Jurisprudentz und Medicin, wie 

auch aller freyen und mechanischen Künste, samt der Erklärung aller derinnen 

vorkommenden Kunst=Wörter u.s.f. enthalten ist. Nebst einer Vorrede, von der Einrichtung 

dieses Mühsamen und grossen Wercks Joh. Pet. von Ludewig, JCti, Königl. Preussischen 

geheimen und Magdeburg. Regierungs=und Consistorial=Raths, Canzler bey der Universität, 

und der Juristen=Fakultät Praesidis Ordinarii, Erb=und Gerichts=Herrn auf Bendorff, Preß 

und Gatterstätt. Mit Hoher Potentaten allergnädigsten Privilegiis. Erster Band. A. –Am. Halle 

und Leipzig, Verlegts Johann Heinrich Zedler, Anno 1733. 

Streszczenie: Traki w niemieckiej literaturze 18 wieku na podstawie prac Sturm’a i 

Encyklopedi Zedlera. Prze�omem w technikach przetarcia drewna by�o zastosowanie do 

nap�du traków si�y wody. Czas kiedy do tego dosz�o jest nadal sporny. Z jednej strony 

odnajdywane s� zapiski o takich wynalazkach ju� w staro�ytno�ci. Przyk�adowo rzymski 

pisarz i poeta Ausonius Decimus Magnus w poemacie Mosella z 395 roku n.e. opisuje traki 

poruszane ko�ami wodnymi posadowione na rzeczce Roer lub Ruer w ówczesnej Galii. 

Wydaje si� jednak, �e znajomo�� tej techniki nie by�a powszechna. Pierwsze szkice 

pracuj�cych w Niemczech traków do drewna zamieszczono dopiero z trzy-tomowej ksi��ce 

Zeisinga pod tytu�em Theatrum Machinarum wydanej w 1612 roku. Na prawdziwie 

in�ynierskie (konstrukcyjne) rysunki takich urz�dze�, trzeba by�o poczeka� przez kolejne 

stulecie, a� do wydania w Augsburgu w 1718 opracowania budowniczego tartaków Sturm’a. 

W artykule zamieszczono obszerne opisy traków z drugiego wydania ksi��ki Strum’a oraz ze 

s�awnej encyklopedii Zedlera wydanej w roku 1733. 

124

Sk�adamy serdeczne podzi�kowania Pracownikom Dzia�u Starych Druków Biblioteki 

Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego za udost�pnienie cytowanych prac oraz ilustracji. 








Poland 

e-mail: ewa_dobrowolska@sggw.pl 

Pawe� Kozakiewicz 






Poland 

e-mail: pawel_kozakiewicz@sggw.pl




Relationship between the anatomical structure elements and mechanical 

properties in the trunk transverse and longitudinal direction for wood of 

Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) growing in Latvia 

J�NIS DOLACIS, ANDIS ANTONS, GUN�RS PAVLOVI�S, DACE C�RULE 

Latvian State Institute of Wood Chemistry 

Abstract. Relationship between the anatomical structure elements and mechanical properties in the trunk 

transverse and longitudinal direction for wood of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) growing in Latvia. 

Norway or common spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) is the third dominating species in Latvia after pine and 

birch. However, exhaustive information about the relationship between its structure and properties, as well as its 

anatomical structure elements, is lacking. The main anatomical structure parameters under study were: annual 

ring width (Gp�), share of late wood in the annual ring (Gvk%), tracheid length (TL), double wall thickness and 

cross-section in radial direction in early wood (T 2w ak, TR ak) and late wood (T2W vk, TR vk). In the work, the 

following mechanical characteristics were considered: compressive strength in fibre direction (�com), 

compression modulus of elasticity in fibre direction (Ecom), bending strength in tangential direction (�bend), 

bending modulus of elasticity in tangential direction (Ebend), shearing strength in tangential direction (�tg), cutting 

strength in radial and tangential directions (�ra, �tg), tensile strength in fibre direction (�tensile), tensile modulus of 

elasticity in fibre direction (Etensile). These mechanical characteristics, as well as the anatomical structure 

elements, were determined at four trunk heights (at the butt-end – R, ¼, ½ and ¾ parts of the trunk height, which 

corresponds to the trunk’s relative lengths 0, 25, 50 and 75 %, respectively) and in the radial direction from heart 

pith to sapwood. The tracheid length distribution throughout the trunk’s height and in transverse direction 

determines many mechanical characteristics of spruce wood - the longer the tracheids the higher mechanical 

indices. The tracheid length decreases in the direction from the trunk’s butt-end to the top in longitudinal and 

radial direction from sapwood to heart pith. Thus, for example, the tracheid length ratio in the direction from 

sapwood to heart pith is 1.31, ¼ – 1.27, ½ – 1.23 and ¾ – 1.18. The ratio of the early wood tracheid double wall 

thickness in the direction from sapwood to heart pith in the trunk’s longitudinal direction and at the butt-end is 

1.25, ¼ – 1.12, ½ – 1.13 and ¾ – 1.05. It is shown that the content of late wood in the annual ring determines 

many elevated mechanical characteristics. 

Keywords: Norway spruce, anatomical structure, mechanical properties 

INTRODUCTION 

Norway or common spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) is the third leading tree species in 

Latvia, after pine and birch. Spruce wood is lighter than pine wood, has a lowest resin 

content, and has somewhat lower mechanical strength indices, but is most suitable for pulp 

and paper production. A whole range of studies on the anatomical structure and physical 

properties of spruce (Picea abies L. Karst.) wood, and their relationship and correlation have 

been carried out in Latvia (BALODE et al., 2000; 2002; 2004; HROLS et al. PRIEDKALNS 

et al.). Results on the anatomical structure and physical properties of the wood of spruce 

growing in Latvia were compared, drawing attention to the parameters of wood tracheids, as 

well as its physical properties such as density, swelling, shrinkage, and water and moisture 

absorbance. The obtained results were compared to the data available in the literature to gain 

insight into the quality of spruce wood, and its competitiveness with the wood of other 

spruces growing in Latvia. However, there is not currently enough information on the 

relationship between the structure of spruce wood and its anatomical structure elements. The 

aim of the present work was to characterise the relationship between the main anatomical 

structure parameters of spruce wood and physical as well as some mechanical properties, 

because there have not been similar studies, especially on the mechanical properties. 

126


For mutual comparison of the gained data, as the task of the study, determination of 

the anatomical parameters and mechanical properties of wood in the same trunk’s site was 

proposed. Knowing that, in practice, it is difficult to obtain sample trees of identical 

dimensions, in the present study, for mutual data comparison, the sample tree trunks were 

divided at proportional heights (butt-end – R, ¼, ½ and ¾ from the trunk height). 

To investigate the anatomical parameters of wood, a special optical microscope 

MTK�-1 with a video camera TK-C721EG (JVC Color) was used, employing the software 

IMAGE-PRO EXPRESS for picture analysis in reflected light. To determine the mechanical 

characteristics of wood, an universal material testing machine ”Roel Zwick/Z100” was used, 

equipped with a computer and the software testXpert Version 11.02 for processing the 

experimental data. 

The mechanical characteristics were determined in compliance with the following 

standards: DIN 52 185, DIN 52 186, GOST 16 483.5-73, GOST 16 483.13-72, GOST 16 

483.23-73, GOST 16 483.24-73, GOST 16 483.26-73. 

Tensile modulus of elasticity in fibre direction at the given moisture W was 

determined in compliance with GOST16 483.2 6-73 from the equation: 

P � l 

Ew= [Pa], 

a � b � �l 

where P – load difference between the upper and lower proportionality ultimate stress, N; l – 

proportionality ultimate length, m; a and b – sample’s transverse sizes, m; �l – average 

displacement value, which corresponds to the load P, m. 

Compression modulus of elasticity in the fibre direction at the given moisture W was 

determined according to GOST16 483.24-73, from the equation: 

P � l 

Ew= [Pa], 

a � b � �l 

where P – load difference between the higher and lower proportionality ultimate stress, N; l – 

proportionality ultimate length, m; a and b – sample’s transverse sizes, m; �l – average 

displacement value, which corresponds to load P, m. 


The values of the anatomical parameters of spruce wood are shown in Table 1. 

Table 1. Values of spruce wood anatomical parameters 

H, % A, TR vk, TR ak, T 2w vk, T 2w ak, TL, Gvk, Gpl, 

cm mkm mkm mkm mkm mm % mm 

0 16 23.0 40.8 13.3 5.9 4.6 28.0 1.51 

10 22.9 39.9 12.4 5.1 3.8 24.6 1.58 

6 23.3 38.7 11.1 4.7 3.5 23.6 2.27 

25 10 21.3 40.3 11.6 4.6 4.7 20.3 1.03 

7 21.4 39.0 11.8 4.6 4.4 20.8 1.11 

4 20.8 36.9 10.1 4.1 3.7 12.8 1.87 

50 8 19.8 38.9 10.9 4.4 4.2 14.0 1.04 

6 19.7 37.1 10.6 4.2 4.1 14.6 1.17 

4 19.4 36.4 10.2 3.9 3.4 12.2 1.48 

75 5 19.5 36.5 9.9 4.1 4.0 13.7 1.25 

3 18.6 35.1 9.5 3.9 3.4 9.3 2.10 

Legends: H – relative height of the trunk; A – distance from the pith; TR vk – diameter of late wood tracheids; TR 

ak – diameter of early wood tracheids; T 2w vk – double cell wall width of late wood tracheids; T 2w ak – double cell 

wall width of early wood tracheids; TL – tracheids length; Gvk – late wood percentage in the annual ring; Gpl – 

width of annual rings, mm. 

127

Ultimate strength in compression, shearing, bending and tension, depending on the 

length of the trunk of spruce wood, is shown in Fig. 1. 

128 

Figure 1. Ultimate strength in 

compression, shearing, bending and 

tension depending on the length of 

the trunk: 1 - R, 2 - ¼, 3 - ½, 4 - ¾. 

Compression and bending modules of elasticity depending on the length of the trunk 

of spruce wood are shown in Fig. 2. The highest compression and bending modules of 

elasticity are also at the butt-end. 

Tensile and shearing modules of elasticity, depending on the length of the trunk of 

spruce wood, are shown in Fig. 3. The indices of shearing modulus of elasticity are not so 

unequivocal throughout the trunk height, and those at ¼ and ¾ from the trunk’s height are 

similar to those for the butt-end. 

Figure 2. Modulus of elasticity in compression 

and bending depending on the length of the trunk: 

1 - R, 2 - ¼, 3 - ½ and 4 - ¾. 

Figure 3. Modulus of elasticity in tensile and shearing 

depending on the length of the trunk: 1 - R, 2 - ¼, 3 - ½ 

and 4 - ¾. 

CONCLUSIONS 

1. The highest indices of the mechanical properties of wood (ultimate strength in 

shearing, compression, bending and tension are at the butt-end and ¼ of the trunk’s 

height, which agrees with the greater part of the late wood content in the annual 

ring and the tracheid lengths in these parts of the trunk. 

2. There is a positive and stable correlation (correlation coefficient r = 0.96 and r = 

0.74, respectively) between the compression strength in the transverse direction of 

the spruce runk from heart pith to ¼ and ¾ of sapwood (correlation coefficient r = 

0.96 and r = 0.74, respectively). However, this relationship at the butt-end and the 

central part of the stem is negative and insignificant. 

3. There is a negative and insignificant correlation (correlation coefficient r = 0.49, 

respectively) in the transverse direction of the spruce trunk from heart pith to 

sapwood at the butt-end, but it is positive and insignificant at ¼ from the trunk’s 

height (r = 0.38). In the trunk’s central part, it is positive and significant (r = 0.91). 

4. There is no correlation between the tensile strength in the transverse direction of 

the spruce trunk from heart pith to sapwood at the butt-end (correlation coefficient 

r = 0.08), and it is negative and insignificant (r = 0.32) at ½ from the trunk’s

height. However, it is positive and also insignificant (R = 0.35) at ½ from the 

trunk’s height. 

5. Ultimate strength in shearing in the tangential and radial directions of spruce wood 

is practically the same, and the distribution in the trunk’s cross-section from heart 

pith to sapwood is positive. This relationship at the heights R and ¼ is essential (r 

= 0.55 ÷ 0.80). 

REFERENCES 

1. BALODE V., ALKSNE A., DOLACIS J., HROLS J., 2002: Anatomical structure of 

wood of Norway spruce (Picea abies L. Karst.) in forests of Western Latvia. – 

Proceedings of the 4 rd 

IUFRO Symposium “WOOD STRUCTURE AND 

PROPERTIES ‘02” 1-3 September, 2002, in Bystrá. Technical University in Zvolen, 

2003, 29-32. 

2. BALODE V., ALKSNE A., DOLACIS J., HROLS J., 2002: Some elements of the 

anatomical structure of spruce wood growing in Latvia. – Annals of Warsaw 

Agricultural University. Forestry and Wood Technology. Special Number I. 

Warsaw, 19-24. 

3. BALODE V., CIRULE D., DOLACIS J., HROLS J., KRUTUL D., KAZEM-BEK 

D., 2004: Morphological and physical properties of Norway spruce (Picea abies 

Karst.) wood growing in Latvia. – Annals of Warsaw Agricultural University – 

SGGW, Forest and Wood Technology, No. 55, 26-29. 

4. BALODE V., DOLACIS J., CIRULE D., HROL J., 2004: Physical properties of 

Norway spruce (Picea abies Karst.) wood growing in Latvia. – Proceedings of IV 

International Symposium: “WOOD STRUCTURE, PROPERTIES AND 

QUALITY’ 04”. St. Petersburg, RUSSIA, October 13 – 16, 2004, Vol. I, 178- 180. 

5. PRIEDKALNS G., PUSHINSKIS V., DOLACIS J., HROLS J., 2002: Physicomechanical 

properties of spruce wood growing in Latvia. Annals of Warsaw 

Agricultural University. Forestry and Wood Technology. Special Number I. 

Warsaw, 33-37. 

Streszczenie: Zale�no�� pomi�dzy struktur� anatomiczn� i w�asno�ciami mechanicznymi drewna a wzd�u�nym i 

poprzecznym po�o�eniem drewna w pniu �wierka (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) rosn�cego na �otwie. �wierk (Picea 

abies (L.) Karst.) jest trzecim dominuj�cym na �otwie gatunkiem po so�nie i brzozie. Brakuje jednak 

wyczerpuj�cych informacji o zale�no�ciach pomi�dzy struktur� oraz w�asno�ciami i budowie anatomicznej. 

G�ównymi analizowanymi parametrami by�y: szeroko�� s�oja rocznego (Gp�), zawarto�� drewna pó�nego w s�oju 

(Gvk%), d�ugo�� cewek (TL), szeroko�� i przekrój �cianek w przekroju promieniowym drewna wczesnego (T 2w ak, 

TR ak) i pó�nego (T2W vk, TR vk). Rozpatrywano nast�puj�ce w�asno�ci mechaniczne: wytrzyma�o�� na �ciskanie 

wzd�u� w�ókien (�com), modu� spr��ysto�ci przy �ciskaniu wzd�u� w�ókien (Ecom), wytrzyma�o�� na zginanie w 

kierunku stycznym (�bend), modu� spr��ysto�ci przy zginaniu w kierunku stycznym (Ebend), wytrzyma�o�� na 

�cinanie w kierunku stycznym (�tg), wytrzyma�o�� na przecinanie w kierunku stycznym i promieniowym (�ra, �tg), 

wytrzyma�o�� na rozci�ganie wzd�u� w�ókien (�tensile), modu� spr��ysto�ci przy rozci�ganiu wzd�u� w�ókien 

(Etensile). Powy�sze warto�ci by�y mierzone w czterech miejscach pnia, w odziomku oraz na ¼, ½ i ¾ wysoko�ci, 

oraz w kierunku promieniowym od rdzenia do bielu. Rozk�ad d�ugo�ci cewek wzd�u� pnia i w kierunku 

promieniowym ma zasadniczy wp�yw na w�asno�ci mechaniczne, im d�u�sze cewki tym wi�ksza wytrzyma�o��. 

D�ugo�� cewek zmniejsza si� w kierunku od odziomka w gór� pnia i od bielu do rdzenia. Znormalizowana 

d�ugo�� cewek od bielu do rdzenia wynosi 1.31, ¼ – 1.27, ½ – 1.23 oraz ¾ – 1.18. Znormalizowana grubo�� 

�cian w kierunku od bielu do rdzenia to 1.25, ¼ – 1.12, ½ – 1.13 oraz ¾ – 1.05. Wykazano �e zawarto�� drewna 

pó�nego w s�oju rocznym okre�la wiele znacz�cych w�asno�ci mechanicznych. 


Latvian State Institute of Wood Chemistry, Dz�rbenes iela 27, Riga, 

LV-1006, LATVIA, tel. +371 7553063, fax: +371 7550635, e-mail: 

dolacis@edi.lv




Preliminary research of the processes of filtering purification of the air 

polluted by dust arisen during tooling the particleboards 

S. DOLNY, T. ROGOZI�SKI 

Poznan University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Wood Technology, Department of Working Environment 

Engineering 

Abstract: Preliminary research of the processes of filtering purification of the air polluted by dust arisen during 

tooling the particleboards This paper contains an attempt of testing the filtration of air polluted by dust from 

particleboards tooling. The course of filtration processes was described. 

Keywords: wood dust, filtration, non-woven fabrics 

INTRODUCTION 

The high content of dust- fractions in the total mass of waste material from the tooling 

of particleboards causes that bag filters find a common use as separators in dedusting 

installations working in the plants of the tooling of particleboards. 

The use of the bag filter in conditions of the additional considerable load of the filter 

surface with the waste material with dimensions larger than dust particles causes the risk of 

the unnecessary increase of resistances of the air flow through the filter. 

Resistances of the air flow are one of two quantities characterizing the course of filter 

processes. The second from them is the efficiency of the dust cleaning. The determination of 

the formation of these quantities and their detailed describing with taking into consideration 

the basic technological conditions including the generic and dimension diversity of dust make 

the first stage on the way to the delimitation of proper conditions of the course of processes of 

the filter cleaning of air from every kind of the dust. 

The attempt of the characterization of the initial phase of the experimental process of 

the filter cleaning of air from dust arisen at the production of furniture elements from 

particleboards was undertaken in this work. 

MATERIAL AND METHOD 

Research was conducted on the laboratory position for testing of filter processes in the 

enlarged scale. The construction, the principle of operation and investigative possibilities of 

this position were described in earlier works[Dolny 1998, Dolny 1999]. 

As filter medium was used non-woven fabric with the symbol KYS series FINESS. 

The working surface of this material was adapted on the stage production by the covering of a 

layer microfibers to the cleaning of air from very small dusts particles. The detailed technical 

characteristics and proposed range of the usage of this material gives Dobak [2004]. 

The conducting of research in the enlarged scale, with taking into consideration the 

wide range of factors influencing on the course of filter processes in dust separators enables to 

the estimation of their influence on the formation of the separative effect of industrial bag 

filters in plants of the processing of wood. 

The waste material obtained from one plant of furniture industry situated in the north 

Great Poland was used in the research. Grain composition of these waste material was 

presented on fig. 1. 

130

Dust particles contents [pcs./m 3 ] 

35000000 

30000000 

25000000 

20000000 

15000000 

10000000 

5000000 

Fig. 1. Grain composition of the dust 

Parameters of the filtering process and remaining conditions of the experiment 

answered to typical practical values in filter dust cleaners in wood industry. Each value is 

contained in tab.1. 

Table 1. Conditions of filtering processes 

Conditions of filtering processes Value 

Air to cloth ratio 0,04 m·s-1 Dust concentration in the cleaned 

air 

12 g·m-3 Air relative humidity 30% 

Pressure of the regenerative air 0,5 MPa 

Duration of filtering cycle 1 min 

RESULTS 

Although the obtained results have the indicatory character they are important 

comparative material with relation to the results which will obtain in further stages of research 

works and also with relation to already well described results of the research on the filter 

cleaning of air from the beechwood dusts [Dolny et al. 2006, Dolny i Rogozi�ski 2009]. Some 

observations resulting from the analysis of obtained results show the considerable distinctions 

in the effectivity of the separation of dust particles from tolling of particleboards and dust 

from the beechwood. Here can be mentioned results of measurement of the content of dust 

particles in cleaned air. Their content appears in this case considerably lower (fig. 2). 

0 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 

131 

T[min] 

Fig.2. Total content of dust particles in the cleaned air

The filter process conducted in this conditions is characterized with the considerable 

rate of the increase of resistances of the air flow in the first phase of its duration (fig. 3). 

Pressure drop [Pa] 

100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 

Number of filtration cycles 

Fig. 3. Resistances of air flow during filtration 

The increase of resistances of the air flow is considerably more dynamic than this 

increase during the filtration of air polluted by beechwood dust described in earlier works. 

This shows on higher energy-consuming of the cleaning of air from the dust from the tooling 

of particleboards. 

This is the typical situation because high separative efficiency of the filter layer is 

connected with the raised level of pressure drop in consequence of greater concentration of 

the dust cake. It is advisable to make so selection of conditions of the conduction of the 

filtration and the parameters of the process that the negative effect was diminished and 

simultaneous the high efficiency of the dust cleaning was kept. 

CONCLUSION 

Presented here example results obtained during the research of filter cleaning of air 

from dusts from the tooling of particleboards conducted with the use of superficially modified 

nonwoven fabric type KYS series FINESS let on the ascertainment of the highly satisfactory 

efficiency of the cleaning of air with use of this material. Unfortunately occurring at this 

process high resistances of the air flow determine the problem which negatively projects on 

the cleaning of air from wood dusts with the method of the filtration. 

REFERENCES 

1. S. DOBAK, 2004, Oczyszczanie powietrza z py�ów drzewnych na strukturach 

filtracyjnych z warstw� mikrow�ókien, Doctoral Dissertation. 

2. S. DOLNY, 1999, Transport pneumatyczny i odpylanie w przemy�le drzewnym, AR 

Pozna�. 

3. S. DOLNY, 1998, Badania oporów przep�ywu podczas filtracyjnej separacji py�ów 

powsta�ych w procesach przerobu materia�ów drzewnych, AR Pozna�. 

4. S. DOLNY, T. ROGOZI�SKI, G. HYRCZYK, 2006, Resistances of flow during 

filtration of wood dust-polluted air with high relative humidity, Acta Sci. Pol., Silv. 

Colendar. Rat. Ind. Lignar. 5(2): pp. 159-166. 

5. S. DOLNY, T. ROGOZI�SKI, 2009, Moisture-content conditions of filtering wood 

dust out of the air. Ann. WULS – SGGW, For. And Wood Technol., 67, 2009. s. 75- 

79. 

132

Streszczenie: Wst�pne badania przebiegu procesów filtracyjnego oczyszczania powietrza z 

py�ów powsta�ych podczas obróbki p�yt wiórowych W pracy opisano wyniki wst�pnych bada� 

filtracyjnego oczyszczania powietrza z py�ów powsta�ych podczas obróbki p�yt wiórowych. 

This paper was found by research financial resources in years 2009-2013 as a research project. 


Tomasz Rogozi�ski 

Department of Working Environment Engineering 

Poznan University of Life Sciences, ul. Wojska Polskiego 38/42, 60-627 Pozna� 

E-mail address: trogoz@up.poznan.pl




Air pulse pressure in conditions of air cleaning from wood dusts by 

filtration 


Poznan University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Wood Technology, Department of Working 

Environment Engineering 

Abstract: Air pulse pressure in conditions of air cleaning from wood dusts by filtration The paper 

deals with intensity of the cleaning pulse in dependence on the length of filtering bag. The 

overpressure inside the filtering bag in very important factor influencing on the dust cake removal 

from the filter surface 

Keywords: pulse jet baghouse, wood dust, non-woven fabrics 

INTRODUCTION 

The cleaning of bags by the compressed air is one from most often practical 

methods of the regeneration of filtering materials. Advantages of such manner of 

the removal of separated dust cake are unquestionable: long period of the use of the 

filtering bags, greater air to cloth ratio, less sizes of baghouses, lower costs - 

comparatively to other methods - bearded on processes of the dust separation and 

the possibility of the continuous conduction of the air filtration process. All that 

causes that the improvement of the construction of the regeneration devices and the 

detailed recognition of occurrences during pulse jet cleaning of bags is the main 

interest of filters producers and research and development institutions. 

Fig. 1. Scheme of typical pulse jet baghouse 

134

Fig. 2. Surface of filtering bag; A filtration, B cleaning pulse [Neuman and Leibinger 2003] 

The cleaning of the bags happens by the forcing of the portion of 

compressed air in their interior. Thereby occurs the temporary increase of the 

pressure causing the sudden deformation of the filtering material and the reverse air 

flow through the material in the moment of the regeneration. The dust cake is 

detached from the working surface of filtering material as result of this. The 

construction of the typical pulse jet baghouse is shown on the fig 1, and the 

dynamics of the pulse jet regeneration illustrates fig 2. 

The pressure in the moment of pulse jet regeneration inside the bag on its 

whole-length depends on constructional parameters of the cleaning device: size of 

the nozzle forcing compressed air, kind and the construction of Venturi tube, 

distance between the nozzle and the Venturi tube and the kind of used valve. These 

parameters are the most important attribute of the pneumatic cleaning devices 

influencing on the level of the efficiency of the dust cake removal [Morris and 

Millington 1984, Rothwell 1988, Lu and Tsai 1998]. 


This research work covers the experiments heading for the estimation of the 

pneumatic regeneration system running when compressed air with the pressure 0,3 

MPa and 0,5 MPa is supplied. The air-to-cloth ratio during these experiments was 

0,110 m/s. Measurements of the pressure inside the filtering bag during 

regeneration impulses were executed in two places: 25 and 145 cm below 

fastenings of Venturi tube (fig. 3). 

Fig. 3. Tested filtering bag 

135

RESULTS 

Considerable differences in the value of the pressure during the 

regeneration impulses resulting from the distance between the place of the 

measurement and the nozzle of the regeneration system and the pressure of 

compressed air used to the regeneration of filtering material. The exemplary types 

of the course of regeneration impulses at the air-to-cloth ratio 0,11 m/s were shown 

on fig. 4 and 5. 

Pressure [Pa] 

800 

700 

600 

500 

400 

300 

200 

100 

0 

0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 

136 

T [s] 

Pressure in regeneration 

system 0,3 MPA 


system 0,5 MPA 

Fig. 4. Pressure inside the bag during cleaning pulse 25cm below Venturi tube 

Pressure [Pa] 

80,00 

60,00 

40,00 

20,00 

0,00 

-20,00 

-40,00 

-60,00 

-80,00 

0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 

T [s] 


system 0,3 MPa 


system 0,5 MPa 

Fig. 5. Pressure inside the bag during cleaning pulse 145cm below Venturi tube

CONCLUSION 

On the ground of received results the general characteristics of the 

regeneration system in conditions of the different intensity of the impulses can be 

preliminary defined. The general description of the influence of filtration processes 

conduction conditions on the efficiency of the pneumatic regeneration of used in 

them filtering materials demands however the carrying on the further research 

works with regard to the extended range of the variability of filtering processes 

basic parameters. 

REFERENCES 

1. H. C. LU, C. J. TSAI, 1998. A pilot-scale studyof the design and operation 

parameters of a pulse-jet baghouse. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 29, 510-534. 

2. K. MORRIS, C. A. MILLINGTON, 1984. Modelling fabric filters. 

Filtration and Separation. 20 (5), 478-483.. 

3. U. NEUMANN, H. LEIBINGER, 2003. Cost reduction through higher 

performance potential for process filters in the cement industry. ZKG, 

International Cement. 2, 44-52 

4. E. ROTHVELL, 1990. Pulse-driven injectors for fabric dust filters III: 

Compasrative performance of model and commercial assemblies. Filtration 

and Separation. Essex, U. K. 27, 345-349. 

Streszczenie: Ci�nienie impulsu powietrza przedmuchowego w warunkach 

filtracyjnego oczyszczania powietrza z py�ów drzewnych W pracy 

scharakteryzowano intensywno�� impulsów powietrza przedmuchowego w 

zale�no�ci od zwi�kszaj�cej si� odleg�o�ci od miejsca zamocowania worka 

filtracyjnego. Nadci�nienie wewn�trz worka filtracyjnego jest jednym z g�ównych 

czynników wp�ywaj�cych na skuteczno�� regeneracji. 









Influence of moisture content on the physical and aerodynamic properties 

of dusts from working of particleboards 


Poznan University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Wood Technology, Department of Working Environment 

Engineering 

Abstract: Influence of moisture content on the physical and aerodynamic properties of dusts from working of 

particleboards. The bulk and aerodynamic characteristics of dust arisen at particleboards tooling were presented 

in this paper. Also the influence of moisture content on these characteristics was there determined. 

Keywords: wood dust, bulk characteristics, entrainment velocity, moisture content 

INTRODUCTION 

The elaboration of effective methods of elimination of dust threats demands the 

detailed knowledge about the physical properties of tooling materials directly shaping the 

proprieties of waste material arisen during the tooling. 

Estimation of the degree of the fragmentation of the wood matter (solid wood and 

wood- materials) is very important in the process of the dedusting installation designing, in 

this first of all the participation of particles with the least dimensions - being situated in the 

range of dust fractions. In the next order appear bulk and angular properties loose and tapped 

particles filling containers or siloes to their storage. All these characteristics and proprieties 

are different for every kind of wood and for every kind of waste particles. So is there the 

necessity of the completely recognition of the conditions of the formation of waste particles in 

all cases of the tooling of wood materials. It concerns especially the dust because its removal 

from work-places, transportation to the place of the storage and safety by the utilization is 

always the considerably problem [Dolny 1999, McGlinchey 2005]. 

The baghouse is such place in the installation of the dedusting where the excessive 

moisture content in particles and the air relative humidity strongly influence on the course of 

the occurrences connected with a cleaning of air from the dust. 


Experimental material used to research was the waste material obtained from the plant 

of tooling of the particleboards. These boards were applied in production of elements of the 

building woodwork. They were tooled by sawing, drilling and milling. There was not the 

sanding in the process of the tooling. Material to research was received from the container of 

waste material which was a last element of the installation of the pneumatic transportation. 

Research was carried out basing on methodical guidelines of objective Polish norms 

and the literature. The earlier received experience in the carrying out of similar laboratory 

procedures shown in hitherto existing publications was very valuable in this range [Dolny and 

Rogozi�ski 2003, Dolny et al. 2005]. 

RESULTS 

Results of the sieve analysis were shown on the graph (fig. 1). In spite of the lack of 

the sanding in the tooling process of the particleboards the mass fraction of dust particles in 

the waste material comes to 36%. 

138

Mass share [%] 

18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

Density [g/cm 3 ] 

Entrainment velocity [m/s] 

0,4 

0,35 

0,3 

0,25 

0,2 

0,15 

0,1 

0,05 

0 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

0 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 

Moisture content [%] 

Fig. 3. Bulk density 

140 

bulk density 

tapped bulk density 

10 30 50 70 90 

Moisture content [%] 

Fig. 4. Entrainment velocity 

the particles. The increase of their mass is not so considerable, because in this range of the 

moisture content water appears in wood only as the bound water. In this range the empty 

spaces between the particles also increase, what is also a reason of the decrease of bulk 

densities. After the transgression of the saturation point of fibres the volume of particles 

remains invariable but their mass still grows. It is caused by the appearance of the bound 

water in the wood structure. The particles become more and more heavy and more exactly 

adhere to themselves. In the whole volume of the sample there are less and less empty spaces, 

and the material creates the more coherent mass. The increase of bulk densities shown on the 

graph is an effect of this. 

The entrainment velocity also grows along with the increase of the moisture content of 

tested material. Here also appears the enlargement of the mass and the volume of the particles. 

It causes the evident increase of the entrainment velocity (fig. 4).

REFERENCES 

[1] S. DOLNY, 1999, Transport pneumatyczny i odpylanie w przemy�le drzewnym, AR 

Pozna� 

[2] S. DOLNY, G. HYRCZYK, T. ROGOZI�SKI, 2005. W�a�ciwo�ci py�u ze szlifowania 

drewna gatunków li�ciastych. Rocz. AR Pozn. CCCLXVIII, Technol. Drewn. 40, pp. 269- 

276. 

[3] S. DOLNY, T. ROGOZI�SKI, 2003,: Basic technical parameters of the dust wastes from 

sanding of beech wood, Acta Facultatis Technicae VII 2003 (1), Zvolen pp. 15-18. 

[4] R. McGLINCHEY, 2005, Characterisation of bulk solids. Blackwell Publishing. 

Streszczenie: Wp�yw wilgotno�ci na w�a�ciwo�ci fizyczne i aerodynamiczne odpadów 

py�owych z obróbki p�yt wiórowych W pracy przedstawiono wyniki bada� w�a�ciwo�ci 

fizycznych i aerodynamicznych py�ów powsta�ych przy obróbce p�yt wiórowych. Okre�lono 

równie� wp�yw wilgotno�ci odpadów na te w�a�ciwo�ci. 

This paper was found by research financial resources in years 2009-2013 as a research project. 









The suggesting approach to the measuring and evaluating of the efficiency 

of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in the furniture industry 

JOSEF DRÁBEK - MARIANA SEDLIA�IKOVÁ – JUSTYNA BIERNACKA 

Department of Business Economics, Technical University, Zvolen, Slovakia 

Abstract: The paper analyzes the current issue of the evaluation of efficiency of SMEs in contemporary market 

conditions. An effective approach to measuring and evaluating of the efficiency of the furniture company is 

presented. This approach will use indicators of the financial analysis to identify the generation of economic 

added value, to measure the profit and other selected indicators. Conclusions and proposals to improve the 

efficiency of the enterprise will be formulated on the base of the obtained results. 

Keywords: Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs), efficiency, evaluation of the efficiency, generation of the 

economic added value 

INTRODUCTION 

Effort of enterprises to promote in hard market conditions of business requires applying new 

methods of management, that are appropriate for market conditions, needs and requirements. 

An essential role in this effort is the evaluation of the enterprise efficiency, which results are 

an important source of information in the management process and decision making of 

enterprises. It seems to be the main desire of investors and company owners to evaluate the 

economic efficiency of the enterprise by the simple and fast way, because they want to know 

if the enterprise can increase its value and give them the desired returns. The issue of 

economic efficiency evaluation of enterprises is very large and its analysis can be accessed in 

many ways. 


The efficiency is an economic category, which is closely linked to the systemic view on 

its measurement and evaluation. 

The three elements are the essences of economic efficiency: 

1. Defining the target value against which an actual efficiency to a required efficiency is 

compared. 

2. Criteria of targets evaluation - an indicator or a system of indicators. 

3. System of measurement and evaluation of the efficiency, which defines rules for 

measurement of indicators and methods of their evaluation. 

The economic efficiency of the company is not only a topic of interest for owners 

(shareholders) but also for other interested subjects. Lesáková, �. (2004) represents that 

according to the economic theory, the enterprise efficiency is determined by the level of the 

transformation process in the enterprise. Inputs are changed into outputs and the level of 

invested assets and the effectiveness of the reproductive process in the company reflect the 

relationship between them. To simplify, the effectiveness of the company can be defined as 

142

the ability to achieve the desired effects or outputs, preferably in measurable units. There are 

several ways, how to evaluate the enterprise efficiency, namely: 

a) Evaluation using one chosen indicator, which is set on one (primary), partial objective 

of the company. 

� Advantage: simplicity and clarity of the inscribed system. 

� Disadvantage: orientation of the company only to meet the one partial objective. 

b) Evaluation using the system of parameters, when a company seeks to achieve more 

objectives (equivalent or non-equivalent) e.g. standard methods of financial analysis. 

� Advantage: a comprehensive view of enterprise efficiency. 

� Disadvantage: difficult evaluation of opposite signals. 

c) Evaluation using one universal indicator that would monitor the fulfilment of several or 

all targets by its complexity. 

� Advantage: easy to express the result in the current evaluation of multiple objectives. 

In the present, the preferred target of companies is the increase of owners' wealth 

(shareholder value) or value creation. Using of different global methods was expanded in the 

world to measure the value creation for owners of the company. The most popular method is 

EVA, which is the form of application of the net present value (Pavelková, Knapkova, 2009). 


In the following part there are applied and verified modern indicators of measuring of 

the enterprise efficiency in conditions of the selected furniture company. 

Table 1 presents the results of the efficiency evaluation of the analyzed company by 

indicators EBIT and EBITDA. The indicator EBIT represents the value of operating profit 

before interest and taxes, and indicator EBITDA is operating profit before interest, 

depreciation and taxes. 

Tab. 1 Enumeration of indicators - EBIT and EBITDA (in thousands €) 

ITEM 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 

Operating profit before taxis 5 040 12 192 1 229 3 680 -3 005 -11 299 

+ Cost interests 2 132 1 431 1 177 1 472 1 615 1 275 

Depreciation 9 150 9 764 11 892 14 959 17 553 18 315 

+ = EBIT 7 172 13 623 2 406 5 152 -1 390 -10 024 

= EBITDA 16 322 23 387 14 298 20 111 16 163 8 291 

. 

The following table shows the trend of the value-added of the analyzed company during 

years 2004 - 2009. The presented indicator reflects the profitability of the business, where the 

achieved profit is increased by the amount of depreciation and wages, what shall to ensure the 

long-term business development. 

143

Tab. 2 Enumeration of indicator - value added (in thousands €) 

Items needed for the 

2009 

enumeration of value added 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 

Revenues from sale of goods 1 163 1 018 1 211 1 750 1 339 632 

+ Cost on purchase of sold good 1 163 1 000 1 213 1 745 1 316 628 

= Commercial margin 0 18 -2 5 23 4 

Revenues form sale of own 

goods and services 

164 125 167 432 192 320 223 339 230 871 195 434 

+ Change of the level of in-plant 

inventory 

-457 -125 -4 033 10 085 4 058 -9 197 

+ Activation 284 201 139 206 176 273 

+ = Production 163 952 167 508 188 426 233 630 235 105 186 510 

= Value of production (revenues) 

Consumption of materials, 

163 952 167 526 188 424 233 635 235 128 186 514 

energy and the other nonstored 

supplies 

113 277 108 220 122 577 162 626 164 047 124 675 

+ Services 

Intermediate consumption 

7 787 6 822 15 994 9 391 8 405 8 555 

– = (costs for raw materials and 

services) 

121 064 115 042 138 571 172 017 172 452 133 230 

= VALUE ADDED 42 888 52 484 49 853 61 618 62 676 53 284 

Table 3 presents the results of evaluation of the analysed company by the indicators 

CASH FLOW. 

Tab. 3 Indicators of Cash Flow (in thousands €) 

ITEM 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 

A* 

CASH FLOW from operations 

excluding separately reported 

6 322 20 952 18 684 32 638 19 470 15 329 

A** CASH FLOW from operations 6 338 20 964 18 713 32 646 19 481 15 337 

A*** 

NET CASH FLOW from 

operations 

5 248 18 832 18 033 32 252 19 367 15 337 

B*** 

NET CASH FLOWS from 

investing activities 

-11 316 -13 073 -15 625 -30 657 -11 189 -29 058 

C*** 

NET CASH FLOWS from 

financing activities 

7 259 -11 608 -2 977 2 340 -2 121 5 901 

D. Net increase or decrease in cash 1 191 -5 849 -569 3 935 6 057 -7 819 

E. 

F. 

G. 

H. 

CASH at the beginning of the 

accounting period 

CASH at the end of the 


(before exchange differences) 

Exchange differences on cash at 

balance sheet date 

CASH at the end of the 


6 629 7 877 2 028 1 459 5 394 12 616 

7 820 2 028 1 459 5 394 11 451 4 797 

57 0 0 0 0 0 

7 877 2 028 1 459 5 394 11 451 4 797 

144

Final evaluation of the economic efficiency of the selected company is processed by the 

financial model of economic value added - EVA, where the operating profit of the company 

is reduced by the calculations interest as the cost of capital contributed to the business. 

Tab. 4 Enumeration of EVA according to the financial model (in thousands €) 

Items needed for the 

enumeration of EVA 

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 

C – total invested capital 68 804,00 75 608,00 72 920,00 83 180,00 75 871,00 85 348,30 

NOPAT – net operating profit 

after tax 

Rd – cost of the foreign capital 

5 809,32 11 034,63 1 948,86 4 173,12 -1 125,90 -8 119,69 

(weighted arithmetical 

average) 

Re – cost of own capital 

0,16 0,19 0,07 0,10 0,08 0,08 

(modular method, model 

INFAI) 

0,10 0,07 0,16 0,36 0,65 0,62 

Re - cost of own capital 

(fixed from Rd) 

0,21 0,24 0,12 0,15 0,13 0,13 

arithmetical average Re 0,15 0,16 0,14 0,25 0,39 0,37 

D – foreign capital 17 933,00 8 583,00 46 456,00 56 570,00 74 771,00 67 767,22 

E – own capita 48 200,00 56 934,00 58 847,00 59 827,00 59 663,00 52 950,77 

C - capital 66 133,00 65 517,00 105 303,00 116 397,00 134 434,00 120 717,99 

WACC – weighted average 

cost of capital 

0,16 0,16 0,12 0,21 0,26 0,24 

EVA -5 153,03 -1 031,38 -6 801,43 -12 965,53 -20 543,68 -28 784,55 

From the results, obtained by verification of the modern method of company efficiency 

evaluation in conditions of selected furniture company, it is possible to state that: 

� The analyzed company made positive values of the indicator EBITDA during the 

monitored period of the years from 2004 to 2009. Positive values of this indicator can be 

considered as affirmative, but it is possible to observe its downward trend (negative 

development) from 2007, which was reflected in indicators of EBIT, which took negative 

values from 2008, it means negative development of this indicator. 

� Indicator of the value added got positive values during the reporting period, but in spite of 

that its development can not be considered to be positive (downward trend) over the last 

two reference years. 

� Operating activity of the company was evaluated by using of the cash flows indicators 

from operations, which got positive values during the monitored period, but it was 

recorded the decreasing trend (negative development) from the year 2007. 

� The increase of the value of the indicator EVA in time should be an ambition of every 

management. The companies, which achieve the positive values of EVA, can be 

considered as successful. 

� Realized researches in selected wood-processing companies in SR found that achieved 

EVA indicator value were negative in many cases, although the other indicators of the 

enterprise efficiency (e.g. EBITDA) got positive values, as it is in our analysed company 

(negative values during the reporting period and the raising negative trend). 

It ensued clearly from the presented results that since 2008 it has been coming to a gradual 

decline of the efficiency in the analysed furniture business (the impact of the global economic 

crisis) and therefore it is necessary to prepare correction actions to reverse this trend. 

145

CONCLUSION 

It is necessary to use such indicators for the evaluation of the enterprise efficiency, as well 

as for its overall development, which enable to evaluate the efficiency of enterprises very 

quickly and without great cost, according to the needs of owners and company management. 

These requirements are fulfilled by analyzed and verified indicators such - EBIT, EBITDA, CASF 

FLOW and EVA. 

Acknowledgement 

This paper was processed in the frame of the project No. 1/0517/09 as the result of 

author’s research at significant help of VEGA agency, Slovakia. 

REFERENCES: 

1. DRÁBEK, J., POLÁCH, J. 2008. Reálne a finan�né investovanie firiem. Zvolen: 

Vydavate�stvo TU Zvolen, 2008. 271 s. ISBN 978-80 228-1934-3 

2. LESÁKOVÁ, �. 2004. Metódy hodnotenia výkonnosti malých a stredných podnikov. 

Banská Bystrica: OZ Ekonómia, 2004. 124 s.. ISBN 80-8055-914-7 

3. PAVELKOVÁ, D., KNÁPKOVÁ, A. 2009. Výkonnost podniku z pohledu finan�ního 

manažera. Praha: LINDE nakladatelství s.r.o., 2009. 334 s. ISBN 978-80-86131-85-6 

4. ZALAI, K. a kol. 2000. Finan�no-ekonomická analýza podniku. Bratislava: Sprint 

vfra, 2000. 337 s. ISBN 80-88848-61-X 

Streszczenie: Propozycja metodyki mierzenia i oceny efektywno�ci ma�ych i �rednich 

przedsi�biorstw przemys�u meblarskiego. W pracy dokonano analizy aktualnego zagadnienia 

oceny efektywno�ci ma�ych i �rednich przedsi�biorstw w warunkach dekoniunktury 

rynkowej. Przedstawiono skuteczne podej�cie do mierzenia i oceny efektywno�ci 

przedsi�biorstw z bran�y meblarskiej. Podej�cie to zak�ada wykorzystanie wska�ników 

analizy finansowej do okre�lania zdolno�ci generowania warto�ci dodanej, pomiaru zysku 

oraz innych wybranych wska�ników. Na podstawie wyników bada� sformu�owane zostan� 

wnioski oraz propozycje poprawy efektywno�ci przedsi�biorstwa. 


Doc., Ing. Josef Drábek, CSc. 


Faculty of Wood Science and 

Technology 



960 53 Zvolen 

Slovakia 

mail: drabek@vsld.tuzvo.sk 

phone: 00421-045-5206426 



Faculty of Wood Science and 

Technology 



960 53 Zvolen 

Slovakia 

mail: sedliacikova@vsld.tuzvo.sk 

phone: 00421-045-5206420 

Ing. Justyna Biernacka, PhD. 

Department of Technology, 

Organisation and Management in 

Wood Industry, 


Warsaw University of Life 

Sciences (SGGW) 

02-776 Warsaw, ul. 

Nowoursynowska 159 

mail: justyna_biernacka@sggw.pl


Forestry and Wood Technology No. 71, 2010: 147-151 

(Ann. WULS – SGGW, For. and Wood Technol., 71, 2010) 

Influence of isolation conditions on the degradation degree of scots pine 

wood (Pinus sylvestris L.) 

MICHA� DRO�D�EK 


Abstract: In this paper modified isolation of cellulose was studied by Seifert method. There was used different 

time of boiling and also mixture was changing after each cycle of boiling (half an hour). Additionally cellulose 

was treated by 1%NaOH to remove hemicelluloses and cellulose with low degree of polymerization (DP). The 

purpose of this paper was Mw (the weight average molar mass) and yield determination of cellulose separated by 

Seifert method. Mw was determined by using size exclusion chromatography (SEC). Opportunely preparing 

samples to analysis is very important. Samples were dissolved in 8% LiCl/N,N-dimethylacetamide. 

The results prove, that the weight average molecular mass of cellulose and yield depends on boiling time in the 

Seifert mixture. 1% NaOH treatment gives purer cellulose and SEC results are more reliable. 

Key words: cellulose, Seifert method,, size exclusion chromatography (SEC), degree of polymerization 

INTRODUCTION 

Wood is one on the most important material in the world. Regardless of its structure 

and chemical constitution wood finds practical application in many branch of industry. 

Nowadays, from chemical components in wood the most useful ingredient is cellulose. Apart 

from cellulose in wood there are other important substances: lignin and hemicelluloses. This 

ingredients, like cellulose are responsible for structure of wood. They influence on strength 

and hardness of wood. Cellulose, lignin and hemicelluloses are connected to each other. From 

this reason isolation of cellulose is not very easy. Direct and indirect methods of cellulose 

isolation are known. Among direct methods in Europe the most popular are: Kürschner- 

Hoffer, Cross-Bevan and Seifert. This paper concerns Seifert method. This is fast method and 

gives cellulose mass with high level of purity. It is connected with low efficiency. This 

method has one more disadvantage: cellulose has low degree of polymerization (Prosi�ski 

1969). In spite of polymer chains degradation, cellulose has good properties. It can be use in 

paper production. 

In article (Dro�d�ek et al. 2009) influence of boiling time in Seifert mixture on 

cellulose isolation was studied. Additionally, in this paper influence of reaction mixture 

exchange on yield and degree of cellulose polymerization was studied. Furthermore, part of 

isolated cellulose was treated by 1% NaOH. In this way, some of polysaccharides chains with 

low degree of polymerization was removed (Salmen, Olson 1998). 

Cellulose was analyzed by size exclusion chromatography (SEC). This method gives 

results of the weight average molar mass (Mw), and the number average molar mass (Mn). 

These parameters give more information about analyzed samples. Moreover SEC software 

gives possibility to determine molecular mass distribution of cellulose samples. 


Pine wood (Pinus sylvestris L.) was used as research material. Material was taken 

from sapwood zone. Subsequently, the samples were ground and fractionated. Seifert 

cellulose was isolated and conducted for sawdust fraction passing the sieve with 1.02 mm and 

remaining on 0.49 mm mesh sieve. That material was extracted with chloroform – ethanol 

mixture according to our own method (Antczak et al. 2006). Then the Seifert mixture to 

147

cellulose separation from extracted sawdust was used (Krutul 2002). Isolation of cellulose in 

Seifert mixture was done in this way. There different time of boiling (0.5h, 1h, 1.5h, 2h, 2.5h, 

3h) was used. Additionally, after every half an hour Seifert mixture was changed. Before 

changing, samples were washed with methanol, dioxane and acetone. Next flasks with 

samples were poured with Seifert mixture and boiled during next half an hour. After every 

cycle three samples were collected to SEC analysis and cellulose yield determination. 

Cellulose samples were divided into two groups and one of them was dissolved for SEC 

analysis according to Dupont’s method (Dupont et al. 2003). This method consists of few 

steps. At first stage cellulose is activated with water, which opens the structure and increases 

the distance between cellulose chains. Then samples are washed successively with methanol 

and N,N-dimethylacetamide (DMAc). Finally, samples were filtered and poured with 8% 

LiCl solution in DMAc. Prior to SEC analysis, cellulose samples were diluted to 0.5% LiCl 

concentration with pure DMAc. 

The remaining samples of isolated cellulose were submitted to additional treatment. 

The samples were treated by 1% NaOH at 95°C for 1 hour in water bath. Then cellulose 

samples were prepared for SEC analysis as above. 

Analyses were conducted using Shimadzu LC-20AD liquid chromatograph, equipped 

with RID-10A refractive index detector and CTO-20A column oven. 

Analysis conditions: 

- temperature 80°C 

- column – crosslinked polystyrene-divinylbenzene gel (PSS GRAM 10000, 10μ, 

8×300 mm) connected with guard column (PSS GRAM 10μ) 

- eluent was (w/v) 0.5% LiCl/DMAc solution 

- flow 2 cm 3 /min. 

Calibration curve was created from the results of polystyrene standards (580-6850000 g/mol, 

Polymer Laboratories) analysis basing on Mark-Houwink parameters from the Table 1. 

Table 1 Mark-Houwink parameters used for SEC calibration: 

Literature polystyrene 

cellulose 

(Bikova and Treimanis 2002) (Timpa 1991) 

(K /cm 3 g –1 )×10 3 

17.35 2.78 

� 0.642 0.957 

RESULT AND DISCUSSION 

In the Fig. 1 percentage yield of cellulose isolated by modified Seifert method is 

presented. Also, there are the results of samples which were treated by 1% NaOH. Cellulose 

yield after first cycle of boiling in Seifert mixture gives results a little above then 40%. This 

value is consistent with results illustrated in paper (Dro�d�ek et al. 2009). Making another 

cycle of boiling in Seifert mixture connected with changing of reaction mixture causes 

decrease of cellulose yield. It is not as high as in the first cycle. After second cycle percentage 

decrease of yield is constant and average about 3%. Purifying samples by 1% NaOH 

treatment always gives results about 10% lower then in Seifert mixture. 

Seifert mixture removes lignin and hemicelluloses from samples. Next cycles conduct 

to cellulose degradation (hydrogen chloride acid) but Seifert mixture has not got reagents 

which can remove these polysaccharides. Application of 1% NaOH removes low molecular 

cellulose (Fig. 3) and reduces yield of sample. 

148

yield % 

45 

38 

31 

24 

17 

10 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

number of cycle 

149 

Seifert 

Seifert + 1%NaOH 

Fig. 1. Dependence of the average cellulose yield on the number of cycle in Seifert mixture 

Fig. 2 shows percentage changing yield of Seifert cellulose after additional treatment 

by 1% NaOH. Loss of weight after every cycle is bigger. Weight of samples after first cycle 

decreases about 20%, but in last cycle decrease is twice bigger. It gives information about 

degradation of cellulose. Probably, during the next cycles lignin and hemicelluloses in 

samples are in low content. New portion of reaction mixture conduct to damage chains of 

cellulose. In this way more and more cellulose with low degree of polymerization was 

produced. They are removed from samples with the assistance of 1% NaOH. 

loss of weight % 

50 

42 

34 

26 

18 

10 

Seifert + 1% NaOH 

1 2 3 4 5 6 


Fig. 2. Percentage loss of weight cellulose samples after treatment by 1% NaOH 

On the next Fig. 3 results of SEC analysis of cellulose isolated by Seifert method are 

presented. On the Y axis average molecular mass of cellulose is placed. On the X axis number 

of cycle in Seifert mixture is presented. Molecular mass after first cycle is relatively big and 

has value above 200 000 Da. However, another cycles of boiling significantly influence on 

average molecular mass reduction. Exchange mixture on new one gives fresh reagents. Higher 

temperature causes faster degradation of cellulose in treated samples. Bigger decrease of 

molecular mass takes place to third cycle. After this point bringing a new Seifert mixture does

not cause as big reduction degree of polymerization as during the first three cycles. Decrease 

of average molecular mass is much smaller. 

[Mw/g×mol -1 ]×10 -5 

2,8 

2,4 

2,0 

1,6 

1,2 

0,8 

0,4 

1 2 3 4 5 6 


150 

Seifert 

Seifert + 1%NaOH 

Fig. 3. Dependence of the weight average molar mass of cellulose on number of cycle in Seifert mixture 

Additional treatment by 1% NaOH gives higher results then using only Seifert 

mixture. During the first three cycles the results are bigger average about 20%. In next cycles, 

results of Seifert cellulose and cellulose additionally treatment by 1% NaOH are similar. 

Value are different about 5 %. 

Cellulose samples after the first cycle characterize the high degree of polymerization. 

In the next cycles Seifert mixture damages cellulose. Using of 1% NaOH gives possibility to 

remove cellulose with low degree of polymerization. In this way the average molecular mass 

at beginning is high. In next cycles cellulose with high degree of polymerization are 

decreased. The average molecular mass is going down. After using 1% NaOH degree of 

polymerization of cellulose is bigger. 

Table 2 Degree of cellulose polymerization isolated from pine. 

DP by Seifert method DP by Seifert method + 1% NaOH 

1342 1660 

733 834 

427 523 

399 421 

344 368 

339 364 

In Table 2 the average degree of cellulose polymerization isolated from sawdust of 

pine by Seifert method are presented. There is many products where cellulose is used. 

Material strength is connected with length of cellulose chains. The border value of degree of 

polymerization for cellulose is 100. Below this number, cellulose loses its fiber nature and 

does not have any strength properties. In range 100-250 strength increase is fast. Above 250 

degree of polymerization strength increase is slight. However degree of polymerization more 

then 1000 degree of polymerization does not influence on cellulose strength (Surmi�ski 

2006). According to this data, Seifert cellulose is possible to use in industry even after six 

cycles of boiling.

CONCLUSIONS 

- Cellulose with the optimum properties (the highest molecular mass and yield) is 

obtained after the first cycle (0.5h boiling in Seifert mixture). 

- Higher molecular mass of cellulose was obtained using 1% NaOH solution. 

- Higher amount of compounds soluble in 1% NaOH is formed as a result of changing 

and longer boiling time in Seifert mixture. This influences on cellulose degradation 

and purity. 

REFERENCES 

1. PROSI�SKI S. 1969: „Chemia drewna”. PWRiL Warszawa. 

2. DRO�D�EK M., ANTCZAK A., ZAWADZKI J., ZIELENKIEWICZ T. 2009: „SEC 

analysis of cellulose separated with Seifert method from pinewood (Pinus sylvestris 

L.)“. Annals of Warsaw Agricultural University – SGGW, Forestry and Wood 

Technology, 63. 

3. SALMEN L., OLSSON A. 1998: “Interaction between hemicelluloses, lignin and 

cellulose: structure-property relationships”. J. Pulp Pap. Sci., 24, 3, 99-102. 

4. ANTCZAK A., RADOMSKI A., ZAWADZKI J. 2006: ”Benzene substitution in 

Wood Analysis”. Annals of Warsaw Agricultural University – SGGW, Forestry and 

Wood Technology, 58, 15-19. 

5. KRUTUL D. 2002: „�wiczenia z chemii drewna oraz wybranych zagadnie� chemii 

organicznej”. Wydawnictwo SGGW. 

6. DUPONT A. L. 2003: “Cellulose in lithium chloride/N;N-dimethylacetamide, 

optimisation of a dissolution method using paper substrates and stability of the 

solutions”. Polymer 44, 4117-4126. 

7. BIKOVA T., TREIMANIS A. 2002: Problems of the MMD analysis of cellulose by 

SEC using DMA/LiCl, Carbohydrate Polymers 48, 23-28. 

8. TIMPA J. D., 1991: “Application of universal calibration in gel permeation 

chromatography for molecular weight determination of plant cell wall polymers: 

Cotton fiber”. J. Agric. Food Chem, 36, 270-275. 

9. SURMI�SKI J. 2006: “Zarys chemii drewna”. Wydawnictwo AR im. Augusta 

Ciszewskiego w Poznaniu. 

Streszczenie: Wp�yw warunków wydzielania na stopie� degradacji celulozy wyodr�bnianej z 

drewna sosny zwyczajnej (Pinus sylvestris L.). G�ównym celem bada� by�o sprawdzenie 

wp�ywu czasu gotowania trocin sosnowych w mieszaninie Seiferta. Dodatkowo podczas 

bada� przeprowadzano wymian� mieszaniny Seiferta w cyklach pó� godzinnych. W 

pozyskanej celulozie oznaczono wydajno�� oraz Mw (�rednia wagowa masa cz�steczkowa). 

Pozyskana celuloza zosta�a dodatkowo potraktowana 1% NaOH. Analizy masy cz�steczkowej 

prowadzone by�y przy pomocy chromatografii wykluczania przestrzennego (SEC). 

Wyniki dowodz�, �e zarówno wydajno�� jak i masa cz�steczkowa zale�� od czasu gotowania. 

Stwierdzono równie� du�y wp�yw wymiany mieszaniny Seiferta na wydzielan� celuloz�. 

Stosowanie 1% NaOH pogarsza wydajno��, zwi�kszaj�c �redni� mas� cz�steczkow�. 

Acknowledgements: I would like to appreciate the support for European Funds System in frame of which I 

pursued my research. 


Micha� Dro�d�ek 




e-mail: michal_drozdzek@sggw.pl

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Science – SGGW 



Synthetic silica as a filler of phenolic resin in the manufacture of exterior 

plywood 

DOROTA DUKARSKA, JANINA ��CKA, 

Department of Wood-Based Materials, Poznan University of Life Science 

Abstract: Synthetic silica as a filler of phenolic resin in the manufacture of exterior plywood. The presented 

study investigates the possibility of using synthetic silica with a particle in the nano-scale, as the PF resin filler in 

the process of manufacturing water-resistant plywood. In the course of the research, the plywood was produced 

from birch veneer which underwent pre-treatment; the plywood was glued with PF resin with addition of either 

an industrial filler (based on mimosa tannin) or silica. The produced plywood was subjected to bonding quality 

tests as well as the bending strength and modulus of elasticity both parallel and perpendicular to the fibres of the 

face layers. The obtained results show that the introduction of SiO2 nanoparticles to the PF resin allows to 

produce water-resistant plywood with required properties and a significant lower consumption of a mixture of 

adhesive applied on the veneer sheets. 

Keywords: phenolic resin, filler, fumed silica, plywood 

INTRODUCTION 

The glue mixture used in the resination of veneer sheets in the process of plywood 

manufacture needs to exhibit appropriate physical and performance characteristics. For these 

reasons different amounts and types of fillers are added to adhesive resins, regulating these 

properties. Moreover, an addition of a filler results in a reduction of material costs. In Poland 

in the production of exterior plywood resinated with phenol-formaldehyde resin (PF) most 

frequently a composition of calcium carbonate (chalk) and mimosa tannin is used. This filler 

first of all enhances the reactivity of resin, thus reducing glueing temperature. Moreover, it 

regulates viscosity, which reduces excessive penetration of resin into the wood tissue and the 

formation of bleedthrough on the surface of plywood. In turn, a disadvantage of this system is 

connected with large dimensions of molecules, which limits their movement in the process of 

resin curing and the achievement of a high degree of homogenisation, which in turn hinders 

the application of the glue mixture. The authors of this study, when conducting studies on the 

lightening of colour of the glue line from PF resin using titanium dioxide, observed that a 

slight amount of synthetic fumed silica with a nanoscopic molecule size at only 1% 

introduced to the glue mixture to a considerable degree improves performance properties of 

the mixture. Glue mixtures containing silica were characterised by a high degree of 

homogeneity, high stability in time and appropriate flow, which to a considerable degree 

facilitates uniform spreading of the glue mixture onto veneer (Dukarska and ��cka 2009). 

Nanoparticles of SiO2 exhibited also a strong thickening and thixotropic action. It results from 

a review of literature that synthetic silica is at present the most universal and at the same time 

most effective filler. Chemically it is an amorphous silicon dioxide with a highly developed 

spatial structure. Its enhanced specific surface area (of 200 m 2 /g) in comparison to the 

traditional fillers results in it being the strongest strengthening filler. Such a high activity of 

the silica filler results from the presence of siloxane (�SiO-Si�) and silanol (�SiOH) groups 

on its surface (Barthel et al. 2002, Malesa 2006). Synthetic silica is used as a nanofiller in 

lacquers and paints, gums and gum mixtures, sealants, plastics and resins, as well as printing 

inks, lubricants, in pharmaceutical products, cosmetics and in the production of optic fibres, 

etc. It was also shown that this filler may also be applied in the production of lacquers for 

wood as well as wood-based materials. Studies in the application of the UF resin complex 

152

with a silica sol in the manufacture of particle boards, MDF boards and plywood showed that 

an addition of silica to adhesive resin enhances glueing properties and reduces the emission of 

free formaldehyde (Leonovich et al. 2002). Wood saturated with UF resin, modified at the 

stage of nano-SiO2 synthesis, exhibits a lower water absorption, higher fire resistance, 

hardness and dimensional stability (Shi 2007). Using spectroscopic methods the possibility of 

formation of SiO2 hybrids with phenolic resin of the novolak type was also confirmed 

(Hernandez- Padron et al. 2002, 2004). 

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of an addition of nano-SiO2 to resol 

PF resin on properties of exterior plywood and to determine the potential to reduce the 

consumption of glue mixture in the resination process. 


The analyses were conducted using commercial PF resin applied in the production of 

exterior plywood. In order to ensure its adequate suitability for the resination process, a 

commercial filler was introduced to the resin, based on mimosa tannin (UT-10) and 

hydrophilic fumed silica. The amount of the filler at a ratio to 100 parts by weight of PF resin 

was 14 parts by weight of UT-10 (the industrial scale production formulation) or 1.5 parts by 

weight of SiO2. The amount of silica filler was determined on the basis of previously 

conducted investigations and measurements of viscosity and its changes in time at a 

temperature of 20�C. Due to the agglomeration tendency of SiO2 nanoparticles in this case a 

wetting agent was introduced to the adhesive resin solution at 0.01% in relation to filler 

weight. 

In order to eliminate undulation and reduce roughness of the surface, birch veneers 

were subjected to prepressing. Experimental plywood was manufactured under laboratory 

conditions in a three-layer system from previously prepared veneers. The amount of glue 

mixture, spread onto veneer sheets depending on the type of filler, amounted to: 

1. for UT–10 – 160 and 120 g/m 2 

2. for SiO2 – 160, 120 and 80 g/m 2 . 

After completing the sets of resinated sheets were pressed at a temperature of 135�C, at unit 

pressure of 1.6 N/mm 2 for 4 min. 

Manufactured plywoods, after the conditioning period, were subjected to bond quality 

testing through the determination of shear strength of glue lines after water resistance tests, 

required for resination class 3 according to the standard EN 314-1. In order to determine 

mechanical properties of manufactured plywood, their bending strength and modulus of 

elasticity were tested parallel and perpendicular to the grain in outer layers. 

In the analysis of the results plywood resinated with PF resin with an addition of mimosa 

filler at 160 g/m 2 was adopted as the reference (control) sample. 


Results of viscosity measurements for prepared glue mixtures are presented in Figs. 1 

and 2. It was shown on their basis that both glue mixtures are characterised by different 

dynamics of changes in viscosity in time. The reference mixture up to 4 h did not exhibit 

significant changes, while resin with an addition of SiO2 nanoparticles as early as directly 

after preparation showed a significant increase in viscosity (Fig.1.). The biggest changes were 

recorded in the first hour of testing, in which viscosity increased by 25% (Fig.2.). This fact 

results from the tixotropic action of silica, which means that after the end of mixture 

homogenisation, during which shear forces were acting, a gradual increase in viscosity 

occurs. However, after the state of equilibrium was reached, adhesive resin with an addition 

153

of silica after 24 h from the moment of its preparation shows viscosity lower than the 

reference mixture. 

Viscosity [mPas] 

3600 

3200 

2800 

2400 

2000 

1600 

2135 

1920 1893 

1696 

2336 

1975 

2381 

2402 

2069 2107 

3347 

2610 

0 1 2 3 4 24 

Time [h] 

UT-10 SiO2 

Viscosity [mPas] 

154 

2200 

2100 

2000 

1900 

1800 

1700 

1600 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 

Time [min] 

Fig.1. Time changes of viscosity in glue mixtures Fig.2. Changes of viscosity in glue mixture 

depending on filler type with an addition of SiO2 immediately after preparation 

Analysis of testing results for bond quality in the manufactured plywood, presented in 

Table 1, showed that a reduction of unit spread of adhesive mixture on pre-treated veneer did 

not result in significant changes in bending strength either after the soaking test or a doubleboiling 

test. Replacement of the mimosa filler with silica also did not have a significant effect 

on bond quality of tested plywood. Recorded values are slightly lower than those for the 

reference plywood; however, they were higher than values required by the standard EN 314-2, 

i.e. 1.0 N/mm 2 . For such high values of shear strength the above mentioned standard does not 

specify requirements concerning the percentages of wood shear in the glue line. In turn, it is 

significant that the introduction of SiO2 nanoparticles to PF resin made it possible to reduce 

the consumption of the adhesive mixture by as much as 50%, i.e. to 80 g/m 2 , with no negative 

effect on bond quality. 

Table 1. Shear strength of manufactured plywood depending on the type of filler and the amount of 

adhesive mixture spread onto veneer 

Type of filler 

Glue 

consumption 

[g/m 2 ] 

UT-10 SiO2 

24 h soaking Boiling 24 h soaking boiling 

fv 

[N/mm 2 ] 

�* 

fv 

[N/mm 2 ] 

� 

fv 

[N/mm 2 ] 

� 

fv 

[N/mm 2 ] 

� 

160 1.82 0.21 1.75 0.23 1.80 0.18 1.67 0.31 

120 1.70 0.25 1.53 0.21 1.68 0.14 1.43 0.23 

80 - - - - 1.61 0.37 1.48 0.28 

* standard deviation 

At such a low resination rate of veneers it was possible to considerably reduce open time. 

Moreover, the adhesive mixture with an addition of SiO2 was characterised by a higher 

homogenisation degree and better flow, which facilitated its more uniform spreading on 

veneer surface in comparison to those of the mixture containing mimosa curing agent. 

Plywoods manufactured from pre-treated veneers and those resinated with resin with 

an addition of both mimosa and silica fillers, showed high values of bending strength (fm) and 

modulus of elasticity (Em), particularly parallel to the fibres in the outer layers (table 2).

Values of fm and Em obtained for plywood manufactured with an addition of SiO2, 

irrespectively of the amount of used adhesive, are comparable or even higher than those of 

reference plywood. Such high values of bending strength along the fibres result from the 

thickening of veneer sheets during their preparation for the resination process. Tests 

conducted by Bekhta et al. (2009) showed that at an adequate thickening of veneers (up to 

15%) bending strength of plywood manufactured from these veneers increases. In the 

presented study the rate of veneer pressing was 3.5 – 5%. 

Table 2. Bending strength and modulus of elasticity of manufactured plywood depending on the type of 

filler and the amount of adhesive mixture spread onto veneer 

Glue 

consumption 

UT-10 

Type of filler 

SiO2 

[g/m 2 ] fm 

[N/mm 2 ] 

�* 

Em 

[N/mm 2 ] 

� 

fm 

[N/mm 2 ] 

� 

Em 

[N/mm 2 ] 

� 

Along the fibres 

160 126 3.17 12 200 250 126 8.24 12 500 409 

120 104 4.08 10 210 368 128 13.6 13 160 716 

80 - - - - 123 5.09 11 430 918 

Across the fibres 

160 36.0 2.05 1 520 17.5 38.4 1.83 1 820 94 

120 40.3 1.44 1 690 24.0 41.2 0.66 1 680 108 

80 - - - - 37.4 2.63 1 730 1.80 

CONCLUSION 

On the basis of conducted studies it was stated that the introduction to PF resin of a 

slight amount of synthetic silica (1.5 parts by weight SiO2/100 parts by weight PF) with a 

nanoscopic particle size, as a substitute of mimosa filler applied in commercial scale 

production practice, makes it possible to manufacture plywood with water resistance adequate 

for bond quality class 3 and high mechanical properties. Moreover, it was shown that the 

application of SiO2 as a filler makes it possible to considerably reduce the consumption of 

adhesive mixture spread onto sheets of veneer and it facilitates its application. In industrial 

practice this would probably make it possible to reduce raw material costs. 

REFERENCES 

1. BARTHEL H., DREYER M., GOTTSCHALK-GAUDIG T., LITVINOV V., NIKITINA 

E. 2002: Fumed silica - rheological additive for adhesives, resins, and 

paints. Macromolecular Symposia 187: 573-584. 

2. BEKHTA P., HIZIROGLU S., SHEPELYUK O. 2009: properties of plywood 

manufactured from compressed veneer as building material. Materials and Design 30: 

947-953. 

3. DUKARSKA D., ��CKA J. 2009: The effect of an addition of TiO2 and SiO2 

nanomolecules to phenolic resin on properties and colour of glue lines in exterior 

plywood. Ann. WULS-SGGW, For and Wood Technol. 68, s.198-202. 

4. HERNANDEZ-PADRON G., LIMA R.M., NAVA R., GARCIA-GARDUNO M.V., 

CASTANO V.M., 2002: Preparation and characterization of SiO2-functionalized 

phenolic resin hybrid materials. Advances in Polymer Technology 21(2): 116-124. 

155

5. HERNANDEZ-PADRON G., ROJAS F., CASTANO V.M., 2004: Ordered SiO2- 

(phenolic-formaldehyde resin) in situ nanocomposites. Nanotechlogy 15(1): 98-103. 

6. MALESA M., 2006: Nanonape�niacze kompozytów polimerowych. Cz�� II. 

Krzemionka. Elastomery 2(10):10-15 

7. SHI J., LI J., ZHOU W., ZHANG D., 2007: Improvement of wood properties by ureaformadehyde 

resin and nano-SiO2. Front. For. China 2(1): 104-109. 

Streszczenie: Syntetyczna krzemionka jako wype�niacz �ywicy fenolowej w procesie 

wytwarzania sklejki wodoodpornej. W prezentowane pracy zbadano mo�liwo�� zastosowania 

syntetycznej krzemionki o wielko�ci cz�stek w skali nano, jako wype�niacza �ywicy PF w 

procesie wytwarzania sklejki wodoodpornej. W ramach bada� wytworzono sklejki z fornirów 

brzozowych poddanych wst�pnej obróbce i zaklejonych �ywic� PF z dodatkiem wype�niacza 

przemys�owego (na bazie garbnika mimozowego) lub krzemionki. Wytworzone sklejki 

poddano badaniom jako�ci sklejenia oraz wytrzyma�o�ci na zginanie i modu�u spr��ysto�ci 

zarówno wzd�u� jak i w poprzek w�ókien. Na podstawie uzyskanych wyników bada� 

wykazano, i� wprowadzenie do �ywicy PF nanocz�steczek SiO2 pozwala na wytworzenie 

sklejek wodoodpornych o wymaganych w�a�ciwo�ciach przy znaczne mniejszym zu�yciu 

mieszaniny klejowej nanoszonej na arkusze fornirów. 


Dukarska Dorota, ��cka Janina 




60-627 Pozna�, 

Poland 

e-mail: ddukar@au.poznan.pl 

e-mail: jlecka@au.poznan




The influence of adding of TiO2 and CaCO3 to phenolic resin upon the 

colour of glue line and properties of water-resistant plywood 

DOROTA DUKARSKA, JANINA ��CKA, MAGDALENA ZAJDLER * 

Department of Wood-Based Materials, Poznan University of Life Science 

*Graduated student 

Abstract: The influence of adding of TiO2 and CaCO3 to phenolic resin upon the colour of glue line and 

properties of water-resistant plywood. The paper presents the possibility of applying titanium dioxide and 

natural calcium carbonate, i.e. chalk, in order to brighten the colour of glue line in plywood made with use of PF 

resin. Within the scope of the research, the brightening degree was determined for the samples of cured resins 

according to the model CIE L*a*b*, and the influence of TiO2 and CaCO3 upon water-resistance and mechanical 

properties of plywood were investigated. The conducted research shows that the optimum level of substituting 

chalk filler for TiO2 is 50%, which makes it possible to produce plywood with required properties, bright colour 

of the glue line and the lowest costs of materials. However, due to the limited colour fastness of the glue line, the 

investigations need to continue. 

Keywords: plywood, colour of glue line, titanium dioxide, chalk 

INTRODUCTION 

Plywood is a wood-based material, which owing to its mechanical properties, durability 

and aesthetic values has a wise range of possible uses. At present, plywood is applied in 

numerous realms of economy, e.g. motor industry and transportation, packaging 

manufacturing, furniture making and many others. Plywood is a crucial material in wooden 

housing construction. It a perfect construction material with great load-bearing capacity; it can 

be used for walls, partition walls, ceilings, doors, roofing, floors, stairs and also as facade 

material. Owing to the increasing competition in the world markets, as well as high 

requirements of plywood consumers, new solutions are searched for so as to improve the 

manufacturing process and expand the range of possible uses. The investigations are aimed at 

making better use of materials of poorer quality or using alternative materials, optimizing the 

manufacturing process, modifying the plywood surface by means of e.g. film coating, and 

applying new or modified resins. Nowadays, water-resistant plywood made with use of 

phenol-formaldehyde (PF) resin makes over 65 per cent of the total production. However, the 

disadvantage of PF resin, along with low reactivity, is the dark colouring of glue lines, which 

unfavourably affects the aesthetic value of the material and reduces the number of possible 

uses of this kind of plywood. The authors of the present paper, have made an attempt to 

brighten the glue line with use of colouring agents, i.e. pigments commonly used in building 

chemicals, plastic processing and paper-making. Therefore, the most frequently used white 

pigment, i.e. titanium dioxide (TiO2) was applied; the pigment is characterized by high 

refractive index, nontoxicity, resistance to most organic and inorganic reagents and, first of 

all, by the capacity to appropriately brighten the material. The investigations conducted so far, 

prove that it is possible to produce water-resistant plywood with class 3 bond quality, much 

brighter colour of the PF resin glue line and with required properties on condition that 

appropriate auxiliary agents, proper composition and preparation of the resin are applied 

(Dukarska and ��cka 2008, 2009). Yet, the used pigment is relatively expensive, which is a 

serious drawback. The review of literature shows, however, that there are fillers that are used 

along with titanium dioxide; they not only reduce the production costs of the coloured 

product, but also affect its physical, mechanical and optical properties. One of such fillers is 

calcium carbonate – chalk, which due to the high degree of whiteness and compatibility with 

157

most pigments, increases the covering power and as a result makes it possible to reduce the 

amount of much more expensive white pigments. Moreover, the filler improves the 

dispergation of standard pigments and affects the rheological, optical and mechanical 

properties of the coloured plastics, paints and paper (Albano et al. 2000, da Silva et al. 2002, 

Liang 2007, Zubielewicz 2007, Jakubowska et al. 2010). 

Therefore, the aim of the present work was to investigate the possibility of applying 

TiO2 and chalk filler in order to brighten the colour of glue line of water-resistant plywood 

manufactured with use of PF resin. 


For the research purposes, PF resin, used for manufacturing water-resistant plywood, 

was applied. As a colouring agent, titanium dioxide of the rutile kind and natural calcium 

carbonate were used; their properties are as follows (Table 1): 

Table 1. Characteristics of TiO2 and CaCO3 

TiO2 

CaCO3 

Parameter Value Parameter Value 

TiO2 content 93% CaCO3 content 98% 

Content of water-soluble 

substances 

0.03% 

Content of substances insoluble in 

HCl 15% 

0.4% 

Content of volatile substances 0.5% Oil absorption number 27.67g/100g 

pH of water solution 6.5 – 8.0 pH of water solution 9.20 

Sediment on 0.045 mm screen 0.01% Apparent density 0.91 g/cm 3 

Covering power 26 g/m 2 Brightness 96.66% 

Whiteness 93.5% Whiteness 89.31% 

Additionally, synthetic fumed silica (SiO2) was used as an auxiliary agent, which 

moderates the sedimentation process of solid particles of the pigment and chalk filler. The 

composition of the compound resin as well as the preparation method were determined on the 

basis of earlier investigations (Dukarska and ��cka 2008, 2009). The recipe of the compound 

resin used in course of the research is shown in table 2. 

Table 2. Recipe of the compound resin based on PF resin 

Lp. 

Composition of the compound resin [ pbw/100 pbw of PF resin ] 

UT – 10 SiO2 TiO2 CaCO3 

1. 14 - - - 

2. 4 - 

3. 3 1 

4. - 1 

1 2 

5. 1 3 

6. 

- 4 

The compound resin prepared according to variant 1, containing only mimosa filler (UT-10, 

industrial recipe), is the reference sample for the analysis of the obtained results. 

The brightening effect for the glue line was determined based on measurements of colour 

parameters of the cured compound resin samples in the CIE L*a*b* system. The chromatic 

components were determined: a* responding to the colours from green (a0), b* 

responding to the colours from blue (b0) and L* determining brightness. 

Additionally, an average value of colour shift �E, i.e. total colour difference, was calculated. 

158

The experimental plywood was made from birch veneer with the thickness system 1.4 × 

1.7 × 1.4 mm. The amount of the compound resin applied on the veneer was 160 g/m 2 . The 

pressing temperature was 135 o C, the unit pressure was 1.6 N/mm 2 and the pressing time was 

4 min. The produced plywood, after conditioning, was subjected to bonding quality tests: 

shear resistance and shear fraction in wood were determined after performing the waterresistance 

tests required by EN 314-1 standard. Additionally, for the optimum composition of 

compound resin, the bonding strength and modulus of elasticity were determined along and 

across the fibres of the face layers. 


Table 3 shows the results of investigations upon the possibility of brightening the PF 

resin glue line by means of applying TiO2 and CaCO3 to the resin. The presented data show 

clearly that the brightness effectiveness is indicated by the increase in the brightness of PF 

compound resins and the degree of the saturation of yellow colour. The addition of the 

chromatic component a*, while the value of L* is low, for the samples made only from PF 

resin proves the presence of dark red colour. 

Table 3. The effect of the composition of compound resins upon the brightness degree of their colour 

Amount of Amount of 

TiO2 CaCO3 

L* a* b* �E 

[pbw] [pbw] 

PF 21.05 6.02 6.01 - 

4.0 - 76.26 5.63 31.28 - 

3.0 1.0 74.53 3.53 32.74 3.09 

2.0 2.0 71.46 5.54 31.72 4.82 

1.0 3.0 67.59 6.56 35.61 9.74 

0.0 4.0 54.66 11.46 39.05 23.68 

Introducing titanium dioxide into the resin leads to over threefold increase in brightness from 

21.06% up to 76.26%, and the growth of b* value from 6.01 up to 31.28 units, which means 

the colour shifts to light yellow. A gradual substitution of chalk filler for TiO2 results in the 

decrease in the chromatic component L* and the increase of chromatic components a* and b*, 

which means a decline in brightness and a further growth in the amount of red and yellow. 

Substituting chalk for TiO2 up to 50 per cent (i.e. 2 pbw of TiO2 + 2 pbw of CaCO3 / 100 pbw 

of PF) results in obtaining such a saturation degree of yellow and red which is comparable 

with parameters of the compound resin containing only TiO2. The difference between the 

colours of the two variants is determined by the average value of colour shift �E, which 

amounts to 4.82; according to the literature of the subject, it means that an observer can easily 

spot the difference. Nevertheless, the visual evaluation of the investigated samples prove that 

with such a substitution degree of chalk filler for TiO2, plywood with the bright colour of glue 

line can be manufactured with use of PF resin. Further increase in the amount of CaCO3 leads 

to a significant growth of �E and, at the same time, decline in brightness and increase in the 

saturation of red colour. The total substitution of chalk filler for TiO2 results in a considerable 

decrease in brightness, by approx. 30 per cent, and the increase of the component a* by 100 

per cent; it means a distinct colour shift towards red. The analysis of these values, as well as 

visual evaluation of the investigated samples exclude the possibility of totally substituting 

chalk filler for TiO2. 

Table 4 presents the results of tests on the bonding quality of the manufactured plywood 

determined on the basis of shear resistance and shear fraction in wood, after water-resistance 

tests. The obtained high values of shear resistance after 24h of soaking in water and after a 

159

double boiling test significantly exceed the value required by EN 314-2, i.e. 1.0 N/mm 2 . It 

means that the manufactured plywood, regardless of the composition of compound resin, can 

be classified as class 3 bonding quality, which is typical of plywood used in external 

conditions. The analysis of the changes in the shear resistance values shows that substituting 

white pigment and inorganic fillers for mimosa filler, results in a slight increase of waterresistance 

of the manufactured plywood, especially that determined after double boil test. 

Introducing various amounts of CaCO3 into compound resins, leads to a further increase in 

their water-resistance. Standard EN 314-2, which determines the relationship between shear 

resistance and shear fraction in wood, does not specify the requirements as for shear fraction 

in wood in case of such a high average value of shear resistance (over 1.0 N/mm 2 ). The 

obtained average values of shear fraction in wood do not indicate a clear relation between the 

percentage fraction of destruction in the glue line and the composition of the compound resin. 

Table 4. Bonding quality of the manufactured plywood depending on the composition of compound resin 

Composition of compound resin 

fv 

Shear fraction 

[pbw/100 pbw of PF resin] [ N/mm 2 No. 

] [%] 

UT-10 SiO2 TiO2 CaCO3 Soaking Boiling Soaking Boiling 

1. 14 - - - 1.92 1.47 40 30 

2. 4 - 1.91 1.64 30 35 

3. 

4. 

1 

3 

2 

1 

2 

1.98 

2.02 

1.93 

1.80 

50 

50 

60 

45 

5. 1 3 2.01 1.81 20 60 

6. 

- 4 2.06 1.80 50 35 

The results of investigations on the static bending strength and modulus of elasticity 

along and across the fibres of face layers, for the compound resin described above, do not 

show significant differences (Table 5). It means that introducing titanium dioxide into 

compound resin as a an agent brightening the colour of PF resin or introducing chalk as its 

substitute, do not affect the mechanical properties of the manufactured plywood. 

The visual evaluation of the produced plywood confirms the thesis that 50 per cent 

substitution of chalk for TiO2 is possible. Such a substitution considerably reduces the 

material costs of the process of manufacturing water-resistant plywood with a bright colour of 

PF resin glue line (the economic and aesthetic aspect). However, a three-month-long 

observation of the manufactured plywood shows a slight, yet noticeable, change in the colour 

of glue lines brightened with TiO2 and CaCO3: the glue lines darkened, which proves there is 

a need to continue the investigations so as to achieve colour fastness. 

Table 5. Bending strength of plywood depending on the composition of compound resin 

Composition of compound resin 

fm 

Em 

[pbw/100 pbw of PF resin] [ N/mm 2 ] [ N/mm 2 No. 

] 

UT-10 SiO2 TiO2 CaCO3 �� 

1. 14 - - - 147 41.4 15 300 1 770 

2. 

3. 

1 

4 

2 

- 

2 

142 

138 

43.4 

41.0 

15 300 

12 610 

2 200 

1 870 

CONCLUSIONS 

The conducted investigations show that it is possible to use titanium dioxide and natural 

calcium carbonate, i.e. chalk, in order to manufacture water-resistant plywood with a brighter 

colour of PF resin glue line. The optimal degree of substituting chalk filler for TiO2 should 

160

not exceed 50 per cent. However, since the obtained colour fastness is satisfactory, it is 

necessary to continue investigations in this field. 

REFERENCES 

1. ALBANO C., GONZALEZ J., ICHAZO M., ROSALES C., DE NAVARRO CU., 

PARRA C., 2000: Mechanical and morphological behavior of polyolefin blends in the 

presence of CaCO3. Composite Structures 48 (1-3): 49-52. 

2. DA SILVA ALN., ROCHA MCG., MORAES MAR., VALENTE CAR. COUTINHO 

FMB., 2002: Mechanical and rheological properties of composites based on polyolefin 

and mineral additives. Polymer Testing 21 (1): 57-60. 

3. DUKARSKA D., ��CKA J., (2008): Wp�yw dodatku TiO2 i wype�niacza krzemowego 

do �ywicy fenolowej na jako�� sklejenia oraz barw� spoiny klejowej wytworzonych 

sklejek. VIIth International Symposium Composite Wood Materials. Zvolen. S�owacja: 

204-210. 

4. DUKARSKA D., ��CKA J., (2009): The effect of an addition of TiO2 and SiO2 

nanomolecules to phenolic resin on properties and colour of glue lines in exterior 

plywood. Ann. WULS-SGGW, For and Wood Technol 68:1-6. 

5. JAKUBOWSKA P., STERZYNSKI T., SAMUJLO B., 2010: Rheological studies of 

highly-filled polyolefin composites taking into consideration p-v-t characteristics. 

Polimery 55(5): 379-389. 

6. LIANG JZ., 2007: Tensile. flow. and thermal properties of CaCO3-filled LDPE/LLDPE 

composites. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 104 (3): 1692-1696. 

7. ZUBIELEWICZ M., 2007: Effect of mineral additives and the particle size of natural 

carbonate extenders on the rheological and optical properties of waterborne paint 

systems. Przemys� Chemiczny 86(3): 213. 

Streszczenie: Wp�yw dodatku TiO2 oraz CaCO3 do �ywicy fenolowej na barw� spoiny 

klejowej i w�a�ciwo�ci sklejki wodoodpornej. W pracy przedstawiono mo�liwo�� 

zastosowania ditlenku tytanu oraz naturalnego w�glanu wapnia – kredy, do rozja�niania 

barwy spoiny klejowej z �ywicy PF sklejek wodoodpornych. W ramach przeprowadzonych 

bada� okre�lono stopie� rozja�nienia barwy próbek utwardzonych mieszanin klejowych wg. 

modelu CIE L*a*b* oraz wyp�yw dodatku TiO2 oraz CaCO3 do �ywicy PF na 

wodoodporno�� oraz w�a�ciwo�ci mechaniczne wytworzonych sklejek. Na podstawie 

uzyskanych wyników bada� ustalono, i� optymalny stopie� substytucji TiO2 wype�niaczem 

kredowym wynosi 50%, co pozwala na wytworzenie sklejek o wymaganych w�a�ciwo�ciach, 

jasnym zabarwieniu spoiny klejowej i jednocze�nie ni�szych kosztach surowcowych. 

Acknowledgement: This study was financed by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher 

Education, grant number N N309 070236. 


Dukarska Dorota, ��cka Janina 




60-627 Pozna�, 

Poland 

e-mail: ddukar@au.poznan.pl 

e-mail: jlecka@au.poznan




Improved water resistance and adhesive performance of a commercial UF 

resin with small pMDI additions 

DOROTA DZIURKA 

Department of Wood-Based Materials, Pozna� University of Life Sciences 

Abstract: Improved water resistance and adhesive performance of a commercial UF resin with small pMDI 

additions The aim of the study was to determine the properties of UF resin modified with PMDI, introduced to 

the resin at 2.5 � 10%. Tests showed that the introduction of PMDI to urea resin results in an increase of 

reactivity and enhances its cross-linking rate, which is manifested in the reduction of gel time at 100°C and an 

increase in viscosity of tested glue mixture. Analyses concerning properties of particleboards showed that the 

higher the amount of PMDI introduced to urea resin, the bigger the improvement of strength properties and 

water resistance of manufactured boards. It needs to be particularly stressed the fact that boards manufactured 

with a 10% proportion of PMDI in the glue mixture were characterized by water resistance measured by the 

V100 test at the level required by the standard for exterior boards not bearing loads (type P3). 

Keywords: particleboard, UF resin, pMDI, water resistance, mechanical properties 

INTRODUCTION 

In literature on the subject isocyanate adhesives and methods to utilize their properties at 

UF resin modification have also been focused on. Investigations conducted in this respect 

showed that the application of isocyanates as curing agents in urea–formaldehyde resins to a 

considerable degree improves glue line strength and increases their water resistance. As early 

as 1992 Pizzi and Walton showed that a 1 – 2% addition of polymeric MDI to UF resin 

effectively reduces its susceptibility to hydrolysis and accelerates cross-linking, which may 

result in a potential shortening of pressing time for boards manufactured with the use of such 

modified urea resin. In turn, studies conducted by Mansouri et al. (2006) showed that an 

addition of PMDI to UF resin at 15% significantly improved resistance of glue line to the 

action of hot water. Those authors showed that plywood manufactured under such conditions 

were characterized by sufficient water resistance after 27-minute boiling. In turn, Hong Lei et 

al. (2006) showed that already a 5% addition of PMDI to MUPF resin makes it possible to 

manufacture particleboards with a 130% higher water resistance, measured by internal bond 

after the boiling test in comparison to that of board resinated with pure MUPF resin. 

In view of the above mentioned reports it was decided in this study to investigate the 

properties of UF resin modified with PMDI and the possibility to produce waterproofed 

particleboards resinated with such modified resin. 

MATHERIALS AND METHODS 

In the resination of chips UF resin modified with PMDI added at 0, 2.5, 5 and 10% in 

relation to UF resin weight was used. A 2% addition of NH4NO3 in relation to dry weight of 

UF resin was used as a curing agent for urea resin. Prior to the manufacture of boards 

dynamic viscosity (measured with a Brookfield rotational viscometer) and gel time at 100°C 

of glue solutions were determined. 

Analyzed single-layer particleboards with density of 700 kg/m 3 and thickness of 12 mm were 

manufactured from pine chips, using the following pressing parameters: pressing time of 22, 

162

19 and 16 s/mm board thickness, pressure of 2.5 MPa, resination rate of 12% and temperature 

of 200ºC. 

The following properties of the particleboards were examined according to the relevant 

European Standards (EN): 

- modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) 

- internal bond (IB) 

- internal bond after the boiling test (V100) 

- swelling in thickness after immersion in water (TS) 

- formaldehyde content 


Results of studies on the effect of a PMDI addition to UF resin on dynamic viscosity of 

prepared glue mixtures at a temperature of 23±05°C and gel time at 100°C are given in Table 

1. 

Table 1 

Dynamic viscosity and gel time of UF resin depending on the amount of added PMDI 

UF/PMDI 

[%] 

0 

Type of determination 

Dynamic viscosity [mPa·s] measured after time [h] 

1 2 3 4 

Gel time 

[s] 

100/0 608 608 608 610 610 75 

97.5/2.5 616 671 695 708 714 73 

95/5 653 702 720 726 738 66 

90/10 732 811 848 848 854 63 

Presented data indicate that their viscosity increases in proportion to an increase in the amount 

of added PMDI, from 1 to 20%, respectively, for its minimum and maximum proportion in 

the mixture. In successive measurement time points a more evident effect of the PMDI 

addition to UF resin on its dynamic viscosity may already be observed. Thus, if after 4 h from 

the time of preparation of glue mixtures an increase was observed in relation to pure UF resin 

by 17% for a 2.5% addition of PMDI, then in case of its 10% proportion in the glue mixture 

this increase amounted to 40%. 

Studies conducted in this respect showed also that depending on the amount of PMDI 

introduced to urea resin the mean increase in the viscosity of glue mixtures after 4 h, 

measured in relation to their initial viscosity, was only 17%, which should not be a problem in 

case of applications under industrial production conditions. 

In contrast, it results from the analyses on the effect of the amount of PMDI added to urea 

resin on its gel time at 100°C that with an increase in the addition of the modifier gel time of 

UF resins is reduced by a maximum of 16% (Table 1). 

Thus generally it may be stated that an addition of PMDI to UF resin increases its reactivity, 

expressed by a shortening of gel time and it enhances its cross-linking rate, which is 

manifested in an increase of viscosity in tested glue mixtures. 

Results of studies on the effect of the amount of PMDI introduced to urea resin on 

properties of particleboards manufactured with such modified UF resin, pressed at 22 s/mm 

thickness, are presented in Table 2. 

163

Properties of particleboards depending on the amount of PMDI introduced to urea resin 

Amount 

of PMDI 

Pressing 

time 

% s/mm 

0 

2.5 

5 

10 

22 

* - standard deviation 

CH2O MOR MOE IB TS V100 

164 

N/mm 2 

Table 2 

mg/100g 

s.m.p. 

N/mm 2 % 

15’ 30’ 60’ 90’ 120’ 

3.60 15.0 2570 1.00 32.3 - - - - - 

2.3 * 

390 0.10 3.6 - - - - - 

3.83 16.1 2620 1.24 29.0 0.06 - - - - 

1.3 70 0.09 2.1 0.01 - - - - 

2.95 18.4 2780 1.32 26.7 0.13 0.08 - - - 

2.5 290 0.09 1.3 0.05 0.02 - - - 

2.52 19.6 2960 1.32 25.1 0.30 0.25 0.14 0.10 0.09 

1.7 180 0.10 1.6 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.01 0.02 

It results from studies conducted in this respect that the higher the amount of PMDI 

introduced to resin, the bigger the improvement in the strength properties of boards. Thus 

already at a 2.5% addition of PMDI a 7% and 24% increase was observed for bending 

strength and internal bond, respectively, while in case of the maximum amount of the 

modifier (10%) these properties are improved on average by as much as 32%. 

The applied method of UF resin modification had a significant effect also on the improvement 

of hydrophobic properties in manufactured boards. It was observed that with an increase in 

the addition of PMDI to urea resin a considerable decrease in their hydrophilic character was 

found. Measurements of water resistance showed that substitution of UF resin with PMDI 

makes it possible to manufacture boards with hydrophobicity higher by 10 to 22%, measured 

by swelling of boards under the influence of soaking in water. Although absolute values of 

swelling are higher than those specified by the standard, it needs to be taken into account that 

they were single-layer boards devoid of face layers with a higher resination rate, considerably 

hindering penetration of water into the boards, and that no additional hydrophobic agents 

were applied in their manufacture. Tests also showed that boards manufactured with a 10% 

proportion of PMDI in the glue mixture were characterized by water resistance, measured by 

internal bond after the boiling test, being generally of the value specified in the standard for 

type 3 boards (0.09 N/mm 2 according to PN-EN 312) (Table 2). 

As it could have been expected, the introduction of PMDI to UF resin resulted in an 

improvement of hygienic standard of manufactured boards. Tests conducted in this respect 

showed that the introduction of PMDI to UF resin at 10% resulted in a reduction of 

formaldehyde content in the board by as much as 30% (Tabela 2), which is of particular 

importance in view of the current need to manufacture boards with a very low content and 

emission of formaldehyde. At the same time it needs to be stressed that already boards 

resinated with non-modified UF resin were characterized by formaldehyde content being 

considerably below that for class E1 (6.5 mg/100g). 

on urea resin 

CONCLUDING REMARKS 

Summing up the conducted analyses it needs to be stated that the introduction of PMDI as 

a modifier to urea resin results in an increase of reactivity and enhances its cross-linking rate, 

which is manifested in the reduction of gel time at 100°C and an increase in viscosity of 

tested glue mixture. Analyses concerning properties of particleboards showed that the higher

the amount of PMDI introduced to urea resin, the bigger the improvement of strength 

properties and water resistance of manufactured boards. We need to particularly stress the fact 

that boards manufactured with a 10% proportion of PMDI in the glue mixture were 

characterized by water resistance measured by the V100 test at the level required by the 

standard for exterior boards not bearing loads (type P3). 

REFERENCES 

1. PIZZI A., WALTON T. 1992: Non - emulsifiable, water-based, mixed diisocyanate 

adhesive system for exterior plywood. Part I. Novel reaction mechanisms and their 

chemical evidence. Holzforschung 46(6): 541-547. 

2. MANSOURI H.R., PIZZI A., LEBAN J.M. 2006: Improved water resistance of UF 

adhesives for plywood by small pMDI additions. Eur J Wood Prod 64(3): 218-220. 

3. HONG L., PIZZI A., GUANBEN D. 2006: Coreacting PMUF/isocyanate resins for 

wood panel adhesives. Eur J Wood Prod 64(2): 117-120. 

Streszczenie: Mo�liwo�� polepszenia wodoodporno�ci oraz w�a�ciwo�ci �ywicy UF poprzez 

modyfikacj� PMDI. W pracy zbadano w�a�ciwo�ci �ywicy UF modyfikowanej PMDI, który 

wprowadzano do �ywicy w ilo�ci 2,5�10%. Przeprowadzone badania wykaza�y, i� 

wprowadzenie do �ywicy mocznikowej jako modyfikatora PMDI powoduje wzrost 

reaktywno�ci oraz zwi�ksza stopie� jej usieciowania, czego wyrazem jest skrócenie czasu 

�elowania w temperaturze 100°C oraz wzrost lepko�ci badanych mieszanin klejowych. 

Badania w zakresie w�a�ciwo�ci p�yt wiórowych zaklejanych tak zmodyfikowan� �ywic� UF 

wykaza�y, i� w�a�ciwo�ci wytrzyma�o�ciowe oraz wodoodporno�� wytworzonych p�yt 

ulega�y poprawie w stopniu tym wi�kszym, im wi�ksza by�a ilo�� wprowadzanego do �ywicy 

mocznikowej PMDI. Na szczególne podkre�lenie zas�uguje fakt, i� p�yty wytworzone z 10% 

udzia�em PMDI w mieszaninie klejowej charakteryzowa�y si� wodoodporno�ci� mierzon� 

testem V100 na poziomie warto�ci przewidzianej norm� dla p�yt nieprzenosz�cych obci��e� 

u�ytkowanych w warunkach wilgotnych (typ P3). 


Dorota Dziurka 




60-627 Pozna� 

Poland 

e-mail: ddziurka@up.poznan.pl




Veneered lightweight particleboards for furniture industry 

DOROTA DZIURKA, JANINA ��CKA 


Abstract. The paper presents analyses of properties of particleboards, both raw and veneered using birch veneer, 

with a reduced density (from 550 to 350 kg/m 3 ) and resinated with UF resin. As it could have been expected, a 

considerable decrease of modulus of rigidity and modulus of elasticity was observed with a reduction of density. 

In contrast, finishing of board surface with a veneer resulted in a considerable, even 2-3-fold increase in their 

strength in relation to that of analogous raw boards. As a result of tests it was found that it is possible to 

manufacture veneered particleboards with birch veneer with their density reduced to 450 kg/m 3 , meeting the 

requirements of the standard for P2 type particle boards in terms of mechanical properties and such boards may 

be used as boards in interior design, including furniture. 

Keywords: lightweight particleboard, UF resin, veneer 

INTRODUCTION 

An ideal wood-based product to be used in furniture production, in view of the social trend 

for an increased mobility of the human population, and competitiveness of the final product 

thanks to the easy and rapid introduction of the latest design trends, should be characterised 

by light weight. Requirements in this respect are met by cellular wood panels, a product 

known and used in furniture industry and door production for many years (pl.egger.com, 

www.technologia.meblarstwo.pl, www.kurierdrzewny.pl, www.ldr.grajewo.com). In this 

case, thanks to its layer structure with the core in the form of the so-called honey comb, we 

obtain a maximal weight reduction without any deterioration of load bearing capacity, rigidity 

or other functions of the structure. However, they are not universal materials and their most 

significant drawbacks include the necessity to have specialist machines and equipment, the 

application of special hardware as well as considerable labour consumption. Thus cellular 

wood panels are of relatively little use for small and medium-sized enterprises, which do not 

manufacture large batches of products. For this reason particleboard still remains the basic 

material used by the furniture industry. Due to its easy workability, stability of parameters and 

dimensions raw particleboard is an excellent semi-product both for the improvement of fronts 

and other furniture elements in the process of lamination, veneering, postforming, as well as 

in direct use, e.g. as structural elements in the production of upholstered furniture. Traditional 

particleboards are characterised by medium density of 650 kg/m 3 , and in view of the new 

regulations and trends such a high density starts to be a serious disadvantage. During board 

manufacture wood chips have the density of solid wood, from which they were produced, 

while the formed mat is characterised by a bulk density of 150 - 300 kg/m 3 . Thus maintaining 

a similar level of density in the course of pressing we may obtain low-density boards. 

However, when applying traditional resins such a high number of pores in the mat results in a 

reduced number of glue lines in the board, causing a considerable decrease of its strength. 

Thus a concept proposed by researchers from the WKI Institute at Braunschweig seems to be 

of considerable interest, suggesting the manufacture of particleboard resinated with an 

adhesive, which gives a glue line in the foamed form. Thus it is possible to maintain loose 

arrangement of chips and produce boards with a density of approx. 390 kg/m 3 , characterised 

by good mechanical properties and applicable in furniture manufacture. 

166

Undoubtedly strength of low-density boards will be improved thanks to the application, 

similarly as it is the case with cellular wood panels, of facing panels. Thus it was decided in 

this study to investigate properties of single-layer low-density particleboards resinated with 

UF resin and finishing in the pressing process with birch veneer. 


In board manufacture commercial pine chips were used together with peeled birch veneer 

with a thickness of 1.7 mm. Moisture content in the wood raw material used in the tests was 

3.8 and 5.1%, respectively. In chip resination UF resin was used, with the following 

parameters: solids content 69.3%, density at 25°C - 1.286 g·cm -3 , No. 4 Ford Cup viscosity 

128 s, gel time at 100°C – 68 s, pH - 8.7 and miscibility with water – 1.0. 

In order to test properties of low-density particleboards single-layer boards were produced 

with a density of 550, 500, 450, 400 and 350 kg/m 3 , and their surface was finished using a 1cycle 

process, in which decorative veneer was pressed onto the board in the board production 

cycle. 

Raw and veneered particleboards were manufactured under laboratory conditions, applying 

the following pressing parameters: 

� pressing time - 20 s/mm board thickness 

� unit pressure - 2.5 MPa 

� temperature - 200ºC 

� resination rate - 12%. 

Properties of manufactured boards were tested following the respective standards: 

� modulus of rigidity (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) according to EN 

310, 

� internal bond (IB) according to EN 319, 

� swelling in thickness (TS) after 24h soaking in water according to EN 317 and 

water absorbability (WA). 


Testing results of properties for particleboards with reduced density, both raw and veneered, 

are presented in Table 1. As it could have been expected, a considerable reduction of bending 

strength and modulus of elasticity was found with a decrease in particleboard density. It was 

observed that strength of boards with density reduced to 350 kg/m 3 constitutes only 15% 

strength of boards with a density of 550 kg/m 3 . Testing results of modulus of elasticity are 

similar. However, finishing of board surface with veneer significantly improves these 

properties and conducted tests showed an even 2-3-fold increase in strength in comparison to 

raw boards. Thus for example in case of boards with a density of 450 kg/m 3 modulus of 

rigidity increases from 3.96 to 16.3 N/mm 2 , while modulus of elasticity increases from 930 to 

3060 N/mm 2 , which results in the board meeting the respective requirement of the applicable 

standard EN 312 for P4 boards. Assumptions of this standard stipulate that interior loadbearing 

boards should be characterised by a modulus of elasticity and modulus of rigidity of 

at least 2300 and 15 N/mm 2 , respectively. 

Conducted tests also showed that manufactured boards exhibited high internal bond. With a 

reduction of density their strength deteriorated; however, the loss of strength was not as rapid 

as in case of bending strength. It was observed that strength of boards with the lowest density 

constituted as much as 35% strength of boards with the highest density. Improvement of 

board surface with birch veneer resulted in a reduction of its strength. This may be explained 

167

y the fact that as a consequence of too poor bonding of the board surface with veneer its 

separation from the board surface occurred sooner than board rupture at mid-thickness. 

Table 1 

Mechanical and physical properties of particleboards glued with UF resin 

Density MOR * 

MOE * 

IB TS WA 

kg/m 3 

N/mm 2 

raw boards 

% 

550 8.07 1630 0.68 22 103 

2.3 ** 

390 0.10 3.6 8.9 

500 5.87 1340 0.61 18 115 

1.3 70 0.09 2.1 9.7 

450 3.96 930 0.47 16 119 

0.7 290 0.09 1.3 8.2 

400 2.75 700 0.33 14 142 

0.5 180 0.10 1.6 9.2 

350 1.59 420 0.24 12 146 

0.6 110 0.04 1.1 11.3 

veneered boards 

550 27.1 3995 0.52 20 94 

1.9 420 0.13 3.8 5.8 

500 23.5 4120 0.42 18 102 

1.7 390 0.10 2.0 8.2 

450 16.3 3060 0.35 15 107 

1.2 210 0.09 1.3 8.8 

400 11.1 2690 0.22 14 118 

1.1 240 0.08 1.1 7.3 

350 7.89 2250 0.16 13 122 

0.9 190 0.06 1.2 6.3 

* 

- Values of MOR and MOE gives in the table constitute mean results of measurements of strength and moduli 

tested parallel and perpendicular to veneer grain 

** 

- standard deviation 

However, it may be assumed that board veneering in a separate cycle using an additional glue 

layer would reduce this disadvantageous phenomenon considerably. Summing up the 

conducted tests it may be stated that finishing of particleboards with veneer makes it possible 

to manufacture particleboards with a density reduced to 450 kg/m 3 and meeting the 

requirements concerning internal bond of the respective standard for P4 boards (0.35 

according to EN 312). 

In turn, tests concerning swelling in thickness and absorbability showed that – although 

swelling decreases with a reduction of density – it is accompanied by a considerable increase 

in absorbability. This is caused by a more porous structure of boards with a reduced density, 

on the one hand reducing its swelling capacity, but on the other hand increasing its capacity to 

absorb water. As it could have been expected, the application of veneer facing constituted a 

barrier hindering the penetration of water into the board, which results on a reduced 

absorbability of veneered boards, on average by 13%, in relation to raw boards. 

CONCLUDING REMARKS 

Conducted tests showed that it is possible to manufacture particleboards with a density 

reduced to 450 kg/m 3 , veneered with birch veneer and meeting in terms of bending strength, 

modulus of elasticity and internal bond the requirements of the standard for interior load- 

168

earing particleboards (type P4). Thus it may be assumed that they may be applied as boards 

in interior design uses, including furniture. 

REFERENCES 

1. www.technologia.meblarstwo.pl/pl_PL/artykul/4968/finsa-green-panel 

2. www.kurierdrzewny.pl/index.php?mact=News,cntnt01,detail,0&cntnt01articleid=197 

&cnt nt01lang=pl_PL&cntnt01returnid=15 

3. www.technologia.meblarstwo.pl/pl_PL/artykul/1948/plyta-komorkowa-dlawszystkich 

4. www.ldr.grajewo.com 

5. pl.egger.com/pl-plk/egger-pl-produkte-leichbauplatten.htm 

6. www.technologia.meblarstwo.pl/pl_PL/artykul/286/nowe-materialy-drewnopochodnedla-meblarstwa-i-nie-tylko 

Streszczenie: Lekkie p�yty wiórowe uszlachetnione fornirem. W pracy zbadano w�a�ciwo�ci 

p�yt wiórowych, surowych oraz uszlachetnionych fornirem brzozowym, o obni�onej g�sto�ci 

(od 550 do 350 kg/m 3 ) i zaklejanych �ywic� UF. Jak nale�a�o oczekiwa� wraz z obni�aniem 

g�sto�ci nast�powa� znaczny spadek wytrzyma�o�ci na zginanie statyczne oraz modu�u 

spr��ysto�ci przy zginaniu. Uszlachetnienie natomiast powierzchni p�yt fornirem 

spowodowa�o zdecydowany, nawet 2-3-krotny wzrost ich wytrzyma�o�ci w stosunku do 

analogicznych p�yt surowych. W wyniku przeprowadzonych bada� stwierdzono, i� mo�liwe 

jest wytworzenie uszlachetnionych fornirem brzozowym p�yt wiórowych o g�sto�ci obni�onej 

do 450 kg/m 3 , spe�niaj�cych w zakresie w�a�ciwo�ci mechanicznych wymagania normy dla 

p�yt wiórowych typu P2 i mog� znale�� zastosowanie jako p�yty do wyposa�enia wn�trz, 

��cznie z meblami. 


Dorota Dziurka 




60-627 Pozna� 

Poland 

e-mail: ddziurka@up.poznan.pl




Ultrastructure and ultrasound wave propagation velocity in spruce (Picea 

abies L.) resonance wood 

EWA FABISIAK, IGOR CUNDERLIK 1) , WALDEMAR MOLI�SKI 

Department of Wood Science, Poznan University of Life Sciences 

1) Department of Wood Science, Technical University in Zvolen 

Abstract: Relation between the microfibril angles (MFA) in the tracheid tangent walls in individual annual rings 

of spruce (Picea abies L.) resonance wood from the mountainous area of Slovakia and ultrasound propagation 

wave in longitudinal direction is studied. The MFA values are found to decrease with the progress of the 

vegetation season; the mean MFA in earlywood is slightly greater than in latewood, which is the reason for small 

ultrastructural cyclic inhomogeneity in the spruce wood studied. Low MFA values have a significant effect on 

the ultrasound wave propagation along the grains of the spruce resonance wood. 

Keywords: microfibril angle, ultrasound velocity, early and latewood, mature wood, spruce wood 

INTRODUCTION 

Wood has a large variety of applications so it is difficult to assess its quality as 

different applications need wood of different characteristics (wood for paper production 

should have other features than wood for construction industry or music instruments). The 

most popular and commonly used parameter for wood qualification for different applications 

has hitherto been the wood density. However, it has been proved that wood density is not 

always a reliable and informative parameter determining wood quality whose assessment 

must take into regard the ultrastructural properties of cell walls. It is particularly important for 

the resonance wood, which should be characterised by high elasticity modulus along the 

grains and low density. These requirements are apparently contradictory as the elasticity 

modulus increases with increasing wood density. An important property of good resonance 

wood is possibly the lowest cyclic inhomogeneity, which means that this type of wood should 

contain poorly developed latewood component. In view of the above, many authors have been 

studying the relations between parameters describing the cell wall ultrastructure and selected 

properties of wood. Yang & Evans (2003) have reported that the variation in the wood 

elasticity modulus is to a greater degree dependent on the microfibril angle than on wood 

density. Similar conclusions follow from the studies by Yamashia et al. (2000), Ono & 

Norimoto (1984), Spycher et al. (2008) who proved that the microfibril angle had 

considerable influence on the physical, mechanical and acoustic properties of wood. 

An important parameter used for evaluation of resonance wood is the ultrasound wave 

propagation velocity. This parameter brings information on the dynamic elasticity modulus of 

wood, which is an important determinant of resonance wood quality (Ono & Norimoto 1983). 

The above criteria are best met by the spruce wood. It is characterised by even texture 

and narrow annual rings as well as low density, which makes it particularly suitable for 

production of sound boards of musical instruments. For instance in reference to pine wood, 

spruce wood has not only lower density but greater tensile strength along the grains and 

higher elasticity modulus in the same direction (Moli�ski et al. 2009). The spruce wood 

tracheids show higher mechanical strength and greater stiffness of cell walls than those of 

pine wood. The higher mechanical parameters of spruce wood were found to be related to a 

more steep arrangement of MFA in cell walls. Moreover, as follows from the studies 

conducted in Austria and Sweden (Reiterer et al. 1999, Sahlberg et al. 1997), in earlywood in 

mature wood zone MFA was often smaller than in latewood. 

170

The influence of ultrastructure of cell walls on the technological quality of wood from 

different species has been studied for a few years at the Department of Wood Science at the 

University of Life Sciences in Poznan. The aim of this study was to establish and analyse the 

relation between the microfibril angles (MFA) in the tracheid tangent walls in individual 

annual rings of spruce (Picea abies L.) resonance wood and ultrasound propagation wave in 

longitudinal direction is studied. These parameters are known to determine the use of wood 

for production of sound boards of musical instruments. 

THE METHODS 

The material studied was resonance spruce (Picea abies L.) wood from the tree 

growing in the mountains of Slovakia. It was a part of a pith board coming from immediately 

above the breast height of the tree, granted by the Department of Wood Science (DFTU) in 

Zvolen, Slovakia. The experimental board of the size 3(T) x 9(R) x 50 (L) cm, covered 60 

annual rings from the mature wood zone. From one end of this board a slip of about 1 cm in 

width (along the grains) was cut of to measure the macrostructural parameters: widths of 

annual rings and latewood zones. From the same slip a smaller one was cut out, of 5 mm in 

width and 4 mm in height along the grains. In this smaller slip MFA were measured in tangent 

walls of tracheids in selected annual rings from mature wood (6, 11, 18, 25, 31 and 47). The 

remaining part of the experimental material was used for determination of the ultrasound 

wave propagation velocity along the grains. For this purpose, in the cross-section area of the 

sample the same annual rings in which MFA were measured were identified and the 

ultrasound generating head was applied at them. The ultrasound wave propagation rate was 

measured by an ultrasound probe type 543, at the head generated frequency of 0.5 MHz. The 

resonance spruce wood density was 390 kg/m 3 and its moisture content was close to 10%. 

For MFA determination the samples covering the selected annual rings were subjected 

to a special procedure, described in details in (Fabisiak et al. 2006). After this treatment, 

tangent sections of 20 �m in thickness were sliced off by a microtome and the position of 

each section over the width of a given annual ring was identified. In the sections MFA were 

measured with the use of a computer image analyser and Motic 2003 program. In each section 

12 MFA were measured, but no more than two in the same tracheid. 

RESULTS 

The width of annual rings in the mature wood zone showed small fluctuations; its 

mean value over the radius section studied was 1.7 mm, but in 76% annual rings the width 

varied from 1 to 2 mm. The mean contribution of latewood in the annual rings analysed was 

22%, while in the majority of them (68%) it varied from 10 to 20%. Histograms showing the 

annual ring width distribution and latewood content distribution are given in Fig. 1. As 

follows from this figure, the spruce wood studied was characterised by narrow rings of similar 

widths and poorly developed latewood. 

Direct results of MFA measurements in the tangent walls of tracheids in selected 

annual rings are presented in Fig. 2. As follows from these results, MFA decreases with the 

time of the vegetation season, irrespective of the ring position on the tree trunk cross section. 

However, this decrease in the resonance spruce wood is much smaller than in the other 

coniferous species (Fabisiak et al. 2006, Fabisiak & Moli�ski 2008) and in spruce wood from 

the same region but not classified as resonance wood (Fabisiak et al. 2009). For example in 

ring 11 in the beginning of mature zone, in the first tracheids of earlywood, MFA was close to 

8 o , while in the last tracheids of of latewood MFA was close to 5.2 o . In ring 31 st in the middle 

of the mature zone MFA changed from 7.2 to 5.4 o . Similar values were measured at the 

beginning of earlywood and at the end of latewood in ring 47 and in further rings. In one 

annual ring and over the mature wood zone MFA decreased on average by 30%. This result 

171

follows first of all from the low values of MFA in earlywood. The mean value of MFA in 

earlywood in all rings studied is 7 o , which is only by 2 o higher than the mean MFA in 

latewood in all rings studied (table 1). 

Frequency [%] 

46% 

41% 

36% 

31% 

25% 

20% 

15% 

10% 

5% 

0% 

0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 

Annual rings width [mm] 

27 

24 

21 

18 

15 

12 

9 

6 

3 

0 

Number of measurements 

Frequency [%] 

172 

36% 

31% 

25% 

20% 

15% 

10% 

5% 

0% 

10 15 20 25 30 35 

Percentage of latewood [%] 

Fig 1. Histograms showing a) annual ring width distribution and b) latewood contribution in mature wood 

distribution in spruce wood studied (Picea abies L.) 

These results indicate small cyclic inhomogeneity of ultrastructure of the resonance spruce 

wood. Similar conclusions were reported by Sahlberg et al. (1997) who studied wood from 

the same species but from Sweden. He proved that the mean MFA value in earlywood was 

only by 1 o higher than in latewood tracheids. 

Table 1. Statistical analysis of mean MFA in early and latewood of annual rings in mature spruce wood zone 

Statistical parameters 

Type 

of mean 

Value 

min max 

Standard 

deviation 

Standard 

error 

Variation 

coefficient 

tracheids (deg) (%) 

Earlywood 7.0 3.4 10.4 1.58 0.30 22 

Latewood 5.0 2.7 7.0 1.17 0.30 23 

One of the parameters permitting qualification of resonance wood is the ultrasound 

wave propagation velocity. It has been well established that the higher the ultrasound wave 

propagation velocity the better the wood quality for sound boards. Results of the ultrasound 

wave propagation velocity measurements along the grains are presented in Table 2. Besides 

the mean values also basic statistical parameters are given. The ultrasound wave propagation 

velocity in longitudinal direction varied from 6160 to 6300 m/s, while the variation 

coefficient did not exceed 1%. The very small changes in the ultrasound wave propagation 

velocity, that did not exceed 2.5%, were probably a consequence of the fact that the material 

studied represented the mature wood zone in which the wood density, the length of tracheids 

and MFA showed small fluctuations. 

21 

18 

15 

12 

9 

6 

3 

0 

Number of measurements

MFA [deg] 

MFA [deg] 

MFA [deg] 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

11 th ring 

mean stand error 

6 

4 

y = 8,3981+0,1542*x-1,0267*x^2 

R 

2 

0 

F (11,66) =2,9414, p=0,0032 

0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 

2 =0,6532 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

Position in width of annual ring [mm] 

31 th ring 


y = 6,5134+2,2095*x-1,7013*x^2 

R 2 =0,8546 

F (10,48) = 2,2516, p=0,0300 

0 

0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 


16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

47 th ring 

y = 7,7393-2,8549*x+0,6578*x^2 

R 2 =0,9785 


F (9,50) = 1,4354, p = 0,1987 

0 

0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 


Fig. 2. Variation in the MFA in tangent walls of tracheids versus their location within 11, 31 and 47 annual rings 

in resonance spruce wood (Picea abies L.) 

173

Table 2. Ultrasound velocity along the grain in resonance spruce wood (Picea abies L.) and statistical parameters 

Number of 

middle annual 

ring 

Ultrasound 

velocity (m/s) Statistical parameters Value 

6 6156 mean 6234 

11 6218 min 6156 

18 6239 max 6303 

25 

31 

6261 

6208 

standard deviation 

m/s 

47 

38 6250 standard error 

16.7 

47 6303 variation coefficient % 0.75 

The values obtained in our study were higher than those reported by Spycher et al. (2008), 

who obtained the ultrasound wave propagation velocity from 5100 to 5450 m/s for the 

resonance spruce wood of density varying from 0.36 to 0.49 g/cm 3 . Haines (1979) reported 

the ultrasound wave propagation rate varying in the range 5300-6000 m/s for European spruce 

resonance wood used for violin making. 

The mean MFA to the longitudinal cell axes in the annual rings studied versus the 

ultrasound wave propagation velocity are presented in Fig. 3. The relation between these 

parameters was approximated by a linear function characterised by the correlation coefficient 

r = - 0.834. The above presented relation in the spruce wood studied is a consequence of small 

variation of MFA in individual annual rings. Small differences in MFA were also reported by 

Hori et al. (2002) for Picea sitchensis. In earlywood MFA was close to 6 o while in latewood it 

was close to 5 o . According to these authors, the small difference in MFA was one of the 

factors responsible for high values of the elasticity modulus of spruce wood, which along with 

its low density, makes this type of wood suitable for musical instruments construction. 

Ultrasound of velocity [m/s] 

6350 

6300 

6250 

6200 

6150 

y = 6654,2 - 64,8*x 

r = -0,8339, p = 0,0197 

6100 

4 5 6 7 8 9 

MFA [deg] 

Fig. 3. The propagation velocity of ultrasound waves along the grain versus MFA 

Our results also suggest that high ultrasound wave propagation velocity in the 

longitudinal direction of spruce wood with a small contribution of latewood (and thus low 

density) is a consequence of small MFA values. High correlation coefficient characterising 

the relation between the ultrasound wave propagation velocity in the longitudinal direction 

174

and mean MFA, observed even in a small range of MFA changes (5.5 o -7.5 o ) means that the 

ultrastructure of the cell walls is an important determinant of wood use for production of 

musical instruments. This opinion is shared by Ono and Norimoto 1984, who studied wood 

from 30 species of deciduous and coniferous trees, whose densities varied from 0.08 to 1.3 

g/cm 3 . He concluded that the hitherto used criteria of resonance wood classification are 

insufficient as the influence of wood ultrastructure, specifically MFA in S2 layer of secondary 

cell wall strongly correlated with the elasticity modulus, cannot be disregarded. Similar 

conclusions were reported by Spycher et al. (2008), who studied the influence of physical and 

anatomical properties of spruce (Picea abies L.) wood on its quality. 

CONCLUSIONS 

1. Throughout the vegetation season in the mature resonance spruce wood the microfibril 

angle decreases by about 30%. 

2. The mean value of MFA in earlywood tracheids is close to 7 o , which is only by 2 o 

greater than in the latewood of the annual rings studied. Close values of MFA in the 

early and latewood in the mature wood zone explain the low cyclic ultrastructural 

inhomogeneity of spruce wood. 

3. The ultrasound wave propagation velocity in the longitudinal direction in the spruce 

wood studied varied from 6160 to 6300 m/s. Small changes in this parameter are related 

to the steep arrangement of microfibrils in the tracheid tangent walls in individual 

annual rings, especially in the earlywood. 

4. Changes in the mean MFA with respect to the longitudinal axis of the cells in the annual 

rings studied and the ultrasound wave propagation velocity were approximated by a 

linear function characterised by a correlation coefficient r = - 0.834. 

REFERENCES 

1. FABISIAK E., MOLI�SKI W., CISOWSKI M., 2006: Changes in the MFA the tangent 

walls of tracheids in larch wood (Larix decidua Mill.) versus the cambial age of annual 

rings. Proc. Wood Structure and Properties , Zvolen 39-42. 

2. FABISIAK E., MOLI�SKI W., 2008: Variation in the microfibril angle in tangent walls 

of tracheids in individual annual rings of dominant pine trees (Pinus sylvestris L.). Ann. 

WULS-SGGW, Forest and Wood Technol., 65:35-41. 

3. FABISIAK E., CUNDERLIK I., MOLI�SKI W., 2009: Variation in the microfibril angle 

in tangent walls of tracheids in individual annual rings of spruce wood (Picea abies L.). 

Ann.WULS-SGGW , Forest and Wood Technol. 68: 225-236. 

4. HAINES D.W., 1979: On the musical instrument wood. Catgut Acoust Soc Neslett 31: 

23-32. 

5. HORI R., MÜLLER M., WATANABE U., LICHTENEGGER H.C., FRATZL P., 

SUGIYAMA J., 2002: The importance of seasonal differences in the cellulose microfibril 

angle in softwoods in determining acoustic properties. Journal of Materials Science 37; 

4279-4284. 

6. MOLI�SKI W., CUNDERLIK I., KRAUSS A., FABISIAK E., JUREK P., 2009: 

Gradient of density and tensile strength along the grains of spruce wood (Picea abies L.) 

within individual annual rings. Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forest and Wood Technol. 69: 87-92. 

7. ONO T., NORIMOTO M., 1983: Study on Young’s modulus and internal friction of 

wood in relation to the evaluation of wood for musical instruments. Japanese Journal of 

Applied Physics 22: 611-614. 

8. ONO T., NORIMOTO M., 1984: On physical criteria for the selection of wood for 

soundboards of musical instruments. Rheol Acta 23: 652-656. 

175

9. REITERER A., LICHTENEGGER H., TSCHEGG S., FRATZL P., 1999: Experimental 

evidence for a mechanical function of the cellulose microfibril angle in wood cell walls. 

Philos. Mag. A, 79(9):2173-2184. 

10. SAHLBERG U., SALMEN L., OSCARSSON A., 1997: The fibrillar orientation in the 

S2-layer of wood fibres as determined by X-ray diffraction analysis. Wood Sci. Technol. 

31: 77-85. 

11. SPYCHER M., SCHWARZE F.W.M.R., STEIGER R., 2008: Assessment of resonance 

wood quality by comparing its physical and histological properties. Wood Sci Technol 42: 

325-342. 

12. YAMASHITA K., HIRAKAWA Y., FUJISAWA Y., NAKADA R., 2000: Effect of 

microfibril angle and density on variation of modulus of elasticity of sugi (Cryptomeria 

japonica) logs among eighteen cultivars. Mokuzai Gakkaishi 46: 510-522. 

13. YANG J.L., EVANS R., 2003: Prediction of MOE eucalypt wood from microfibril angle 

and density. European Journal of Wood and Wood Products 61(6): 449-452. 

Streszczenie: Ultrastruktura i pr�dko�� propagacji fal d�wi�kowych w rezonansowym 

drewnie �wierku (Picea abies L.). W pracy przedstawiono wyniki pomiarów k�ta nachylenia 

mikrofibryl w stycznych �cianach cewek w pojedynczych przyrostach rocznych, 

rezonansowego drewna �wierku (Picea abies L.). Okre�lono tak�e pr�dko�� propagacji 

ultrad�wi�ków wzd�u� w�ókien. Wykazano, �e k�t nachylenia mikrofibryl w cewkach strefy 

drewna wczesnego jest nieznacznie wi�kszy w porównaniu do cewek drewna pó�nego. 

Pr�dko�� propagacji d�wi�ku w kierunku pod�u�nym w obszarze 60 przyrostów rocznych 

strefy drewna dojrza�ego zawiera�a si� w przedziale od 6160 do 6300 m/s. Stwierdzono, �e 

badane rezonansowe drewno �wierku charakteryzuje si� nisk� cykliczn� niejednorodno�ci� 

ultrastruktury. 


Ewa Fabisiak, Waldemar Moli�ski 

Department of Wood Science, 

Pozna� University of Life Sciences, 

38/42 Wojska Polskiego 

Igor Cunderlik 

Departament of Wood Science 


Slovakia 

e-mail: knod@up.poznan.pl

Annals of Warsaw Agricultural University – SGGW 



Resistance of thermomodified spruce and alder wood to moulds fungi 

ANDRZEJ FOJUTOWSKI 1) , ALEKSANDRA KROPACZ 1) , ANDRZEJ NOSKOWIAK 1) 

1) Wood Technology Institute, Pozna�, 

Abstract: Resistance of thermomodified spruce and alder wood to moulds fungi The wood covered with mould 

fungi is treated as material of lowered quality class because of its disfigurement. This can result in financial 

losses due a decrease in its trade value. The spores and mycotoxins emitted by many of mould fungi are harmful 

for environment particularly for human being as a one of reasons of allergies and disease. Thermally and thermooil 

modified wood as less hygroscopic usually is consider as material more durable, more resistant to decay 

caused by Basidiomycetes and more dimensionally stable. The filamentous fungi belonging to Ascomycetes, 

Deuteromycetes group, causes mould and soft rot of wood, which have very poor nutritious requirements may 

however, probably, attack and growth on such modified wood. The aim of the research was to determine the 

resistance of thermo and thermo-oil modified and with oil impregnated Norway spruce (Picea abies) and alder 

(Alnus glutinosa) wood to fungi causing wood moulding. We obtain modified wood in semi-laboratory 

conditions. The changes in resistance of wood against mould fungi, resulting from thermal or thermal-oil 

modification or impregnation with natural oil, were the subject of the study, determined and described. The 

mould fungi mostly more strongly, easier and in a greater extent covered the samples surface of modified 

Norway spruce and alder wood than of control wood. Such modified wood may not be consider as resistant to 

mould fungi in terms of requirements of building evaluation of materials. 

Key words: thermowood, natural oil, resistance to fungi, 

1. INTRODUCTION AND AIM OF THE STUDIES 

Usually the growth of filamentous fungi (moulds) deteriorate functional aesthetics of wooden 

boards. The wood covered with mould fungi is treated as material of lowered quality class 

because of its disfigurement. This can result in financial losses due a decrease in its trade value. 

These fungi also may pose an environmental threat due to spread of fungi spores and 

mycotoxins emitted by fungi. With people and animals filamentous fungi may cause allergies 

and/or infections such as: allergic asthma, sinusitis, laryngitis, bronchitis, mycosis of skin and 

mucosae, and chronic fatigue syndrome [Zawisza and Smoli�ski 1998, Wiszniewska at. al. 

2004]. Impregnation of wood with natural oils connected with thermal treatment of wood or 

separate thermomodification are consider as a methods which improving some functional 

properties of wood. Thermally or thermo-oil modified wood is usually less hygroscopic, more 

dimensionally stable, more durable and resistant to fungal decay caused by Basidiomycetes 

fungi than natural wood [Kollman 1936, Mazela et al. 2004, Rep et al. 2004, Schwarze and 

Spycher 2005, Welzbacher et al. 2006, Zaman et al. 2000]. Thermal treatment of wood reduces 

the amount of hydroxyl groups of cellulose and hemicelluloses which are involved in oxidative 

degradation, fungal decay and processes of water absorption and desorption by wood [Militz 

2002]. The filamentous fungi belonging to Ascomycetes, Deuteromycetes group, causes mould 

and soft rot of wood, which have very poor nutritious requirements may however, probably, 

attack and growth on such modified wood [Fojutowski et al. 2009, Skyba et al. 2008]. We tried 

to obtain improved wood in semi-laboratory conditions by means of thermal modification 

carried out also as a heat-oil treatment. The aim of the research was to determine the resistance 

of thermo and thermo-oil modified and with oil impregnated Norway spruce (Picea abies) and 

alder (Alnus glutinosa) wood to fungi causing wood moulding. Thermal modification and oil 

impregnation of the wood may broaden possibilities of practical use of the wood which are not 

durable enough. 

177

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 

The materials used in the tests consisted of alder wood (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.) and 

Norway spruce (Picea abies (L) Karst.). Little beams of wood which were prepared to 

treatment, were planed on four surfaces and had sharp edges – 

40R(thickness)x145Tx650Lmm. Besides of control wood (C-not treated) the beams were 

subjected to: 

- O - vaccum-pressure impregnation with technical linseed oil of the temperature of 65°C and 

density of 0.928 g/cm 3 which contained 75% of linoleic (C18H32O2) and linolenic (C18H30O2) 

acids, 

- T - thermal modification at the nominal temperature of 195 ° C and 

- TO - thermal modification and following impregnation with technical linseed oil, as 

mentioned above. 

Samples cut out of the little beams were conditioned for testing in normal conditions 

(20 ° C/65%) till equilibrium moisture content was reached. Determinations of the hygroscopic 

characteristics were carried out by testing an equilibrium moisture content of samples 

conditioned till a constant mass in normal conditions (20ºC/65%) is reached, by oven dry 

method [PN-EN 13183-1]. The samples for mycological tests were used in state of 

equilibrium moisture in normal conditions (20 ° C/65%). 

A method adapted from building procedures [Instrukcja ITB....1995] was used for 

mycological testing. Test and control samples were exposed to the following fungi: Set I = 

Mixture of: Aspergillus niger, Penicillium funiculosum, Paecilomyces varioti, Trichoderma 

viride, and Alternaria tenuis or Set II: Chaetomium globosum fungus; incubation at the 

temperature of 27+1 o C and relative humidity of 90%. After 4 weeks the growth of mycelium 

on the surface of test samples was evaluated using the following scale: 

0 – no growth of fungi on a sample, visible under microscope, 

1 – trace growth of fungi on a sample, hardly visible with the naked eye but well visible under 

microscope or growth limited to the edges of a sample, visible with the naked eye, 

2 – growth of fungi on a sample, visible with the naked eye, but less than 15% of the surface 

is covered with fungus, 

3 – over 15% of the surface is covered with fungus visible with the naked eye. 

A standard evaluation was completed with estimation of percentage of a sample surface 

overgrown by mycelium. The test samples of the dimensions of 60x20x3(thickness)mm were 

individually placed on Petri dishes of the diameter of 100mm and outside height of 15mm. 

For each variant of tested wood 6 samples were used. 

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

Equilibrium moisture content of wood (Table 1) decreased very distinctly from around 11- 

12% for natural wood to the level of about 7% for impregnated with oil (O) or thermally 

modified alder wood (T) and 4% for thermo-oil modified (TO) alder wood and respectively to 

the level of about 11% (O), 7% (T), 6% (TO) for spruce wood. It indicated strong 

hydrophobization of wood by oil and thermomodification (Table 1). 

Table 1. Equilibrium moisture content [%] of wood at normal condition: 20 o C, 65% RH 

Tested wood 

Before 

modification - C 

After modification 

a 

O b 

T c 

TO d 

Alder 10.8 7.0 6.7 4.5 

Spruce 12.4 11.0 7.2 5.8 

a b 3 3 c 

Control, O impregnation with oil- retention of oil: alder 329 kg/m ; spruce 35 kg/m , T – Thermal 

modification, d TO – Thermal-oil modification – retention of oil: alder 272 kg/m 3 ; spruce 59 kg/m 3 

178

The virulence of strains of mould fungi used in the test was very high. The whole surface of 

nutrient medium in Petri dishes was completely covered by fungi after 3 days from infection 

and the surface of Scots pine sapwood samples used as indicator of fungi activity also were 

being grown over with mycelium at grade 3 and 100% of the surface was covered with 

growing mycelium. Results of visual assessment of wood resistance to mould fungi presented 

in Table 2 and 3 shows that the growth of fungi mixture and the growth of Chaetomium 

globosum mostly reached the highest 3. degree on tested and control specimens. The grade 2.2 

was the smaller one, but it indicated also that tested wood has to great ability for fungal 

growth. According to criteria used in buildings such materials are rated among not resistant to 

mould fungi. Mean growth of the Mixture of fungi on thermal and thermo-oil modified alder 

and spruce wood was 90% to 100%. The growth of the fungi on Norway spruce and alder 

wood impregnated only with oil was not so great, it ranged from 20% to 60% compared with 

90 -100% on control wood. Control Norway spruce wood unexpectedly was covered in the 

test with Mixture of fungi by only 20% . The results was repeated twice in separate made 

tests. 

Table 2 The resistance of thermal modified and thermo-oil (linseed oil) modified alder and 

spruce wood to mould fungi – test acc. to Building Research Institute Instruction [Instrukcja 

ITB 355/98] using the Mixture of mould fungi – Set I 

Wood Mean grade of fungal growth Mean e fungal growth on sample surface[%] 

Alder C a 

3.0 90 

Alder O b 

3.0 60 

Alder T c 

3.0 100 

Alder TO d 

3.0 100 

– – – 

Spruce C a 

2.7 20 

Spruce O b 

3.0 60 

Spruce T c 

3.0 100 

Spruce TO d 

2.8 90 

Legend for a to d as for Table 1, e number rounding to 10% 

Table 4 The resistance of thermal modified and thermo-oil (linseed oil) modified alder and 

spruce wood to mould fungi – test acc. to Building Research Institute Instruction [Instrukcja 

ITB 355/98] using the Chaetomium globosum fungus – Set II 

Wood Mean grade of fungal growth Mean e fungal growth on sample surface [%] 

Alder C a 

3.0 90 

Alder O b 

3.0 60 

Alder T c 

3.0 100 

Alder TO d 

3.0 100 

– – – 

Spruce C a 

3.0 90 

Spruce O b 

2.2 20 

Spruce T c 

3.0 90 

Spruce TO d 

2.8 100 

Legend for a to d as for Table 1, e number rounding to 10% 

179

Heat treatment and heat-oil treatment had no significant effect on the grade of fungi Mixture 

growth on wood. Mean growth of Chaetomium globosum fungus on thermal and thermo-oil 

modified Norway spruce and alder wood was also almost the same as on control wood, 

however the hygroscopic of modified wood was distinctly lower than that of control wood. 

The effect of impregnation of wood with oil in terms of resistance against mould seems to be 

better than thermo- and thermo-oil modification of wood. The resistance of wood against 

mould fungi on thermo-oil modified wood are however generally not good. So there is no 

clear connection between retention of oil and grade of fungi growth on oil or heat-oil treated 

wood. Thermal and thermal-oil modification of alder and Norway spruce wood did not 

distinctly decreased the intensity of fungi growth, both the Mixture and Chaetomium 

globosum, on wood surface. 

4. CONCLUSSIONS 

1. An increase in hydrophobicity of wood may be expected as a result of thermal 

modification or thermo-oil modification or impregnation with natural oil of Norway spruce 

and alder wood. 

2. Under favourable conditions mould fungi grow very easily on the surface of thermal 

modificated or thermo-oil modificated or impregnated with natural oil of Norway spruce and 

alder wood, thus creating environmental hazard but not a significant hazard to compression 

strength of wood-based panels. 

2. Thermally modified and thermo-oil modified alder and spruce wood demonstrates a 

similar to natural wood lack of resistance to growth of mould fungi on its surface. However in 

comparison to natural wood the grade of growth of mould on the surface of wood treated only 

with oil was less. These wood should be classified as not resistant to mould fungi in terms of 

requirement of building evaluation of materials.. 

4. If the expected danger of fungi occurrence may be high for anticipated using of elements, 

thermal modificated or thermo-oil modificated or impregnated with natural oil of Norway 

spruce and alder wood, used in buildings should be protected with anti-fungal preparations to 

avoid lowering of disfigurement during exploitation and creation of health hazard caused by 

mould which may grow on the surface of the elements. 

5. REFERENCES 

1. Fojutowski A., Kropacz A., Noskowiak A., 2009: The resistance of thermo-oil modified wood 

against decay and mould fungi. The International Research Group on Wood Protection Doc. No 

IRG/WP/09-40448 

2. INSTRUKCJA ITB nr 355/98, 1998: Ochrona drewna budowlanego przed korozj� 

biologiczn� �rodkami chemicznymi. Wymagania i badania. Warszawa, Instytut Techniki 

Budowlanej, 

3. Kollmann F., 1936: Technologie des Holzes und der Holzwerkstoffe, Springer, Berlin. 

4. Mazela B., Zakrzewski R., Grze�kowiak W., Cofta G., Bartkowiak M. 2004: Resistance 

of thermally modified wood to Basidiomycetes. Electronic Journal of Polish Agricultural 

Universities, Wood Technology, Vol. 7, Issue 1; http://www.ejpau.media.pl. 

5. Militz H., 2002: Thermal treatment of wood: European processes and their background. 

The International Research Group for Wood Preservation. Document No. IRG/WP/02- 

40231, Stockholm, Sweden. 

6. PN-EN 13183-1 Wilgotno�� sztuki tarcicy -- Cz�� 1: Oznaczanie wilgotno�ci metod� 

suszarkowo-wagow� (Moisture content of a piece of sawn timber – Part 1: Determination 

by oven dry method) 

180

7. Rep G., Pohleven F., Bucar B., 2004: Characteristics of thermally modified wood in 

vacuum. International Research Group on Wood Protection Doc. No IRG/WP/04- 

40287., Stockholm, Sweden. 

8. Schwarze F. W. M. R., Spycher M., 2005: Resistance of thermo-hygro-mechanically 

densified wood to colonization and degradation by brown-rot fungi. Holzforschung vol. 

59, 358-363. 

9. Skyba O., Niemz P., Schwarze F. W. M. R., 2008: Degradation of thermo-hygromechanically 

(THM)-densified wood by soft-rot fungi. Holzforschung, vol. 62, 277- 

283. 

10. Welzbacher C. R., Wehsener J., Haller P., Rapp A. O., 2006: Biologische und 

mechanische Eigenschaften von verdichter und thermisch behandelter Fichte (Picea 

abies). Holztechnologie 3, 13-18. 

11. WISZNIEWSKA M., WALUSIAK J., GUTAROWSKA B., �AKOWSKA Z., 

PA�CZY�SKI C., 2004, Grzyby ple�niowe w �rodowisku komunalnym i w miejscu 

pracy – istotne zagro�enie zdrowotne (Moulds – occupational and environmental 

hazards), Medycyna Pracy, 55, 3 (2004) 257-266 

12. ZAWISZA E., SAMOLI�SKI B., 1998, Choroby alergiczne, PZWL Warszawa 1998 

13. Zaman A, Alén R, Kotilainen R, (2000): Thermal behaviour of Scots pine (Pinus 

sylvestris) and Silver birch (Betula pendula) at 200 – 230 o C. Wood Fiber Sci 32, 138- 

143. 

Streszczenie: Odporno�� termomodyfikowanego drewna �wierka i olchy na dzia�anie 

grzybów ple�ni. Drewno poro�ni�te przez grzyby ple�niowe (strz�pkowe) jest uwa�ane za 

materia� ni�szej klasy jako�ci z uwagi na zeszpecenie. Mo�e to doprowadzi� do strat 

finansowych spowodowanych zmniejszeniem warto�ci handlowej. Zarodniki i miko toksyny 

wydzielane przez wiele spo�ród grzybów ple�niowych stwarzaj� zagro�enie dla �rodowiska a 

szczególnie dla ludzi b�d�c jednym z powodów alergii i chorób. Drewno modyfikowane 

termicznie i termo-olejowo, jako mniej higroskopijne, jest zwykle uwa�ane za materia� 

trwalszy, bardziej odporny na rozk�ad powodowany przez Basidiomycetes i bardziej stabilny 

wymiarowo. Grzyby plesniowe nale��ce do Ascomycetes, Deuteromycetes powoduj�ce 

ple�nienie I szary rozk�ad drewna, które maj� bardzo ubogie wymagania troficzne, mog� 

jednak prawdopodobnie, atakowa� I rozwija� si� na tak modyfikowanym drewnie. Celem 

bada� by�o oznaczenie odporno�ci termicznie i termo-olejowo modyfikowanego oraz 

impregnowanego olejem drewna �wierka (Picea abies) i olchy (Alnus glutinosa) na dzia�anie 

grzybów powoduj�cych ple�nienie. Zmodyfikowane drewno otrzymali�my w warunkach 

zbli�onych do laboratoryjnych. Zbadane, oznaczone i opisane by�y zmiany w odporno�ci 

wobec grzybów ple�niowych wynikaj�ce z termicznej lub termo-olejowej modyfikacji lub 

nasycenia olejem naturalnym drewna. Grzyby ple�niowe w wi�kszo�ci silniej, �atwiej I w 

wi�kszym rozmiarze porasta�y powierzchnie modyfikowanego drewna �wierka i olchy, ni� 

drewna kontrolnego. To modyfikowane drewno nie mo�e by� uwa�ane za odporne na 

dzia�anie grzybów ple�niowych w sensie wymaga� dla oceny materia�ów dla budownictwa. 

Acknowledgements 

The work was financially supported by Ministry of Science and High Education as research projects of 

Wood Technology Institute in Pozna� No ST-2-BDZ/ 2008/K and ST-1-BO�/2010/K 


1) Wood Technology Institute 

Winiarska str. 1, 60 654 Pozna�, 

e-mail: office@itd.poznan.pl




Selected properties of laminated wood of poplar 

JOZEF GÁBORÍK, JURAJ DUDAS, JOZEF KULÍK 

Department of furniture and wooden product, Technical University in Zvolen 

Abstract: Selected properties of laminated wood of poplar. In industry, rapid-growing plants are less utilised. In 

Slovakia, the rapid-growing plants are mainly cultivated by plantation method in south Slovakia. For using of 

wood, there is very important to know its primary properties and also the properties of laminated wood. In our 

paper, we focused on bending properties of laminated wood made from poplar. We researched static and 

dynamic properties of laminated wood glued with two kinds of adhesives – ureaformaldehyde adhesive and 

polyurethane one. Laminated wood glued with PUR adhesive shows better mechanical properties. 

Keywords: laminated wood, bending strength, bendability, coefficient of bendability, modulus of elasticity, work 

deformation at bending, durability 

INTRODUCTION 

Wood is a natural raw material whose properties are given by the botany species, 

growing conditions, and interventions during cultivation. To some extend, the wood 

properties can not be influenced. They reflect the natural process with limited possibilities of 

action and these way possibilities of effects on the output of the process – product quality 

(ZEMIAR 1997). 

Rapid-growing wood species are industrially of small account. That’s why we decided 

to research on possibilities of poplar wood utilization in furniture parts making. We chose 

lamination non-waste technology. We tried to make a product, which should keep the good 

properties of native wood and suppress the negative properties. 

Laminating is a technological process based on gluing of thin slices of wood – usually 

veneers; by this means, the material properties are changed and various products can be made. 

The fiber direction in all layers is parallel, longitudinal directions according to wood grains. 

In furniture production, mainly shaped laminar parts are made (GÁBORÍK –DUDAS 2006). 

Our work has been focused on research on the influence of adhesive on chosen 

static properties and on the particular dynamic property – durability of laminated wood at 

cyclic work deformation at bending. 


In the experiments, we used material from the wood species Populus Euroamericana 

„Serotina“; it comes from south Slovakia, from the region Krá�ova lúka, the altitude 118 m 

above see level, the site located between Danube old channel and Gab�íkovo dam. Trees were 

37 years old and contained juvenile wood in proportion of about 30 %. 

We used peeled veneer with the thickness of 2 mm one-sided covered with adhesive. 

We used ureaformaldehyde adhesive in amount of 180 g.m -2 and polyurethane adhesive in 

amount of 250 g.m -2 . Laminated wood sampling was composed of 5 veneer layers positioned 

parallel in longitudinal direction (Fig.1). Lamellas were pressed at temperature of 100 °C 

182

during 14 or 20 minutes. After pressing the samples were stabilized cold under the pressure 

during 7 days and then were cut into test specimens. For test of static bending we used the 

specimens with dimensions of 260 x 45 x 10 mm; for testing of durability/fatigue the 

specimens 600 x 45 x 10 mm. 

Fig. 1 Arrangement of veneer layering in laminated wood 

Within the bending test, the power at maximal loading (Fmax) and the deflection (ymax) 

were monitored (Fig. 2). The bending strength (�o), modulus of elasticity (E), minimal 

bending radius (Rmin), coefficient of bendability (koh), and work deformation at bending (A) 

were calculated from measured data. 

Fig. 2 Method of loading of test specimen at bending test 

The dynamic performance was monitored as durability of laminated wood at cyclic 

bending to the value of 50 % from the maximal possible deflection found at static bending. 

Number of cycles until total breach of the specimen was recorded. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSION 

Based on our results and research of other authors (BENDTSEN -SENTF 1986), we can 

conclude that there are property differences between various kinds of laminated wood. Final 

properties of laminated wood show synergic effect of properties of wood and adhesive; it can 

be seen in the table 1. When PUR adhesive was used, better strength and elastic properties, as 

well as longer durability were reached, when compared with laminated wood glued with UF 

adhesive. The bending strength was higher by 37 %, bendability by 14 %, and durability by 

16 %. 

183

Table 1 Values of monitored properties of laminated wood of poplar 

Monitored property 

UF 

Adhesive 

PUR 

Power at maximal loading Fmax [N] 1 128 1 532 

Laminated wood reaches better strength properties than native wood used for its 

construction (GÁBORÍK –DUDAS 2006). In our experiments, the difference is marked; that can 

be seen in pictures 3 and 4. Laminated wood glued with PUR adhesive showed twofold higher 

bending strength when compared with native wood. Similar tendency was recorded at 

modulus of elasticity at bending and others properties. 

Fig. 3 Bending strength of native wood and laminated 

wood of poplar – Populus „Serotina“ 

CONCLUSION 

Max. deflection ymax [mm] 9,5 10,7 

Bending strength �max [MPa] 74 102 

Modulus of elasticity at bending 

E [MPa] 

8 547 13 515 

Work at bending A [J] 7,4 14,3 

Minimal bending radius Rmin [mm] 575 496 

Coefficient of 

bendability koh -1 [-] 57 49 

koh [-] 0,0180 0,0205 

Durability [number of cycles] 14 083 16 344 

184 

Fig. 4 Modulus of elasticity at bending of native and 

laminated wood of poplar – Populus „Serotina“ 

In our work, we researched on properties of laminated wood made from poplar – 

Populus Euroamericana „Serotina“; the species is rapid-growing, cultivated by plantation 

method.

The influence of used adhesive on static and dynamic properties (durability) of 

laminated wood was examined. 

Based on our experimental work, we can conclude that used adhesive influenced all 

monitored properties of laminated wood. Better strength and elasticity properties of PUR 

adhesive, when compared with UF adhesive, gave rise to improved properties of laminated 

wood. The improvement ranged from 15 % to 100 %. When compared to native wood, the 

strength at bending was improved to the twofold value. 

Good mechanical properties of laminated poplar wood glued with PUR adhesive are 

the requirement for the application in making of shaped and dynamic stressed furniture parts. 

We can see another possibility for improving the properties and extending application of 

laminated poplar wood in combination with other wood species, e.g. beech, in combination of 

various thicknesses, and so on. 

REFERENCES 

1. BENDTSEN B. A., SENTF J., 1986: Mechanical and anatomical properties in 

individual growth rings of plantation grown eastern cottonwood and loblolly pine. 

Wood Fiber Sci., 18, p. 23-38 

2. GÁBORÍK J., DUDAS J., 2006: Vlastnosti lamelového dreva. (The properties of 

laminar wood ) In: Zborník prednášok. V. MVK – Trieskové a beztrieskové obrábanie 

dreva 2006. Starý Smokovec. Zvolen, TU, s. 129-134. ISBN 80-228-1674-4 

3. GAFF M., 2009: Analysis of the Behavior of Tension in Wood During Embossing In.: 

3rd International Scientific Conference Woodworking Technique. Faculty of Forestry, 

Zagreb, Croatia, p.159-168. ISBN 978-953-292-009-3 

4. JÁNOŠ M., 2009: Vplyv kombinácie drevín na vybrané vlastnosti lamelového dreva 

lepeného mo�ovinoformaldehydovým lepidlom. Graduation theses. Technical 

University, Zvolen, 75 p. 

5. KÁ�EROVÁ K., 2007: Vybrané vlastnosti lamelového topo�ového dreva. Graduation 

theses. Technical University, Zvolen, 71 p. 

6. KMINIAK R., 2007: Vplyv vybraných technicko – technologických faktorov na 

energetické a kvalitatívne ukazovatele pri rovinnom frézovaní juvenilného topo�ového 

dreva. Graduation theses. Technical University, Zvolen, 110 p. 

7. LAPÍNOVÁ L., 2009: Vybrané vlastnosti lamelového topo�ového dreva lepeného 

polyuretánovým lepidlom. Graduation theses. Technical University, Zvolen, 66 p. 

8. ZEMIAR, J.: 1997 Kategorizácia a charakteristika procesov spracovania dreva. 

In: „Vedecké štúdie 13/1997/A“, TU Zvolen, 55 p. 

The paper was processed in the frame of the project VEGA – No. 1/0329/09. 

185

Streszczenie: Wybrane w�a�ciwo�ci topolowego drewna warstwowego. Szybko rosn�ce 

drzewa s� s�abo wykorzystywane w przemy�le. W S�owacji, ro�liny szybkorosn�ce s� 

uprawiane plantacyjnie na po�udniu kraju. Praca skupia si� na wytrzyma�o�ci na zginanie 

drewna warstwowego wykonanego z topoli. Rozpatrywano w�asno�ci statyczne oraz 

dynamiczne tworzywa spajanego dwoma rodzajami klejów: mocznikowo-formaldehydowym 

oraz poliuretanowym. Drewno warstwowe klejone poliuretanem wykazuje lepsze w�a�ciwo�ci 

mechaniczne. 


Jozef Gáborík, Juraj Dudas, Jozef Kulík 



Department of Furniture and Wood Products 

Masarykova 24 

960 53 Zvolen, Slovakia




Model analysis of laminar materials stressed by bending 

GAFF MILAN, MACEK ŠTEFAN, ZEMIAR JÁN 

Abstract: Model analysis of laminar materials stressed by bending. This paper deals with model presentation of 

deflection, power and tension by stress of laminar materials in bending. We simulated composition of laminar 

material created from different sorts of material components, different thickness, number and order. 

For the identification of monitored characteristics being used the program „SolidWorks“ by which we simulated 

bend and detected tensions, deflections and powers, to which is coming by bending of soft (aspen), hard (beech) 

material and their combination in dependence on thickness.The result of this work is to verify a new method in 

area of focused research, to know the influence of thickness and different composition of material on monitored 

characteristics by bending of laminar materials and data base of model simulations, by which it is possible to 

model the influence of materials with different facilities on monitored characteristics. Following the obtained 

knowledge we can modify the searched factors so, that we can create by laminating of material components of 

different facilities a material by specific facilities for asked purpose of use. 

Keywords: bending, laminar materials, modeling, simulation. 

INTRODUCTION 

By modification of wood facilities by mechanic, thermic and chemical modification 

or their combinations we can achieve materials of targeted facilities for their consequential 

use. The other possibility is a creation of composits compound from components of different 

facilities. These practices are usually based on investigation and detection of materials 

facilities in laboratory conditions. 

At the present time the development of informative technologies brings new 

opportunities for simplifications and speed up of creative activity. In this work we searched 

after opportunities for IT using in area of laminar material facilities knowledge. 

METHODIC OF WORK 

The basis of the work was a model analysis of surveyed factors influence on 

monitored characteristics by tractive stress and its experimental verification. 

In the first step we were detecting by simulation behavior of hard and soft material 

individualy in dependence on thickness in the range of 2 – 20 mm with 2 mm scale. By 

definition of material characteristics of hard material we were starting from the facilities of 

red beech. Soft material is characterized by facilities of aspen. 

Tab.1 Mechanical facilities of materials used for the simulation 

hard soft 

Density [Kg/m 3 ] w=12% 650 420 

Module of elasticity in bend parallel with fibers [MPa] w=12% 12600 8550 

Poissons constant RT 0,394 0,386 

Tensile strength [MPa] w=12% 135 77 

Bending strength [MPa] w=12% 123 61,5 

Compression strength [MPa] w=12% 56,3 28 

Shearing strength[MPa] w=12% 14,5 12,7 

In the second step we created compositions from chosen material components, which 

we combine in two-ply sets, whereby we keep the rule, that one from the materials has a 

187

constant thickness and thickness of the other one is changing in scale of 2 mm. By the 

simulation we analyze two-ply combination of hard and soft material, whereby the thickness 

of hard material was constant and thickness of soft was scale in range 2-20 mm. In the first 

case the soft material was placed from reverse and in second case from obverse of laminar 

material. 

On the test specimens with correspondent composition we simulated the bending load 

under the condition l0 = 18 x h, whereby l0 is distance of supports, h – thickness of entity by 

its constant width 20 mm. By the compositions we anticipated the creation of ideal weld 

between individual layers. 

The single process of simulation is possible to divide in following points: 

1. Finding of power-deflection curves by instrument datalogger. 

We were finding the curves in order to their import in simulation program, which on 

their basis calculate behavior of material by loading. 

2. Creating of individual models in program Solid Works and their connection into 

configurations. 

3. Designation of material facilities (tab. 1). 

4. Designation of load power and degrees of latitude. 

5. Creation of ultimate elements net. 

The net of configuration is totaled from volume elements. Program enables selection 

of one of following types of elements (fig. 1), whereby the linear tetrahedrit element 

provides a concept quality of net and parabolic a high quality. 

a) b) 

Fig. 1 The components of ultimate element net – tetrahedrit elements 

a) lineárny tetraedrický prvok, b) parabolický tetraedrický prvok 

Linear tetrahedric element if defined by four cusp nodes connected with six straight edges. 

Parabolic tetrahedric element is defined by four cusp nodes, six middle nodes and six edges. 

Generally by the same density of net (number of elements) we achieve by using of parabolic 

elements better results, than by linear, and that because: 

� they represent more precisely curved limits, 

� they offer better mathematic approximations. 

For the simulation purpose we used a net composite from parabolic tetrahedric 

elements. 

6. Running of simulation. 

7. Evaluation of results. 

8. Results achieved by theoretical simulation we consequently compared with results 

obtained on the real test specimens. 

188

In the third step we analyze results on the base of power-deflection diagram obtained by 

simulation of stress of individual materials and their combinations. The character of powerdeflection 

curves shows the analysis of color spectrum of tension process. 

The forth step was an experimental verification of simulation results on real loaded test 

specimens. 

We evaluate the results: 

� graphically following the obtained labour diagram (power-deflection), 

� following the visual analysis of color spectrum representative the process of 

tension and deformations. 


In the first step we compared on the ground of verification of modeled simulations 

configurations the simulated power-deflection curve obtained by measuring by instrument 

datalogger, by bending loading of hard material. From their comparison it follows, that the 

variance of real and simulated curve was minimal (fig. 2). 

Fig. 2 Graphic comparison of model and real measured power-deflection curve 

The results of behavior of individual materials obtained by simulation 

From the process of power and deflection in dependence on thickness of hard (fig. 3) 

and soft material (fig. 4) we can observe, that with progressive thickness of material the 

values of deflection are decreasing and the limit of proportionality increase. 

From the comparison of individual materials results, that higher values of deflection 

achieved the hard material, but contrary the soft material it is necessary to expend higher 

power for achieving of similar deflection. 

189

Fig. 3 The relation of power and deflection by bending loading of hard material in dependence on its thickness 

Fig. 4 The relation of power and deflection by bending loading of soft material in dependence on its thickness 

In the next part of the work we chosed from all monitored files of test specimens two 

representative files, the results are visible on fig. 5-6. 

On the figure 5 are visible results of composition created by rule – hard material with 

constant thickness 10 mm and soft material is placed reverse and its thickness grows graded 

by 2 mm. Analogous to former case, also here has shown that with growing thickness of 

material the values of deflection decreasing. We can also see that as contrasted to loading of 

individual material the dispersion of power values necessary for bending of laminar material 

declined. 

The results of modeling by counter oriented composition are visible on fig. 6. The 

composition of layer material was created by rule hard material has constant thickness 10 

mm and soft material was placed on obverse and its thickness grows graded by 2 mm. 

From the comparison of different styles of placing results, that by placing of hard 

material on reverse has the layer material at average about 20% higher values of deflection. 

190

Fig. 5 The relation of power and deflection by bending loading of laminar material in dependence on its 

thickness and composition mentioned in text 

Fig. 6 The relation of power and deflection by bending loading of laminar material in dependence on its 

thickness and composition mentioned in text 

The program allows expanding of knowledge also by visual analysis of color 

spectrum representative the process of tensions. From the visible process of critical tensions 

on fig. 7 results: 

� soft material tolerate the compression stress better – is malleable, 

� hard material behave like a band with fixation, take the tension stress – comes 

to major volume. 

The results visible on tension processes (fig. 7) certify, that by placing of hard material on 

reverse of laminar material has the deflection higher values (gif. 6). 

191

a) b) 

Fig. 7 Illustration of critical tensions caused by placing of hard material in reverse (a) and obverse (b) of laminar 

material 

Simulating of real wood species 

In the last step we simulated the behavior of laminar material composite from real 

wood species of beech and aspen. We were detecting the three-ply material. Its composition 

is visible on fig. 8. The curve obtained by simulation we compared with the curve obtained 

by real attempt by the same composition. From the process of these curves visible on fig. 8 

we can see a little different. This could be caused by variability of monitored facilities of 

wood species and also film glue, whit which we didn´t count so far by the simulation. 

Fig. 8 Graphic comparison of modeling and real measured power-deflection curve of three-ply material 

CONCLUSION 

The results of work show on suitability of simulation methods use in area of research 

of material behavior by bending tension, but also by other ways of loading. By these 

innovation methods of search we are using the knowledge obtained by classic laboratory 

tests, which are consequently applied in virtual environs. 

Applied methods provide in comparison to classic methods substantially more 

informations, deepen knowledge about the influence of effecting factors and not last they 

allows following the measurements to create data basis of material facilities and simulate 

innumerable number of material combinations. Mentioned access to the solution of surveyed 

problem is contribution mainly from the view of precision, complexity, speed, reliability and 

number of obtained knowledge about solved problem. 

192

LITERATURE 

1. GAFF, M. 2009: Analysis of the Behavior of Tension in Wood During Embossing In.: 3rd 

International Scientific Conference Woodworking Technique. Faculty of Forestry, Zagreb, 

Croatia, 159-168. ISBN 978-953-292-009-3 

2. GÁBORÍK, J. – DUDAS, J. 2008: The bending properties of aspen wood. (Ohybové 

vlastnosti osikového dreva) In.: Annals of Warsaw Agricultural University. Forestry and 

Wood Technology. No 65. Warsawa, 2008, s. 55 – 60. ISSN 1898-5912 

3. DUDAS, J. – GÁBORÍK, J. 2008: Vybrané mechanické vlastnosti osikového dreva (Selected 

mechanical properties of aspen wood). In.: Acta Facultatis Xylologiae Zvolen, I. 

(2), 2008, Zvolen, DF TU 2008, s.65 – 75. ISSN 1336-3824. 

This examined problematic is part of research project No. 1/0329/09 from grant project of 

VEGA. 

Streszczenie: Analiza modelowa materia�ów warstwowych przy zginaniu. Praca dotyczy 

modelu ugi�cia, si� oraz napr��e� materia�ów warstwowych przy zginaniu. Zasymulowano 

materia�y warstwowe z ró�nych materia�ów o ró�nej grubo�ci i kolejno�ci warstw. Do 

symulacji napr��e�, odkszta�ce� oraz si� u�ywano programu „SolidWorks“ w którym 

modelowano kompozyty z mi�kkiego drewna topoli i twardego drewna buka oraz ich 

kombinacji w zale�no�ci od grubo�ci. 


Gaff Milan, Macek Štefan, Zemiar Ján 

Technical University 


Department of Furniture and Wood Products 

Masarykova 24 

960 53 Zvolen 

SLOVAKIA




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sawn. 

Keywords: wood, metal, saw-timbers, the microprocessor, system, measurements. 

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Streszczenie: Wykrywanie wtr�ce� metalowych w drewnie w procesie ci�cia Opisano metody 

i modele wykrywania wtr�ce� metalowych w materia�ach drzewnych w strefie procesu ci�cia. 


Valentin Golovach, Mikhail Biletskyi 

Department od Wood Processing 


Kyiv,vul.Geroiv Oborony 15,03041, Ukraine 

OPinchewska@gmail.com



(Ann. WULS - SGGW, For. and Wood Technol. 71, 2010) 

Wood-polyethylene composite with industrial wood particles 

CEZARY GOZDECKI 1) , MAREK KOCISZEWSKI 1) , ARNOLD WILCZY�SKI 1) 

1) Institute of Technology, Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz 

Abstract: Composite wood/PE with industrial wood particles. The paper presents the investigations into the 

possibilities of using industrial wood particles to produce wood-polyethylene composites. For comparing the 

composites with traditional wood flour were prepared. The specimens were made by injection moulding. 

Mechanical properties in tension and in bending and impact strength were determined. It was found out that the 

industrial WPs applied to making the face and core layer of particleboard can be efficiently used for fabrication 

of wood-polyethylene composites by means of injection moulding. 

Keywords: wood-plastic composite, WPC, mechanical properties 

INTRODUCTION 

Typical wood-plastic composites (WPCs) are made using polymer and small wood 

particles (WPs) or short wood fibers. Owing to their unquestionable qualities they are a good 

alternative to solid wood, especially where resistance to changing weather conditions is 

important. However, much more frequent are attempts to use them for producing elements 

more responsible from the mechanical point of view as e.g. construction elements in buildings 

of light frame construction. One of the factors affecting the mechanical properties of WPC is 

the size of a wood particle. The effect of larger wood flour particles on the mechanical 

properties of WPC was also studied by STARK and BERGER (1997), STARK and 

ROWLANDS (2003), LIBER-KNE� et al. (2006), CHEN et al. (2006) and RENNER et al. 

(2008). Wood industry generates large quantities of WPs of a wide range of dimensions. 

Therefore, there is a possibility of choosing (using) suitable wood particles as fillers in 

polymers. The particles of definite sizes and shapes being generated in the largest quantities 

are wood particles used in fabrication of particleboards. The effect of used coarse wood 

particles as a filler in WPC on the mechanical properties of a composite was also studied by 

GOZDECKI et al. 2008. They proved that the coarse WPs used in producing a core layer of 

particleboard can be employed for filling a polypropylene matrix, and that WPCs with coarse 

particles show good mechanical properties. There is no, however, data published on the 

possibilities of employing industrial wood particles used in producing face layers and core 

layer particleboards for filling a polyethylene matrix. 

The objective of this study were: to evaluate the usage of the WP used in making the 

core and face layer of particleboard as a component of wood-polyethylene composites by 

means of injection moulding, and to compare the mechanical properties of these composites. 

199


Two kinds of soft WPs used for manufacturing three-layer particleboards, fine 

particles for face layers and coarse particles for a core layer, were supplied by Kronospan 

Szczecinek (Poland). The particles were screened by an analytical sieve shaker LAB-11- 

200/UP using the sieves of 60 and 18 mesh (fine particles) and 18 and 5 mesh (coarse 

particles) to obtain particle sizes: small, 0.25-1 mm, large, 1-4 mm. WPs smaller than 0.25 

and larger than 4mm were removed. For comparison the wood flour (WF) L9 obtained from J. 

Rettenmaier & Söhne GmbH+Co. (Germany) was also used. The polyethylene LDPE was a 

homopolymer Malen E FABS, 23-DO22 obtained from Basell Orlen Poliolefins (Poland). Its 

density was 0.92 g/cm3 and its melt flow index was 2 g/10 min (230°C/2.16 kg). The WPs of 

the two groups (fine, coarse) and WF were compounded separately with polyethylene at 40% 

by weight. The specimens for determining mechanical properties of tested composites were 

injection moulded using the Wh-80 injection moulding machine. In order to minimize the 

mechanical degradation of wood particles during moulding, the diameter of the injection die 

was enlarged to 4.5 mm. The cross section of the sprue bush with radius were 6.5 and 8 mm, 

its length was 50 mm. The cross section of the runner and the gate was 10x10 mm and 6x6 

mm, respectively. The specimens were injection moulded using the standard temperature 

program for wood flour-polyethylene composites. It should be noticed that no problems 

occurred during the process of fabrication of the composites with coarse particles. 

The mechanical properties of the tested WPCs were evaluated in relation to tensile, 

flexural and impact properties. Tensile and flexural tests were performed according to EN 

ISO 527 and EN ISO 178, respectively, using an Instron 3367 machine. Unnotched Charpy 

impact strength tests were conducted according to EN ISO 179 with a PSd 50/15 impact test 

device. Ten replicates were run for each test. All tests were performed at room temperature 

(20 o C) and at constant relative humidity (50%). 

RESULTS 

Mean values of the tensile modulus and strength, the flexural modulus and strength, 

and the impact strength of the tested WPCs are given in Figure 1. Generally the highest 

mechanical proprieties were obtained for the composite containing coarse WPs. Only in the 

case of impact strength the highest properties were obtained for the composite filled with WF. 

Tensile properties increase with increasing the WPs size. Tensile modulus ranges from 

760 (WF) to 992 (coarse) MPa and tensile strength from 7.2 (WF) to 8.8 (coarse) MPa. 

Considering the composites with fine particles as well as the composites with coarse particles, 

and comparing the tensile properties of these composites, it can be concluded that the tensile 

modulus and tensile strength of the composites with fine particles are greater by 14 and 15%, 

respectively. The change of a filler from WF to coarse WPs causes the growth of the tensile 

modulus by about 23% and the tensile strength by 18%. Investigations revealed a lesser effect 

of the kind of filler on the mechanical properties in bending. Using WF and fine WPs as a 

filler results in gaining WPC characterized by very similar mechanical properties as those 

obtained in bending. Used as a filler coarse WPs result in increasing flexural modulus and 

strength on the average by 10 % in comparison with WPCs containing WF and fine WPs. 

The greatest force that is needed to destroy WPC in a dynamic test was noticed in the 

composite containing WF. In this case the WPC with fine WPs was characterized by the least 

strength, in comparison with WPC with WF on the average by 22 %. 

200

a) 

Tensile modulus (MPa) 

c) 

Tensile strength (MPa) 

e) 

Impact strength (kJ/m 2 ) 

1200 

1000 

800 

600 

400 

200 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

12 

9 

6 

3 

0 

0 

7.2 

8.8 

760 

CONCLUSIONS 

856 

7.5 

7.2 

992 

WF Fine Coarse 

Kind of filler 

8.8 



8.3 



b) 

Flexural modulus (MPa) 

d) 

Flexural strength (MPa) 

1. The industrial WPs applied to making the face and core layer of particleboard can be 

efficiently used for fabrication of wood-polyethylene composites by means of 

injection moulding. 

201 

1500 

1200 

900 

600 

300 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

0 

952 935 1030 



16.6 

17.3 

19.5 



Fig. 1. Mechanical properties of tested 

WPCs: 

a) tensile modulus, 

b) tensile strength, 

c) flexural modulus, 

d) flexural strength, 

e) Charpy impact strength.

2. WPC with fine WPs has similar mechanical properties in tension and bending to WPC 

with WF. 

3. WPC with fine WPs shows smaller impact strength by about 18% than that with WF. 

4. In comparison with the composite with fine WPs the WPC with coarse WPs has 

higher properties on the average by about 17% in tension, by about 11% in bending 

and higher impact strength by about 15%. 

REFERENCES 

1. CHEN H.C., CHEN T.Y., HSU C.H., 2006: Effects of wood particle size and mixing 

ratios of HDPE on the properties of the composites. Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 64: 

172-177. 

2. GOZDECKI C., KOCISZEWSKI M., WILCZY�SKI A., ZAJCHOWSKI S., 2008: 

Use of coarse wood chips for fabrication of wood-polypropylene composites by means 

of injection molding. Annals of Warsaw Agricultural University of Life Sciences, 

Forestry and Wood Technology 65: 80-83. 

3. LIBER-KNE� A., KUCIEL S., DZIADUR W., 2006: Estimation of mechanical (static 

and dynamic) properties of recycled polypropylene filled with wood flour. Polimery 

51, 7-8: 571-575. 

4. RENNER K., MOCZO J., PUKANSZKY B., 2008: Deformation and failure of natural 

fiber reinforced composites; effect of particle characteristics and adhesion. 7 th Global 

WPC and Natural Fibre Composites Congress and Exhibition, Kassel: B11.1-B11.9. 

5. STARK N.M., BERGER M.J., 1997: Effect of particle size on properties of woodflour 

reinforced polypropylene composites. 4 th International Conference of Wood 

Fiber-Plastic Composites, Madison: 134-143. 

6. STARK N.M., ROWLANDS R.E., 2003: Effects of wood fiber characteristics on 

mechanical properties of wood/polypropylene composites. Wood and Fiber Science 

35, 2:167-174. 

Streszczenie: Kompozyt drewno/PE z wiórami przemys�owymi. W pracy opisano badania nad 

mo�liwo�ci� zastosowania przemys�owych wiórów drzewnych stosowanych do produkcji p�yt 

wiórowych do wytwarzania kompozytów drzewno polimerowych na bazie polietylenu. W 

celach porównawczych wykonano kompozyty z tradycyjn� m�czk� drzewn�. Próbki 

wykonano metod� wtryskiwania. Wyznaczono w�a�ciwo�ci mechaniczne przy rozci�ganiu, 

zginaniu oraz udarno�� metod� Charpy. Stwierdzono, �e kompozyty zawieraj�ce wióry 

drzewne przeznaczone na zewn�trzn� i wewn�trzn� warstw� p�yty wiórowej posiadaj� 

porównywalne lub lepsze w�a�ciwo�ci mechaniczne, ni� kompozyty z m�czk� drzewn�. 

Acknowledgement: This research project has been supported by the Polish Ministry of 

Science and Higher Education, grant number 508 011 32/0844 


Institute of Technology, 

Kazimierz Wielki University 

Chodkiewicza 30 str. 

85-064 Bydgoszcz, Poland 

e-mail: gozdecki@ukw.edu.pl




Effect of wood bark content on mechanical properties of wood-polyethylene 

composite 

CEZARY GOZDECKI 1) , MAREK KOCISZEWSKI 1) , ARNOLD WILCZY�SKI 1) , JACEK 

MIROWSKI 2) 

1) 

Institute of Technology, Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz 

2) 

Faculty of Chemical Technology and Engineering, Bydgoszcz University of Technology and Life Sciences 

Abstract: Effect of wood bark on wood/PE composite mechanical properties. An object of investigations was 

wood-plastic composite containing pine bark. A degree of a bark content amounted to 0, 50 and 100 % of a 

filler. Basic mechanical properties of the composite produced by means of injection moulding were determined. 

It was found out that a bark content in wood-plastic composite considerably affects its mechanical properties. 

Key words: wood-plastic composite, WPC, bark, mechanical properties 

INTRODUCTION 

Typical wood-plastic composites (WPCs) are made using polymer and small wood 

particles (WPs) or short wood fibers. Such composites are an environmentally friendly 

material. Due to their content WPCs undergo total or partial biological degradation. They 

possess another important virtue, that is after they have been used the elements made of WPC 

can be subjected to multiple processing without a significant change of its properties. 

(Zajchowski et al. 2008). Boeglin et al. (1997), Stark (1999), and Gozdecki et al. (2007a) 

have proved that there is a possibility of using wood waste particles as a component of WPC. 

Gozdecki et al. (2005a,b) have demonstrated that the composites made by combing polymer 

with particle board meal and MDF are characterised by the same properties as those of WPC 

filled with “pure” wood flour. Such a procedure unites an idea to create new composites with 

recycling waste and after-use materials. One of the wood wastes occurring in large quantities 

during round timber processing is wood bark (WB). Bark is also reckoned among 

lignocellulosic materials. The investigations into possibilities of using pine bark for filling 

polypropylene were carried out by Gozdecki et al. (2007b). They have proved that WB can be 

efficiently used for fabrication of wood-polypropylene composites by means of injection 

moulding 

There are no however investigations into the effect of WB as a filler on the mechanical 

properties of wood-polyethylene composite. Therefore, it has been decided to examine 

possibilities of using WB to fill a polyethylene matrix. 


An investigation was made into the composite whose matrix was polyethylene LDPE 

Malen E FABS, 23-DO22 obtained from Basell Orlen Poliolefins (Poland). Its density was 

0.92 g/cm3 and its melt flow index was 2 g/10 min (230°C/2.16 kg). A filler was wood flour 

203

(WF) L9 produced by Rettenmaier & Sohne GmbH and pine WB grinded into 0.25 to 2.5 mm 

particles. Fraction analysis (WB) is shown in Fig.1. 

Fig. 1. Fraction analysis of WB used in investigations 

WB and WF were dried to reach about 1 % moisture, and then mixed with polyethylene with 

the filler/polyethylene weight ratio of 40/60. In order to define the influence of a bark content 

on the properties of the composite, three kinds of WPCs containing pure WF, WF mixed by 

halves with ground WB, and with pure ground WB, respectively, were prepared. Specimens 

were made by means of injection moulding, using the Wh-80 Ap injection moulding machine. 

The composites prepared so had the following densities: the composite only with WF – 1017 

kg/m 3 , the composite with WF and WB in a ratio of 50/50 - 999 kg/m 3 , and the composite 

only with WB – 989 kg/m 3 . 

The mechanical properties of the tested WPCs were evaluated in relation to tensile, 

flexural and impact properties. Tensile and flexural tests were performed according to EN 

ISO 527 and EN ISO 178, respectively, using an Instron 3367 machine. Unnotched Charpy 

impact strength tests were conducted according to EN ISO 179 with a PSd 50/15 impact test 

device. Ten replicates were run for each test. All tests were performed at room temperature 

(20 o C) and at constant relative humidity (50%). 

RESULTS 

Count % 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

< 0.25 

0,25 0.25 0,25 0.49 0,49 0,75 0.75 

Fraction 

1,5 1.5 22 

2.5 2,5 

The results of investigations into the effect of a bark content in a filer on the mechanical 

properties of the examined composite are presented in Fig. 2. Generally the composite 

containing bark has lower mechanical properties than that containing only WF. The strongest 

effect of a filling with bark is noticeable for both elastic moduli. Adding 50 % of WB causes 

decreasing tensile modulus by about 35 %, and flexural modulus by about 33 when compared 

to the WPC filled only with WF. Adding 100 % of WB as a filler causes further decreasing 

tensile modulus by about 60%, and flexural modulus by about 69 %. The effect of a WB 

content on the WPC strength is less noticeable in tension and bending. Polyethylene filled 

with WF mixed by halves with ground WB has lower tensile and flexural strength by about 

8% and 6%, respectively, and the composite with 100% WB as a filler has lower flexural 

strength by about 17% and 15%, respectively, than the composite filled only with WB. 

Increasing the degree of filling polyethylene with pine bark does not significantly affect the 

dynamic properties of the composite. Increasing the quantity of WB in a filler to 100 % 

204

causes the growth of impact strength by about 7 % in comparison to WPC filled only with 

WF. 

a) b) 

Tensile modulus (MPa) 

c) 

Tensile strength (MPa) 

e) 

Impact strength (kJ/m2) 

1000 

10 

18 

15 

12 

800 

600 

400 

200 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

9 

6 

3 

0 

0 

7.5 

12.7 

760 

CONCLUSIONS 

493 

12.9 

303 

0 50 100 

WB content (%) 

6.9 

6.2 

0 50 100 


13.6 

0 50 100 


Flexural modulus (MPa) 

d) 

Flexural strength (MPa) 

1. Generally the bark content in a filler results in the reduction of mechanical properties 

of WPC. 

205 

1200 

900 

600 

300 

20 

16 

12 

8 

4 

0 

0 

16.8 

952 639 292 

0 50 100 


15.8 

14.2 

0 50 100 


Fig. 2. Mechanical properties of WPC 

with different bark content in filler: 

a) modulus of elasticity in tension, 

b) modulus of elasticity in bending, 

c) tensile strength, d) bending strength, 

e) impact strength

2. Bark in a filler makes WPC’s elastic moduli to decrease markedly by about 34 % for 

the 50 % bark content and by about 64 % for the 100 % bark content. 

3. Bark in a filler makes WPC’s strength to decrease slightly by about 7 % for the 50 % 

bark content and by about 16 % for the 100 % bark content. 

4. Filling polyethylene with bark does not significantly affect the impact strength of the 

composite. 

REFERENCES 

1. BOEGLIN N., TRIBOULOT P., MASSON D. (1997): A feasibility study on boards 

from wood and plastic waste: Bending properties, dimensional stability, and recycling 

of the board. Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff, 55, 1, 13-16. 

2. GOZDECKI C., KOCISZEWSKI M., ZAJCHOWSKI S., (2007a): The usage of the 

wood waste as a filler in PP/wood composite. Annals of Warsaw Agricultural 

University-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 61, 245-248. 

3. Gozdecki C., Kociszewski M., Zajchowski S. Patuszy�ski K.(2005a): Wood-based 

panels as a filler of wood-plastic composites. Warsaw Agricultural University. 

Forestry and Wood Technology Special Number 56, 255-258. 

4. Gozdecki C., Kociszewski M., Zajchowski S. (2005b): Kompozyt drzewnopolimerowy 

przemia�u p�yt wiórowych i pil�niowych z polipropylenem. In�ynieria i 

Aparatura Chemiczna nr 3, 28-29. 

5. GOZDECKI C., KOCISZEWSKI M., ZAJCHOWSKI S., MIROWSKI J.,(2007b): 

Zastosowanie kory sosnowej jako nape�niacza w kompozytach z polipropylenem. 

Recykling i Odzysk Materia�ów Polimerowych. Nauka - Przemys�. IChP, Warszawa, 

53-56. 

6. STARK N. M. (1999): Wood fibre derived from scrap pallets used in polypropylene 

composites. Forest Prod. J. 49,6, 39-46. 

7. ZAJCHOWSKI S., KOCISZEWSKI M., GOZDECKI C., MIROWSKI J. (2008): 

Recykling kompozytu polipropylenu z kor� sosnow�. In�ynieria i Aparatura 

Chemiczna nr 5, s. 64-65. 

Streszczenie: Wp�yw kory na w�a�ciwo�ci mechaniczne kompozytu drewno/PE. Przedmiotem 

bada� by� kompozyt drzewno-polimerowy zawieraj�cy kor� sosnow�. Stopie� dodatku kory 

wynosi� 0, 50 i 100 % nape�niacza. Oznaczono podstawowe w�a�ciwo�ci mechaniczne 

kompozytu otrzymanego metod� wtryskiwania. Stwierdzono, �e zawarto�� kory w 

kompozycie drzewno-polimerowym znacznie wp�ywa na w�a�ciwo�ci mechaniczne. 

Acknowledgement: This research project has been supported by the Polish Ministry of 

Science and Higher Education, grant number 508 011 32/0844 


Institute of Technology, 

Kazimierz Wielki University 

Chodkiewicza 30 str. 

85-064 Bydgoszcz, Poland 

e-mail: gozdecki@ukw.edu.pl




Perforation of blade as a way to increase the stiffness of frame saw 

TOMASZ GROBELNY 1 , DOROTA KARDA� 2 , TOMASZ GÓRALSKI 1 

1. Department of Wood Machining, 2. Department of Physics. Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW. 

Abstract: Perforation of blade as a way to increase the stiffness of frame saw. This work was focused on the 

influence of perforation design of saw blade on rigidity of frame saws. In order to achieve reliable results, 

a method providing the best similarity to real saw blade loading was applied. Furthermore, the blades with 

different design of perforation and without any perforation were compared. It was proven that the perforation of 

the blade can slightly increase the stiffness of a frame saw but still less than rolling. 

Keywords: frame saw blade, stiffness, deflection, buckling, perforation. 

INTRODUCTION 

In Polish timber industry frame sawing machines are still widely used. They are mostly 

exploited in the sawing of softwoods with uniform quality (Buchholz, 1990). The stiffness of 

saw blades has important influence on the yield of the process and quality of lumber. There 

are various ways to increase the rigidity of a frame saw blades (Duchnowski, 1989). In this 

experiment, the influence of blade perforation on the rigidity of saw blades was examined. 

The perforation of a saw blade changes the stress distribution in the tensioned saw, creating 

greater tensile strains, both in the vicinity of the tooth stripe and the saw’s back. This should 

result in a greater resistance of the blade to buckling. Initially, the perforation pattern was to 

be designed on the basis of FEM calculations but, due to shortage in computer hardware the 

range of the research was limited to the design proposals given by the leading Polish frame 

saw blades producer. 


Clamps 

Lateral 

force 

Clamps 

Tensioning 

force 

Fixing 

Buckling 

load 

Figure 1. The saw loading scheme. 

The experimental stand enables precise tensioning of a saw blade 

with assumed force. 

In the tests the 40 kN force was applied. Because saw blade was 

tightened by two sets of clamps its free length was reduced to 1000 mm. 

The buckling load was employed as a force of 1.5 kN in the working 

plane of saw (parallel to the blade and perpendicular to the teeth top 

line). The force was evenly distributed over the 250 mm segment. Its 

center corresponded to the center of saw’s free length. For the tests the 

modified Duchnowski’s method was applied (Duchnowski, 1989). This 

method is based upon the measurement of deflection in the point placed 

in the middle of free length of a saw and 5 mm away from the tooth 

space bottom line. 

The modification was the addition of a small (10 N) extra lateral 

force placed on the opposite, to the deflection gauge, side of the blade. 

The purpose of using this force was to make a saw buckle always in the 

same direction. 

The saw stiffness coefficient was calculated according to the following 

formula: 

207

Q 

k � 

f 

where: Q – buckling force [N], 

f – blade deflection [mm]. 

The measurement of blade deflection was repeated 5 times for each saw. For calculation of 

the stiffness coefficient the average value was used. 

Moreover, the deflection in additional 7 points distributed at the span of 20 mm along 

the line perpendicular to the tooth space bottom line was recorded. However, these results 

were not used for stiffness coefficient calculation but only to control the shape of buckling. 

The loading scheme is presented in figure 1. 

Six frame saws having the same dimensions (length = 1400 mm, width = 160 mm, 

thickness = 2.2 mm) and tooth geometry were used in the experiment. The difference among 

them was the shape of the blade. Two of them had the blade without perforation, but saw #1 

had the blade prestressed by rolling. The next four (#3, #4, #5 and #6) had various perforation 

patterns of the blade. All kinds of saws are shown in figure 2. 

A 

B C 

D E 

Figure 2. Overall dimensions of a saw blade (A) and various patterns of perforation. 

B – saw #3, C – saw #4, D – saw #5, E – saw #6. 

208


The results of average deflection values resulting from the buckling load of 1.5 kN are given 

in table 1. 

Table 1. Average deflection of saws under buckling load 1,5 kN. 

Saw number 1 2 3 4 5 6 

Deflection f [mm] 0,454 0,602 0,600 0,580 0,574 0,586 

Standard deviation [mm] 0,017 0,019 0,007 0,022 0,015 0,015 

These values were further used to calculate the stiffness coefficient for each saw. The results 

of the estimation are graphically presented in figure 3. 

stiffness coefficient [kN/mm] 

3,50 

3,00 

2,50 

2,00 

1,50 

1,00 

0,50 

0,00 

Figure 3. Stiffness coefficient of tested saws. 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

209 

Saw number 

It is clearly visible that the rigidity of all perforated saws and not rolled solid blade is 

significantly lower than not perforated but rolled one. The difference between stiffness 

coefficient values for these two kinds of saws is about 30 %. For all not rolled saw blades the 

stiffness coefficient does not seem to be significantly different. However, the small increase 

in rigidity (3 – 5 %) for perforated saws #4, #5 and #6 is visible. The most rigid amongst all 

perforated blades was the saw #5 (figure 2d). It seems, that on rigidity of a saw, rolling has a 

more important impact than process of perforation. On the other hand, there should not be 

omitted that there are other benefits of blade perforation. Therefore, it is probable that the 

presence of holes in the blade enhances the process of shavings removal from the kerf slot. 

Thus, the friction in the machining zone is diminished. That contributes to improvement of 

thermal conditions of the working tool. It is obvious that the lower temperature causes the 

smaller elongation of the blade. Consequently, the loss of rigidity of the working saw is 

slighter. 

Similar studies had been completed earlier by Paluch (2005). Unfortunately, the results 

of both experiments can not be compared directly due to different methodology. 

CONCLUSIONS 

1. The largest influence on the stiffness of frame saw blades has its rolling. The increase of 

rigidity due the blade rolling amounts to 32.6 % in comparison with untreated blade.

2. It seems that the perforation of blade has a small positive influence on rigidity of frame 

saws. Dependently on the shape of the holes the stiffness of the perforated saws was higher 

up to 5 % than of not perforated one. 

3. Although perforating of the blade as a way of increasing rigidity can not compete with 

prestressing of the saw by rolling, it is supposed there are other benefits of the blade 

perforation. 

4. Some modifications could be made in the experimental stand to give rise to the precision 

of further measurements. Especially the unit dedicated to buckling forces application 

should be adjusted. 

REFERENCES 

1. BUCHHOLZ J., 1990: Technologia tartacznictwa. Pozna� 

2. DUCHNOWSKI K., 1989: Sposoby zwi�kszania sztywno�ci pi� trakowych. Przemys� 

Drzewny nr 11/12 

3. PALUCH M., 2005: Wp�yw budowy brzeszczotu i wst�pnych napr��e� na sztywno�� 

pi� trakowych. Praca dyplomowa pod kierunkiem S. Miklaszewskiego. WTD SGGW 

Warszawa. 

Streszczenie: Perforacja brzeszczotu jako sposób zwi�kszenia sztywno�ci pi� trakowych. 

Badania by�y ukierunkowane na ocen� wp�ywu kszta�tu perforacji brzeszczotu pi� trakowych 

na ich sztywno��. Aby wyniki bada� by�y wiarygodne, zastosowano metod�, która w 

najlepszy sposób odzwierciedla�a rzeczywiste obci��enia pi�y trakowej podczas pracy. 

Ponadto porównano sztywno�� pi� perforowanych z pi�ami bez perforacji, w tym z pi�� 

napr��on� wst�pnie przez walcowanie. Udowodniono, �e perforacja brzeszczotu zwi�ksza 

nieco sztywno�� pi� trakowych ale nie w takim stopniu jak ich walcowanie. 


Zak�ad Obrabiarek i Obróbki Drewna 

Katedra Mechanicznej Obróbki Drewna 

Wydzia� Technologii Drewna SGGW 

Ul. Nowoursynowska 159 

02-787 Warszawa 

e-mail: tg62@wp.pl




Influence of rake angle of scoring saw on cutting quality 

TOMASZ GROBELNY 1 , DOROTA KARDA� 2 , BARTOSZ JASI�SKI 1 

1. Department of Wood Machining, 2. Department of Physics. Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW. 

Abstract: Influence of rake angle of scoring saw on cutting quality. The subject of this research was to 

investigate the influence of a rake angle on the quality of machined edge of the laminated particleboard. 

The tests were conducted on a bench saw with a scoring saw arbor. Scoring saw’s rake angle was modified in the 

range from -7º to +30º and sawn edge quality was examined. The best results were achieved for rake angles in 

the range between 0º and +5º. The effect of various saw tooth geometry on machining quality was examined. 

Keywords: scoring saw, rake angle, laminated panels, cutting quality. 

INTRODUCTION 

The economic crises of last years determines the preferences of customers. A large group 

of potential buyers, facing new reality, is ready to accept the purchase of pieces of furniture 

made of worse material, but still looking good. Nowadays, facing a continuous improvement 

in aesthetic values of laminated particleboards, quality of machining seems to be the most 

crucial factor affecting furniture attractiveness. 

Sawing is the most common way of wood based panels machining. Unfortunately, in this 

process some defects, such as laminate cavities occur. The result is uneven edge of a panel 

which is clearly visible and has negative influence on the perception of furniture quality. 

The problem is to achieve perfect quality of the lower border of sawn panel in the place where 

the main saw leaves the material. However, there are a few methods to reduce or even 

overcome these difficulties (Pa�ubicki, 2006). The most widely used technique is to apply a 

scoring saw. There are three types of scoring saws (Gawro�ski, Pilarczyk, 1998). Among 

them the saw with conical teeth is considered as the best one. The quality of machining 

depends on many factors such as: feed per tooth, stereometric parameters of blade, bevel 

angle, rake angle, processed material properties, angle between grains and cutting speed 

direction, as well as synergy of all above-mentioned factors (Porankiewicz, 2003 after Cyra, 

1997 and Stuhmeier, 1989). 

The main aim of this research was to investigate the influence of a rake angle on the 

quality of machined edge of the laminated particleboard. Moreover, the founding of optimal 

rake angle of scoring saw considering the sawn edge quality. 

Finally, the effect of various saw tooth geometry on quality was examined. 


The machining was performed with tools provided by Leuco Poland. Tungsten carbide 

tipped 300 mm diameter saw with straight/trapezoidal teeth was used as a main saw (96 teeth, 

kerf width 3,2 mm, rake angle 10º). As a scoring saws, two blades were tested. The following 

parameters were common for both of them: diameter 120 mm, kerf width 3,2-4,0 mm, 24 

teeth, nominal rake angle 5º. They differed only in the teeth shape (Figure1). The first saw 

had a cutting edge parallel to the rotation axis (conical flat “KO-F”), while the second 

beveled cutting edge (conical/alternate top bevel “KO-WS”). The first saw’s tooth geometry 

was modified during experiment while the second saw only for comparison was used. 

211

The cutting tests were conducted on laminated particleboard made by one of the leading 

Polish producers. All samples were cut to initial dimensions 900x65x10 mm. 

a) b) 

Figure 1. Scoring saws used in the experiment: a) conical flat “KO-F” b) conical/alternate top bevel “KO-WS” 

(Leuco) 

Since there is no standard describing similar tests, an original testing procedure 

consisting of three stages was elaborated. At the first stage tools were prepared and modified 

to gain the assumed geometry. That involved cleaning saws off the deposits gathered in the 

previous run and then resharpening them on the sharpener set to the different rake angle. In 

the test the rake angle of each saw was modified by 5º in the range of -7º to +30º. This limits 

were caused by the abilities of sharpener OSW-5 used for the modifications. After 

resharpening, the geometry was checked with optical flatbed scanner and graphic application. 

The machining was conducted on bench saw equipped with scoring saw arbor (Jaroma 

DMMD-40/190). The rpms of both arbors were measured with tachometer and they were 

4065 rpm for main saw arbor and 8630 rpm for scoring saw. Because feed was manual it was 

difficult to keep it exactly at the same level. To assess the result of feed variability on the final 

effect of cutting quality, the cutting time of each sample was accurately measured. 

The feed rate varied from 7.81 to 9.11 m/min and in most trials was close to 8 m/min. That is 

why it was assumed to be 8 m/min. Thus, the feed per tooth of the scoring saw was equal 

to 0.04 mm. 

At the third stage the quality of machining of the edge processed by scoring saw was 

assessed. Optical method based on the digital analyze of photographs was chosen. For each 

sample 10 microscopic photographs (Nikon SMZ 1500 coupled with a digital camera) of the 

machined edge were taken. In aim to measure the maximal depth of the cavities 

(perpendicular to the edge), each picture was processed in computer GIMP application. 

It was assumed that the major impact on the visibility of defects has the depth of cavities. 

In figure 2 the way of the cavity depth measurement is explained. 

212


Upper line Cavity 

depth 

Edge 

Figure 2. Scheme of the cavity depth measurement. 

The relationship between the average cavity width and the rake angle is presented in 

table 1 and figure 3. 

Table 1. Relationship between average cavity width and the rake angle. All results relate to saw with conical flat 

“KO-F” teeth saw except column 5* which corresponds to conical/alternate top bevel “KO-WS” teeth 

saw. 

Rake angle [ o ] -7 -5 0 5 5* 10 15 20 25 30 

Average cavity 

0,13 

depth [mm] 

0,10 0,04 0,03 0,03 0,09 0,12 0,30 0,46 0,49 

Standard 

deviation [mm] 

0,07 0,016 0,03 0,03 0,02 0,04 0,05 0,16 0,23 0,25 

To investigate the influence of the tooth geometry of saws applied in the experiments, 

two types of saws specified above were used. For this comparison the nominal rake angle 

offered by the producer (5º) was chosen. The effects of machining with those two saws were 

compared. As one can see in table 1 there is no difference in the average cavity depth 

recorded for those two saws. 

213 

Scale 

Cavity in laminate

Average cavity depth [mm] 

0,50 

0,45 

0,40 

0,35 

0,30 

0,25 

0,20 

0,15 

0,10 

0,05 

0,00 

-7 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 

Rake angle [ o ] 

Figure 3. Average cavity width vs. rake angle (for conical flat “KO-F” teeth saw). 

As can be seen, the smallest cavities appeared when the machining was made with 5º 

rake angle saw, whereas the biggest ones were found for 30º rake angle saw. 

Additionally, some tendency in the relationship between the average cavity depth and the rake 

angle is visible. Namely, for the range of low rake angle values, i.e. -7º – +5º, there is 

decreasing trend of the average cavity depth, while in the upper range (+5º – +30º) the 

opposite tendency occurs. 

For the precise determination of the optimal rake angle (in these machining conditions), 

the curve fitting procedure performed in Excel gave the following equation 

(Figure 4): 

2 

D��0. 

0154� 

� � 0. 

1016� 

� � 0. 

2167 

where: D – average cavity depth, � – rake angle. 

The analysis of above-given expression gives the minimal value at rake angle about 3º. 

Average cavity depth [mm] 

0,5 

0,4 

0,3 

0,2 

0,1 

0 

214 

y = 0,0154x 2 - 0,1016x + 0,2167 

R 2 = 0,9467 

-7 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 


Figure 4. Relationship between average cavity width and the rake angle for the saw with conical flat 

“KO-F” teeth saw.

Basically, two main kinds of defects were observed in the experiment. The first type is a 

crack in the laminate layer. It is less visible because the material in the area of defect has the 

same color. The second type can be described as a removal of some area of laminate coating 

showing darker surface of particleboard. It is more visible and thus more severe from the 

technological point of view. For the rake angles in the range from -5º to +5º (and for �=15º) 

only the first type of defects was recorded. For the rest of the rake angle values, both types of 

defects were observed. 

[%] 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

CONCLUSIONS 

0 

-7 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 

cavities penetrating to particleboard surface layer 

cavities in laminate only 

Figure 4. Particular share of different forms of defects. 

215 


1. The best sawing quality at the feed per teeth close to 0.04 mm can be achieved by means of 

the scoring saw with the rake angle about 3º. 

2. The removal of some area of laminate coating showing darker surface of particleboard is 

more visible than cavity in laminate layer, thus more severe from the technological point of 

view. It seems that this form of defect does not occur if the scoring saw has a rake angle in 

the range from -5º to +5º. 

3. Independently on the tooth geometry of the investigated scoring saws for the rake angle 5º, 

and sharp tools, there was no difference in the average cavity depth observed. 

REFERENCES 

1. GAWRO�SKI J., PILARCZYK Z., 1998: Dobór narz�dzi skrawaj�cych w procesie 

pi�owania drewna i materia�ów drewnopochodnych oraz zalecenia ich eksploatacji. 

Przemys� Drzewny nr 7 

2. PA�UBICKI B., 2006: Badania nad obróbk� elementów meblowych p�yt laminowanych. 

Praca doktorska, Pozna� 

3. PORANKIEWICZ B., 2003: T�pienie si� ostrzy i jako�� przedmiotu obrabianego w 

skrawaniu p�yt wiórowych. Roczniki Akademii Rolniczej w Poznaniu, Rozprawy 

naukowe, Zeszyt 341, Pozna�

Streszczenie: Wp�yw k�ta natarcia pi�y podcinaj�cej na jako�� ci�cia. Tematem pracy by�o 

badanie wp�ywu k�ta natarcia pi�y podcinaj�cej na jako�� obrobionej kraw�dzi p�yty 

wiórowej laminowanej. Badania przeprowadzono na pilarce sto�owej wyposa�onej we 

wrzeciono pi�y podcinaj�cej. W trakcie eksperymentu zmieniano k�t natarcia w zakresie od - 

7º do +30º a nast�pnie badano jako�� obrobionej kraw�dzi. Najlepsze wyniki otrzymano dla 

k�tów natarcia w zakresie 0º do +5º. Ponadto zbadano wp�yw dwóch wariantów geometrii 

z�bów (przy k�cie natarcia 5º) na jako�� obróbki. 


Zak�ad Obrabiarek i Obróbki Drewna 

Katedra Mechanicznej Obróbki Drewna 


Ul. Nowoursynowska 159 02-787 Warszawa 

e-mail: tg62@wp.pl




Comparative studies of varying characteristics of wood surfaces after 

exposure to natural climate and accelerated aging 

MAREK GRZE�KIEWICZ*, ANDRZEJ K�DZIERSKI*, IRENA SWACZYNA*, ANNA 

POLICI�SKA-SERWA** 

*Department of Construction and Technology of Final Wood Products, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – 

SGGW 

**Building Research Institute-ITB, Warsaw 

Abstract: Comparative studies of varying characteristics of wood surfaces after exposure to natural climate and 

accelerated aging. Tests were conducted on predetermined elements of coated pinewood samples before and 

after accelerated aging and after 18, 54 and 78 months of exposure to natural climate. The samples were tested 

for changes in colour, development of blistering or flaking and changes in gloss. Development or increase in 

yellowish tinge was compared between those samples that were exposed to natural climate, and those that 

underwent accelerated aging. The gain in yellowish tinge was three times greater, after 18 months, than in those 

samples which underwent accelerated aging and 6 times greater after 78 months. The prolonged exposure to 

natural climate made the effect of the impregnation of the samples clear to see. It was seen that the gloss of the 

finish was lower after 18 months than originally, but then after 54 months the finish regained some of its 

glossiness which then again fell after 78 months. It was also observed that using an impregnate on the wood 

before finishing it had no clear effect on the change in gloss after either trial period. 

Key words: windows finishing, ageing of paint, colour changes, blistering, peeling, cracking, chalking, paint 

adhesion 

OBJECTIVES 

The purpose of this research is to analyze the influence of accelerated weathering 

(changes in temperature and relative air humidity) and the influence of long term weathering 

(18, 54 and 78 months) on paint coats. Paint coatings were tested for change in colour, 

blistering, flaking, cracking, chalking, peeling, mold resistance, adhesion, and gloss. An 

evaluation of the influence of pre-painting impregnation, or lack thereof, was also conducted. 

METHODOLOGY 

The methods for testing the necessary qualities, was outlined in a previous publication 

(Kedzierski, 2008). This research was conducted in accordance with PN-EN 927-3:2002. 

Paints and varnishes – coating materials and coating systems for exterior wood – Part 3: 

Natural weathering tests. 

Accelerated aging (weathering) of paint coats was conducted according to standard 

ASTM D 3459-98 “Standard Test Method for Humid-Dry Cycling for Coatings on Wood and 

Wood Products”. Note however, that the time of the second stage was changed from 48 to 62 

hours. 

After the samples underwent accelerated aging in weather chamber they were tested 

for: blistering, flaking, gloss, and yellowing. Tests were performed in accordance with PN-EN 

927-3:2002. The standard PN-EN 927-3:2002 requires implementation of ISO/DIS 7724- 

1:1997 to ISO/DIS 7724-3:1997 in order to establish colour and colour changes of tested 

products. Above standards were not in existence at time of testing so samples were tested for 

yellowing of coatings in accordance to standard PN 72/C-81546. Yellowish tinge of paint coat 

was measured in the beginning (Wz1) before accelerated aging and after (Wz2), and on 

samples not exposed to accelerated aging, before and after the tests. 

�Wz = (Wz2 - Wz1) [%] 

217

The same tests of paint coats were carried out on the other group of wood samples 

before and after 18, 54 and 78 months of exposure to normal weathering. 

ANALYSIS 

The following is a series of tables which depict the information gathered throughout 

the experimentation process. Table 1 depicts the characteristics of the paint coats before aging 

and Table 2 depicts those characteristics after aging. Table 3 however, shows the 

characteristics of the paint coats after 18, 54 and 78 months of exposure to natural climate. 

Table 1: Characteristics of Coats before accelerated aging 

Tested 

Characteristic 

Aged Samples 

Variant 

A B C 

Comparative 

Samples 

Aged Samples 

Comparative 

Samples 

218 

Aged Samples 

Comparative 

Samples 

Applied Standard 

Gloss 23,73 25,41 22,60 23,89 23,83 24,77 PN-EN ISO 

2813:2001 

Yellowish Tinge 

Wz1 [%] 

4,89 5,12 4,51 4,58 4,99 4,92 PN-72/C-81546 

Table 2: Characteristics of Coats after accelerated aging 

Tested Characteristic 

Variant 

A B C 

Aged Samples 

Comparative 

Samples 

Aged Samples 

Comparative 

Samples 

Aged Samples 

Comparative 

Samples 

Applied Standard 

Gloss 20,31 23,21 20,85 22,43 21,98 23,05 PN-ISO 4628-5: 

1999 

Loss of Gloss 3,42 2,20 1,75 1,46 1,85 1,72 PN-EN 927- 

Yellowish Tinge 

Wz2 [%] 

Increase in Yellowish 

Tinge �Wz [%] 

5,73 5,25 5,37 4,81 5,84 

3:2002 

5,16 PN-72/C-81546 

0,84 0,13 0,86 0,23 0,85 0,24 PN-72/C-81546 

Table 3: Characteristics of coats exposed to 18, 54 and 78 months of natural climate 

Variant 

Measured 

Gloss 

according 

to 

Decrease 

in Gloss 

according 

to PN-EN 

Yellowish 

Tinge 

Wz [%] 

Increase in 

Yellowish 

Tinge �Wz 

[%]

Characteristcs before any 

exposure to natural climate 

Characteristcs after 18 months 


Characteristcs after 54 months 


Characteristics after 78 months 


According to PN-72/C- 

81546 

A 24,59 - 4,85 - 

B 23,68 - 4,69 - 

C 24,31 - 4,77 - 

A 22,29 2,30 7,41 2,56 

B 21,80 1,88 7,11 2,42 

C 22,35 1,96 7,12 2,35 

A 23,16 1,43 9,35 4,50 

B 22,11 1,57 8,89 4,20 

C 22,87 1,44 8,54 3,77 

A 23,02 1,57 9,88 5,03 

B 21,92 1,76 9,44 4,75 

C 22,62 1,69 9,14 4,37 

After analyzing the results one can conclude that the coatings of wood samples at the 

beginning of the tests and after accelerated aging, as well as the ones exposed to 18 and 54 

months of normal weathering, did not show any signs of flaking, mold grow or cracking. 

Blistering was 3 (S2). Only gloss and yellowish tinge were affected. 

Accelerated aging affected the change in increase of yellowish tinge �Wz. Increase in 

yellowish tinge was measured to be 0.84% to 0.86% and was similar for all the variants of 

finishes. Increase in yellowish tinge in not aged coats was measured to be 0.13% to 0.24%, 

and as is clear, it shows greater deviation. Paint coats exposed to accelerated aging are 

showing three to six times higher increase in yellowish tinge as the ones which were not aged. 

The increase in yellowish tinge was similar for all the samples used in all variants of finishes 

under 18, 54 and 78 months of exposure to natural weathering tests. Increase in yellowish 

tinge after 18 months of exposure was measured to be 2.35% to 2.56% and was about 3 times 

higher than in accelerated aging samples. After 54 months of exposure to normal climate, the 

yellowing was 3.77% to 4.50%, about 5 times that of the samples that underwent the 

accelerated aging process, and about twice that of the yellowing at 18 months. After 78 

months the gain in yellowish tinge was six times that after six months, between 4.37% to 

5.03%. Already, after 18 months it was possible to see the result of the impregnates on the 

yellowing: those sample which were not impregnated yellowed the least, those impregnated 

for 10 minutes were about 3% higher in their change in yellowing, and those impregnated for 

two minutes showed a 9% higher gain in yellowing. The results after 54 and 78 months 

showed the same trend. After 78 months, those samples that were not impregnated showed the 

least yellowing, those that underwent 10 minutes of impregnating were 9% higher in 

yellowing, and those that underwent 2 minutes of impregnating were 15% higher in 

yellowing. 

After 18 months of exposure to natural climate, it was possible to see that the gloss of 

the finish decreased by 7.7% to 14.4%. While, after 54 months, it was possible to see that the 

finishes regained 1.4% to 3.9% of their gloss, with respect to the gloss after 18 months. This 

could be due to the hardening of the coat of paint throughout the time between 18 and 54 

months of exposure. After 78 months the gloss fell back down to between 6.4% and 7.4%. 

The results showed no trends dependant on impregnation of the wood before painting. 

CONCLUSIONS 

1. Accelerated aging and 18, 54 and 78 months of exposure to natural climate causes 

increased yellowish tinge to paint coats. The gain in yellowish tinge after 18 months 

219

was three times that of accelerated aging, and the gain after 78 months was 6 times 

that of accelerated aging. 

2. The degree of yellowing was unaffected by the type of impregnate by only by the 

amount of time that the wood was exposed to it. After 78 months, those samples that 

were not impregnated showed the least yellowing, those that underwent 10 minutes of 

impregnating were 9% higher in yellowing, and those that underwent 2 minutes of 

impregnating were 15% higher in yellowing. 

3. Accelerated aging and 18 months of exposure to natural climate caused a 7.7% to 

14.4% loss in the gloss of the paint coat. 

4. After 54 months the samples regained about 1.4% to 3.3% gloss with respect to their 

level of gloss after 18 months of exposure to normal climate. 

5. Finally after 78 months, the gloss fell between 6.4% to 7.4% with regards to the gloss 

levels of the samples before the study began. 

6. It was found that the change in gloss is independent of the impregnates used or not 

used. 

REFERENCES: 

1. GRZE�KIEWICZ M., K�DZIERSKI A., SWACZYNA I., �WIETLICZNY M., 2006: 

Evaluation of degradation of paint coatings due to accelerated aging and long lasting 

exposure to natural climate. Annals of Warsaw Agricultural University – SGGW. 

Forestry and Wood Technology No 58, 2006 

2. K�DZIERSKI A., 2008: A study of the change in characteristics of wood finishes due 

to accelerated aging and exposure to natural climate. Annals of Warsaw University of 

Life Sciences – SGGW. Forestry and Wood Technology No 63, 2008 

Streszczenie: Badania zmian w�a�ciwo�ci pow�ok malarskich pod wp�ywem przyspieszonego 

starzenia i d�ugotrwa�ego dzia�ania normalnego klimatu. Zbadano podstawowe w�a�ciwo�ci 

pow�ok malarskich na drewnie sosnowym przed i po przyspieszonym postarzaniu a tak�e po 

18 i 54 miesi�cznym oddzia�ywaniu normalnego klimatu. Okre�lone w�a�ciwo�ci pow�ok to: 

zmiana barwy, sp�cherzenie, z�uszczenie i po�ysk. W wyniku bada� stwierdzono, �e sztuczne 

starzenie jak i te� 18 i 54 miesi�czne oddzia�ywaniu normalnego klimatu powoduje wzrost 

za�ó�cenia pow�ok. Przyrost stopnia za�ó�cenia pow�ok po 18 miesi�cach oddzia�ywania 

normalnego klimatu na pow�oki by� oko�o trzykrotnie, a po 54 miesi�cach pi�ciokrotnie 

wi�kszy ni� wywo�any sztucznym starzeniem. Zaznaczy� si� wp�yw impregnowania drewna 

na przyrost stopnia za�ó�cenia pow�ok wywo�any oddzia�ywaniem normalnego klimatu. 

Sztuczne starzenie oraz 18 miesi�czne oddzia�ywanie normalnego klimatu spowodowa�o 

spadek po�ysku pow�ok natomiast po 54 miesi�cach zanotowano nieznaczny wzrost po�ysku 

pow�ok w stosunku do warto�ci jakie wykazywa�y po 18 miesi�cach. Nie stwierdzono 

wp�ywu impregnowania drewna przed malowaniem na utrat� po�ysku pow�ok. 


M. Grze�kiewicz, A. K�dzierski, I. Swaczyna 

Faculty of Wood Technology 

Department of Construction and Technology of Final Wood Products 

159 Nowoursynowska str., 02-776 Warsaw, Poland 

A. Polici�ska – Serwa 

Building Research Institute-ITB 

21 Ksawerów str., 02-656 Warsaw, Poland



(Ann. WULS-SGGW, For and Wood Technol. 71, 2010 

Flammability of thermally modified wood originated from the industry – 

part I - mass losses. 

DR IN�. WOJCIECH �. GRZE�KOWIAK, DR IN�. MONIKA BARTKOWIAK 

Institute of Chemical Wood Technology, Faculty of Wood Technology, 

Poznan University of Life Sciences 

Abstract: Flammability of thermally modified wood originated from the industry – part I - mass losses. The 

work allowed to state the basic combustible properties of thermal modified wood and steamed wood. Using 

Truax-Harrison device species like oak, ash, black locust and poplar were examined. Thermal modification of 

wood was done in industrial way. During the measurements the mass loss of wood in a unit of time (part I) was 

stated and the temperatures in particular time intervals (part II) were estimated. Thermal modified wood had 

visibly shorter time of ignition and reached higher fumes temperatures. 

Keywords: wood modification, thermal modification, flammability, mass loss, temperature 

INTRODUCTION 

Methods of thermal modification of wood were available from years 20 of 20th century, 

between years 30 in Germany Stamm and Hansen began their research in connection with this 

issue. In years 40 are beginning studies in the USA. In the end of 20th century began studies 

in Finland, France and the Netherlands. Work most heavily evolved in Finland under the 

auspices of VTT. The main task of thermal modification is partial reduction of hydrofilled 

behavior of wood. This is possible by modifying the chemical structure of wood, as a result of 

this process is to create environmentally friendly "thermo wood" not containing additional 

chemicals and processed by steam and temperature. As a result of chemical reactions is 

change of color of wood, the more intense the higher the applied temperature and a longer 

process. The color is not resistant to UV radiation. Therefore it is recommended to use the 

materials for finishing e.g.: colorless varnishes (Grze�kiewicz 2003). 

After modification, the wood has a characteristic flavor, which probably is caused by 

release of furfural, terpenes and acetic acid (Militz 2002; www.finnforest.com). Another 

feature of treated wood is humidity, which decreases by approximately 50% of not modified 

timber. Thanks to a reduction of moisture content, wood becomes more enduring, improves 

its resistance to biodegradation. Reduced shrinkage is the adsorption and decreases up to 

approximately 90%. Improves insulating properties and is also changed dimension stability. 

Change of hygroscopicity and improve the stability of dimension explains the fact that 

cellulosic microfibrils are surrounded by a solid and non elastic grid created by more lateral 

bindery in absorbent paper. Microfibrils of cellulose have limited capacity to expand, thereby 

reducing their vulnerability to expansion by penetrating water (Tjeerdsma, Boonstra, Pizzi, 

Tekeli, Militz 1998). In addition to reduction of humidity, the elimination of certain nutrients 

needed for development of fungi (Vernois 2000). Volume changes during operation depend 

(Huber 2006; Hill Calum, 2006): 

� maximum temperature and length of the process; 

� temperature gradient; 

� the atmosphere of the process; 

� pressure; 

� state of moisture in wood and wood species; 

221

� process and its properties; 

� sample dimensions; 

� application of catalysts. 

In the following, thermally modified wood have decreased mechanical strength. 

Unfavorable phenomenon is the increase of wood cleavage and decrease flexural strength of 

10-20% and compressive strength. Wood becomes brittle. Therefore this type of wood should 

not be used in load-bearing structures nor should be in direct contact with the ground. The 

disadvantage is also slower absorption of glue and water-based varnish. Usually this time is 

from 3 to 6 times longer and increases with temperature modifications (Jab�o�ski 2005). A 

reduction of density is also indirectly related to the decrease in weight. Quantity of changes in 

physical and chemical wood construction requires knowledge of the chemical structure of 

modified wood components. The main components of wood are degrading in varying degrees. 

Cellulose and lignin are degradable in higher temperatures than hemicelluloses. Also other 

components are readily degradable. During heating occur both changes in cellulose and 

hemicelluloses. High-temperature degrading connections of cellulose chains, is followed by 

decrease in the degree of polymerization and crystallization of cellulose. Heating air in the 

atmosphere contributes to the formation of carbonylic groups and carboxylic acid esters by 

oxidize groups hydroxyl ion cellulose. Heating for an extended period of time leads to an 

increase in the number of carbonylic groups at the expense of carboxylic acid esters, which 

deteriorating by yellowing of pulp material (Hill Calum, 2006). By heating an acetic acid, this 

in the process acts as a catalyst in hydrolysis of hemicelluloses soluble sugars. Degradation of 

hemicelluloses occurs at a temperature of 200-260 o C and cellulose in 240-350 o C, washes 

during heating and occurring partial breakdown of phenyl propane frame. Binding ketone aryl 

are easier dispersion in syringillic parts than guaiacyl. Condensation products contain ketone 

and carboxylic group. Lignin has the highest thermal resistance. At high temperatures are 

followed decrease of quantity methyl groups and part of non condensed groups are changed 

for a diphenylmethane groups. This response has a significant effect on the characteristics of 

lignin. Extracting substances containing terpenes, fats, waxes and phenols (Hill, Calum, 

2006). 

Wood is a material which is one of the downsides of its flammability properties. The 

radiant heat the wood increases the frequency of physical and chemical properties affecting 

the smoking process. In addition to knowledge flammability of wood have particular value to 

wood combustion rate during fire. 

MATERIALS 

Wood samples for flammability test have been provided by woodwork production plant. Tests 

were made on oak, ash, poplar and black locust thermally modified and pure wood. Wood 

species came from parquet elements, terrace boards and solid wood. Because of the smaller 

length elements of oak were made samples with a length of 420 mm in all other cases it was 

500 mm. To the burning test downloaded 10 samples of 10 x20 x500 mm with each variant of 

modifications and control samples. An exception is an oak wood, in which both sample 

modified and control have length 420 mm. 

METHODS 

Tests were made on Truax and Harrison's apparatus with fire tube acc. to Metz. In tests used 

modified method carried out of reduced dimensions samples to ± 10 mm x 20 mm x 500mm 

and shrinking of flame sample for 3 minutes. Original method carried out on samples ± 10 

mm x 20 mm x 1000mm and time 4 minutes. During the measurements defined mass loss in 

222

time unit and temperature in specific time intervals (30 s). The results are average values. 

Truax -Harrison's method is a simple method and not enough accurate, but allows to define 

combustible properties of wood (Lutomski 2002). In order to obtain results with flammable 

properties of material required would be additional tests using e.g.: cone calorimeter. 

RESULTS 

During the test of control samples of oak reported mass losses ranging on average 76%. 

Modified oak wood slightly greater weight loss revealed of 77%, which is representing an 

increase of 1.3% mass loss compared with the control samples. 

In course of the examination of the control wood ash reported weight loss of 90%. Wood ash 

modified at 195 °C and 205 °C showed respectively 86 and 85% mass losses, change of 4,4% 

and 5.6% compared to the control samples. 

During tests on black locust wood control samples mass loss has been equal to 74%. For 

modified samples was to 82% mass loss. In the case of thermally modified wood increased 

mass loss of 10,8% in relation to the control samples. Steamed black locust wood shown mass 

loss of 84%. It is about 13.5% higher than in the case of control samples. 

For poplar wood, control samples showed constant mass equal to 83% and modified sample 

showed 90% weight loss. There was an increase in weight loss of 8.4% in relation to the 

control samples. 

Table 1. 

Mass losses of wood reported during test 

Wood Mass loss (%) 

Change in comparison with 

control sample (%) 

Control Oak 76 0 

thermo Oak 185�C 77 +1,3 

control Ash 90 0 

Thermo Ash195�C 86 -4,4 

thermo Ash 205�C 85 -5,6 

control black locust 74 0 

steamed black locust 105�C 84 +13,5 

thermo black locust 165�C 82 +10,8 

control poplar 83 0 

thermo poplar 165�C 

Legend: (+)increase (-)decrease 

90 +8,4 

Although thermally modified wood is less resistant to fire than not modified wood, these 

differences may be considered slight (Hill, Calum, 2006). These changes are probably 

associated with the release of volatile components of wood in the process of modification. 

Thermally modified wood is clearly shorter time to ignition and achieves higher exhaust 

temperatures. However, it can be concluded that thermally modified wood does not differ 

significantly from the normal wood for fire resistance (www.finnforest.com). 

REFERENCES 

1. GRZE�KIEWICZ M.(2003): „Kerto i Termo Wood” – nowe materia�y na rynku 

polskim”. Przemys� Drzewny, kwiecie� 2003: 14-16 

223

2. HILL A.S. CALUM (2006): „Wood Modification Chemical, Thermal and Other Process”. 

John Willey and Sons Ltd. West Sussex, England: 99-127 

3. HUBER H. (2006): „Thermally Modified Timber – The very dry end of drying”. EDG 

Drying Seminar 2006, Hamburg 

4. JAB�O�SKI D. (2005): „Thermowood – drewno modyfikowane termicznie” 

www.drewno.pl (19.03.2007) 

5. LUTOMSKI K. (2002): „Metody bada� chemicznych �rodków ochrony drewna i 

technologii ich stosowania”. Wydawnictwo Akademii Rolniczej w Poznaniu: 134-154 

6. MAYES D., OKSANEN O. (2002): „Thermo Wood Handbook”. Thermowood Finnforest, 

Stora 

7. MILITZ H. (2002): „Thermal treatment of wood: European Processes and their 

background. The International Resarch Group on Wood Preservation. 

8. Strona internetowa: www.finnforest.com (19.03.2007) 

9. TJEERDSMA B.F., BOONSTRA M., PIZZI A., TEKELY P., MILITZ H. (1998): 

„Characterisation of thermally modified wood: molecular reasons for wood performance 

improvement”. Holz als Roh – Werkstoff 56(3):149-153 

10. VERNOIS M. (2000): Heat treatment in France. Proceedings and Seminar, „Production 

and development of heat treated wood in Europe”. Nov. 2000 Helsinki. Stockholm. Oslo. 

Streszczenie: Palno�� drewna modyfikowanego termicznie pochodz�cego z przemys�u – cz�� 

I - ubytki masy. Praca pozwoli�a na okre�lenie podstawowych w�a�ciwo�ci palnych drewna 

modyfikowanego termicznie oraz drewna parzonego. Za pomoc� aparatu Truaxa-Harrisona 

przebadano takie gatunki drewna jak: d�b, jesion, robinia i topola. Termiczn� modyfikacje 

drewna wykonano w sposób przemys�owy. W trakcie pomiarów okre�lono ubytek masy 

drewna w jednostce czasu ( cze�� I) oraz temperatury w poszczególnych przedzia�ach 

czasowych (cze�� II). Drewno modyfikowane termicznie mia�o wyra�nie krótszy czas 

zap�onu i osi�gn��o wy�sze temperatury spalin. 


Wojciech �. Grze�kowiak 

Monika Bartkowiak 

Institute of Chemical Wood Technology 

Faculty of Wood Technology, Poznan University of Life Sciences 

60-637 Poznan, 38/42 Wojska Polskiego Str. 

e-mail: wojblack@up.poznan.pl




Flammability of thermally modified wood originated from the industry – 

part II -temperature distribution. 

DR IN�. WOJCIECH �. GRZE�KOWIAK, DR IN�. MONIKA BARTKOWIAK 

Instytut Chemicznej Technologii Drewna, Wydzia� Technologii Drewna, Uniwersytet Przyrodniczy w Poznaniu 

Abstract: Flammability of thermally modified wood originated from the industry – part II -temperature 

distribution. The work allowed to state the basic combustible properties of thermal modified wood and steamed 

wood. Using Truax-Harrison apparatus, species like oak, ash, robinia and poplar were examined. Thermal 

modification of wood was done in industrial way. During the measurements the mass loss of wood in a unit of 

time (part I) was stated and the temperatures in particular time intervals (part II) were estimated. Thermal 

modified wood had visibly shorter time of ignition and reached higher fumes temperatures. 

Keywords: wood modification, thermal modification, flammability, mass loss, temperature 

INTRODUCTION 

In part I of the article are shown results of mass lose of thermally modified wood tested 

within the apparatus of Truax-Harrison 's. In this part II presented are the results for the 

distribution of exhaust temperature outlet pipe. Materials and methods were presented in part 

I of the article. 

RESULTS 

Maximum temperature of oak control samples was 393 ° C, and for thermal modified sample 

468 °c. Both temperature maxima were recorded in the third minute of measurement. 

Temperature of thermally modified samples was up about 19% higher compared with the 

control. Decrease temperature of control samples was more gentle, and in the case of oak, 

temperature decrease modified wood from its maximum was sharp (table 1, fig. 1). 

Maximum temperature of control ash samples was 543 ºc and was registered in 150 second 

measurement. Wood modified at 195 °C showed maximum temperature 489 °C recorded also 

in 150 second measurement, as control samples. Measured temperature is 10% lower in 

comparison with the control. Wood modified at 205 °C showed maximum temperature 545 ºc 

registered in 3 rd minute of measurement. The temperature was slightly because 0.4% higher 

than in the case of control samples (table 1, fig. 2). 

Maximum temperature of the black locust wood control samples was 476 °C and thermally 

modified samples 520 °C. occurred at 14,1%. By comparing samples of maximum 

temperature steamed wood 482 ° C noted the slight increase of 1.3% compared with the 

control. Like the previous sample modified thermal, after obtaining the maximum temperature 

showed a sharp decline in it. Course of temperature curves for controls and wood was similar 

to steamed (table 1, fig. 3). 

Maximum temperature of poplar control samples was 481 °c and thermally modified wood 

for 495 °c. In case of modified poplar there was an increase 2,9%. Maximum Of temperature 

drop has occurred rapidly (table 1, fig. 4). 

225

Table 1. Maximum exhaust temperature at the outlet tube obtained during testing 

Wood 

Max. 

temperatures 

(ºC) 

226 

Change in 

comparison with 

control sample (%) 

Control Oak 393 0 3 

thermo Oak 185�C 468 +19,1 3 

control Ash 543 0 2,5 

Thermo Ash195�C 489 -10 2,5 

thermo Ash 205�C 545 +0, 4 3 

control black locust 476 0 3 

steamed black locust 

105�C 

482 +1,3 3 

thermo black locust 

543 +14,1 3 

165�C 

control poplar 481 0 2 

thermo poplar 165�C 495 +2,9 2,5 

Legend: (+)increase (-)decrease 

temperature [C] 

500 

450 

400 

350 

300 

250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

0,51,01,52,02,53,03,54,04,55,05,56,06,5 

time [min] 

control oak 

thermo oak 185 

Time to max. 

temperature (min) 

Fig.1. Exhaust gas temperature at the outlet tube recorded during testing of oak wood


600,0 

500,0 

400,0 

300,0 

200,0 

100,0 

0,0 

0,5 1,5 2,5 3,5 4,5 5,5 6,5 7,5 8,5 9,5 

time [min] 

227 

control ash 

thermo ash 195 

thermo ash 205 

Fig.2. exhaust gas temperature at the outlet tube recorded during testing of ash wood 


600 

500 

400 

300 

200 

100 

0 

0,5 1,5 2,5 3,5 4,5 5,5 6,5 7,5 8,5 

D 

control black locust 

steamed black locust 105 

thermo black locust 165 

time [min] 

Fig.3. exhaust gas temperature at the outlet tube recorded during testing of black locust wood


CONCLUSIONS 

1. Processes of thermal modification of wood increases its flammability. Thermal 

modification of wood oak, poplar and beans increases mass losses and exhaust 

gas temperature of wood treated by fire. Wood ash shows the reverse 

relationship. 

2. Steaming process of black locust wood increases its flammability. Increasing 

shortages are weight and exhaust gas temperature treated wood fire. 

3. Thermal modification processes significantly reduce wood humidity. 

Consequently, these amendments increase the burning of wood. An exception is 

here wood ash. 

4. Together with the increasing temperature modification process increases the 

temperature of the exhaust gas of samples wood ash. 

Streszczenie: Palno�� drewna modyfikowanego termicznie pochodz�cego z przemys�u – cz�� 

II – rozk�ad temperatury. Praca pozwoli�a na okre�lenie podstawowych w�a�ciwo�ci palnych 

drewna modyfikowanego termicznie oraz drewna parzonego. Za pomoc� aparatu Truaxa- 

Harrisona przebadano takie gatunki drewna jak: d�b, jesion, robinia i topola. Termiczn� 

modyfikacje drewna wykonano w sposób przemys�owy. W trakcie pomiarów okre�lono 

ubytek masy drewna w jednostce czasu ( cze�� I) oraz temperatury w poszczególnych 

przedzia�ach czasowych (cze�� II). Drewno modyfikowane termicznie mia�o wyra�nie krótszy 

czas zap�onu i osi�gn��o wy�sze temperatury spalin. 


600 

500 

400 

300 

200 

100 

0 

0,5 1,5 2,5 3,5 4,5 5,5 6,5 7,5 


Monika Bartkowiak 




e-mail: wojblack@up.poznan.pl 

control poplar 

thermo poplar 165 

time [min] 

Fig.4. exhaust gas temperature at the outlet tube recorded during testing of poplar wood




Fire safety of fireplaces – wood based products speed of charring 

DR IN�. WOJCIECH �. GRZE�KOWIAK 1 , ST. KPT. MGR IN�. TOMASZ WI�NIEWSKI 

2 

1) Institute of Chemical Wood Technology, Faculty of Wood Technology, 


2) Provincial Headquarters of State Fire Service in Poznan 

Abstract: Fire safety of fireplaces – wood based products speed of charring. This work was devoted to 

determine the thermal properties of wood derived products treated with thermal radiation. Research material 

were: particleboard, plywood, OSB and MDF measuring 200x200mm. Test method was to action on the heat 

generated by a electric heater with power 2,4kW, in distances of 10, 15, 20 cm from the heat source. Studies 

clearly define the relationship that increases as the distance from the source of heat determined thermal 

properties decreases. Diversification in the construction of structural materials cause that results obtained in the 

experience for each type of wood-derived product largely depend on the individual structure material and are 

characteristic for them 

Keywords: fireplace, charring speed, temperature, self-ignition, 

INTRODUCTION 

Closed fireplaces this is popular name of so-called input or fire place cartridge. Design of 

fireplace inputs and cassettes is very similar. These are closed hearths, produced with 

materials resistant to high temperature, corrosion and well accumulated heat. Closed 

fireplaces give back heat partly through radiation by furnaces pane and hot cladding 

(Hawajski 2010). Convection phenomenon is also used, which consists on hover heated air 

upwards. During combustion cartridge or corps of input is heating. Cold air from the room 

flow in between the device corps and carcass and withdraw heat. Then already heated, 

escapes into the room by ventilating bars mounted in the chimney hood. The temperature 

inside the hood may be 300 o C. For security reasons within 40 cm from the ceiling, at the top 

of the grille outlet shall be mounted the baffle plate. Separated upper part is called the 

decompression chamber. 

The use of wood-derived products on building fireplaces is very frequent. Application within 

the chamber and chimney flue of combustible elements involves the danger of thermal 

decomposition those materials (fig. 6,7). It’s necessary to pay particular attention on tight 

installation of smoke drain off and correct of lying on. This is achieved by suitable distance 

channels from other elements of the building and use of isolation and covers. A fireplace must 

be placed on the nonflammable ground at thickness at least 0,15 m, and the metal furnaces 

without feet on 0,3 m. Easily flammable floor in front of hearth doors should be secured by a 

non-combustible material with a width at least 0,3 m, up beyond the edges of the doors, at 

least after 0,3 m. Use elements of decoration and furnishing and of combustibles in a distance 

of less than 0,5 m from installations and the external surfaces may become to temperatures 

exceeding 100 o C, is prohibited. External surfaces back during exploitation exceed 

contribution 300 o C (Rozp. MSWiA 2006). Visible is therefore necessary to isolate the entire 

heating system and smoke drain from combustible components of the building. The cause of 

many fires is to introduce in the space above the chimney input of no covered combustible 

materials. These are the most common wood structural elements of the walls and ceilings. 

Exhaust gases getting out by slots with a very high temperature can quickly launch a process 

of thermal decomposition. Occurring smoldering from material can be long at a lower 

229

temperature and be the origin of fire (Kotulek 2009). Fast pyrolysis of wood drawn at more 

than 280 o C is characterized by the association with a small mass of charcoal, which is app. 

20% of the initial wood mass. Produces large quantities of wood tar and highly flammable 

gases. Charring as a result of low temperature pyrolysis is highly reactive. Prolonged heating 

of wood, dried them, thus lowering the temperature at which the wood is catches fire. 

Protection of wood in the form of metal sheet or various kinds of plates, often with additional 

thermal insulation layer is not always sufficient to counteract the formation of charcoal. 

Isolation of one part, limits the amount of heat transmitted to material but on the other hand, 

helps heat accumulation. Even with a leak protection might smoldering occurs, which is 

already at a very low oxygen content. Sources of potential initiators for fireplaces are very 

dangerous and can appear in many places. 

METHODS 

Of experimental samples were measuring 200x200 mm ± 1 mm made of wood-derived 

products: - Particleboard (18 mm) 

- MDF (Medium Density Fiberboard) (8 mm) 

- OSB (Oriented Strand Board) (12 mm) 

-Alder tree plywood (10 mm) 

Samples before tests were conditioned in room of constant temperature t = 20 ± 2° C and 

relative humidity � = 60 ± 5%. Test sample were located in a chamber, in a frame with two 

screws for fastening of board element. In each of the samples on the surface not exposed to 

direct heat were bored aperture deep app. 3 mm, in which was affixed thermocouple enable to 

continuous recording of temperature. Source of radiant heat was electric heater with power 

2400 W, diameter of 170 mm, temp. 450 o C. Before tests chamber was warming up to a 

specific temperature, and then was cooling to make the tests in comparable conditions. 

Temperature was recorded every minute, after 20 minutes heater was turned off, and 

temperature was reading until its reduction. Studies were conducted in distances from the 

source 10, 15, 20 cm. After cooling in the central part of the sample was carefully collected 

charring layer to specification of burning degree, which is the percentage ratio of depth to 

initial sample thickness. Was also determinate speed of charring, which is the thickness of 

charring layer for the duration of the process (mm/min). Thickness of charring layer was 

measured by electronic vernier caliper to the nearest 0.01mm. 

RESULTS 

In a method that uses a permanent heat source weight loss, degree of burning and charring 

speed were defined. In this article demonstrates charring speed and temperature distribution 

on the surface of samples during the test. As the distance increase from the heat source 

carbonization speed decreases, what can be explained by the decrease in temperature on the 

surface directly exposed to heat, which is the most important factor affecting this variable. 

Fastest charring on distance of 10 cm reached for OSB and is it 0,7735 mm/min. Other 

materials reached respectively average speed: Particleboard 0,260 mm/min, MDF 0,457 

mm/min and plywood 0,2588 mm/min (Fig 1). Large value of charring speed for OSB is 

linked to a solid wood as broad chips of different dimensions. For distances 15 and 20 cm 

speed carbonization undergo significant deceleration and at a distance of 20 cm for boards are 

not noticeable, which can be translated by too low temperature on the surface of the sample 

during the study and the outer layer that boards have a density greater than internal layers, 

which are harder to charring. 

The maximum temperature on the surface samples depending on the distance from the source 

of radiation oscillated within 200-250 °C (fig. 2,3,4,5). The exception that is MDF in a 

distance 10 cm from the heater reached temperature 300 o C above. Lowest surface temperature 

230

of the samples showed particleboard with all types of distance from heater and exceeding 

200 o C only in distance 10 cm. It’s necessary to pay attention also to the phenomenon of selfignition 

affected by such factors as density and thickness of the material. Mazela and 

Synowiec (2003) concluded that with increased density and thickness, time to self-ignition 

shall be longer, what is confirmed in the performed tests. For sample boards, self-ignition 

phenomenon does not occur, what can explain at high density layers associated with a large 

number of binding and thickness of the boards. For plywood spontaneous self-ignition 

occurred in all variants, and probably is related to the layered construction of plywood, this 

material under the influence of high temperature is stratificated, causing overheating on 

thickness and faster achieving of self-ignition temperature. 

Fig. 1 Average charring speed of wood-derived products. 

Fig. 2. Distribution of average temperatures for MDF 

231

Fig.3. Distribution of average temperatures for OSB 

Fig.4. Distribution of average temperatures for plywood 

Fig.5. Distribution of average temperatures for particleboard 

232

Fig.6. ��(T. Wi�niewski) 

Fig. 7. Charring by pyrolysis .of fireplaces range made of boards with natural veneer (T. Wi�niewski) 

CONCLUSIONS 

1. In the case of wood based products, for example for the chimney covering its necessary 

to pay particular attention to conduct an appropriate distance between fireplace inputs 

and covering. On the elements of fireplace inputs are achieved very high temperatures, 

which significantly exceed the self-ignition temperature of wood derived products. 

2. Speed of charring decreases as the distance from the heat source increasing, the type of 

material does not affect this value in the case of variable distance. In case of one 

distance it can be seen a clear impact on the type of material. 

REFERENCES 

1. HAWAJSKI W., 2010: Izolacje kominkowe. 

http//kominki.org/felieton/art4,izolacje-kominkowe-.html 18.08.2010. 

233

2. KOTULEK G. (2009): Zaczyna si� od iskry. Bezpiecze�stwo po�arowe przy 

stosowaniu 

3. wk�adów kominkowych. �wiat kominków nr1 

4. MAZELA B., SYNOWIEC G., (2003): Palno�� p�ytowych tworzyw 

drewnopochodnych stosowanych w budownictwie. Ochrona przed korozj�. 

Miesi�cznik Stowarzyszenia In�ynierów i Techników Przemys�u 

Chemicznego, pa�dziernik. Wydawnictwo Sigma. 

5. ROZPORZ�DZENIE MINISTRA SPRAW WEWN�TRZNYCH I 

ADMINISTRACJI z dnia 21 kwietnia 2006 roku w sprawie ochrony 

przeciwpo�arowej budynków, innych obiektów budowlanych i terenów (Dz.U.nr 80, 

poz.563) 

Streszczenie: Bezpiecze�stwo po�arowe kominków – szybko�� zw�glania materia�ów 

drewnopochodnych. Powy�sza praca po�wi�cona zosta�a okre�leniu w�a�ciwo�ci cieplnych 

materia�ów drewnopochodnych poddanych dzia�aniu promieniowania cieplnego. Materia�em 

badawczym by�y tworzywa drewnopochodne: sklejka, p�yta wiórowa, OSB oraz MDF o 

wymiarach 200x200mm. Metoda badania polega�a na dzia�aniu na formatk� strumieniem 

ciep�a wydzielanym przez grza�k� o mocy 2,4kW, w odleg�o�ciach 10, 15, 20 cm od �ród�a 

ciep�a. Przeprowadzone badania jednoznacznie okre�laj� zale�no��, �e wraz ze wzrostem 

odleg�o�ci od �ród�a ciep�a malej� warto�ci oznaczanych w�a�ciwo�ci cieplnych. 

Zró�nicowania w budowie strukturalnej materia�ów powoduj� i� wyniki uzyskane w 

do�wiadczeniu dla ka�dego rodzaju wyrobu drewnopochodnego w znacznej mierze zale�� od 

indywidualnej struktury materia�u i s� dla nich charakterystyczne 






e-mail: wojblack@up.poznan.pl 

st. kpt. mgr in�. Tomasz Wi�niewski 

Provincial Headquarters of State Fire Service in Poznan, 

61-767 Pozna�, ul. Masztalarska 3 

tel.: +48 61 8215291 ,fax: +48 61 8215500, MSWiA: tel.: 77 18291 

e-mail:twisniewski@poczta.psp.wlkp.pl




Oil palm wood (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) as an underutilized resource of raw 

materials 

P.S. H’NG a , L.Y. CHAI a , K.L. CHIN a , M. MAMI�SKI b,* 

a Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia 

b Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, 

159 Nowoursynowska St. 02-776 Warsaw, Poland 

Abstract: Oil palm wood (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) as an underutilized resource of raw materials.The nature of 

oil palm widely planted in Malaysia, availability of its wood and derivatives, being a by-product, from palm oil 

production as well as possible approaches for utilization of that lignocellulosic renewable biomass were 

described. 

Keywords: biomass utilization, Elaeis guineensis, oil palm 

Malaysia is the biggest manufacturer of palm oil in the world. The annual production 

of crude palm oil exceeds 17 million tons and 4.1 million tons of palm kernel oil. As such, 

Malaysia has abundant oil palm wood plantations. Decades ago, fallen oil palm trunks, being 

a waste, used to be burned on the plantations. However, the approach was given up, due to 

“zero burning policies” and today huge quantity of trunks is a stock of biomass. 

Due to excellent productivity of Elaeis guineensis in the local habitat, oil palm is 

called “Golden Crop” and, in consequence, its planted area in Peninsular Malaysia exceeded 4 

million hectares in 2005 and it is estimated to exceed 4.5 million hectares in 2010. 

Fig. 1 Oil palm (A) and oil palm fruit bunch (B) 

235

Having in mind that 54 – 58 m 3 of palm wood can be produced from each hectare 

(Bakar et al. 2006), the amount of available oil palm wood is estimated on 10.8 – 11.6 million 

m 3 . Apart from the fallen trunk, other types of lignocellulosic biomass are: empty fruit 

bunches, oil palm shells and pruned palm fronds that are available in significant amounts 

(Table 1). 

Table 1. Oil palm biomass availability in Peninsular Malaysia 

Years 

2011-2013 

2014-2016 

2017-2020 

Source: Annonymous 2010 

Trunk 

(million tons/year) 

4.28 

3.58 

2.97 

236 

Pruned frond 


6.80 

7.05 

7.14 

Empty fruit bunch 


2.83 

2.91 

2.81 

Thus, it is a challenge for industry to utilize the resource in the best possible way and 

efficiently transform it into suitable and commercially viable materials. 

Although such abundance of wood raw material seems promising and tempting, its utilization 

is not easy and is still limited. The main reason for that is morphology and mechanical 

properties of the material. Since Elaeis guineensis Jacq. is monocotyledon in which no 

secondary thickening occurs and primary vascular bundles are embedded in parenchymatous 

tissue (Fig. 2). 

Fig. 2. Image of oil palm wood. A – tangential section, B – transversal section 

Killman and Choon (1985) report that since the species has no cambium layer, its 

growth is realized by expansion of parenchyma cells and fibers within the vascular bundles. 

Such a structure results in variable density throughout the trunk. In Fig. 3 wood density 

distribution was shown. As one can see densities vary from 140 to 600 kg/m 3 . Therefore, 

mechanical properties are also variable. Bakar et al. (2008) found that the modulus of

elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR) greatly decreased from the outer to center 

and slightly decreased from the bottom to the top of trunk. 

Fig. 3 Wood density distribution throughout oil palm trunk (kg/m 3 ). OZ – outer zone, CZ – central zone, IZ – 

inner zone (adapted from Erwinsyah 2008 and Chai 2010) 

As numerous studies demonstrated oil palm wood on drying was a subject of 

shrinkage, checking, warping, twisting and collapse (Wong 1982, Lim and Gan 2005, 

Mokhtar et al. 2008). Moreover, the wood is generally weak, but when properly treated or 

engineered can possible be useful raw material. Thus, it is obvious that finding a proper 

methods and processing ways of utilization of oil palm wood is a challenge. 

So far, oil palm trunk had been recognized as resource of raw materials for MDF, 

blockboard, laminated veneer lumber (LVL) and particleboard, however, cannot be used as 

substitute for solid timber without treatments improving strength, durability, dimensional 

stability and machining characteristics. Attempts of palm wood application for plywood 

manufacturing were described by Abdul Khail et al. (2010). 

There are some approaches to modification explored and described in literature. 

Siburian et al. (2005) used natural rubber and polypropylene impregnation. Successful 

phenol-formaldehyde resin impregnation was also described by Bakar et al. (2008). Chai 

(2010) investigated three-layer engineered boards with oil palm wood impregnated with ureaformaldehyde 

resin as core of the sandwich-type composite. 

These investigations clearly show that impregnation can be an efficient way for 

improvement of mechanical properties of oil palm wood and can possibly give ways for new 

areas of its utilization. 

But not only impregnation modifications of palm wood are possible. Also fiber from 

empty fruit bunch and fronds can possible be utilized as fibrous raw material. Empty fruit 

237

unch fibers were examined as reinforcing material for composites (Rozman et al. 2004) and 

palm fronds were tested as raw material for pulping (Wanrosli et al. 2007). 

It must be stressed that chemical transformations are to be considered. Many groups report 

successful research on biotransformations of oil palm wood to sugars (e.g. xylose) (Rahman et 

al. 2006) or other building blocks useful in organic synthesis (e.g. ethanol, lactic acid) 

(Kosugi et al. 2010). 

And, last but not least, Elaeis guineensis and its derivatives is considered as 

lignocellulosic resource for energy generation. The papers by Sumathi et al. (2008) and 

Sumiani (2006) are focused on discussion of an opportunities of use of oil palm as renewable 

fuel being in accordance with sustainable development. 

In conlusion it may be stated that such abundant resource of biomass like oil palm and 

its derivatives is still a challenge that gives a lot of space for developing new ways and 

methods for its processing and new approaches are most welcome. 

REFERENCES 

1. ABDUL KHALIL H.P.S., NURUL FAZITA M.R., BHAT A.H., JAWAID M., NIK 

FUAD N.A. (2010) Development and material properties of new hybrid plywood from 

oil palm biomass. Materials & Design 31: 417-424 

2. ANONYMOUS (2010) www.asiabiomass.jp/biofuelIDB/malaysia/index.htm 

3. BAKAR E.D., HAMAMI M.S. and H’NG P.S. (2008) Chapter 12: Anatomical 

characteristics and utilization of oil palm wood. In: The formation of wood in tropical 

forest trees: A challenge from the preservative of functional wood anatomy (pp.161- 

178) eds. M.S. Hamami and T. Nobuchi. Serdang: Universiti Putra Malaysia 

4. BAKAR E.S., FAUZI F., IMAN W. and ZAIDON A. (2006) Polygon sawing: an 

optimum sawing pattern for oil palm stems. Journal of Biological Sciences 64: 744- 

749 

5. CHAI L.Y. (2010) Master of science thesis: Development of three-layer engineered 

board from oil palm wood trunk. Universiti Putra Malaysia 

6. KILLMANN W. and CHOON L.S. (1985) Anatomy and properties of oil palm stem. 

Proceedings of the National Symposium of oil palm by-products for agro-based 

industries. Kuala Lumpur: Bulletin PORIM 11: 18-42 

7. KOSUGI A., TANAKA R., MAGARA K., MURATA Y., ARAI T., SULAIMAN O., 

HASHIM R., ABDUL HAMID Z.A., AZRI YAHYA M.K., YUSOF M.N.M., 

IBRAHIM W.A., MORI Y. (2010) Ethanol and lactic acid production using sap 

squeezed from old oil palm trunks felled for replanting. Journal of Bioscience and 

Bioengineering 110: 322-325 

LIM S.C. and GAN K.S. (2005) Characteristic and utilization of oil palm stem. 

Timber Technology Bulletin 35. Kuala Lumpur: Forest Research Institute Malaysia 

8. MOKHTAR A, HASSAN K, AZZIZ A.A. and WAHID M.B. (2008) Treatment of oil 

palm lumber. MPOB Information. Series 404. Kuala Lumpur: Malaysia Palm Oil 

Board. 

9. ERWINSYAH V. (2008) doctoral dissertation: Improvement of oil palm wood 

properties using bioresin. TUD, Dresden, Germany. 

10. RAHMAN S.H.A., CHOUDHURY J.P., AHMAD A.L. (2006) Production of xylose 

from oil palm empty fruit bunch fiber using sulfuric acid. Biochemical Engineering 

Journal 30: 97-103 

238

ROZMAN H. D., AHMADHILMI K. R., ABUBAKAR A. (2004) Polyurethane 

(PU)— oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) composites: the effect of EFBG 

reinforcement in mat form and isocyanate treatment on the mechanical properties. 

Polymer Testing 23: 559-565 

11. SIBURIAN R., SIANTURI H.L. and AHMAD F. (2005) Impregnasi kayu kalepa 

sawit dengan poliblen polipropilena / karet alam dan asam akrilat. Jurnal Natur 

Indonesia 8: 48-53 

12. SUMIANI Y. (2006) Renewable energy from oil palm – innovation on effective 

utilization of waste. Journal of Cleaner Production 14: 87-93 

13. SUMATHI S., CHAI S.P., MOHAMMED A.R. (2008) Utilization of oil palm as a 

source of renewable energy in Malaysia. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 

12: 2404-2421 

WANROSLI W.D., ZAINUDDIN Z., LAW K.N., ASRO R. (2007) Pulp from oil 

palm fronds by chemical processes. Industrial Crops and Products 25: 89-94 

14. WONG T.M. (1982) A dictionary of Malaysian Timbers. Revised by Lim S.C. and 

Chung R.C.K. Malayan Forest Records. No. 30. Kuala Lumpur: Forest Research 

Institute Malaysia. 

Abstrakt: Drewno palmy oleistej (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) jako niewykorzystane �ród�o surowców. Opisana 

zosta�a palma oleista uprawiana na du�� skal� w Malezji, dost�pno�� jej drewna i innych produktów ubocznych 

powstaj�cych podczas produkcji oleju palmowego. Nakre�lono aktualne kierunki bada� nad wykorzystaniem 

owych zasobów biomasy. 


H’ng Paik San 

Faculty of Forestry, 

Universiti Putra Malaysia 

43400 UPM Serdang, 

Selangor, Malaysia 

e-mail: ngpaiksan@gmail.com 

Chai Lai Yee 





Chin Kit Ling 





Mariusz Mami�ski 


Warsaw University of Life Science – SGGW 

159 Nowoursynowska St. 


e-mail: mariusz_maminski@sggw.pl




Less popular application of trees and bushes growing in Poland and 

Slovakia 

MAREK JAB�O�SKI 1) , JÁN SEDLIA�IK 2) , EVA RUŽINSKÁ 3) 

1) 


2) 

Faculty of Wood Technology, TU Zvolen, 

3) 

Department of Environmental Technology, Faculty of Environmental and Manufacturing Technology, 


Abstract: Less popular application of trees and bushes growing in Poland and Slovakia. Article presents less 

popular application of trees and bushes growing in Polan and Slovakia. 

Keywords: tree and wood application, bushes application. 

Wood, as a renewable material is irreplaceable in human and society life. It is present 

from the cradle to the grave, which we are not always aware of. 

Authors wanted to share knowledge about less popular application of trees and bushes 

growing in Poland and Slovakia, article is regarded as an supplement for widely used 

information of wood material applications. 

Spruce (Picea A. Dietr.) • Wood used in wheelwrighting and cooperage, making of shingles, 

wood wool, wood pulp and cellulose. Bark used in tannin production, used in tanning 

industry, as a paint, cosmetics and medicaments component. In gardening used for weed 

prevention. Branches are used for decorative plugs and buttons, younger sprouts for medical 

syrups. Stems are used for making of decorative products, equipment needed in mountain huts 

or cattle pasturage such as pails or steres. 

Fir (Abies Mil.) • Applications the same as spruce, but fir contains less resin. •Was used for 

building of grinding mills and water lines in the past. 

Pine (Pinus L.) • Production of windmill wings, pavement blocks, pumps, water lines and 

shingles. • Dry distillation, chip and root extraction, production of turpentine and wood rosin • 

wood resin used for production of ethereal oils and wood rosin, used for hot-melt glue 

production, soldering and violin bow treatment. 

Larch (Larix Mill.) • Material suitable for carpentry • Production of pumps, water lines and 

reservoirs, boats, barrels, vats, thicker bars in basketry. • Valuable and demanded shingles 

production material • Resin used for high quality turpentine production • Used for churches 

and other buildings in the past. 

Beech (Fagus L.) • Machining (production of buttons, tool, button and furniture handles, 

ladles and cutting boards, clips, hangers, riffle butts, clogs, brushes, shoe lasts). In coopery 

(barrels for oil, petroleum oil, fats, fish, in sculpting. • In dry wood distillation for production 

of alcohol, charcoal, wood vinegar or 2-furaldehyd. In hydrolysis for wood pulp and viscose 

cellulose production. • Thru beech wood tar distillation creosote oil is produced, used mainly 

in medicine and preparation of various disinfecting agents. 

240

Oak (Quercus L.) • Ship building, ladder rungs, window framing, sills, wine and spirits 

barrels, mining shores, household tools, wheels, beams, girders, railway cars, railway sleepers 

and pavement blocks • Bark is used for production of tanning agents, in pharmaceutical 

industry and in gardening for herbicides production. • Production of incense caskets. 

Ash (Fraxinus L.) • Wood most adequate for sporting goods (rails, climbing masts, skis, 

paddles, tennis rackets, hockey sticks) • It is used for hammer handles, railway car bodies, 

wheelwrighting and for furniture parts (straight and bent) • Leaves and young shoots serve as 

wild animal feed • Mountain ash is applicable for hand planes manufacturing. 

Great maple (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) • Production of smaller artistic and fancy goods, 

incense caskets, in the past airplane propellers and measuring equipment • Musical 

instruments box, upper board made usually of spruce, lower with resonant maple. From strong 

and hard hedge maple wind musical instruments are being made. • Wavy maple wood is one 

of the best materials for musical instruments (violin, guitars, double basses, mandolins) • 

Hedge maple wood is used for making of string musical instruments necks or bridges and 

wind musical instruments such as pipes or reeds • In Canada, maple juice is used for maple 

syrup production, used for sweets or sauces. 

Elm (Ulmus L.) • Due to its proprietary pattern used in the furniture industry, interior 

architecture (panels, flooring), wheelwrighting (hubs), sculpture (rifle stocks), railway cars, 

decorative veneers, garden furniture, household and sporting goods, thinner items in basketry. 

Hornbeam (Carpinus L.) • Production of water gear wheels, piano key mechanics, lasts, 

cigar molds, machinery and tooling (planes, handles, pulleys, dowels, bearings, wedges), 

farming utensils (beaters, hayrakes, harrows) • In turning for templates production, in 

carpentry, building and for smaller utensils manufacturing. 

Poplar (Populus L.) • In the furniture (drawer parts), flooring of railway cars for stone and 

coal, flooring of malt, tobacco and hops kilns, in turning (toys, barrel heads) • Making of 

matches and matchboxes, clogs, troughs, cases, wood wool, cellulose and wood pulp • Flood 

embankment • Filling for blockboards and other bioboards. 

Birch (Betula L.) • Birch pulp is used in food industry (production of non-alcoholic 

beverages and juices – in Russia), in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry, in combination 

with alcohol forms very food anti-dandruff treatment • Leaves and bark is used in pharmacy 

as diuretic, anti-rheumatic and sweat gaining. Bark is used in anti-dandruff specifics 

production, buds in making of skin diseases treating oils. • Brooms are fabricated out of birch 

shoots • Birch wood is suitable for sculpting (fancy goods and frames), i coopery barrels for 

storing of dry goods are made, multiple layer plywood, knife handles, torches and hockey 

sticks for children • In the past wood was used in basketry, in making of shuttles, tool handles, 

clogs, lasts, wooden nails, hoops, drawbars, wood out of root swelling was suitable for pipe 

bowls • Bark, outer bark and phloem are used for decorative flower pot wrappings. 

Acacia(Acacia Mill.) • Wood valuable in wheelwrighting (vineyard dibbles, drawbars, 

wheels) and for turning • Used as a building and mining wood, in making of poles, piles, 

fences, parquetry, sporting goods, handles, wooden nails, shoemaking nails and wine barrels • 

Used for forestation of barren land, because of the roots stabilizing soil • Perfect honey and 

pollen tree • Not used for veneer ant toy making • Dust made during machining has allergic 

influence and causes breathing problems • Used for stands for hunting trophies. 

Alder (Alnus mill.) • Veneer production, good for turning (fabric roller, wooden soles, clogs, 

toys, pipe bowls, pencils, cigar boxes), water constructions, charcoal, exotic wood imitations • 

Because of alder native environment, root system stabilizes soil, especially of riverbanks. 

241

Lime (Tilia) • Sculpting and turning • Production of matches, pencils, reinforcing elements in 

musical instruments, drawing boards, beehives, beekeeping utensils, clogs, wood wool, 

cellulose and charcoal (black powder production) • Bark used in shoemaking (insert between 

sole and liner) • Lime flower used in pharmacy for teas. 

Aspen (Populus tremula L. • Matches and matchboxes production, wood pulp, cellulose, 

wood wool, cellulose pulp, boxes, woven wrappings from wood strips. 

Willow (Salix L.) • Packages, shovel handles, boxes, barrel bottoms, clogs, boats, matches. 

Turned into wood pulp, cellulose mass, wood wool. Used mainly in the basketry and furniture 

production • Bark due to high contain of salicylates and tannins used for antipyretic 

medicines. 

Walnut (Juglans regia L.) • Walnut is popular in furniture production. It is also suitable for 

sculpting and turning • From walnut rifle stocks, picture frames, parquetry, artistic goods, 

smoking pipes and jewelry are produced. • Walnut leaves are used as a dye in cosmetics 

industry. 

Sweet cherry (Cerasus avium (L.) Moench.) • Production of veneers, parquetry, wall 

clock boxes, tables, fancy goods, wooden tea boxes. Used in wheelwrighting and for 

turning • Cherry wood is used as a mahogany imitation. 

Pear (Pyrus L.) • Production of veneers (wavy), bowls, mugs, buttons, umbrella handles, 

drawing utensils (meters, triangles, rulers, handles are made of digested pear wood), pianos, 

in the past also larger printing fonts. 

Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) • Production of bent furniture, parquetry, special barrels for spirits 

and wine, hoops, turned jewelry • Bark used for tannins production, used for leather 

preparation. Thicker chestnut shoots are used in basketry • Very good honey tree • Chestnut 

fruits are used in pharmaceutical industry, being base for medicaments applied wit blood 

circulation problems, varixes, inflammations and edemas • Fruits are also used in cosmetic 

industry for tanning creams and UV filters production. 

Plum (Prunus L.) • For turning and sculpting (barrel plugs, knife handles, wind musical 

instruments). In artistic carpentry for marquetry, toys and fancy goods • Stands for hunting 

trophies. 

Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Used in artistic and fancy goods carpentry. 

Plane (Platanus L.) • Wheelwrighting, turning, furniture and fancy goods carpentry. 

Yew (Taxus baccata) •In furniture and fancy goods carpentry, sculptures, turning (barrel 

plugs), wind musical instruments and measuring equipment • Stands for hunting trophies. 

European bird cherry (Padus racemosa) •For turning and wheelwrighting, for production 

of black gunpowder charcoal. 

Bladdernut (Staphylea pinnata) •For turning, smoking pipe bowls and fancy goods. 

Glossy buckthorn (Frangula alnus) •For production of black gunpowder charcoal. 

Checkertree (Sorbus torminalis) • In carpentry for sculpting and turning, production of 

machinery parts, musical instruments, drawing boards, rulers and other drawing equipment. 

Cornelian cherry dogwood (Cornus mas) • For turning (tool handles). production of 

machinery parts, fancy goods carpentry and basketry. 

Whitebeam (Sorbus aria) • For turning and sculpting, production of machinery parts, 

measuring equipment. 

242

Purple smoke bush (Cotinus coggygria) • In artistic and fancy goods carpentry, in dyeing. 

Elderberry and Red Elderberry (Sambucus nigra, Sambucus racemosa) • For turning and 

sculpting, mainly whistles and pipes. 

Common Juniper (Juniperus communis) • For turning (rods, pipe shanks), sculpting, 

artistic carpentry, flavor in spirits industry. 

Spindle (Euonymus europaeus, Euonymus verrucosus) • Smaller turned and sculpted 

carpentry, parts of musical instruments, shoemaking nails, toothpicks, box wood imitation. 

Common Box (Buxus sempervirens L.) • Artistic sculpting, turning, wind musical 

instruments, shuttles, woodcut and marquetry. 

Common broom (Cytisus) •Turning, wheelwrighting, fancy goods carpentry, machinery 

parts. 

European Barberry (Berberis vulgaris) •Turning, artistic carpentry (marquetry), in dying in 

the past. 

Common Hawthorn and Nothern European Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna, Crataegus 

oxyacantha) • Wheelwrighting, machinery parts, rods. 

False Medlar (Sorbus chamaemespilus) •Wheelwrighting, sculpting, turning, coopery. 

Jasmine (Jasminum L.) • Basketry. 

Wayfaring Tree and Guelder Rose (Viburnum lantana, Viburnum opulus) • Pipe shanks 

turning. 

Bladdernut (Staphylea pinnata) • Pipe shanks and fancy goods. 

Common Hazel (Corylus avellana) • Tool handles, barrel hoops, boxes, woven products, 

beer makers chips, wood wool, charcoal for black gunpowder production. 

Lilac (Syringa vulgaris L.) • Turning and artistic carpentry. 

Sweet Mock-orange (Philadelphus coronarius L.) •Pipe stems, basketry. 

Common Broom (Sarothamnus scoparius Wimm.) • Basketry. 

Old Man’s Beard (Clematis vitalba L.) • Basketry. 

Buckthorn (Rhamnus saxatilis Jacq.) • Turning, artistic carpentry (especially the roots). 

Common Dogwood (Swida sanguinea) • Turning, machinery parts, basketry. 

Blackthotn (Prunus spinosa)•Turning and basketry. 

Perfoliate Honeysuckle, Fly Honeysuckle (Lonicera caprifolium L., Lonicera xylosteum 

L.) • Turning (pipe shanks), shoemaking nails, hayrake teeth. 

Wild Privet (Ligustrum vulgare L.) • In basketry for thicker rods. 

REFERENCES 

1. DUBOVSKÝ J., BABIAK M., �UNDERLÍK I., 2001: Textúra, štruktúra a úžitkové 

vlastnosti dreva. TU Zvolen, 106 s. 

2. GABRIEL S., GOYMER S., 2005: Košíká�ství. Computer Press, Brno, 176 s. 

3. http://www.drzewapolski.pl/Drzewa/atlas_drzew.html 

4. JÍR� P., 1960: D�evo, jeho vlastnosti a použití. SNTL Praha, 220 s. 

5. KOFRÁNEK V., 1952: Preh�ad našich driev. Štátne nakladate�stvo. Bratislava, 44 s. 

243

6. MAYER J., SCHWEGLER H-W., 2007: „Wielki atlas drzew i krzewów”. 

Wydawnictwo Delta WZ, s. 320. 

7. PAGAN J., RANDUŠKA D., 1987: Atlas drevín 1. Vydavate�stvo Obzor. Bratislava, 

360 s. 

8. PAGAN J., RANDUŠKA D., 1988: Atlas drevín 2. Vydavate�stvo Obzor. Bratislava, 

405 s. 

9. ŠÚRIKOVÁ A., 2003: Osobné údaje. TU Zvolen. 

Streszczenie: Mniej znane wykorzystanie drzew i krzewów wyst�puj�cych w Polsce i na 

S�owacji. W artykule przedstawiono mniej znane wykorzystanie gospodarcze drzew i 

krzewów rosn�cych w Polsce i na S�owacji. 


Marek Jab�o�ski, 





Poland 

e-mail: marek_jablonski@sggw.pl 

Ján Sedlia�ik, 

Technical University, 

T.G. Masaryka, 24, 

960 53 Zvolen, 

Slovakia, 

e-mail: janos@vsld.tuzvo.sk 

Eva Ružinská, 

Faculty of Environmental and Manufacturing Technology, 

Department of Environmental Technology 


e-mail: evaruzin@vsld.tuzvo.sk




Emission and power parameters of combined heat source on wood biomass 

combustion. 

JOZEF JANDA�KA, ANDREJ KAPJOR, ŠTEFAN PAPU�ÍK, RICHARD LENHARD 

University of Zilina, Univerzitna 8215/1, 010 26 Zilina, Slovakia 

Abstract: Emission and power parameters of combined heat source on wood biomass combustion. At present is 

effort to product combined small heat sources on combustion of biomass in different forms. These sources are 

characterized by the fact, that the boiler can combust not just the basic fuel, for example wood pellets, but also 

other fuels such as pieces of wood. In the article is analyzed heat source at its operation using wood pellets or 

piece of wood as fuel. The analysis is focused on the impact of this change from the view of the emissions 

production and the impact on the power parameters of the heat source. 

INTRODUCTION 

In present time is the effort to produce small combined heat sources on biomass or other solid 

fuels combustion. These sources are characterized by the fact that the boiler can combust just 

the basic fuel as wood pellets, but also other fuels such as coal, wood pieces and other types 

of biomass. Manufacturers adapt boiler by design or by a minimal adjustment. Some 

manufacturers have proposed the design of automatic boilers for wood pellets, which allow 

not only burn pellets, but also pieces of wood. Of course, in case, when we combust wood 

pieces of wood it turn off the automatic regulation, we take out the retort from the combustion 

chamber, put the grate, use the manual control of the boiler and the outlet temperature is 

adjusted by the thermostat temperature control. Heat exchanger section remains the same. 

With this provision the automatic boiler with the lower fuel supply fireplace, figure 1, 

becomes to a boiler for wood pieces, figure 2. 

Fig. 1. Fireplace with lower fuel supply Fig. 2. Fireplace for pieces of wood 

Producers argue, that if the customer has no money to buy automatic boiler can only buy 

boiler without automatic burner and then it can buy or in case if the customer has available 

fuel in the form of pieces of wood so the customer can quite easily modify the boiler from the 

automatic boiler to boiler on pieces of wood combustion and vice versa. Change the type of 

fuel for example from wood pellets to another type of solid fuel in the same design of 

245

automatic boiler, respectively from wood pellets to wood pieces with a simple modification of 

the boiler structure brings with it various problems, which is necessary to eliminate during the 

operation, respectively we have to know, that we go with quality of burning to the worse way 

of combustion, what it appear on power and emission parameters of heat source. 

The aim of this paper is to show precisely the problems, that are associated with these 

changes, which were verified by experimental measurements. Experimental measurements 

were made on the basis of STN EN 303-5 "Heating boilers for solid fuels with manual and 

automatical fuel supply, with a rated power to 300 kW. Based on that standard was at the 

automatic boilers realized measuring for six hours and at the boiler for burning of wood 

pieces three doses of fuel. 

EFFECT OF COMBUSTION WAY CHANGE ON POWER CHARACTERISTICS OF 

HEAT SOURCE 

In Fig. 3 respectively. Fig.4 are given the measured profiles of the outlet heating water 

temperature from the boiler (TV), inlet temperature to the boiler and heat output (Pkot) for 

boilers burning wood pellets respectively at simple change of the automatic heat source on 

wood pellets combustion to the boiler burning piece of wood in nominal operating mode. As 

pieces of wood were used dry spruce wood. 

Fig. 3. Measured parameters at automatic boiler on 

wood pellets combustion 

Fig. 5. Measured emission parameters at automatic 

boiler on wood pellets combustion 

246 

Fig. 4. Measured parameters at change of automatic 

boiler on wood pellets combustion to the boiler on 

wood pieces 

Fig. 6. Measured emission parameters at change of 

automatic boiler on wood pellets combustion to the 

boiler on wood pieces

From the measured lapses is seen substantial change during the heat transfer medium 

outlet temperature of the boiler, as well as change during the heat power of the heat source, 

which is substantially reflected in the average efficiency of the heat source. The automatic 

boiler burning wood pellets achieves an average thermal power 25 kW at an average 

efficiency 90.1%. At combustion of wood pieces in the boiler, the average thermal power was 

21 kW at average combustion efficiency of 79.3%. Of course, the change of fuel type, as well 

as change the way the combustion is substantially reflected in the production of CO emission 

Fig.5 respectively. fig.6. The average CO emission of the automatic boiler burning wood 

pellets was 582 mg.m -3 and the burning piece of wood 6759 mg.m -3 . From these lapses and 

measured average values is seen substantial qualitative change in the operation of a heat 

source. At measuring in the minimum operation mode, these differences are even greater. 

EFFECT OF FUEL TYPE CHANGE ON EMISSION AND HEAT POWER 

CHARACTERISTICS OF HEAT SOURCE 

In many cases, manufacturers of automatic boilers for wood pellets combustion 

indicate that in addition to wood pellets in these boilers can burn a different type of solid fuel 

with the appropriate granularity. These small heat sources in most cases are produced with 

automatic regulation and regulation of fuel supply, respectively with start-stop control, i.e. 

setting the time of fuel supply by worm feeder and the time, when is feeder stopped. 

However, for each type of fuel is set up of these times for optimal combustion other, what is 

given by different energetic characteristics of fuel. It is also important to realize that by 

change of settings of this control on the lower operating performance (times below) may not 

automatically ensure the optimum setting of fuel combustion. In Fig. 7, Fig. 8 respectively. 

Fig. 9, Fig. 10 are listed courses of boiler performance parameters, respectively production of 

emission in the measurement of nominal power for different fuels, but for optimized control 

settings fuel supply. The measured courses show that by the appropriate adjustment the 

combustion process can be optimized. 

Fig. 7.Measured power parameters on automatic boiler 

at wood pellets combustion 

CONCLUSION 

247 

Fig. 8. Measured power parameters on automatic 

boiler at black coal combustion 

The listed experimental measurements show that the universal use of the boiler 

construction, respectively its simple conversion for various types and forms of fuel 

combustion can cause suboptimal operation, what is reflected on its power and operating 

parameters, as well as emission production during the operation, and last but not least on the

efficiency of its operations. In case of automatic heat sources operation for different types of 

fuel should give emphasis on optimal setting of boiler regulation and fuel supply. 

Fig. 9.Measured emission parameters on automatic 

boiler at wood pellets combustion 

This article was created within the project KEGA No. 3/7371/09. 

Literature 

Fig. 10. Measured emission parameters on automatic 

boiler at black coal combustion 

1. DZURENDA, L.: Spa�ovanie dreva a kôry, vydanie I.-2005, Vydavate�stvo TU vo 

Zvolene, ISBN 80-228-1555-1 

2. HORBAJ, P.; ROMAN, T.; TAUŠ, P.: Doterajšie skúsenosti zo spa�ovania drevnej 

štiepky a slamy za ú�elom vykurovania budov; Acta Mechanica Slovaca; Košice, 4- 

D/2007, ro�ník 11, str.417; ISSN 1335-2393 

3. HORBAJ, P.: Ekologické aspekty spa�ovania palív. Vydavate�stvo Neografia. Martin, 

2000. s. 71, ISBN 80-7099-405-3 

4. HORBAJ, P.: Porovnanie emisií NOx a CO vznikajúcich pri spa�ovaní pevného, 

kvapalného resp. plynného paliva. Vytáp�ní, v�trání, instalace. ro�. 5, �. 4 (1996), s. 

209 - 212, ISSN 1210–1389 

5. OCHODEK, T., NAJSER, J., HORÁK J.: Sply�ovanie biomasy. SLOVGAS, ro�. 18, 

2009, �.4, s.28-31, ISSN 1335-3853. 

6. HORÁK, J. Vytáp�ní tuhými palivy. In Sborník p�ísp�vk� seminá�e Zdroje energie 

pro vytáp�ní malých a st�edních objekt�, vol. 1, s. 10-14. ISBN 80-248-1009-3 

7. JANDA�KA, J.; MALCHO, M.; MIKULÍK, M.: Biomasa ako zdroj energie - 

Potenciál, druhy, bilancia a vlastnosti palív. Vydavate�stvo Juraj Štefun – GEORG, 

Žilina 2007; ISBN 978-80-969161-3-9 

8. JANDA�KA, J.; MALCHO, M.; MIKULÍK, M.: Technológie pre prípravu 

a energetické využitie biomasy. Vydavate�stvo Jozef Bulej�ík, Žilina 2007; ISBN 

978-80-969595-3-2 

9. JANDA�KA, J.; MALCHO, M: Biomasa ako zdroj energie. Vydavate�stvo Juraj 

Štefun GEORG, Žilina 2007; ISBN 978-80-969161-4-6 

10. JANDA�KA, J. - MALCHO, M. - FEDOROVÁ, I.: Enviromentálne aspekty 

malokapacitných zdrojov tepla na biopalivo. Topená�ství 8/2007, ISSN 1211-0906 

11. JANDA�KA, J.: Príklady správnej praxe pri vykurovaní. Vydavate�stvo Jozef 

Bulej�ík, Žilina 2009, ISBN 978-80-969595-8-7 

12. MIKULÍK,M.,JANDA�KA, J.: Postupy správneho vykurovania. Vydavate�stvo Jozef 

Bulej�ík, Žilina 2009, ISBN 978-80-969595-7-0 

248

13. HORÁK, J. Vytáp�ní tuhými palivy. In Sborník p�ísp�vk� seminá�e Zdroje energie 

pro vytáp�ní malých a st�edních objekt�, vol. 1, s. 10-14. ISBN 80-248-1009-3 

Streszczenie: Emisja i w�asno�ci paleniska do spalania drewna i biomasy. Ostatnio 

zauwa�alne s� wysi�ki zmierzaj�ce do skonstruowania paleniska do spalania biomasy w 

ró�nych postaciach. Paleniska takie mog� spala� nie tylko podstawowe paliwo takie jak 

pelety, ale tak�e inne materia�y takie jak drewno odpadowe. W artykule analizowano 

palenisko w trakcie pracy przy spalaniu peletów oraz drewna. Analiza skupia�a si� na emisji 

oraz w�asno�ciach energetycznych przy zmianie paliwa.




Project of micro co-generation unit on wood pellets combustion 

JOZEF JANDA�KA, JOZEF HUŽVÁR, ANDREJ KAPJOR 


Abstract: Project of micro co-generation unit on wood pellets combustion. In article is presented project of 

micro co-generation unit on wood pellets combustion using Clausius-Rankin thermal circuit. Designed micro cogeneration 

unit utilize as heat source automatic boiler on wood pellets combustion. Thermal energy is 

transported into the steam piston engine by gravitational heat pipe using sodium as a working substance. Heat 

pipe is connected with a head of steam piston engine and creates a surface for evaporating of injected water. 

Generated steam by the action on the piston of steam engine make a torque on the shaft which is connected with 

generator of electricity. 

TARGET 

The main target is to design minimally one suitable Micro-cogenerational process incl. 

the conversion from chemical energy to electrical one using biomass and the low potential 

heat using analytic-experimental methods and determines the functional and material 

requirements of optimal conversion process based on the technical and economical 

optimization. Since the working device is an experimental equipment, there are several ways 

for its construction. This microcogeneration unit consists of the following parts: heat source, 

heat exchanger, transport device, evaporative surface of the steam engine, injection 

equipment, generator and control system (fig.1). 

INTRODUCTION 

Figure 1: The principal proposal of CHP unit 

This microcogeneration unit use thermal energy automatic burner for combustion of 

wood pellets. Thermal energy is transferred into the steam piston engine by transport device 

250

either heat conduction or by gravitational heat pipe using sodium as a working substance. 

Transport device for heat transfer is connected with a head of steam engine and creates a 

surface for evaporating of injected water. Steam generated by the action of the piston engine 

produces torque on the shaft which is connected to a generator of electricity. 

The important part of the unit is the device for transporting heat between the 

workspace of double stroke steam engine and fireplace of boiler (fig. 2). This equipment is 

needed to ensure enough heat to vaporize the injected water to evaporative surface in the 

engine. 

Figure 2: Evaporative surface 

Construction of device for heat transport can be designed with the use of different 

basic modes of heat transfer. Thermal energy in the unit is transferred by conduction (fig. 3) 

or by gravitational heat pipe using sodium as a working substance (fig. 4). A lot of calculation 

have been used for modeling the heat transport in copper heat exchanger by using the 

commercial software Fluent. In this work the standard k-� model and the RNG k-� model 

were used. 

Figure 3: Comparison of different kind of models 

Production of gravitational heat pipe with sodium for the microcogeneration unit 

requires sophisticated technology in comparison with the original heat pipe. 

251

Figure 4: Sodium heat pipe 

For proper function of the microcogeneration unit plays an important role the 

evaporating surface on the head of steam engine, which is either part of the heat pipe or in 

contact with it. 

The material of evaporating area is very important as well as forming. This area must 

provide the best and fastest heat transfer to the working substance, its warming and 

subsequent evaporation. For development of the microcogeneration unit were used ceramic 

and metallic materials (fig. 5). 

Figure 5: Evaporative testing of various materials 

The advantage of ceramic materials is their porosity, which increases the evaporating 

surface and have good accumulation capacity. Disadvantage is that the change of state inside 

the pores create the internal tension and its low thermal conductivity. Therefore, emphasis is 

placed on the strength of materials. In the case of metallic materials is great advantage the 

high thermal conductivity. 

252

To transform heat into electricity has been designed piston steam engine. The principle 

of transformation of thermal energy to electricity is based on injecting water through the 

nozzles to evaporative surface in the workspace of the engine. Using the heat supplied by heat 

transfer surface from the boiler, the injected water turns to steam. When water evaporates, its 

volume increases and expands. After the expansion steam leaves engine. 

Water injection was carried out through the nozzle, which were connected to a source 

of constant water pressure. Opening and closing of the nozzle was realized by the control 

system. When running a piston steam engine played a very important proposal from the 

control (fig. 6) system and control algorithm. 

Figure 6: Control system 

Different time injection interval were tested, what is directly in proportion to the amount 

of water. 

CONCLUSION 

The experimental work showed that the injection time has minor effect to the speed. 

The speed of the piston was gradually set up to the cycle, which was due to speed 

evaporation. The engine speed is in range from 90 to 130 revolutions per minute. During an 

experiment the injector nozzle becomes clogged and the engine used just with one cylinder, 

which was capable of movement. It follows that, in the form of evaporated water vapour has a 

large enough energy to grow and rotations of the crankshaft 360 °. The largest power 

expansion of engine was developed soon after the injection to copper evaporating surface. It 

follows that an increase in performance can be achieved if we reduce the amount of lift, which 

will use the most energy and the expansion of steam. The engine performance could be 

improved by increasing the diameter of the piston and thereby extend the area where steam 

generate pressure. 


Proposal of solution of microcogenerational unit for biomass combustion is solved by 

APVV program in cooperation with GoldenSun Company. 

253

REFERENCES 

1. HEREC, I., ŽUPA, J.: Výskum solárnych a solárno-plynových termických 

energetických zdrojov. In: Electrical and Electronic Engeneering, Vol.2/2003, No.1, 

pp. 55-60, Zborník Elektrotechnickej fakulty Žilinskej univerzity, Žilina, 2003. 

2. KABÁT, E., HORÁK, M.: Prenos tepla a hmoty, STU Bratislava, 2000, ISBN 80- 

227-1409-7 

3. TOPPING, D.: The Power of Micro-CHP, Appliance Magazine, Canon 

Communications, LLC, Los Angeles, CA, March 2004. 

Steszczenie: Projekt urz�dzenia do produkcji skojarzonej ciep�a i energii elektrycznej 

zasilanego peletami drzewnymi. Artyku� prezentuje projekt urz�dzenia do produkcji 

skojarzonej opartego na obiegu Clausiusa-Rankina. Ciep�o jest transportowane do silnika 

t�okowego rur� grawitacyjn� przy u�ycu sodu jako substancji czynnej. Ciep�o powoduje 

odparowanie wody wstrzykni�tej do g�owicy silnika, który naprz�dza sprz��ony generator 

elektryczny.




The effect of additives for production of wood pellets 

JOZEF JANDA�KA, MICHAL HOLUB�ÍK, RADOVAN NOSEK, PETER PILÁT 


Abstract: The effect of additives for production of wood pellets. In this work are described the possibilities for 

improving efficiency of wood pellets production. The production of wood pellets and used pelleting machines 

was analyzed. The main task of this work is to introduce efficiency pelleting lines and cost reduction of the wood 

pellets production as fuel with a focus on the effects of adding additives. The results of experimental 

measurements and properties of wood pellets with different additives are presented in the final part. 

Keywords: Biomass, pellets, additives, pellet mill 

INTRODUCTION 

The aim of this work is to increase production efficiency and properties of wood pellets by 

addition of additives. This paper contains information about wood pellets properties, the 

process of manufacturing wood pellets, use of equipment with a focus on the principle of the 

individual species pellet mills. It is pointed out, what happens during the pelleting process and 

problems that may occur in this process. The main objective is to find out the influence of 

additives to the efficiency of production and properties of wood pellets. 

Wood pellets are usually made only from wood. The quality of pellets strongly depends on 

the type of wood (coniferous, deciduous) or on the amount of used bark, which can be 

observed by their colours. The pellets with dark colour are usually regarded as inferior 

because they often contain high amount of bark. 

PRODUCTION OF WOOD PELLETS 

Wood pellets are made by pressing wood materials at high pressure and temperature, i.e. 

pelleting process. Production of wood pellets has following procedure: 

� Pretreatment of raw material (e.g. crushing, sieving, heavy particle separator) 

� drying 

� grinding 

� pelleting 

� cooling 

� storage and transport 

Pelleting is the most important operation, which takes place in the pellet mills. In this process 

is done the compaction of raw wood material itself. Wood is pushed through the holes and 

this increases the temperature in the facility for 90-110 °C. At this temperature will start to 

release binder contained in the wood (lignin), which holds pellet in due form. 

255

EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS 

Additives 

The fuels produced from biomass must meet certain energy, environmental and economic 

criteria. The forthcoming European Union standard would allow the content of additives up to 

5 percent. 

Manufacturers produce wood pellets without any additives according to established standards. 

Disuse of additives is mainly due to the fact that this area has not been adequately studied 

and it is therefore necessary to carry out such experiments. The effect of specific additives in 

the wood pellets before the experiment can only be assumed. Additives affect the pelleting 

process, the properties of pellets and combustion of wood pellets. 

The additives are added to a substance in order to improve some of its properties. Usually in 

practice happens that with the improving characteristics occurs new deficiencies. Because of 

this is necessary to analyze effects of additives on pellets properties for each experiment. 

In the experiments were used following types of additives: 

Motor oil - is suitable for lubrication, sealing, protecting and sediment from corrosion, easy to 

mix with fuel, but especially given the high burn hydrogen production with the lowest 

emissions. It is expected that the use of oil will reduce friction when pushing material through 

the holes in the matrix, which would reduce the electric power of pellet mill and wear of 

functional components. Reducing energy intensity pellet mill will increase the efficiency of 

production of wood pellets. 

Vegetable oil - this oil should have the same effects as motor oil. Using vegetable oil is 

expected to increase the calorific value of pellets, as the low calorific value of the oil is higher 

(37.1 MJ.kg-1), compared to the value of clean wood pellets. 

Cornstarch- the use of this additives should increase resistance to abrasion of pellets, pellets 

should have a smoother surface, better hardness and thus the overall quality. 

Dolomite- the addition of dolomite to pelleting process should reduce the production of SO2 

during the combustion of wood pellets. 

Sodium carbonate- is used as a means of creating an alkaline environment. 

Urea- it is expected to reduce the low calorific value and an increase in density, marked 

change in moisture content and strength of wood pellets is not expected. 

In this work were produced wood pellets with varying amount of additives in comparison 

with pellets free of additive (see Table 1) 

Table 1. Amount of used additives for production of wood pellets 

Pellets with additives Amount of additives [%] 

Wood pellets - Reference sample Without additives 

Motor oil 0,5 

Vegetable oil 0,5 

Cornstarch 0,5 

Dolomite 0,5 

Sodium carbonate 0,5 

Urea 0,5 

256

Experimental production 

Each input material has different properties and characteristics (soft wood, hard wood). 

Different moisture content, density and other characteristics affect manufacturing process in 

pelleting mill. 

When a material has proper properties to produce pellets, the manufacturing process would be 

as follows (Figure. 1): 

A. The material enters into the pellet mill and comes into contact with the pressing 

pulley. 

B. Part of the material is pushed through the holes in the matrix. 

C. The distance between the matrix and pressing pulley creates a layer of compressed 

material. 

D. Appropriate properties of material affect the formation of optimal heat and pressure 

formed by the friction material matrix in the hole. 

E. The pellet mill produces thick shiny pellets, which are ready for use after cooling 

down. 

Fig. 1 The pelleting process of input material in pellet mill 

PRODUCTION PROCEDURE 

Input material was dry wood shavings from pine wood, supplied by an external company. In 

tested material was found to be a low moisture content (8-9%). That moisture of input 

material is inadequate and needed to be increased to about 10-20%. Experiments revealed that 

the optimum moisture content of sawdust is 15-16%. To achieve optimum moisture content of 

material was necessary to add the right amount of moisture. Therefore, for 1 kg of dry 

sawdust was added approximately 60 to 70 grams of water. 

Subsequently, the additive was mixed with sawdust, in order to achieve desired amount of 

raw input material. Then the sawdust were mixed with additive to the nearest 0.1 g, in order 

to achieve desired amount of raw input material. Thus prepared a total of 7 samples with 

additive were further pressed to pellets in the pellet mill (see Figure 2). 

257

Fig. 2 Pellet mill 

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS 

Effect of additives on the input power of pellet mill 

The input power of engine is an important factor influencing the energy intensity pelletizing 

lines. The additives affect the friction generated in the matrix of pellet mill, thereby is 

changing the input power of engine. Effect of additives on the input power is shown in the 

table 2. 

Table 2. Effect of additives on the input power 

Sample Input power [W] 

Motor oil 

3792 

Vegetable oil 

3830 

Dolomite 

3830 

Cornstarch 

3868 

Reference sample 

3907 

Sodium carbonate 

4060 

Urea 

4098 

The lowest input power has been achieved in the case of pellets with motor oil. Significant 

increase of input power and friction in the matrix was found in the production of wood pellets 

with the addition of urea and sodium carbonate. Presumption of reducing input power by 

using cornstarch have not been found, this value is slightly increased. 

Effect of additives on the flow temperature 

Temperature at which ash melts or softens is very relevant for the operation of a combustion 

unit as this affects the required maintenance work. By designing the plant according to these 

melting temperatures of the fuel, slagging and fouling can be decreased. In the determination 

of ash melting were determined the flow temperatures (See Figure 3.). 

258

1600 

1550 

1500 

1450 

1400 

1350 

1300 

1250 

1200 

259 

Flow Temperature 

Fig. 3. Effect of additives on the flow temperature 

It is noticeable that in the case of wood pellets with dolomite was measured the highest flow 

temperature. The measured results indicate that pellets with sodium carbonate have higher 

flow temperature in comparison with reference sample. This can lead to reduction of slagging 

and fouling in the plant. In the rest of the samples was measured lower flow temperatures in 

comparison with reference sample. 

CONCLUSION 

More test and experiments are necessary in order to improve parameters of wood pellets. The 

measured results indicate that pellets with sodium carbonate have higher flow temperature in 

comparison with reference sample. This can lead to reduction of slagging and fouling in the 

plant. In the rest of the samples was measured lower flow temperatures in comparison with 

reference sample. 

Acknowledgment 

This work is supported by the financial assistance of the project APVV No. VMSP-P-0022- 

09. I acknowledge the financing with thanks. 

REFERENCES: 

1. DZURENDA L.: Combustion of wood and bark I.-2005, Editorship TU in Zvolen, 

Slovakia, ISBN 80-228-1555-1 

2. HORBAJ P.: Environmental aspects of fuel combustion. Editorship Neografia. Martin, 

Slovakia 2000. s. 71, ISBN 80-7099-405-3 

3. LINDAU J., RÖNNBÄCK M., SAMUELSSON J., THUNMAN, H. LECKNER, B.: 

An Estimation of the Spatial Resolution when Measuring Gas Concentrations Inside a 

Burning Fixed Bed’, Presented at the Nordic Seminar – Thermo Chemical Conversion 

of Biofuels, Trondheim, Norway, (12 November) 2002. 

4. JANDACKA J.; MALCHO M.: Biomass as energy source. Editorship Juraj Stefun 

GEORG, Zilina 2007, Slovakia; ISBN 978-80-969161-4-6 

5. JANDACKA J.; MALCHO M., FEDOROVA I.: Environmental aspects of the small 

capacity of heat sources for biofuel. Heating 8/2007, ISSN 1211-0906

6. SMITH B. and RANADE J.: Computational Fluid Dynamics for Designing Process 

Equipment: Expectations, Current Status, and Path Forward, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 

vol.42, 1115-1128., 2003 

Streszczenie: Efekt dodatków na produkcj� peletów drzewnych. Praca prezentuje mo�liwo�ci 

zwi�kszenia wydajno�ci produkcji peletów drzewnych. Analizowano sam� produkcj� oraz 

peleciarki. G�ównym celem by�o zwi�kszenie wydajno�ci linii peletowania, zmniejszenie 

kosztów peletów jako paliwa ze szczególn� uwag� po�wi�con� dodatkom. Rezultaty 

eksperymentu oraz w�asno�ci peletów z ró�nymi dodatkami zaprezentowano w cz��ci 

ko�cowej.




The influence of boiler regulation to emission parameters and heat power 

JOZEF JANDA�KA, PETER PILÁT, RADOVAN NOSEK, ALEXANDER �AJA 


Abstract: The influence of boiler regulation to emission parameters and heat power. The aim of this paper is to 

present how the regulation of boiler can affect the heat power and formation of emissions. The investigated 

boiler is designed for operation in domestic heating system. It has heat power equal to 25 kW. The comparison is 

done based on the experimental measurements. 

INTRODUCTION 

The combustion process in a gasification boiler for lump wood can be divided into two 

phases, namely the gasification and subsequent combustion of flammable gases. Gasification 

of wood is in excess of combustion air, less than one (� < 1). This ensures the primary 

combustion air. The burning of volatiles take place in the combustion chamber at the 

presence of secondary air. 

Supply of combustion air in gasifying boilers is realized either by the natural chimney draft 

or by fans. Application of fans has the advantage that the combustion air, and thus the fuel 

combustion process is not dependent on the external weather conditions, which largely affect 

the chimney draft. 

A regulation of boiler heat power or combustion conditions can be done in gasifying boilers. 

The type of regulation affect the thermo parameters as well as formation of emissions, which 

has significant impact on the annual level of utilization of the boiler. 

The aim of this paper is to present the influence of regulation to heat power and emissions 

parameters in the gasifying boiler. This comparison is based on experimental measurements. 

TYPES OF REGULATION IN THE BOILER 

The regulation of heat power and combustion process in gasifying boilers cannot be done by 

supply of fuel. Therefore, in these types of boilers can be used the regulation by an amount of 

primary and secondary combustion air. Presence of primary air affects the release of gas 

components in fuel. Secondary combustion air is affecting the combustible gases. In the 

practice there are the following types of boiler control with manually operated: 

� Boilers with mechanical control of the combustion air amount. In these types of 

boilers is used natural chimney draft to provide a combustion air , the fan is not available. 

Generated power depends on the position of baffle which control flow of combustion air and 

it is regulated by the thermoregulatory valve. 

� Boilers with thermal regulation of heat power. These boilers are equipped with either 

a draft fan or overpressure fan which supplies the necessary amount of air to the required heat 

power. Regulation of heat power is carried out by adjustment of fan or baffle. The combustion 

air supply is controlled by baffle. The amount of combustion air is adjusted based on the 

difference between the desirable and the actual temperature of the thermal medium. 

� Boiler with thermal regulation of heat power and combustion process. This type of 

boiler also has overpressure fan speed control or baffle. In addition, the quality control of 

combustion can be done in this boiler. In the simplest case, the boiler can be realized on the 

basis of flue gas temperature. The amount of primary and secondary temperature is set by the 

261

flue gas temperature. Another option is to set proper value of air excess ratio which affect the 

combustion process. 

EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS 

The experimental measurements were carried out in the boiler with two different mode of 

regulation. In the first case was used continuous regulation of the heat without combustion 

control (without lambda probe). In the second case was also used continuous regulation of 

heat with applied control of combustion process by measuring air excess using a lambda 

probe. Regulation was made under continuous control speed of overpressure fan. 

Measurements were performed at the nominal and minimal heat power. In all experiments 

was used beech wood as a fuel. 

In the figures 1 and 3 are presented profiles of heat power (Pkot), inlet (tR) and outlet (tV) 

temperature in the boiler measured without lambda probe. The profiles of measured CO and 

NOx concentrations are shown in figures 2 and 4. Second series of measurements were 

carried out with lambda probe and results are indicated in figures 5 - 8. 

Fig.1. Measured profiles of heat power controlled 

without lambda probe - nominal power 


without lambda probe - minimal power 

262 

Fig.2. Measured profiles of emissions controlled 

without lambda probe - nominal power 

Fig.4. Measured profiles of emissions controlled 

without lambda probe - minimal power


with lambda probe - nominal power 


with lambda probe - minimal power 

263 

Fig.6. Measured profiles of emissions controlled with 

lambda probe - nominal power 

Fig.8. Measured profiles of emissions controlled with 

lambda probe - minimal power 

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS 

In the table 1. are given average values of heat power, efficiency and emissions. From the 

experimental results and calculated data can be observed the effect of regulation to measured 

parameters in the boiler. The results show that using regulation of heat power and regulation 

of combustion process by lambda probe can be achieved much better efficiency of the boiler 

as well as the average emission parameters of CO and NOx. The measurements indicates that 

the best efficiency of the boiler is in nominal heating mode. 

Table 1. 

Measurement Type of regulation 

Heat power 

of boiler 

[kW] 

Averaged values 

Efficiency 

of boiler 

[kW] 

CO 

[mg.m -3 ] 

NOx 

[mg.m -3 ] 

without lambda probe 22,2 83,6 495 160 

Nominal power with lambda probe 26 88,5 246 220 

without lambda probe 11,3 75,2 1770 230 

Minimal power with lambda probe 11,2 83,5 726 188

CONCLUSION 

The type of regulation has significant impact technical and emissions parameters of the 

gasification boiler. These factors affect the operating costs of boiler as well as the 

environment. 

This work was supported by the financial assistance of project KEGA 3/7371/09 

REFERENCES 

1. DZURENDA L.: Combustion of wood and bark I.-2005, Editorship TU in Zvolen, 

Slovakia, ISBN 80-228-1555-1 

2. HORBAJ P.: Environmental aspects of fuel combustion. Editorship Neografia. Martin, 

Slovakia 2000. s. 71, ISBN 80-7099-405-3 

3. JANDACKA J.; MALCHO M.; MIKULIK M.: Biomass as a source of energy - 

potential, species balance and fuel properties. Editorship Juraj Stefun – GEORG, 

Zilina 2007, Slovakia ; ISBN 978-80-969161-3-9 

4. JANDACKA J.; MALCHO M.; MIKULIK M.: Technology for the preparation and 

use of biomass energy. Editorship Juzef Bulejcik, Zilina 2007, Slovakia; ISBN 978- 

80-969595-3-2 

5. JANDACKA J.; MALCHO M.: Biomass as energy source. Editorship Juraj Stefun 

GEORG, Zilina 2007, Slovakia; ISBN 978-80-969161-4-6 

6. JANDACKA J.; MALCHO M., FEDOROVA I.: Environmental aspects of the small 

capacity of heat sources for biofuel. Heating 8/2007, ISSN 1211-0906 

7. JANDACKA J.: Examples of good practice for heating. Editorship Jozef Bulejcik, 

Zilina 2009, Slovakia, ISBN 978-80-969595-8-7 

Streszczenie: Wp�yw regulacji kot�a na emisj� i moc grzejn�. Celem pracy jest prezentacja 

wp�ywu regulacji kot�a na jego moc i typ emisji. Badany kocio� jest przeznaczony do pracy w 

domowej instalacji grzejnej. Jego moc to 25kW. Porównanie regulacji bazuje na wynikach 

eksperymentu.




The Influence of fuel supply to emissions parameters and heat power of 

domestic boiler 

JOZEF JANDA�KA, RADOVAN NOSEK, ŠTEFAN PAPU�ÍK, JANA CHABADOVÁ 


Abstract: The Influence of fuel supply to emissions parameters and heat power of domestic boiler. The paper 

presents an analysis of the impact of fuel feed to power and emissions parameters of the automatic domestic 

boiler for combustion of wood pellets. For the analysis has been proposed an experimental methodology of 

boiler measuring. The investigated boiler is designed for operation in domestic heating system. It has heat power 

equal to 18 kW. Concentrations of flue gas species were registered at the exit the boiler and based on the 

measured parameters was carried out evaluation of the impact of the fuel feed to heat power and production of 

emissions. 

Keywords: boiler, biomass, emissions, measurements 

INTRODUCTION 

One of the main intention of European Union is to exploit the potential of energy 

savings and renewable sources. In Slovakia the most promising renewable energy source 

seems to be biomass . Its use has multiple importance. The most common form of biomass is 

wood, either in pieces or as wood waste. One form of cost effective use of wood waste is the 

production of wood pellets. 

Pellets are produced from waste materials such as (sawdust, wood shavings) and allow the 

automation of combustion processes. They have low ash content ( 0,5 to 1% ), low water 

content ( 10% ) and high calorific value ( to 18 MJ/kg ). One of the pellets advantage is CO2 

neutral production, which means that their combustion arises only so much CO2, how much 

plants can consume during the growth of the atmosphere during photosynthesis. Combustion 

of pellets is the ecological heating, since they does not contain chemical artificial binding 

materials, sulphur, halogens or heavy metals. 

Manufacturers of small heat sources state the extent of heat power and emission 

parameters of the boiler, which in addition to other factors also affect the way the fuel supply. 

The aim of this work is to identify the impact of fuel metering to heat power and emission 

parameters of the test boiler. 

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP 

There are several good reasons which suggest that it is very worthwhile to perform small 

laboratory-scale experiments. First, in most cases, the instrumentation needed to characterize 

the transient behaviour in a turbulent flame cannot be used in industrial scale furnaces, but 

can be used in a domestic boiler. Second, a wider range of test conditions and better control of 

the operating conditions in the boiler are possible for a facility that is under the full control of 

the group conducting the test program. 

The scheme of experimental setup is shown in Figure 1. The experimental device consists 

of heating and cooling circuit. Circuit are separated by a heat exchanger. The measurements 

are to set to the desired temperature difference �T = 12-25 ° C, which is set by the control 

valve. Whole process is automatically controlled by a control system of the experimental 

265

device. Heat output was measured using the direct method i.e. by measuring the flow of 

heating water through the flow meter and by measuring the temperature difference t1 and t2. 

This temperature difference is measured by temperature sensors. The concentration of flue gas 

were measured in the sampling section of the chimney by gas analyzer. 

Fig.1. The measurement setup 

Experimental measurements has been performed in domestic boilers for combustion of 

wood pellets with heat power equal to 18 kW. Measurements in the boiler has been done for 

90 minutes. The boiler is designed for heating houses and industrial buildings. Optimal 

conditions and power control are designed electronically controlled fuel supply and air supply 

with electronically controlled fan, depending on the user-defined parameters required by the 

heating and hot water. The boiler consists of a combustion chamber, heat exchanger and flue 

gas flow area to the top of the tank and a separate container of pellets. Picture of the boiler is 

in Figure 2. 

MEASUREMENT OF THE BOILER 

During the measurements were recorded the following parameters: heat power, the 

concentration of emissions in the flue gas and temperature of the flue gas. Measurements 

were carried out for different operating settings of the boiler, while the standing period was 

set to 25 seconds and the feeding period was variable. The feeding periods were set to the 

following values: 9s., 12s., 15s., 18s. The first measurement was made at the nominal power 

of boiler (setting 18/25). The ambient air temperature in the test room was between 15°C and 

25°C. The water temperature at the inlet and outlet of the boiler were measured during test. 

The concentrations of flue gas species were registered by analyser as well as particles matters. 

Boiler heat power was measured based on the amount of useful heat transferred to cooling 

medium (water). To calculate the heat of the boiler has been used the following parameters: 

volumetric flow rate of water flowing boiler inlet and outlet temperature of heating water. 

266

Fig.2. The experimental boiler 

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS 

The aim was to analyze the effect of fuel feed to the heat power and emission parameters 

of the experimental boiler. In the Figures 3-5 are presented measured heat powers and the 

concentrations of emissions at the outlet of the boiler. 

The highest heat power was achieved at the operating mode 18/25 seconds 

(feeding/standing). The progressive decreasing of the feeding period resulted in reduction of 

the boiler power. 

Heat Power - Q [kW] 

20 

18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

17,93 

15,758 

12,754 

10,096 

18 15 12 9 

Feeding period[s] 

Fig.3. Comparison of heat power for different operating 

modes 

267 

Fig. 4. Comparison of measured CO for different 

operating modes 

Profiles of carbon monoxide formation at various operating modes of the boiler are shown 

in Figure 4. The results indicate that the lowest concentration of CO was measured at the 

operating mode 12/25 seconds. The highest emissions of CO can be observed for the setting 

18/25. 

CO [mg/m3] 

1000 

0 

0 10 20 30 40 

Time[min] 

18 s. 15 s. 12 s. 9s.

CO2 [mg/m3] 

13 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

0 10 20 30 40 

Time[min] 

18 s. 15 s. 12 s. 9s. 

Fig.5. Comparison of measured CO for different operating modes 

Figure.5 presents profiles of CO2, depending on the duration of feeding time of the fuel. 

The highest concentrations of carbon dioxide were recorded for setting 18/25 and 15/25. The 

averaged concentrations of CO2 fluctuated around 11%. Formation of CO2 depends on the 

amount of oxygen and it affects the quality of the combustion process. 

CONCLUSION 

The experimental measurements for various operating modes were carried out in the 

boiler. The highest heat power of boiler was achieved at the operating mode 18/25, according 

to above presented results. The measured data indicate that decreasing of feeding period has 

significant effect to heat power of boiler. The same trends can be observed also in the case of 

CO2 formation. The gradual reduction of the feeding period resulted in a decrease of CO 

except the operating mode 9/25. This could be caused by high amount of oxygen during the 

combustion process. 

More measurements are necessary in order to investigate the effect of variable standing 

period to heat power and emissions formation. 

Acknowledgment 

This work is supported by the financial assistance of the project KEGA No. 3/7371/09. I 

acknowledge the financing with thanks. 

REFERENCES: 

1. KOŠTIAL, I., SPIŠÁK, J., MIKULA, J. at. all Inovácie procesov termického 

zhodnocovania biomasy, 17. medzinárodná konferencia Vykurovanie 2009, 2-6. 

2. marec 2009, Tatranské Matliare, ISBN 978-80-89216-27-7, pp. 191-195. 

3. KOŠTIAL I., SPIŠÁK J., MIKULA J., GLO�EK J. : Metódy energetického 

zhodnocovania biomasy a odpadov, zborník z konferencie Moderné procesy 

spracovania odpadov, Košice, 2007, vydala Technická univerzita v Košiciach. 

4. Janda�ka J., Malcho M., Mikulík M. : Biomasa ako zdroj energie-potenciál, druhy, 

bilancia a vlastnosti palív, 2007 dostupný z WWW: [http://www.biomasainfo.sk] 

(2007-11-09). 

5. Lindau, J., Rönnbäck, M., Samuelsson, J., Thunman, H., Leckner, B., ‘An Estimation 

of the Spatial Resolution when Measuring Gas Concentrations Inside a Burning Fixed 

268

Bed’, Presented at the Nordic Seminar – Thermo Chemical Conversion of Biofuels, 

Trondheim, Norway, (12 November) 2002. 

6. RYBÍN, M.: Studium vlivu spalování paliv v roštových kotlích na vznik tuhých 

a plynných exhalací. Zpráva úkolu 71 376, ÚPV B�chovicce, 1973. 

Streszczenie: Wp�yw zasilania paliwem na emisj� i moc grzejn� kot�a domowego. Artyku� 

prezentuje wp�yw typu zasilania paliwem na moc oraz emisj� domowego kot�a na pelety 

drzewne. Zaproponowano eksperymentaln� metodyk� pomiarów. Badany kocio� jest 

przeznaczony do pracy w domowej instalacji grzejnej. Jego moc to 18 kW. Badano st��enie 

gazów na wylocie spalin kot�a i przeprowadzono analiz� wp�ywu zasilania na moc i emisj�. 


University of Zilina, Univerzitna 1, 

010 26 Zilina, Slovakia, 

e-mail: 

radovan.nosek@fstroj.uniza.sk, 

jana.chabadova@fstroj.uniza.s, 

stefan.papucik@fstroj.uniza.sk, 

jozef.jandacka@fstroj.uniza.sk

Annals of Warsaw University of Live Science – SGGW 



Discoloration of bilinga (Nauclea diderrichii (De Wild. & Th.Dur.) Merr.) 

and iroko (Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C.Berg.) wood, caused by coatings and 

light aging. 

AGNIESZKA JANKOWSKA, PAWE� KOZAKIEWICZ, MAGDALENA SZCZ�SNA 

Department of Wood Science and Wood Protection, Warsaw University of Live Science – SGGW 

Abstract: Discoloration of bilinga (Nauclea diderrichii (De Wild. & Th.Dur.) Merr.) and iroko (Milicia excelsa 

(Welw.) C.C.Berg.) wood, caused by coatings and light aging. Last years, interest of exotic wood species 

increases, caused by its specific properties. Aesthetics of the material is most important, especially color. 

Unfortunately, wood is prone to serious discoloration because of coating process or sunlight exposure. 

Following work describes influence of these factors on color stability of African bilinga and iroko wood, used 

mainly for flooring. 

Keywords: exotic wood, Nauclea diderrichii (De Wild. & Th.Dur.) Merr., Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C.Berg., 

wood color, light aging, wood coatings 

INTRODUCTION 

Last years increasing popularity of exotic wood species is visible (over a dozen fold - 

Kozakiewicz 2006). Floors made of exotic wood species change its color over external factors 

(Kozakiewicz 2005) – especially UV. This creates serious problems especially in case where 

floor is partially covered or blinded. 

Color is a reaction of sight on 400-700 nm light inciding on eye retina (visible light). 

Wood color can be affected with suitable coatings, like lacquers or oils, which can totally 

cover natural wood color, but create protective film against external threats. Transparent 

lacquering increases natural color intensiveness, but emphasizes all pattern and color defects. 

Despite exotic wood color descriptions, professional literature lacks unbiased color 

change data, not organoleptic but made with colorimeter. Aim of the following work was to 

determine coated bilinga and iroko wood discoloration under light aging process. 


Two popular in Poland African wood species were selected for the work 

(nomenclature in accordance to PN-EN 13556:2005) standard): bilinga (Nauclea diderrichii 

(De Wild. & Th.Dur.) Merr.) and iroko (Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C.Berg.), often used for 

flooring. Detailed description and characteristics are provided by Kozakiewicz and Szkar�at 

(2004, 2005). Before tests samples were planed and sanded. Radial section of more uniform 

pattern was selected, in opposite to coarser tangential section. Wood moisture content ranged 

from 8% up to 12 %. Boards were cut into test samples of 70x70x10 mm dimensions. 

Samples were sorted into groups, in every group surfaces were finished with various coatings 

produced by various manufacturers: 

� group A – one-component polyurethane lacquer 

� group B – two-component water-based polyurethane lacquer 

� group C – polyurethane lacquer 

� group D – nitrocellulose lacquer 

� group E - wax 

� group F – shellac lacquer. 

Materials were used in accordance to producers suggestions, Coated samples were exposed 

indoors to direct sunlight for one year. 

270

Discoloration analysis was based on international CIE L*a*b* model. Beginning from 

the samples preparation samples were isolated from sunlight in aim to preserve natural color. 

Color tests were made before coating, after coating and after sunlight exposition. 

X-Rite SP-60 spherical spectrophotometer was used for the test. Color indexes were 

calculated basing on the component values: 

total color difference: 

2 

2 

2 1/ 

2 

� E * ab � [( �L*) 

� ( �a*) 

� ( �b*) 

] , where 

� L * - lightness difference 

� a * - red color difference (a>0) 

� b * - yellow color difference (b>0) 

� saturation from the formula: 

2 2 1/ 

2 

C * ab � ( a * �b 

* ) 

� hue from the formula: 

H* � arctg( 

b * / a*) 

From the obtained data (5 measurements on a single sample) averages were calculated. 

In consequence of the lacking standard on wood discoloration presented work bases on PN- 

ISO 7724-1:2003, PN-ISO 7724-2:2003, PN-ISO 7724-3:2003 standards, regarding lacquer 

discoloration. 

RESULTS 

Obtained results for Nauclea diderrichii (De Wild. & Th. Dur.) Merr.) and Milicia 

excelsa (Welw.) C.C.Berg., wood are presented in table 1. Basing on the detailed analysis of 

the gathered data one may conclude that coated exotic wood changes its color over time, 

which is caused by exposure to sunlight. Lightness values drop in comparison to control 

samples, which means that wood becomes darker. Greatest luminance change of bilinga wood 

showed up in group C (polyurethane coated), lowest change was in the UV group, uncoated. 

In case of iroko wood greatest lightness change was in D group (nitrocellulose lacquered), 

smallest similarly like with bilinga wood in uncoated UV group. 

Analysis of the remaining two color parameters shows that saturation and hue of 

exotic wood change under long sunlight exposition. Saturation of bilinga wood for A, B, E 

and F coatings groups decreased, in case of iroko wood saturation increased for all groups. 

Tests show that hue values dropped for both species, basin on this parameter one may 

determine that bilinga wood changes hue from yellowish-orange down to orange, greatest 

change is shown by C group (49,40). In case of iroko wood, samples from yellow turn into 

darker yellow hue, greatest change is shown by B group (61,35). 

271

�� 

Wood 

species 

BILINGA 

(Nauclea diderrichii (De Wild. & 

Th. Dur.) Merr.) 

IROKO 

(Milicia excelsa (Welw.) 

C.C.Berg.) 

Group 

Color parameters 

Lightness (L*) Saturation (C*) Hue (H*) 

L*min L*�r L*max C*min C*�r C*max H*min H*�r H*max 

uncoated CS 52,23 54,09 57,35 33,74 35,20 36,75 60,82 61,95 63,56 

wood UV 53,06 53,37 53,80 33,80 34,22 34,93 61,64 62,15 62,40 

coated wood 

after UV 

exposure 

A 48,41 49,33 49,91 35,07 36,33 36,87 59,45 59,84 60,40 

B 46,96 48,29 49,18 36,35 37,09 38,16 58,36 59,84 60,91 

C 42,45 43,23 43,87 29,67 31,57 32,64 49,01 49,40 49,80 

D 44,66 45,19 46,10 33,37 34,80 35,71 55,55 55,69 55,84 

E 47,34 49,28 49,99 35,15 36,78 37,23 57,33 59,03 59,70 

F 43,77 45,11 47,40 35,23 36,61 38,81 54,02 55,07 57,45 

uncoated CS 55,35 58,68 63,10 26,41 27,87 30,51 68,66 73,14 77,42 

wood UV 51,44 52,76 53,82 26,73 27,21 27,69 65,75 66,70 67,24 

coated wood 

after UV 

exposure 

A 50,01 52,71 54,37 31,23 32,06 32,85 63,14 65,19 66,44 

B 46,73 48,55 50,84 31,42 32,50 33,08 59,80 61,35 63,03 

C 47,90 48,84 50,07 29,48 30,62 32,12 62,88 63,59 64,21 

D 46,29 47,43 48,84 29,98 31,42 33,30 63,08 63,84 64,24 

E 49,57 50,14 50,72 27,91 28,80 29,22 64,04 64,47 64,99 

F 47,06 48,73 50,74 32,83 35,83 38,37 63,01 63,86 65,31 

CS – control samples 

UV – samples after light exposure 

A – one component polyurethane lacquer 

B – two-component water-based lacquer 

C – polyurethane lacquer 

D – nitrocellulose lacquer 

E – wax 

F – shellac lacquer 

� 

For comparison of different coatings, total color difference criterion (fig. 1-2) and 

color stabilization was set. Color stability degrees were set on the basis of five step scale 

(Mielicki 1997) shown in table 2. 

Table 2. Color stability 

Color 

difference 

�E 

0±0,2 0,8±0,2 1,7±0,3 2,5±0,35 3,4±0,4 4,8±0,5 6,8±0,6 9,6±0,7 13,6±1,0 

Color 

stability 

5 4-5 4 3-4 3 2-3 2 1-2 1 

Basing on the presented results one may conclude that highest color stability was 

shown by A group, and lowest by C group, in both wood species tested. Change direction in 

both bilinga and iroko wood was the same. 

� 

272

Total color difference 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

2,71 

Uncoated 

wood 

3,38 

5,34 

12,81 

273 

8,94 

6,62 

A B C D E F 

Group 

� 

Fig. 1. Total color difference of Nauclea diderrichii (De Wild. & Th. Dur.) Merr.) wood, caused by coating and 

light aging. 

Total color difference 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

10,45 

Uncoated 

wood 

6,39 

9,05 

14,46 

10,95 11,14 

A B C D E F 

11,17 

14,39 

Group 

� 

Fig 2. Total color difference of Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C.Berg. wood, caused by coating and light aging. 

CONCLUSION 

Tests performed on two African wood species, bilinga and iroko, based on color 

change determination under coating and light aging influence, allow to conclude as follows: 

1. Wood coatings (lacquer, wax, shellac) and sunlight exposure cause wood discoloration. 

Color changes have same properties in both wood species tested, degree of the change is 

dependent on coating type. Bilinga wood from yellowish-orange turned closer to orange, 

Iroko from yellowish turned into darker shade of yellow. 

2. Coated wood shows more discoloration than uncoated one. 

3. After coating with lacquer, wax and shellac and light aging wood turned darker (lightness 

decreased)

4. Lacquering, waxing and shellac lacquering of wood does not protect it against 

discoloration, but causes color evening (wood color is more even on the whole surface). 

REFERENCES 

1. KOZAKIEWICZ P., SZKAR�AT D., 2004: Iroko [Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C.Berg] 

– drewno egzotyczne z Afryki. Przemys� Drzewny nr 7-8, s: 53-56. 

2. KOZAKIEWICZ P., SZKAR�AT D., 2005: Bilinga [Nauclea diderrichii De Wild.] – 

drewno egzotyczne z Afryki. Przemys� Drzewny nr 7-8, s: 43-46. 

3. KOZAKIEWICZ P., 2005: Drewno w budownictwie – pod�ogi. Przemys� Drzewny nr 

6, s.6-11. 

4. KOZAKIEWICZ P., 2006: W�a�ciwo�ci i zastosowania drewna egzotycznego w 

Polsce. Uszlachetnianie powierzchni drewna, cz. I (Dodatek specjalny do czasopisma 

Lakiernictwo), s. 10-17. 

5. MIELICKI J., 1997: Zarys wiadomo�ci o barwie. Wyd. Fundacja Rozwoju Polskiej 

Kolorystyki. �ód�. 

6. PN-EN 13556:2005 Drewno okr�g�e i tarcica. Terminologia stosowana w handlu 

drewnem w Europie. 

7. PN-ISO 7724-1:2003 Farby i lakiery – Kolorymetria – Cz�� 1: Podstawy. 

8. PN-ISO 7724-2:2003 Farby i lakiery – Kolorymetria – Cz�� 2: Pomiar barwy. 

9. PN-ISO 7724-3:2003 Farby i lakiery – Kolorymetria – Cz�� 3: Obliczanie ró�nic 

barwy. 

Streszczenie: Badanie zmian barwy drewna bilinga (Nauclea diderrichii (De Wild. & 

Th.Dur.) Merr.) i iroko (Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C.Berg.) pod wp�ywem dzia�ania lakierów 

i foto-starzenia. Na przestrzeni ostatnich lat obserwuje si� wzrastaj�ce zainteresowanie 

drewnem egzotycznym, ze wzgl�du na jego cenne w�a�ciwo�ci. O rosn�cej popularno�ci 

decyduj� walory estetyczne tego materia�u, a przede wszystkim barwa. Niestety, barwa 

drewna mo�e ulega� drastycznym zmianom pod wp�ywem lakierowania i nas�onecznienia 

(foto-starzenia). W niniejszej pracy zbadano wp�yw tych czynników na barw� popularnych w 

Polsce dwóch rodzajów drewna egzotycznego z Afryki (bilinga i iroko), stosowanego g�ównie 

na materia� pod�ogowy. Dowiedziono, �e surowe drewno istotnie ciemnieje pod wp�ywem 

dzia�ania �wiat�a i lakierowania. Lakierowanie drewna nie zabezpiecza go przed dalszymi 

zmianami barwy, jednak wyrównuje jego kolorystyk�. 


Agnieszka Jankowska 


Magdalena Szcz�sna 






Poland 

e-mail: agnieszka_milewska@sggw.pl 

e-mail: pawe�_kozakiewicz@sggw.pl 

e-mail: magdalena_szczesna@sggw.pl




Comparative analysis of wood ageing methods 

AGNIESZKA JANKOWSKA 

Department of Wood Science and Wood Protection, Warsaw University of Life Science - SGGW 

Abstract: Comparative analysis of wood ageing methods The process of ageing is a long-term process and 

therefore testing the changes occurring in wood submitted to an ageing process proves to be extremely difficult. 

Therefore, some artificial ageing methods have been developed (defined as accelerated ageing), making it 

possible to achieve ageing effects in laboratory conditions in a much shorter time. Alternating influence of water, 

variable temperature and radiation imitating solar radiation is used in the ageing methods. The methods differ, 

among others, in the number of ageing cycles. The information on the relationship between ageing in laboratory 

conditions and in the natural environment is still insufficient. Research work in this field seems to be an obvious 

necessity. 

Keywords: accelerated ageing of wood, wood durability. 

INTRODUCTION 

In external conditions, wood is exposed to continuous influence of weather conditions: 

precipitation and changes in temperature and relative humidity of the air. Many researchers, 

studying processes taking place in wood caused by variable conditions of the environment, 

describe and recognize the process of irreversible changes in appearance and properties of the 

material, resulting from long-term influence of weather conditions (assuming no direct impact 

of biotic components) as natural ageing of wood (Holz 1981; Feist 1983; Feist and Hon 1984, 

Williams 2005). 

An ageing process defined in this way is a long-term process and thus testing the 

changes that occur proves to be extremely difficult. Therefore, some artificial ageing methods 

have been developed (defined as accelerated ageing), making it possible to achieve ageing 

effects in laboratory conditions in a much shorter time. The methods simulate the influence of 

natural weather conditions. In order to achieve effects in a reasonably short time, the ageing 

factors should be highly intensive, cyclical, and their changes should occur rapidly (Heli�ska- 

Raczkowska and Raczkowski 1971). The comprehensive impact of all the factors influencing 

wood has not been fully analysed. 

A review of the literature indicates that the accelerated ageing research is conducted in 

two directions. The first one consisted in testing the impact of selected factors on changes in 

wood properties (influence of variable temperature and humidity, radiation, static load). The 

second direction of research in accelerated ageing focused on the impact of all cyclical factors 

on wood achieved by using the so-called accelerated ageing tests of material. The research 

into this subject has been carried out for many years. The accelerated ageing methods existing 

nowadays differ in terms of a sequence and intensiveness of the influence of relevant factors 

or only some of them, and their purpose is to address a question of how properties of wood 

change during its use over a period of a few dozen or even a few hundred years. 

WOOD AGEING METHODS 

Many methods have been developed in a form of standards and specialised 

publications to test durability of wood and other materials. The methods directly describing 

wood ageing are a minor group among the standard ageing methods. The most frequently 

used methods of wood ageing, simulating the influence of natural weather conditions, are 

presented in table 1. A review of the literature indicates that alternating influence of water, 

variable temperature and radiation imitating solar radiation is used in the ageing methods. 

275

Individual methods differ, among others, in terms of a number of ageing cycles. Many of 

them are often a combination of the ageing methods of their predecessors. Initially, the newly 

developed methods were used to study accelerated ageing of chipboards. However, they 

proved to be useful also for research in solid wood. 

Tab. 1. Comparison of accelerated ageing methods 

Ageing method 

(name/ author, source data) 

Ageing stages 

Time 

h 

freezing in the temp. -25 °C 6 

frostbite under UV-IR action in the temp. 60 o C 6 

drying in the temp. 80 o Heli�ska-Raczkowska 

and Raczkowski (1971) 

C 12 

soaking in water in the temp. 20 o C 24 


exhibition to the effect of steam about the 

temp. 93 °C 

3 

ASTM D 1037:1999 

freezing in the temp. -12 °C 

drying with dry air about the temp. 99 °C 

20 

3 

exhibition to the effect of steam about the 

temp. 93 °C 

3 

drying in the temp. 99 °C 18 


freezing in the temp. –20 o on the basis of 

recommendations specified in 

the PN-C-89038:1971 

C 

action of temp. 70 

12 

o C and simultaneous 

irradiating by 4 hours with lamp of radiating UV 

about intensity 40 x bigger than normally ruling 

in the Central-European climatic zone 

12 

soaking in water in the temp. 20 o Matejak, Popowska and 

C 16 

Szejka (1983) drying in the temp. 70 o C 8 


freezing in the temp. -12 o CTB (Centre Technique de 

Bois 1965/66) 

C 24 

(Matejak i �wietliczny 1977) drying in the temp. 70 o C 168 

soaking in water in the temp. 20 o C 

freezing in the temp. -20 

48 

o C 

drying in the temp. 15 

9 

o WIAM 

(Matejak and �wietliczny 

1977) 

C 

drying in the temp. 70 

15 

o C 10 

soaking in water in the temp. 18-27 o WCAMA 

C 0,5 

(Matejak and �wietliczny boiling 2 

1977) drying in the temp. about 104 o C 20 


freezing in the temp. -25 o C 12 

drying in the temp. 70 o Krzosek and Starecka (1996) 

C 6 

irradiating with UV rays 3 

drying in the temp. 100 o C 3 

soaking in water in the temp. 20 o C 

freezing in the temp. -10 

24 

o Buksalewicz, Gajdzi�ski 

and Lutomski (1987) 

C 

frostbite and drying wood in the temp. 60 

6 

o C 18 

276 

Number 

of 

cycles 

Total 

exposure 

time 

h 

1 48 

6 288 

7,5 360 

11 264 

3 792 

8 656 

6 135 

24 1152 

10 480 

Taking into account the diversity of the ageing methods, it is advisable to compare and 

assess them. Practicality of a method may be adopted as a criterion, i.e. whether the 

application of accelerated ageing corresponds with the phenomena found in wood in the 

natural environment. According to Matejak et al. (1982, 1983, 1998), there is a relationship 

between an ageing method developed on the basis of the recommendations specified in the 

PN-C-89038:1971 standard and the ageing occurring in natural conditions – approximately 7 

process cycles correspond to a yearly response of wood in external conditions in moderate

climate (typical for the territory of Poland). The same period of ageing in external conditions 

corresponds to 11 ageing cycles implemented using a method developed by Matejak, 

Popowska and Szejka (1983). Osipiuk (2001) states that during a research on durability of fire 

protection means, an ageing programme was used which produced the same effects after a 

triple application as a three-year response of wood in variable weather conditions. 

Determination of a relationship between accelerated ageing and the ageing in natural 

conditions has become a subject of research work also in other countries, such as the United 

States (Hon, Clemson and Feist 1986). The research focused on comparison of effects of 

accelerated and natural ageing processes. However, considering the fact that a different 

climate index is assigned to each latitude (various: amount of precipitation, average monthly 

temperatures, number of sunny days), the interrelations obtained are valid only for the zone 

where the field study was conducted. It should be also taken into account that wood in natural 

conditions may be located in different risk classes (the classes of use are specified in the PN- 

EN 335-1:2000 standard) and thus exposed to influence of external factors to a different 

extent. 

Different researchers used various ageing schedules. Additionally, considering the fact 

that sizes of samples used to determine properties of wood submitted to accelerated ageing are 

diversified, the research results published, although appropriate for the specific type of a 

sample and the accelerated ageing test used, can not be comparable in terms of their values 

with the results received in other ageing tests. Only the direction and nature of the changes 

may be comparable. The quality of wood resistance to accelerated atmospheric corrosion 

often depends on changes in properties such as wood density, sorption properties, its strength 

(e.g. compressive strength and bending strength), modulus of elasticity, change in colour, as 

well as dimension changes (Heli�ska-Raczkowska and Raczkowski 1971, Kami�ski, Matejak 

and Popowska 1982, Buksalewicz, Gajdzi�ski and Lutomski 1987, Arnold, Sell and Feist 

1991, Krzosek and Starecka 1996, Kozakiewicz K. and Matejak 1998, Matejak, Popowska 

and Szejka 1983, Górski and Matejak 1998, Jankowska, Kozakiewicz and Szcz�sna 2009). 

Few researchers attempted studies relating to changes in a chemical structure of wood 

resulting from accelerated ageing. Jarmutowska-Rokosz (1987) is one of them. 

Some of the ageing methods are distinguished by their sophisticated and timeconsuming 

approach, resulting in their lower practicality. An idea to test some of them in 

detail was implemented to simplify them, reduce their time-consuming operations and limit 

the necessity to use specialised equipment. An ageing method described in the ASTM D 1037 

– 56 T standard was analysed in detail by two American researchers McNatt and Link (1989). 

Matejak, Popowska and Szejka (1983) shortening an ageing schedule with a method 

developed on the basis of recommendations specified in the PN-C-89038:1971 standard by 

freezing and UV radiation, stated that the reduced stages unnecessarily complicated an 

accelerated ageing process and had no significant impact on the wood strength. The method 

developed by the researchers is relatively the least complex ageing method. 

SUMMARY 

An accelerated ageing is a complex phenomenon. A review of the literature indicates 

that it is a process where at least three processes occur simultaneously: influence of humidity, 

variable temperature and light. The results obtained in ageing research can not be comparable 

due the fact that different sizes of samples are used by different researchers. The wood 

accelerated ageing research methodology has not been standardised yet, resulting in the use of 

accelerated ageing tests demonstrating various sequence of influence of relevant factors and 

their operation time. 

The majority of ageing methods can be implemented using a standard laboratory 

equipment. The information on the relationship between ageing in laboratory conditions and 

277

in the natural environment is still insufficient. Research work in this field seems to be an 

obvious necessity. The knowledge obtained in this area will make it possible to use various 

ageing schedules, facilitating the determination of wood durability in actual external 

conditions. 

REFERENCES: 

1. ARNOLD M., SELL J., FEIST W. C., 1991: Wood weathering in fluorescent 

ultraviolet and xenon arc chambers. Forest Products Journal, Vol. 41. No. 2: 40-44. 

2. ASTM D Designation D 1037-99 Standard Test Methods for Evaluating Properties of 

Wood – Base Fiber and Particle Panel Materials. American Society for Testing 

Materials. Baltimore. U.S.A. 

3. BUKSALEWICZ P., GAJDZINSKI M., LUTOMSKI K., 1987: Wzmacnianie drewna 

zabytkowego przy u�yciu preparatów Petrifo i Paraloid. Zabytkowe drewno, 

konserwacja i badania. Instytut Wydawniczy PAX Warszawa: 108-117. 

4. FEIST W. C., 1983: Weathering and Protection of Wood. American Wood Preservers’ 

Association: 195-205. 

5. FEIST W. C., HON D. N. S, 1984: Chemistry of weathering and protection. In: 

Rowell R. M.; Barbour R. J., eds.: The chemistry of solid wood. Advances in 

Chemistry Series 207. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society. Chapter 11: 401 

– 451. 

6. GÓRSKI J., MATEJAK M., 1998: Wp�yw starzenia desek stosowanych na podobrazia 

na ich odkszta�cenia. Mat. z XII Konferencji Naukowej Wydzia�u Technologii 

Drewna SGGW nt.: Innowacyjno�� bada� w przemy�le i nauce. Wyd. Fundacji 

Rozwój SGGW Warszawa: 183-190. 

7. HELI�SKA-RACZKOWSKA L., RACZKOWSKI J.,1971: Niektóre zagadnienia 

przyspieszonego starzenia drewna. Roczniki WSR w Poznaniu 6. 

8. HOLZ A., 1981: Zum Alterungsverhalten des Werkstoffes Holz - einige Ansichten, 

Untersuchungen, Ergebnisse. Holztechnologie 22/2: 80-85. 

9. HON D. N. S, CLEMSON S. C., FEIST W. C., 1986: Weathering characteristics of 

hardwood surfaces. Wood Science and Technology 20: 169-183. 

10. JANKOWSKA A., KOZAKIEWICZ P., SZCZ�SNA M., 2009: Influence of the 

accelerated aging chosen species of wood from South America on compressive 

strength along the fibres. Annals of Warsaw University of Live Science – SGGW, 

Forestry and Wood Technology No 67. 

11. JARMUTOWSKA-ROKOSZ A., 1986: Zmiany sk�adu chemicznego wybranych 

gatunków drewna powsta�e w procesach przyspieszonej korozji atmosferycznej. Mat. 

z II Konferencji naukowej Wydzia�u Technologii Drewna SGGW-AR. Wyd. SGGW- 

AR Warszawa: 95-104. 

12. KAMI�SKI M., MATEJAK M., POPOWSKA E., 1982: Einfluss des Alterns von 

Holz unter künstlichen Klimabedingungen auf seine Druckfestigkeit längs der Faser. 

Holzforschung und Holzvermertung, Heft 2: 21-24. 

13. KOZAKIEWICZ K., MATEJAK M., 1998: Wp�yw procesu sztucznego starzenia na 

wytrzyma�o�� drewna na �ciskanie wzd�u� w�ókien. Przemys� Drzewny 10: 26 - 28. 

14. KRZOSEK S., STERECKA D., 1996: Modu� spr��ysto�ci jako kryterium oceny 

zmian wytrzyma�o�ci drewna sztucznie starzonego. Mat. z X Konferencji Naukowej 

Wydzia�u Technologii Drewna SGGW nt.: Drewno – tworzywo in�ynierskie. Wyd. 

Fundacji Rozwój SGGW Warszawa 1996: s. 65-72. 



Holzvermertung, Heft 5: 117-119. 

278

16. MATEJAK M., �WIETLICZNY M., 1977: Odporno�� tworzyw drzewnych na 

dzia�anie czynników klimatycznych. Zeszyty naukowe SGGW-AR w Warszawie, 

Technologia Drewna, 8, Warszawa: 101-114. 

17. McNATT J. D., LINK C. L., 1989: Analysis of ASTM D 1037 accelerated-aging test. 

Forest Prod. Journal, Vol. 39. No. 10: 51 – 57. 

18. OSIPIUK J., 2001: Trwa�o�� zabezpieczenia drewna solnymi �rodkami 

ognioochronnymi. Rozprawa habilitacyjna. Wyd. SGGW, Warszawa. 

19. PN-EN 335-1:2007 Trwa�o�� drewna i materia�ów drewnopochodnych. Definicja klas 

u�ytkowania. Postanowienia ogólne. 

20. WILLIAMS R. S., 2005: Weathering of wood. Handbook of wood chemistry and 

wood composites. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2005: 139-185. 

Streszczenie: Analiza porównawcza metod starzenia drewna Proces starzenia jest procesem 

d�ugotrwa�ym, a przez to zbadanie zmian zachodz�cych w drewnie podlegaj�cym procesowi 

starzenia staje si� niezwykle trudne. Dlatego opracowano szereg metod sztucznego starzenia 

drewna (okre�lanego jako starzenie przy�pieszone), które pozwalaj� na uzyskanie w 

warunkach laboratoryjnych efektów starzenia w znacznie krótszym czasie. W metodach 

starzeniowych wykorzystuje si� przemiennie dzia�anie wody, zmiennej temperatury i 

promieniowania maj�cego imitowa� promieniowanie s�oneczne. Poszczególne metody ró�ni� 

si� mi�dzy innymi liczb� cykli starzeniowych. Brakuje informacji na temat relacji starzenia 

realizowanego w warunkach laboratoryjnych i starzenia w �rodowisku naturalnym. 

Podejmowanie bada� na ten temat wydaje si� by� oczywist� konieczno�ci�. 

S�owa kluczowe: przyspieszone starzenie drewna, trwa�o�� drewna. 





Warsaw University of Life Science – SGGW, 



Poland 

E-mail: agnieszka_milewska@sggw.pl




Research on colour change of thermal modified birch wood caused by UV 

and accelerated ageing 

AGNIESZKA JANKOWSKA, SEBASTIAN ST�PNIEWSKI 


Abstract: Research on colour change of thermal modified birch wood caused by UV and accelerated ageing A 

more and more common use of thermally modified wood in interior design of buildings and in elements of 

external architecture is connected with an issue of colour instability. For the purposes of this research, thermally 

modified birch wood has been used in various exposure times. It has been proved that UV radiation and 

accelerated ageing result in a colour change of birch wood exposed to thermal treatment. The modification time 

has an influence on the extent of the colour change. 

Keywords: termal modified birch wood, color of wood, photo-aging. 

INTRODUCTION 

The use of thermally treated wood in the furniture industry and in interior finishing, in 

particular in flooring materials is connected with an issue of colour stability. The issue of 

colour stability of thermally modified wood appears also in outdoors applications. Wood 

colour changes are caused by weathering factors such as: solar radiation (ultraviolet), 

precipitation, the action of oxygen and ozone in the air. A colour change of wood during its 

use, both indoors and outdoors, is a process affecting the surface of the material. It results 

from a small depth of penetration of wood by light, which, according to Williams (2005), is 

the main reason for the colour change. Outdoors, additional factors include the action of water 

and changeable temperatures. In estimation of many users of wooden elements in outdoor 

exposure, the aesthetic values tend to decrease (Feist and Hon 1984). 

The research on thermally modified wood refers mainly to some species of deciduous 

wood, such as: oak, ash, beech, and some species of coniferous wood: pine, spruce. So far, the 

colour change of thermally modified wood in comparison to untreated wood has been 

confirmed in research among others by Grze�kiewicz and Krawiecki (2008), Ayadi et al. 

(2003). Despite extensive research, there is still very little knowledge on methods of finishing 

thermally modified wood, and especially, on reactions to stabilizers and sunlight. Research 

work in this field seems to be an obvious necessity. 


The purpose of the research is to determine the influence of UV radiation which is 

supposed to simulate natural sunlight and accelerated ageing simulating the action of the 

natural outdoor factors on colour change of thermally modified birch wood. For the purposes 

of this research, birch wood exposed to thermal treatment in various exposure times and 

temperatures has been used. Birch, which is not the most common thermally modified wood 

in use, has been selected for testing due to its regular structure and uniform colour. Its fast 

growth and common occurrence may increase an interest in this species in deeper research on 

properties of thermally modified birch wood in the context of thermal treatment. The 

modification was performed in overheated water vapour at the temperature of 190 o C in three 

exposure times: 2, 6 and 10 hours. Each of the modification processes was monitored using a 

device equipped with probes registering the temperature, among others, inside a section of 

one of the specimens. The tested material had been dried to the moisture content of 

approximately 0% before its thermal modification. The modification process rate in the 

280

temperature increase phase was 0.25 o C/min. The time of the relevant modification was 

calculated from the moment of reaching the required temperature of 190 o C by the monitored 

specimen. 

The specimens were divided into two groups within each of the exposures. The first 

group contained the specimens to be exposed to UV radiation. The second group of the 

specimens was to be exposed to accelerated ageing. The accelerated ageing consisted in 

alternating soaking of the wood in water at the temperature of 20 o C, drying at the 

temperature of 70 o C and UV radiation during 6 hours. The accelerated ageing method used is 

a method developed by Matejak, Popowska and Szejka (1983), supplemented with exposure 

to light as a factor which has a big influence on the wood colour change in outdoor exposure. 

There were 6 specimens in each of the groups for each variation of the thermal modification 

and control specimens. The purpose of the test was to eliminate other factors that may 

influence the colour change. 

The analysis of the colour change was conducted on the basis of a CIE L*a*b* colour 

space mathematical model. An SP-60 compact spherical spectrophotometer was used for 

colour measurement. The total colour difference was calculated on the basis of the 

components: 

2 

2 

2 1/ 

2 

� E * ab � [( �L*) 

� ( �a*) 

� ( �b*) 

] , where 

� L * - lightness difference 

� a * - red color difference (a>0) 

� b * - yellow color difference (b>0). 

The modified specimens were isolated from sunlight up to the moment of the first test 

to retain the wood colour obtained during the thermal treatment process. The measurement 

was taken before the exposure to light and accelerated ageing, and subsequently at various 

stages of the exposure to light and ageing. Due to the fact that there is no standard 

determining a method of testing the wood colour changes, the provisions of the PN-ISO 7724- 

1:2003, PN-ISO 7724-2:2003, PN-ISO 7724-3:2003 standards concerning changes in colours 

of paints and varnishes have been applied in this research. 

RESULTS 

The results obtained from the colour tests conducted for the group of birch wood 

exposed to UV radiation and for the group of birch wood exposed to accelerated ageing are 

presented in table 1 and 2. Measurements of the (L*a*b*) colour coordinates taken before the 

exposure to UV radiation and accelerated ageing indicate that thermal modification has an 

influence on change of the wood colour. Analysing the values of luminance (L*), it can be 

observed that the wood colour gets darker along with extension of the modification time. 

Unmodified wood exposed to UV radiation (after 150 hours of exposure to light) and 

accelerated ageing (after 10 ageing cycles) gets darker. The accelerated ageing, where the 

tested material was exposed to the action of temperature and water in addition to UV 

radiation, indicates a higher value of the total difference in the unmodified wood colour after 

10 cycles (�E = 9.44) than in the case of exposure only to UV radiation (�E = 7.21). Thus, it 

should be assumed that, apart from ultraviolet radiation, the alternating action of temperature 

and water has a significant influence on the wood colour changes. It is confirmed by the 

results of exposure to light and accelerated ageing of thermally modified wood in various 

exposure times. However, unlike in the case of the thermally unmodified material, the 

specimens modified in exposure to the UV radiation during 6 and 10 hours get brighter, and 

the values of the total colour difference are lower (�E = 5.39, �E = 5.50, respectively). The 

colour change of the wood modified during 2 hours, exposed to UV radiation, where the 

wood gets darker is an exception (�E = 4.38). An analysis of the values of luminance (L*) for 

281

espective various modification exposures in the case of accelerated ageing after 10 cycles 

indicates that the colour gets darker – as in the case of thermally untreated wood. It is a 

reverse direction of changes in comparison to the action of exclusive UV radiation. The 

absolute values of the total colour difference for the modification time of 2 and 6 hours reach 

the level similar to the measurements of unmodified wood, while in the case of modification 

lasting for 10 hours they even exceeded it (for 2, 6, 10 hours: �E =7.85, �E = 8.91, �E = 9.98, 

respectively). 

Colour changes in the tested material can be still observed after subsequent 150 hours 

of exposure to UV radiation and subsequent 10 accelerated ageing cycles. The colour of 

unmodified specimens gets darker, however, a wider scope of changes in the case of 

accelerated ageing (�E = 5.65) was observed than in the case of exposure to light (�E = 

2,53). The values of the total colour change of the unmodified birch wood after subsequent 

hours of exposure to light and after subsequent cycles are much lower in comparison to the 

values obtained during the measurement after 150 hours and 10 cycles. The results of 

measurements of the thermally modified birch wood in various time exposures indicate a 

similar direction of the changes. Therefore, it can be concluded that the colour changes that 

occurred as a result of UV radiation and accelerated ageing demonstrate the highest values in 

the initial hours of the exposure to light and in the initial ageing cycles. Comparing the values 

of the �E total colour difference of the thermally modified birch wood exposed to UV 

radiation with the material exposed to accelerated ageing, it can be observed that the UV 

radiation after 150 hours had a bigger influence on the colour changes than the subsequent 10 

cycles of accelerated ageing. 

Table 1. Color parameters of thermal modified birch wood during exposure on UV light 

Tested 

material 

Unmodified wood 

Thermal modified 

wood 190 0 C 2h 


wood 190 0 C 6h 


wood 190 0 C 10h 

Color of wood / 

Colour coordinates 

L* 

a* �r 

b* �r 

L* 

a* �r 

b* �r 

L* 

a* �r 

b* �r 

L* 

a* �r 

b* �r 

After 0 h of 

exposure to light 

282 

�E 



�E 



Average 76,39 71,86 70,76 

Std. dev. 1,24 1,03 0,86 

Average 

Std. dev. 

3,82 

0,26 

7,21 

6,96 

0,33 

2,53 

7,57 

0,25 

Average 20,07 24,72 26,91 

Std. dev. 0,38 

1,32 

1,09 

Average 59,71 59,02 59,76 

Std. dev. 1,51 1,43 1,35 

Average 

Std. dev. 

5,76 

0,29 

4,38 

8,71 

0,38 

1,16 

8,33 

0,41 

Average 26,02 22,86 23,65 


0,71 

0,85 

Average 52,66 53,68 55,48 

Std. dev. 1,52 1,49 1,43 

Average 

Std. dev. 

6,67 

0,24 

5,39 

8,95 

0,47 

1,95 

8,44 

0,42 

Average 26,74 21,96 22,49 


0,85 

0,83 

Average 47,34 48,24 51,04 

Std. dev. 1,46 1,65 1,23 

Average 

Std. dev. 

6,99 

0,22 

5,50 

9,45 

0,88 

3,03 

8,37 

0,49 

Average 25,23 20,38 20,84 


0,99 

0,84

Table 2. Color parameters of thermal modified birch wood during accelerated ageing 

Tested 

material 

Unmodified wood 


wood 190 0 C 2h 


wood 190 0 C 6h 


wood 190 0 C 10h 

Color of wood / 

Colour coordinates 

L* 

a* �r 

b* �r 

L* 

a* �r 

b* �r 

L* 

a* �r 

b* �r 

L* 

a* �r 

b* �r 

After 0 ageing 

cycles 

283 

�E 


cycles 

�E 


cycles 

Average 75,58 67,08 62,91 

Std. dev. 0,64 1,07 0,83 

Average 

Std. dev. 

4,07 

0,15 

9,44 

6,81 

0,23 

5,65 

6,44 

0,28 

Average 20,39 17,31 21,10 


0,56 

0,69 

Average 61,29 55,47 55,27 

Std. dev. 1,73 1,79 1,66 

Average 

Std. dev. 

5,57 

0,18 

7,85 

7,35 

0,31 

0,93 

6,67 

0,33 

Average 25,25 20,31 20,91 


0,35 

0,67 

Average 49,54 43,68 44,95 

Std. dev. 2,24 1,55 2,00 

Average 

Std. dev. 

6,55 

0,13 

8,91 

8,68 

0,27 

1,59 

8,06 

0,19 

Average 26,29 19,92 20,66 


0,52 

0,41 

Average 48,70 41,54 42,97 

Std. dev. 1,96 1,43 1,20 

Average 

Std. dev. 

6,85 

0,12 

9,97 

9,01 

0,17 

1,75 

7,99 

0,30 

Average 27,17 19,68 19,68 


0,81 

0,85 

CONLUSIONS 

The research conducted on thermally modified birch wood concerning evaluation of 

the colour changes caused by exposure to UV radiation and accelerated ageing, consisting in 

alternating soaking of the wood in water, drying, and UV radiation, allow to reach the 

following conclusions: 

1. Thermal modification causes a colour change of the birch wood. The wood colour gets 

darker along with extension of the modification time. 

2. The action of UV radiation and accelerated ageing of wood cause a colour change of the 

thermally untreated and treated wood. UV radiation results in a larger extent of the colour 

change in the thermally unmodified wood in comparison to the modified wood. The 

difference is smaller in the case of exposure to accelerated ageing. 

3. The longer the wood modification time, the wood colour tends to change more rapidly as a 

result of exposure to accelerated ageing and UV. 

4. Exposed to UV, the thermally modified birch wood gets brighter, while the thermally 

unmodified wood gets darker. 

REFERENCES 

1. AYADI N., LEJEUNE F., CHARRIER B., MERLIN A., 2003: Color stability of heat 

treated wood during artificial weathering. Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 61: 221-226.

2. FEIST W. C., HON D. N. S, 1984: Chemistry of weathering and protection. In: Rowell 

R. M.; Barbour R. J., eds.: The chemistry of solid wood. Advances in Chemistry Series 

207. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society. Chapter 11: 401 – 451. 

3. GRZE�KIEWICZ M., KRAWIEC J., 2008: Thermally Mdified ash and oak wood as 

materials for parqets – mechanical properties of wood and ist UV resistance fir 

different kinds of wood finishing. Ann. WULS – SGGW, For. And Wood Technol., 65, 

2008: 93-97. 



Holzvermertung, Heft 5: 117-119. 

5. PN-ISO 7724-1:2003 Farby i lakiery – Kolorymetria – Cz�� 1: Podstawy. 

6. PN-ISO 7724-2:2003 Farby i lakiery – Kolorymetria – Cz�� 2: Pomiar barwy. 

7. PN-ISO 7724-3:2003 Farby i lakiery – Kolorymetria – Cz�� 3: Obliczanie ró�nic 

barwy. 

8. WILLIAMS R. S., 2005: Weathering of wood. Handbook of wood chemistry and 

wood composites. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2005: 139-185. 

Streszczenie: Badanie zmian barwy drewna brzozy modyfikowanej termicznie 

spowodowanych promieniami UV i przy�pieszonym starzeniem Coraz szersze stosowanie 

drewna poddanego obróbce termicznej w aran�acji budynków jak i w postaci elementów 

architektury zewn�trznej wi��e si� z niesta�o�ci� barwy. Na potrzeby niniejszej pracy 

wykorzystano drewno brzozowe poddane obróbce termicznej w ró�nych wariantach 

czasowych. Dowiedziono, �e na�wietlanie promieniami UV i sztuczne starzenie powoduje 

zmian� barwy drewna brzozowego poddanego obróbce termicznej. Na wielko�� zmiany 

barwy wp�yw ma czas modyfikacji. 

S�owa kluczowe: drewno modyfikowane termicznie, barwa drewna, foto-starzenie. 



Sebastian St�pniewski 



Warsaw University of Life Science – SGGW, 



Poland 

E-mail: agnieszka_milewska@sggw.pl 

E-mail: sebastian_stepniewski@sggw.pl




Emissions CO and CO2 from particleboard filled with mineral wool in fire 

conditions 

WALDEMAR JASKÓ�OWSKI 1) , MARIUSZ MAMI�SKI 2) , 



Abstract: The objective of this study was to manufacture particleboards using mineral wool as filler. Three 

series of boards with various contents of mineral wool (10, 20, 30 wt%) were successfully manufactured using 

urea-formaldehyde resin as binder. The samples were tested using cone calorimeter at heat fluxes: 30, 50 and 70 

kW/m 2 . Specific emissions curves of all such composites show that are similar independently of content mineral 

in particleboards. All composites tested are characterized by similar values compared to control (traditional) 

particleboards. 

Key words: toxicity, particleboard, mineral wool, cone calorimeter 

INTRODUCTION 

Particleboards are most popular materials used in the building industry. Due to its use 

for furniture and insulating material, particleboards are the largest proportion of material used. 

Polystyrene, polyurethane and mineral particles for the production for insulating materials 

also are used. On the contrary to wood-based materials or synthetic foams, the main 

advantage of mineral wool, apart from excellent insulation properties, is its inflammability. Is 

it possible to combine particleboards with mineral products? The answer is yes. There are 

some reports on compounding wood material with mineral components—like vermiculite 

(Kozlowski et al. 1999) cement (Okino et al. 2005; Qi et al. 2006) or potassium 

aluminosilicate (Giancaspro et al. 2008). Production of this type composites is not a big 

problem. The use of such products is determined not only by technological capabilities, but 

also by the mechanical and fire properties. Materials used in buildings have to discharge 

suitable criteria of fire safety. These requirements relate to toxic, smoke and thermokinetic 

properties in fire conditions. In this paper specific emission [g/g] and rate of emission [g/g] of 

thermal decomposition and combustion products of manufactured boards are presented. The 

toxicity of gaseous products of combustion of olefins and lignocellulosics is determined by 

emission of CO accompanied by CO2 (Borysiak et al.2006). These chemical compounds, 

including also HCN, HCL, SOx and NOx (PN-B-02855:1988) are taken into account when 

assessing the toxicity of building materials. 


One-layer particleboards of dimensions 330 × 330 ×12 mm (density 600 kg/m3) were 

made in three series: 10, 20 or 30 wt% of mineral wool. The boards were made of industrial 

pine flakes (6.0% moisture content) and commercial mineral wool (2.2% moisture content). A 

UF resin was used as adhesive hardened with 10% NH4Cl. UF 50 parts by weight, water 12 

parts by weight. Glue load was 10 wt%. Purely pine-flake boards were used as reference. 

Mat preparation was performed as described elsewhere (Mami�ski et al. 2010). 

Pressing conditions: platens temperature 180°C, maximum unit pressure 2.5 MPa, time 291 s. 

Prior to testing, the boards were conditioned at 20 ± 2°C and 65 ± 5% RH for 7 days. 

285

Testing was conducted in the Main School of Fire Service with the use of a cone 

calorimeter (Fig. 1). In the subject tests use was made of the measurement methodology 

described in the standard ISO 5660-1:2002. 

Fig.1. Cone calorimeter 

RESULTS 

The obtained results are shown in Figs. 3 – 8. 

. 

Fig. 3a. Specific emission CO for particleboard filled mineral wool; external heat of flux – 30 kW/m 2 

286

Fig. 3b. Specific emission CO2 for particleboard filled mineral wool; external heat of flux – 30 kW/m 2 


287



288


CONCLUSION 

In case of fire for safety of people are the most important first few minutes (in I stage 

of fire). Only then effective evacuation is possible. Based on the results of this study the 

following conclusions can be drawn: 

1. Addition of mineral wool does not change of shape curves of CO and CO2 independently 

of the percentage of wool and the level of intensity of thermal radiation 

REFERENCES 

1. BORYSIAK S., PAUKSZTA D., HELWIG M. 2006: Flammability of wood-polyropylene 

composites, Polymer Degradation and Stability 91, 3339-3343 

2. GIANCASPRO J, PAPAKONSTANTINOU C, BALAGURU P. 2008: Fire resistance of 

inorganic sawdust biocomposite. Compos Sci Technol 68: 1895–1902 

3. ISO 5660-1:2002: Reaction to fire tests. Heat release, smoke production and mass loss rate. 

Part 1. Heat release rate (cone calorimeter method) 

4. KOZLOWSKI R, MIELENIAK B, HELWIG M, PRZEPIERA A. 1999: Flame resistant 

lignocellulosic-mineral composite particleboards. Polym Degrad Stabil 64: 523–528, 

5. MAMI�SKI M�, KRÓL ME, JASKÓ�OWSKI W, BORYSIUK P. 2010: Wood-mineral 

wool hybrid particleboards, Eur J Wood Prod, DOI 10.1007/s00107-010-0470-6 

6. OKINO EYA, DE SOUZA RM, SANTANA MAE, DA S. ALVES MV, DE SOUSA ME, 

TEIXEIRA DE. 2005: Physico-mechanical properties and decay resistance of Cupressus 

spp. cement-bonded particleboards. Cement Concrete Comp 27: 333–338 

7. QI H, COOPER PA, WAN H. 2006: Effect of carbon dioxide injection on production of 

wood cement composites from waste medium density fiberboard (MDF). Waste Manage 

26: 509–515 

289

Streszczenie: Emisja CO i CO2 z p�yty wiórowej wype�nionej we�n� mineraln�. Dla potrzeb 

pracy wykonano trójwarstwowe p�yty wiórowe z dodatkiem we�ny mineralnej której udzia� 

stanowi� odpowiednio 10, 20 i 30 % wagowych warstwy wewn�trznej p�yt. G�sto�� 

badanych p�yt wynosi�a ok. 580-600 kg/m3. Materia� badawczy poddano oddzia�ywaniu 

strumienia promieniowania cieplnego o nat��eniu 30, 50 i 70 kW/m2. Do bada� 

eksperymentalnych wykorzystano kalorymetr sto�kowy. Warunki badania oparto na normie 

ISO EN 5660-2: 2002. Podczas bada� rejestrowano emisj� w�a�ciw� CO i CO2. Otrzymane 

wyniki porównano z uzyskanymi dla p�yty kontrolnej (komercyjnej). Na podstawie bada� 

mo�na stwierdzi�, �e dodanie we�ny mineralnej do p�yty wiórowej zasadniczo nie zmienia 

emisji w�a�ciwej przedmiotowych gazów niezale�nie od poziomu nat��enia promieniowania 

cieplnego w porównaniu z p�yt� kontroln�. 







Poland 

e-mail: wjaskolowski@sgsp.edu.pl 

Mariusz Mami�ski 



159 Nowoursynowska St., 


Poland 

e-mail: mariusz_maminski@sggw.pl




Emissions of CO and CO2 from particleboard filled with polystyrene in fire 

conditions 

WALDEMAR JASKÓ�OWSKI 1) , PIOTR BORYSIUK 2) , 



Abstract: Emissions of CO and CO2 from particleboard filled with polystyrene in fire conditions . Three-layer 

particleboards filled with 5, 10, 20 wt % foamed polystyrene were prepared. Densities of particleboards were 

approximately 500 kg/m 3 . Selected fire properties of the boards were determined. Cone calorimeter was used as 

a basic tool. The examined material placed horizontally with reference to radiator was subject to thermal 

radiation flux with intensity of 30, 50 and 70 kW/m 2 . The combustion reaction was initiated by ignition. 

Key words: toxicity, particleboard, foamed polystyrene, cone calorimeter, emission 

INTRODUCTION 

Toxic gases produced at fires are responsible for the majority of deaths at building 

fires. These elements contribute to the death of over 70% fire victims. It is generally assumed 

that carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most important gases produced at 

fires. They are the main combustion products from cellulosic materials. Their primary action 

comprises disturbance of the process in which oxygen is supplied to cells in an organism, 

which frequently leads to death of the affected person. An additional hazard connected with 

the occurrence of CO and CO2 is the fact that those gases are odourless and cannot be 

detected using the smell sense. Emission rate [g/s] and specific emission [g/g] are parameters 

which determines the concentration of toxic gases in the first stage of fire development and 

consequently significantly affects evacuation conditions. These parameters are connected 

among others in a direct way with the type of materials and interior decoration elements used 

in the building. Specific emission of toxic gases is basic parameters used to calculate index of 

toxicity [7]. The degree of toxicity depend on fire stage including: non flaming (self sustained 

smouldering, oxidative, external radiation, anaerobic external radiation) and well-ventilated 

flaming right through to under-ventilated flaming [4]. In recent years, there has been a 

dynamically increase in the application of chemicals to wood-based materials. In many 

research centres worldwide, including also in Poland, works are being carried out in the field 

of material engineering. The main objective is to achieve optimum values between the 

application safety and production economy. For production of building materials of great 

importance is also the ecological aspect. Utilization of polymeric materials to improve the 

properties of wood based panels has gained much attention worldwide [1, 2, 6]. The most 

popular additive in Europe is virgin polypropylene, whereas the global preference is for 

polyethylene [3, 8]. Review of literature indicates that there are no studies on wood based 

materials with polystyrene, in it also low-density panels, and there are few publications the 

aspect of toxicity in fire. 


Three layer particleboards with density of 500 kg/m 3 and thickness of 18 mm, filled 

with foamed polystyrene have been used for experiments. The boards have been made at 

Department of Wood Based Panels, Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life 

Sciences – SGGW. Foamed polystyrene in a form of granules in amount of 5%, 10% and 20% 

291

was added to core layer of the boards so that the assumed density of the board could be 

maintained. All variants of the boards were bonded with UF resin (glue rates: face layer – 8 

%, core layer – 12 %). Mixing of the components (polystyrene + wood chips) and formation 

of the boards was made manually with the use of a special mould. Pressing was carried out by 

one shelf press, maintaining the following parameters: 

� pressing time: 324 s. 

� pressing unit pressure: 2.5 MPa 

� pressing temperature: 180 degrees C 

Testing was conducted in the Main School of Fire Service with the use of a cone 

calorimeter (Fig. 1). In the subject tests use was made of the measurement methodology 

described in the standard ISO 5660-1:2002 [8]. 

Fig.1. Cone calorimeter 

RESULTS 

The obtained results are shown in Figs. 2 – 7. 

Fig. 2. Specific emission CO for particleboard filled polystyrene; external heat of flux – 30 kW/m 2 

292

Fig. 3. Specific emission CO2 for particleboard filled polystyrene; external heat of flux – 30 kW/m 2 



293



CONCLUSIONS 

Emission toxic products of thermal decomposition and combustion different materials is 

very important in aspect of fire safety. These products in really, decide of the toxicity of the 

fire environment. Specific emission is appropriate parameter, which is used to define index 

toxicometric. Based on the results of this study the following conclusions can be drawn: the 

addition of the foamed polystyrene to core layer of low-density particleboards did not 

significantly influence on emission of CO and CO2. This thesis applies to all tested samples 

independently of the percentage of foamed polystyrene. After flameout the increased 

emissions of CO can be observed regardless of the intensity of external heat flux. 

294

REFERENCES 

1. BAYSAL E., YALINKILIC M.K., ALTINOK M., SONMEZ A., PEKER H., 

COLAK M., 2007: Some physical, biological, mechanical, and fire properties of wood 

polymer composite (WPC) pretreated with boric acid and borax mixture, Construction 

and Building Materials, 21, 1879-1885 

2. CLEMONS C. 2002: Wood-plastic composites in the United States: the interfacing of 

two industries, Forest Product Journal, 52(6) 8-10 

3. GARCIA M., HIDALGO J., GARMENDIA I., GARCIA-JACA J., 2009: Woodplastic 

composites with better fire retardancy and durability performance, Composites: 

Part A 40, 1772-1776 

4. ISO 19706:2007 Guidelines for assessing the fire threat people 

5. ISO 5660-1:2002 Reaction to fire tests. Heat release, smoke production and mass loss 

rate. Part 1. Heat release rate (cone calorimeter method) 

6. MCHENRY E., STACHURSKI Z.H. 2003: Composite materials based on wood nylon 

fibre, Composites Part A 34, 171-181 

7. PN-B-02855:1988 Ochrona przeciwpo�arowa budynków. Metoda badania 

wydzielania toksycznych produktów rozk�adu i spalania materia�ów 

8. RABERG U., HAFREN J.2008: Biodegradation and appearance of plastic treated 

solid wood, International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation 62, 210-213 

Streszczenie: Emisja CO i CO2 z p�yty wiórowej z dodatkiem polistyrenu w warunkach 

po�arowych. W ramach pracy wykonano trójwarstwowe p�yty wiórowe z dodatkiem spienionego 

polistyrenu (styropianu) którego udzia� stanowi� odpowiednio 5, 10 i 20 % warstwy wewn�trznej 

p�yt. G�sto�� badanych p�yt wynosi�a 500 kg/m 3 . Otrzymane materia�y poddano oddzia�ywaniu 

strumienia promieniowania cieplnego o nat��eniu 30, 50 i 70 kW/m 2 . Do bada� eksperymentalnych 

wykorzystano kalorymetr sto�kowy. Warunki badania oparto na normie ISO EN 5660-2. Podczas 

bada� rejestrowano emisj� w�a�ciw� CO i CO2. Otrzymane rezultaty porównano z wyniki uzyskanymi 

dla p�yty kontrolnej (komercyjnej). Na podstawie bada� mo�na stwierdzi�, �e dodatek polistyrenu 

spienionego do warstwy �rodkowej p�yty wiórowej zasadniczo nie zmienia emisji w�a�ciwej 

przedmiotowych gazów niezale�nie od poziomu nat��enia promieniowania cieplnego w porównaniu z 

p�yt� kontroln�. 







Poland 


Piotr Borysiuk 





Poland 

e-mail: piotr_borysiuk@sggw.pl




Thermogravimetric research on the influence of wood species on its thermal 

decomposition 

WALDEMAR JASKÓ�OWSKI 1) , PAWE� KOZAKIEWICZ 2) , MAREK SZWED 3) 

1) 

The Main School of Fire Service (SGSP) 

2) 


3) 

Fire Brigade, Rybnik 

Abstract: Thermogravimetric research on the influence of wood species on its thermal decomposition. The 

purpose of this work is to gain the knowledge on thermal decomposition of exotic woods and comparing it to 

native species. This paper described experimental research with the use of thermogravimeter for thermal 

analysis. The experimental material was made from the following species of wood: opepe, iroko, merbau, oak. 

The measurements were made in polithermal conditions with heating rates: 2,5 o C/min, 10 o C/min and 20 o C/min, 

under air atmosphere. Obtained results show higher thermal resistance of exotic woods. 

Key words: exotic wood, wood, thermogravimetry, thermal decomposition, 

INTRODUCTION 

In fire conditions wood is under the influence of heat flux. The effect of hot gases on 

the surface of the wood and thermal radiation begin the process of thermal decomposition, 

which starts the flaming or smoldering combustion. The knowledge of thermal decomposition 

can be used for modeling building fires (Bryden et al 2002). The order of the process of 

pyrolysis considerably influences the heat emission and in consequence the dynamics of fire 

development. This is why many scientists and research centers in Poland and all over the 

world are interested in this area of knowledge (Bilbao and Mastral 1996, Zawadzki et al. 

2007, Muller-Hagedorn 2002, Peters and Bruch 2001, Gao et al. 2005, Bilbao et al. 1992, 

Blaine and Hahn 1998). The main subject of research are European woods and knowledge 

from this area is vast. This cannot be related to exotic woods, which are more often used in 

construction. Thermal decomposition of wood is a very complicated process which proceeds 

in hetero phase configuration. For widening the knowledge about thermal decomposition 

thermogravimetric measurements can be used. From the analysis of obtained diagrams we can 

get temperatures of the beginning of thermal decomposition and kinetic parameters of this 

process. Mostly it is: the grade of reaction, activation energy and pre-exponential factor from 

the Arrhenius equation. The grade of reaction is determines the speed of mass decrease and 

the heat of combustion of gaseous products and it is very useful when describing the 

relativeness of mass decrease in function of temperature. Thanks to thermogravimetric research it 

is possible to, for example, determine temperatures in which decomposition reactions take place and 

connected with it sample mass changes. 


The apparatus used for thermal decomposition wood is shown in Fig. 1 (produced by 

TA Instruments, model Q 500). In the research samples from European oak (Quercus robur 

L.), opepe (Nauclea diderrichii De Wild), iroko (Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C.Berg) and 

merbau (Intsia bijunga Ktze) woods were used (the names of wood according to PN-EN 

13556:2005). Every kind of wood used for research was of natural origin. Prior to 

thermogravimetric experiments, samples were grounded to small chips (1 mm). Masses of the 

samples oscillated between 39,57 mg and 42,69 mg.� Such size of particles is preferable in 

chemical analysis of wood. It is also compatible with results obtained by Bilbao (Bilbao et al. 

1992), who stated that thermal decomposition of samples smaller than 20 mm eliminates the 

296

influence of thermal conduction in wood on the process of pyrolysis. The samples were 

exposed to thermal decomposition in polithermal conditions. The heating rates: 2,5 0 C/min, 

10 0 C/min and 20 0 C/min. The measurements were made under air atmosphere. 

Fig.1. Thermogravimeter for the thermal analysis 

RESULTS AND CONLUSSIONS 

Obtained results are summarized in table 1. The thermal process describes two main 

phases. The first most important phase started at 209,3 0 C (for oak, 2,5 0 C/min) to 248,7 0 C (for 

merbau, 20 0 C/min). 

Table 1. Selected results from thermal decomposition of wood samples 

Kind of 

wood 

� (�C/min) TPap (�C) T50% (�C) T I maks (�C) T II maks. ( 0 C) mpoz. (%) 

oak 

2,5 

10 

209,3 

224,2 

315,4 

323,4 

297,1 

317,9 

414,6 

418,2 

0,9 

0,8 

20 241,2 336,4 330,9 411,9 0,6 

opepe 

2,5 

10 

220,3 

234,2 

303,3 

329,4 

301,6 

324,4 

426,6 

412,0 

0,9 

1,1 

20 242,4 341,9 339,8 402,1 0,7 

iroko 

2,5 

10 

217,7 

235,8 

313,7 

316,7 

284,4 

304,7 

384,0 

376,6 

1,2 

0,9 

20 248,5 321,9 315,1 347,3 0,8 

merbau 

2,5 

10 

225,3 

245,0 

314,1 

342,7 

293,1 

323,9 

424,9 

397,8 

0,6 

0,9 

20 248,7 342,7 332,2 378,6 0,6 

� – heating rate (�C/min), 

TI maks – pyrolysis temperature of the beginning of an active phase I (�C), 

TII maks – pyrolysis temperature of the beginning of an active phase II (�C), 

T50% - temperature of 50% mass loss (�C), 

mpoz. – mass of pyrolytic residue (%). 

Merbau wood in its composition contains a high content of substances non-structural 

(several percent - normally in the domestic wood structural components of a few%, ie 3-5%). 

Some of them are out of light cells merbau (the structure of the wood) - preventing heat 

transfer by lifting and extraction of volatile substances as a result of thermal decomposition 

(Monder Kozakiewicz 2010). During the studies of thermal decomposition was observed 

implications on this process. Exemplary thermogram for merbau wood is shown in Fig 2. 

297

Fig 2. Thermogram (TG i DTG) for merbau wood sample, with heating speed 2,5 o C/min. 

On the basis of made experiments and obtained results we can present following 

conclusions: 

1. Analyzing given curves we can define, that thermal degradation of a sample begins fastest 

at heating rate of 2,5 o C/min. Together with the growth of heating rate grows temperature of 

the beginning of thermal decomposition – the highest at 20 o C/min. 

2. Obtained results show higher thermal resistance of exotic woods. The difference is clearly 

visible when the heating rate is low. However with higher heating rates this difference 

blurs. We can also observe that temperatures of partial mass decrease do not show the 

superiority of exotic woods over domestic wood. 

3. Density of the wood is one of the dominant parameters influencing thermal decomposition. 

We can observe that woods with higher densities thermally decompose later (in higher 

temperatures) than woods with lower densities. Moreover when we compare exotic woods 

and oak with similar densities (opepe and oak) we can observe better performance of 

exotic wood. 

4. Temperature values of partial mass decrease of examined wood samples were decreasing 

with the decrease in heating speed. This shows that examined woods decomposed earlier 

while heated with lower rate. The higher the rate of heating the later the decomposition can 

be observed. 

REFERENCES 

1. BILBAO R., MASTRAL J. F., 1996: Modeling of the pyrolysis of wet wood, Journal 

of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 36; 81-97 

2. BILBAO R., MURILLO M. B., MILLERA A., 1992: Angular and radial temperature 

profiles in the thermal decomposition of wood, Thermochimica Acta, 200; 401-411 

3. BLAINE R.L., HAHN B.K., 1998: Obtaining kinetic parameters by modulated 

thermogravietry, Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 54; 695-704. 

298

4. BRYDEN K.M., RAGLAND K.W., RUTLAND C.J., 2002: Modeling thermally 

thick pyrolysis of wood, Biomass and Bioenergy 22; 41-53 

5. GAO M., LING B., YANG S., ZHAO M.,2005: Flame retardancy of wood treated 

with guanidine compound characterized by thermal degradation behavior, Journal of 

Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 73; 151-156. 

6. MONDER S., KOZAKIEWICZ P., 2010: Palno�� egzotyków. Przegl�d Po�arniczy nr 

6/2010: 25-27. 

7. MULLER-HAGEDORN M., BOCKHORN H., KREBS L., MULLER U., 2002: A 

comparative kinetic study on the pyrolysis of three different wood species, Journal of 

Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 68; 231-249 

8. PETERS B., BRUCH C., 2001: A flexible and stable numerical method for 

simulating the thermal decomposition of wood particles, Chemosphere, 42; 481-490 



10. ZAWADZKI J., GRZE�KIEWICZ M., GAWRON J., ZIELENKIEWICZ T., 2007: 

Chemical behavior of pine wood (Pinus silvestris L.) modified by heat, Annals of 

Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology No 62. 

Streszczenie: Termograwimetryczne badanie wp�ywu rodzaju drewna na jego rozk�ad 

termiczny. Zakres pracy obj�� badania eksperymentalne z wykorzystaniem termo grawimetru 

do analizy termicznej. Materia� badawczy stanowi�y próbki krajowego drewna d�bu (Quercus 

robur L.) oraz nast�puj�cych gatunków drewna egzotycznego: badi (Nauclea diderrichii De 

Wild), iroko (Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C.Berg), merbau (Intsia bijunga Ktze) oraz 

krajowego d�bu. Pomiary zrealizowano w warunkach politermicznych z zastosowaniem 

szybko�ci ogrzewania: 2,5 0 C/min, 10 0 C/min i 20 0 C/min, w atmosferze powietrza. Wyniki 

bada� wskazuj�, �e temperatura pocz�tku rozk�adu termicznego drewna egzotycznego jest 

wy�sza. Zale�no�� ta jest szczególnie widoczna dla najni�szej szybko�ci ogrzewania 

(2,5 0 C/min). 







Poland 








Poland 

e-mail: pawe�_kozakiewicz@sggw.pl 

Marek Szwed 

Fire Unit Rybnik, 

4 �w. Józefa St., 

44-200 Rybnik, 

Poland 

e-mail: azgeth@gmail.com




Study on the influence of thickness of dust layer to ignition temperature in 

selected types of exotic woods 

WALDEMAR JASKÓ�OWSKI 1) , PAWE� KOZAKIEWICZ 2) , MAREK POP�AWSKI 3) 

1) 

The Main School of Fire Service (SGSP) 

2) 


3) 

Fire Brigade, Choszczno 

Abstract: Study on the influence of thickness of dust layer to ignition temperature in selected types of exotic 

woods. Studies on the influence of thickness of dust layer to ignition temperature were carried out in this work. 

Dust layers of thickness 5, 10 and 15 cm were tested. The study involved five types dust of woods, exotic and 

domestic, namely jatoba, lapacho, teak, eucalyptus and European oak. Wood particle size was below 500 μm. 

Experimental studies conducted according to PN-EN 50281-2-1:2002 standard. In relation under the standard 

tests are performed for three thickness, ie, for 5, 10 and 15 mm, while according to the standard test is performed 

for a layer of 5 mm. 

Keywords: flameless combustion, dust, ignition, ignition temperature 

INTRODUCTION 

Up to recently in Poland only wood used for industry was wood which originated in 

polish or European woods. In the last few years we can observe a rising interest in exotic 

wood (Wesselik, Ravenshorst 2008). Esthetic values make them competitive to native wood. 

Wood made from exotic species, present on polish market for several years, gradually earns 

the trust of rising group of supporters. On a large scale in trade appeared floors, veneers and 

slabs made from exotic wood. They don’t only distinguish themselves with original looks but 

also with different than native physical possibility. During manufacturing wood, side products 

(waste) like dust are made. They make considerable danger for life and health (work safety) 

and fire-explosion danger. The condition of the dust which is in the work environment 

determines the character of the danger. The analysis of literature ( El-Sayed and Abdel-Latif 

2000, Lebecki et al. 2003, Dyduch and Majcher 2006) shows that most of it concerns mainly 

the danger made the airborne dust (aerosol). Moreover it concerns only the wood dust made 

when manufacturing native wood. The settled dust is as dangerous as the airborne dust. Static 

state is mainly the danger for smoldering but this process started in dust can cause an 

explosion. One of the main parameters characterising the danger of smoldering is the ignition 

temperature. It is determined experimentally in defined conditions, which can vary from real 

conditions. This is about i.a. thickness of layer. In this publication results of research of five 

species of wood with different thicknesses of layers will be shown. 


The study involved five dust of woods, namely jatoba (Hymenaea courbaril Linn.), 

lapacho (Tabebuia sp.), teak (Tectona grandis L.), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus grandis W. Hill.) 

and European oak (Quercus robur L.). Wide characteristic of researched kind of woods is 

presented in following publication: Kozakiewicz and Szkar�at 2004, Kozakiewicz 2005, 

Kozakiewicz 2008. The particle size of dusts up to 500 μm. Each series of tests are performed 

for three layer of dust i.e 5, 10 and 15 mm. 

300

In this study, experiments were carried according to PN-EN 50281-2-1:2002 standard 

(fig.1).It is recognized that there was a dust layer ignition if: 

1. the observed glowing or combustion, or 

2. the measured value of the temperature reached 450 ° C or, 

3. measured the temperature exceeded 250 K temperature of the hotplate. 

thermocouple 

measuring 

hotplate 

Fig.1. The test set to measuring temperature of smoldering of dust. 


A fire or explosion of dust often cause serious property damage and sometimes human 

objects timber industry. The direct risk of fire or explosion depends on the condition in which 

the dust exists. Examined in the present study dust is primarily the cause of ignition. In this 

case, relates to the ignition of dust layer, and means the risk of flameless combustion. For 

several years, you may experience increased interest in exotic wood and its reprocessing. In 

the literature, there is no sufficient scientific studies relating to fire safety in particular, dust 

generated during the machining process of exotic wood. Firing temperature in the layer of 

dust is one of the parameters whose knowledge contributes significantly to raising the level of 

fire safety. The studies went beyond the norm because the guidelines in addition to a layer 

thickness of 5 mm, which provides standard tests were performed for a thickness of 10 and 15 

mm. This is justified because the thickness of the actual conditions can vary. 

The obtained results are shown in fig.2. and table 1. 

a) b) 

Fig.2. Emission of smoke from wood dust during the measurement: a) initial phase, b) final phase 

301 

hotplate 

thermocouple 

measuring dust 

layer 

ring forming 

dust layer 

heater

Table 1. The results of the temperature of ignition in dust layer, depending on the thickness 

The name of wood (according PN-EN 13556:2005) 

Thickness of 

dust layer 

[mm] 

jatoba 

(Hymenaea 

courbaril Linn.) 

ipe, lapacho 

(Tabebuia sp.) 

teak 

(Tectona 

grandis L.) 

saligna gum 

(Eucalyptus 

grandis W. 

Hill.) 

European oak 

(Quercus robur 

L.) 

The average temperature of ignition [ºC] 

5 310 320 340 320 320 

10 290 300 310 310 290 

15 270 270 280 270 280 

The study showed the impact of dust layer thickness to its minimum 

ignition temperature. The thicker layer of the lower ignition temperature. 

This is caused by the reduction of heat loss from the smoldering area. The energy is retained 

within the layer and heats the next dust grains. The lowest ignition temperature of 270 ºC are 

three types of wood dust: jatoba, lapacho, and eucalyptus for the layer of 15 mm. The typical 

ignition temperature of solid dry wood is usually given as about 275 °C . The wood dust layer 

of 15 mm have ignition temperature like solid wood. The highest minimum value ignition 

temperatures of dust has been shown for teak wood: 340, 310 and 280 °C. Probably it results 

from peculiar chemical composition of teak wood (Kozakiewicz and Szkar�at 2004). 

CONCLUSIONS 

On the basis of made experiments and obtained results we can present following 

conclusions: 

1. Wood species only slightly affects the ignition temperature derived from its wood dust. 

2. For the 15 mm thick layer of wood dust jatoba, lapacho, teak, eucalyptus, European oak 

fignition tempearture is similar and ranges from 270 - 280 o C. 

3. With the decreasing thickness of the wood dust layer ignition temperature increase. 

4. At 5 mm layer of dust that reaches the temperature from 310 to 340 o C. 

5. Thinner layer of dust between the studied species of wood slightly affected by the 

differences in the ignition temperature 

6. For the most studied species showed resistance to ignition of dust from teak wood. 

REFERENCES 

1. ABBASI T., ABBASI S.A., 2007: Dust explosions-cases, causes, consequences, and 

control, Journal of Hazardous Materials 140; 7-44 

2. DYDUCH Z., MAJCHER B., 2006: Ignition of a dust layer by a constant a heat fluxheat 

transport in the layer, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 19; 

233-237 

3. EL-SAYED S.A., ABDEL-LATIF A.M., 2000: Smoldering combustion of dust layer 

on hot surface, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 13; 509-517 

4. KOZAKIEWICZ P., SZKAR�AT D., 2004: Tik (Tectona grandis Linn.f.) – drewno 

egzotyczne z po�udniowo-wschodniej Azji, Przemys� Drzewny nr 2: 27-30. 

5. KOZAKIEWICZ P., 2005: Jatoba (Hymenaea courbaril Linn.) – drewno egzotyczne z 

Ameryki Po�udniowej. Przemys� Drzewny nr 9-10: 25-28. 

6. KOZAKIEWICZ P., 2008: Ipe (Tabebuia sp.) – drewno egzotyczne z Ameryki 

Po�udniowej i �rodkowej, Przemys� Drzewny nr 11: 41-44. 

302

7. LEBECKI K., DYDUCH Z., FIBICH A., �LI� J., 2003: Ignition of a dust layer by a 

constant a heat flux, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 16; 243- 

248. 



9. PN-EN 50281-2-1:2002 Electrical apparatus for use in the presence of combustible 

dust - Part 2-1: Test methods - Methods for determining minimum ignition 

temperatures of dust (Urz�dzenia elektryczne do stosowania w obecno�ci py�ów 

palnych -- Cz�� 2-1: Metody badania -- Metody oznaczania minimalnej temperatury 

zap�onu py�u). 

10. WESSELINK A., RAVENSHORST G.J.P., 2008: Application and quality 

requirements for (tropical) hardwoods. Conference COST E53, 29-30 October, Delft, 

the Netherlands; 31-39. 

Streszczenie: Badanie wp�ywu grubo�ci warstwy py�u wybranych gatunków drewna 

egzotycznego na ich temperatur� zap�onu. W artykule przedstawiono wyniki bada� 

temperatury tlenia dla 5 py�ów otrzymanych z ró�nych gatunków drewna egzotycznego: 

jatoba (kurbial), lapacho (ipe), teak (tik), eukaliptus (eukaliptus saligna) oraz krajowego 

drewna d�bu. Do bada� eksperymentalnych wykorzystano metodyk� pomiarow� opisan� w 

normie PN-EN 50281:2002. W stosunku do za�o�e� normowych badania przeprowadzono dla 

trzech grubo�ci warstwy py�u, tj. dla 5, 10 i 15 mm, podczas gdy zgodnie z norm� badanie 

przeprowadza si� tylko dla warstwy 5 mm. Badania dowiod�y, �e nie wyst�puj� znacz�ce 

ró�nice w temperaturze zap�onu pomi�dzy py�ami badanymi gatunków drewna. Ponadto nie 

zale�nie od rodzaju drewna stwierdzono istotne obni�anie si� temperatury zap�onu wraz ze 

wzrostem grubo�ci warstwy py�u. 







Poland 








Poland 

e-mail: pawel_kozakiewicz@sggw.pl 

Marek Pop�awski, 

Fire Brigade, 

6 Chrobrego St., 

73-200 Choszczno, 

Poland 

e-mail: fire-man@o2.pl




Die Eigenschaften der OSB–Platten modifiziert mit thermoplastischen 

Kunststoffen in der Abhängigkeit von der Presstemperatur 

JOANNA JASTRZ�B 

Promotion, Fakultät für Holztechnologie, Naturwissenschaftliche Universität in Posen 

Abstract: Die Eigenschaften der OSB–Platten modifiziert mit thermoplastischen Kunststoffen in der 

Abhängigkeit von der Presstemperatur. Die folgende Arbeit stellt eine Möglichkeit der Anwendung der 

thermoplastischen Kunststoffe in der Produktion der OSB–Platten dar. Die Festigkeitsparameter und hydrophobe 

Eigenschaften der Platten hängen von der Art des verwendeten Kunststoffes sowie von der Presstemperatur der 

Platten ab. Die Steigerung der Presstemperatur verursacht die Verminderung der hydrophoben Eigenschaften 

sowie die Steigerung der Festigkeitsparameter der modifizierten Platten für die Mehrheit verwendeten 

thermoplastischen Kunststoffe. 

Schlüsselwörter: OSB, thermoplastische Kunststoffe, WPC, 

EINLEITUNG 

Zusammenziehende Rohstoffbasis der Holzindustrie verursacht eine Führung von immer 

zahlreichenden Forschungen über den neuen Lösungen in der Produktion der Holzwerkstoffe. 

In der letzten Zeit widmet man auf diesem Gebiet die besondere Beachtung der Benutzung für 

dieses Ziel der Kunststoffe, besonders thermoplastische Kunststoffe. Die aus der Verbindung 

der thermoplastischen Kunststoffe und Holzmaterials entstandene Werkstoffe sogenannte 

Wood – Plastik – Composites (WPC) bilden eine Alternative für zur Zeit hergestellte 

Holzwerkstoffe. Während in Amerika und Japan schon seit langem ihre Produktion breit 

verbreitet ist, erfreut sich erst in der letzten Zeit das WPC auf dem europäischen Markt ein 

großes Interesse (Clemons C. 2002). Am häufigsten verwendete Holzrohstoff in WPC ist der 

Holzstaub, Holzfasern oder Holzspäne, deren Teilnahme sich maximal auf 50% beläuft. 

Diese Verbundwerkstoffe charakterisieren sich vor allem mit hoher Wasserbeständigkeit, 

Wetterbständigkeit und Pilzbeständigkeit, also sind vollkommener Stoff mit der Bestimmung 

für Elemente des Ausbaus von Gebäuden, Gartenbau, Fensterprofile und verschiedene 

Konstruktionen (z. B. Laube, Terrassenbrette) (Marutzky R. 2004). Man soll auch 

hervorheben, dass man in der WPC–Produktion thermoplastische Kunststoffe aus Recycling 

nutzt. Jedes Jahr in der ganzen Welt beobachtet man eine Steigerung der Zahl von Abfälle der 

aus den verschiedenen Wirtschaft- und Industriezweigen stammenden Kunststoffe. Eine 

Produktion der Kunststoffe hat in der Welt von 1,5 Million Tonnen in 1950 Jahr bis 260 

Millionen Tonnen in 2007 Jahr zugenommen. Ein Viertel dieser Zahl entfällt auf Europa 

(Tworzywa sztuczne – Raport 2008). In der Mehrheit der Fälle geraten sie in die Müllhaufen. 

Wegen ihrer langen Degradierungszeit ist ihre Erhaltung auf den Lagerplätzen ungünstig, und 

ein Recycling der Kunststoffabfälle kann wirtschaftliche und umweltfreundliche Vorteile 

bringen. 

In der Arbeit untersuchte man die Möglichkeit der Modifikation OSB Platten durch 

das Ersetzen der Strähnenholzspänanteiles in der Deckschicht der OSB–Platten mit 

thermoplastischen Kunststoffen. Der Versuch wurde in der Zusammenarbeit mit dem 

Holzbetrieb durchgeführt, der OSB–Platten hergestellt. 

Die OSB–Platte ist der Holzwerkstoff, der besondere Anwendung im Bauwesen als 

das Material in den tragbaren Konstruktionen, Beschlagkonstruktionen sowie als Schalung 

hat. Den OSB–Platten werden große Anforderungen hinsichtlich Festigkeit und 

Wasserbeständigkeit gestellt. Die Forschungen über die Anwendungen der Holzspäne in der 

WPC–Produktion wiesen positive Effekte auf (Chen C. H. und in. 2006), und die Verwendung 

304

der thermoplastischen Kunststoffe in der Produktion der OSB–Platten könnte eine 

Wasserbeständigkeit entstandenen Verbundwerkstoffe vergrößern. 

MATERIAL UND METHODE 

In der Bearbeitung wurden die Untersuchungsergebnisse der Eigenschaften von OSB–Platten 

mit der Anwendung der thermoplastischen Kunststoffen dargestellt. Die OSB–Platte mit der 

Dicke von 12 mm wurde in Laborpresse in den drei Temperaturgebieten: 200, 220 und 240ºC 

hergestellt. Die Deckschichtstrands und Mittelschichtstrands wurden mit dem PMDI–Harz 

verklebt. 

In der Deckschicht wurden die 5% Holzspäne durch die thermoplastische Kunststoffe ersetzt. 

Es wurden folgende thermoplastische Kunststoffe verwendet: 

��Copolymer poly(ethylenoterephthalate-co-ethylenoisophthalate) (PET/PEI) in der Form 

des faserigen Garnes über Schmelztemperatur 113ºC, 

��Die aus zwei Komponenten bestehende Faser: Kern – Polyethylenterephthalat, Mantel – 

Polyethylen (PES/PE) auch in der Form des faseringen Garnes, 2 cm – Länge, 

Schmelztemperatur 127ºC, 

��Polypropylen in der Granulatform (PP Granulat) über Schmelztemperatur150 ºC, 

��Polypropylen aus Recycling (PP Recycling) in der Form der geschnittener, gebrauchter 

Verpackungen und Folie. 

In den hergestellten Platten bezeichnete man folgende Parameter: die Biegefestigkeit und 

Elastizitätsmodul nach PN-EN 310, Zugfestigkeit senkrecht zur Plattenebene nach PN-EN 

319, Zugfestigkeit senkrecht zur Plattenebene nach Kochtest nach PN - EN 300 Anlage A, 

und Quellung nach 24 h nach PN – EN 317. 

Die Untersuchungsergebnisse der Testplatten wurden mit Ergebnissen der Referenzplatte 

vergliechen. 

ERGEBNISSE 

Auf den Bildern 1-5 wurden die Untersuchungen der Eigenschaften von OSB–Platten 

modifiziert mit thermoplastischen Kunststoffen in der Deckschicht in der Abhängigkeit von 

der Presstemperatur dargestellt. 

Bild 1. Querzugfestigkeit der OSB–Platte modifiziert mit thermoplastischen Kunststoffen 

305

Bild 2. Querzugfestigkeit der OSB–Platte modifiziert mit thermoplastischen Kunststoffen nach Kochtest 

Bild 3. Biegefestigkeit der OSB–Platte modifiziert mit thermoplastischen Kunststoffen 

Bild 4. Elastizitätsmodul der OSB–Platte modifiziert mit thermoplastischen Kunststoffen 

306

Bild 5. Quellung der OSB–Platte modifiziert mit thermoplastischen Kunststoffen 

Aufgrund der vorgestellten auf dem Bild 1 Ergebnissen kann man feststellen, dass die 

Anwendung von Polypropylengranulat sowie Polypropylen aus Recycling in den OSB– 

Platten, die in Presstemperatur 220ºC hergestellt wurden, die Verminderung der 

Zugfestigkeit verursachte. Das kann man einerseits erklären, dass diese Kunststoffe höhere als 

die sonstige Schmelztemperatur haben, andererseits, dass die Form in welcher sie angewandt 

werden, unmöglich die gleichmäßige Verteilung zwischen Strands gemacht haben. Dieser 

Faktoren nivellieren im erheblichen Grad die Erhöhung der Presstemperatur bis 240ºC. In 

dieser Presstemperatur wiesen aller Platten modifiziert mit thermoplastischen Kunststoffen 

eine größere Zugfestigkeit in Vergleich zu Referenzplatte auf. Die besten Parameter sowohl in 

Temperatur 220ºC als auch 240ºC charakterisieren die Platten, in denen PES/PE verwandt 

wurden. Die Zugfestigkeitswerte nach Kochtest (Bild 2) für alle in den Platten verwendeten 

thermoplastischen Kunststoffe in Temperatur 220ºC wurde unter dem Wert der Referenzplatte 

erreicht. In der Temperatur 240ºC wurde die erhebliche Erhöhung dieses Parameters im 

Vergleich zur unmodifizierten Platte erreicht. Die Anwendung von thermoplastischen 

Kunststoffe in den OSB–Platten erlaubte auch die Erhöhung der Parameter, ohne Rücksicht 

auf die Art der Kunststoffe, ohne Rücksicht auf Biegefestigkeit (Bild 3), unter der Bedingung, 

dass die Presstemperatur auf Niveau 240ºC erhalten wird. In der Temperatur 220ºC wiesen die 

Platten mit der Anwendung von PES/PE und PP Recycling die Steigerung der Biegefestigkeit 

auf. Das größte Elastizitätsmodul wies die OSB–Platte mit der Anwendung von PES/PE in 

Temperatur 240ºC auf. Die Quellung der modifizierten Platten (Bild 5) ist niedriger als der 

Quellung der Referenzplatte, außer der Platte, die PP aus Recycling enthält. Die OSB–Platten 

modifiziert mit PP Recycling (die Mischung der geschnittenen, gebrauchten Verpackungen 

und Folien) weisen die niedrigste Abhängigkeit der Parameter von der Presstemperatur auf. 

Das ergibt sich aus der großen Ungleichartigkeit dieser Kunststoffe. 

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 

Die vorgestellten Untersuchungsergebnisse weisen auf, dass auf die Festigkeitsparametern der 

OSB–Platte unmodifiziert mit thermoplastischen Kunststoffen bedeutsam keine 

Presstemperatur beeinflusst. Die Eigenschaften der modifizierten mit thermoplastischen 

Kunststoffen Platten weisen die Wertsteigerung der Festigkeitsparameter zusammen mit der 

Steigerung der Presstemperatur der Platten auf. Die Quellungswerte der modifizierten Platten 

unterliegen der Verminderung zusammen mit der Steigerung der Presstemperatur. 

307

LITERATURA 

1. Chen H.C., Chen T.Y., Hsu C.H.: Effects of Wood Particle Size and Mixing Ratios of 

HDPE on the Properties of the Composites; Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff (2006) 64: 

172–177 

2. Clemons C.: Wood-Plastic Composites in the United States; Forest Products Journal 

(2002), vol.52 nr 6 

3. Marutzky R.: Wood – Plastic – Composites; Wilhelm Klauditz Forum, Ausgabe 5 

(2004) 

4. Fakty o tworzywach sztucznych 2007;Analiza produkcji, zapotrzebowania i 

odzyskiwania tworzyw sztucznych w roku 2007 w Europie; Tworzywa sztuczne 

(2008) 

Streszczenie: W�a�ciwo�ci p�yt OSB modyfikowanych tworzywami termoplastycznymi w 

zale�no�ci od temperatury prasowania. Niniejsza praca przedstawia mo�liwo�� zastosowania 

tworzyw termoplastycznych w produkcji p�yt OSB. Warto�ci wytrzyma�o�ciowe i w�asno�ci 

hydrofobowe p�yt zale�� od rodzaju zastosowanego tworzywa sztucznego oraz od 

temperatury prasowania p�yt. Wzrost temperatury prasowania powoduje obni�enie 

w�a�ciwo�ci hydrofobowych oraz wzrost parametrów wytrzyma�o�ciowych p�yt 

modyfikowanych dla wi�kszo�ci zastosowanych termoplastów. 


Joanna Jastrz�b 

ul. Katowicka 6/2 

68 – 200 �ary


Forestry and Wood Technology No 71, 2010; 309-313 


Der Einfluss des Aktivators auf die Eigenschaften der OSB–Platten 

modifiziert mit thermoplastischen Kunststoffen 

JOANNA JASTRZ�B 

Studium Doktoranckie Wydzia�u Technologii Drewna, Uniwersytet Przyrodniczy Pozna� 

Abstrakt: Der Einfluss des Aktivators auf die Eigenschaften der OSB–Platten modifiziert mit thermoplastischen 

Kunststoffen. Gegenwärtige Arbeit stellt eine Möglichkeit der Anwendung der thermoplastischen Kunststoffe in 

der Produktion der OSB–Platten dar. Die Untersuchungen der modifizierten thermoplastischen Kunststoffe in der 

Deckschicht OSB–Platten wiesen auf, dass die Anwendung des Aktivators in dem Produktionsprozess die 

Steigerung der Festigkeitsparameter sowie die Verminderung der Quellungsparameter der Platten im Vergleich 

zu den Parametern der Referenzplatte sowie Platten ohne Aktivator verursacht. 

Schlüsselwörter: OSB, thermoplastische Kunststoffe, WPC, Haftvermittler 

EINLEITUNG 

In der Zeit der sich entwickelnden Kunststoffindustrie finden wir Erzeugnisse aus der 

Plastik in jedem Bereich unseren Lebens. Die weltliche Produktion der Kunststoffe 

überschreitet 260 Millionen Tonnen jährlich, woraus 25% auf Europa entfällt. Die Analyse 

des Verbrauchs der Kunststoffe weist in Europa ca. 100 Kg jährlich pro Person auf. Man 

schätzt, dass im Jahr 2015 Kunststoffverbrauch bis 140 Kg pro Person steigen wird (Torzywa 

sztuczne – Raport 2008). Die Werkstoffherstellung auf der Basis Holz und thermoplastischen 

Kunststoffe sogenannte WPC ist einerseits eine Alternative für die Erzeugnisse aus dem 

Holz anderseits eine Chance nochmaligen Gebrauch der Abfälle, deren Recycling 

Notwendigkeit wurde. 

Während in Amerika und Japan seit langem die WPC -Produktion verbreitet ist, fängt erst 

Europa an, die Vorteile dieser Werkstoffe richtig einzuschätzen. Wood – Plastik – Composites 

(WPC) sind aus den Holzpartikel, öftesten Holzfasern, und thermoplastischen Kunststoffe wie 

Polypropylen, Polyethylen und Polyvinylchloride hergestellt. Sie charakterisieren sich mit 

hoher Wasserbeständigkeit und weisen auch gute Festigkeitsparameter auf (Clemons C. 2002, 

Marutzky R. 2004). Das Erreichen besserer Verbindung zwischen hydrophilen Holzmaterials 

und hydrophoben Kunststoffe und dadurch besseren Parametern dieser Verbundplatte erfolgt 

durch die Einführung in das System des Aktivators (Haftvermittler). Am häufigsten 

angewandte Aktivator sind Verbunde auf der Basis Maleinsäureanhydrid verbunden mit 

entsprechenden thermoplastischen Kunststoff (Bledzki A., Faruk 2003 O., Milhaud F. und an. 

2005). Die Forscher bewiesen, dass die Anwendung des Haftvermittler auf der Basis 

Maleinsäureanhydrid einerseits die Entstehung der chemischer Bindung mit der 

hydroksylierten Gruppen des Holzes und mechanische Verbindung der Kunststoffskette 

durch das Schmelzen verursacht. Der Mechanismus der Reaktion stellt Bild 1. dar. Der 

Beispiel bezieht sich auf die Verbindung des Holzes mit Polypropylen. Ein ähnliches 

Mechanismus der Reaktion entsteht für anderen thermoplastischen Kunststoffe. 

Die durch Chen C. H.(2006) durchgeführten Untersuchungen über den Einfluss der Größe 

der Holzpartikel anwandte in WPC–Produktion wiesen auf, dass man im Vergleich mit der 

Faser und Holzstaub die besseren Eigenschaften des Elements in dem Falle der Anwendung 

der Holzspäne aus der Spanplatte erreicht. 

OSB–Platte ist Holzwerkstoff, dem die großen Anforderungen hinsichtlich der Festigkeiten 

und der Wasserbeständigkeit gestellt werden Die Einführung der thermoplastischen 

309

Kunststoffe in den Produktionsprozess der OSB–Platte kann die Steigerung der hydrophoben 

Eigenschaften des Werkstoffe verursachen. In der Arbeit wird die Probe der mit 

thermoplastischen Kunststoffe modifizierten OSB–Plattenherstellung mit der Anwendung des 

Aktivators auf der Basis Maleinsäureanhydrid und Polyethylen vorgenommen. 

Bild 1. Mechanismus der Verbindung zwischen Holz und thermoplastischen Kunststoffe durch Haftvermittler 

MATERIAL UND METHODE 

In der Bearbeitung wurden die Untersuchungsergebnisse der Eigenschaften von OSB–Platten 

mit der Anwendung den folgenden thermoplastischen Kunststoffe dargestellt: 

� Copolymer poly(ethylenoterephthalate-co-ethylenoisophthalate) (PET / PEI) in der 

Form von dem faserigen Garn über Schmelztemperatur 113ºC, 

� aus zwei Komponenten bestehender Kunststoff: Kern – Polyethylenterephthalat mit 

Schmelztemperatur 256ºC, Mantel – Polyethylen, Schmelztemperatur 127ºC (PES / 

PE), in der Form von dem kurzen, faserigen Garn, 

Es wurde auch der Haftvermittler Fussabond ® der DuPont Firma auf der Basis 

Maleinsäureanhydrid und Polyethylen (MAPE) angewandt, der in dem Handel in der Form 

von Granulat auftritt. 

In der Probe wurden die Parameter der OSB–Platten mit der Anwendung PET/PEI und 

PES/PE ohne und mit Haftvermittlerzugabe vergliechen. 

Die OSB–Platten mit der Dicke von 12 mm wurden in der Laborpresse hergestellt. Die 

Deckschichtspäne und Mittelschichtspäne wurden mit dem PMDI–Harz verklebt. In der 

Deckschicht der OSB–Platte wurde 5% Holzspäne mit dem thermoplastischen Kunststoff 

substituiert. Die Haftvermittlerzugabe beträgt 1% im Verhältnis zum Plattegewicht. Die 

OSB–Platten wurden in Temperatur 220ºC gepresst. 

In den hergestellten Platten bestimmte man folgende Parameter: die Biegefestigkeit und 

Elastizitätsmodul nach PN-EN 310, Zugfestigkeit senkrecht zur Plattenebene nach PN-EN 

319, Zugfestigkeit senkrecht zur Plattenebene nach Kochtest nach PN - EN 300 Anlage A, 

und Quellung nach 24 h nach PN – EN 317. 

Die Untersuchungsergebnisse der Testplatten wurden mit den Ergebnissen der Referenzplatte 

vergliechen. 

ERGEBNISSE 

Auf den Zeichnungen (a - e) wurden die Untersuchungen der Eigenschaften der OSB– 

Platten modifiziert in der Deckschicht mit den thermoplastischen Kunststoffen PES/PE und 

PET/PEI mit der Anwendung des Aktivators MAPE dargestellt. 

310

a) b) 

c) d) 

311

e) 

Bild 2. Eigenschaften der OSB–Platten modifiziert in der Deckschicht mit den thermoplastischen Kunststoffen 

PES/PE und PET/PEI ohne und mit Haftvermittler MAPE: a) Querzugfestigkeit, b) Querzugfestigkeit nach 

Kochtest, c) Biegefestigkeit, d) Elastizitätsmodul, e) Quellung 

Aufgrund dargestellten Ergebnisse kann man feststellen, dass die Anwendung 

thermoplastischen Kunststoffen in dem Produktionsprozess der OSB–Platten kein 

Verschlechtern der Festigkeitsparameter der OSB–Platten verursacht und die Besserung der 

hydrophoben Eigenschaften der Platten beeinflusst. Die Untersuchungsergebnisse der OSB– 

Platten, in denen Aktivator MAPE angewandt wurde, weisen größere Festigkeitsparameter 

auf als die Platten, in denen kein Aktivator angewandt wurde. 


Die Anwendung des Aktivators auf der Basis Maleinsäureanhydrid in der OSB– 

Plattenproduktion modifiziert mit den thermoplastischen Kunststoffen verursachte eine 

Steigerung der Festigkeitsparameter der untersuchten Platten und vergrößerte 

Wasserbeständigkeit der Platten. Obige Untersuchungsergebnisse bestätigen in WPC–Gebiet 

erreichten Ergebnisse. Das öffnet die Verwendungsmöglichkeit der Kunststoffe aus Recycling 

bei der gleichzeitigen Verminderung der Anwendung des Holzes und des Harzes in der 

Produktion der OSB–Platten. 

LITERATURA 

1. Bledzki A. Faruk O.: Wood fibre reinforced polypropylene composites: Effect of fibre 

geometry and coupling agent on physico-mechanical properties; Applied Composite 

Materials 10 (2003): 365–379 

2. Chen H.C., Chen T.Y., Hsu C.H.: Effects of Wood Particle Size and Mixing Ratios of 

HDPE on the Properties of the Composites; Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff (2006) 64: 

172–177 

3. Clemons C.: Wood-Plastic Composites in the United States; Forest Products Journal 

(2002), vol.52 nr 6 

4. Michaud F., Riedl B., Castéra P.: Improving Wood/Polypropylene fiberboards 

properties with an original MAPP coating process; Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 

312

(2005) 63: 380–387 

5. Marutzky R.: Wood – Plastic – Composites; Wilhelm Klauditz Forum, Ausgabe 5 

(2004) 

6. Fakty o tworzywach sztucznych 2007;Analiza produkcji, zapotrzebowania i 

odzyskiwania tworzyw sztucznych w roku 2007 w Europie; Tworzywa sztuczne – 

Raport (2008) 

Streszczenie: Wp�yw dodatku aktywatora na w�a�ciwo�ci p�yt OSB modyfikowanych 

tworzywami termoplastycznymi. Niniejsza praca przedstawia mo�liwo�� zastosowania 

tworzyw termoplastycznych w produkcji p�yt OSB. Badania p�yt OSB modyfikowanych 

tworzywem termoplastycznym w warstwie zewn�trznej wykaza�y, �e zastosowanie 

aktywatora w procesie produkcji powoduje wzrost parametrów wytrzyma�o�ciowych oraz 

obni�enie parametru p�cznienia p�yt w porównaniu z parametrami p�yty referencyjnej oraz 

p�yt bez zastosowanego aktywatora. 


Joanna Jastrz�b 

ul. Katowicka 6/2 

68 – 200 �ary




Strength properties and biodegradation of paper products manufactured 

from broad-leaved bleached kraft pulp supplemented with starch and resin 

glue additives. 

ANNA JASZCZUR, IZABELA MODZELEWSKA, AGNIESZKA KOKOSZKA, PAWE� 

�O�NOWSKI. 

Poznan University of Life Sciences, Institute of Chemical Wood Technology, 

ul. Wojska Polskiego 28/32, 60-637 Pozna�, Poland. 

Abstract: The article presents results of investigations concerning sensitivity of samples prepared from 

dicotyledonous bleached kraft pulp containing different percentage proportions of starch and resin glue subjected 

to the action of mould fungi. The examined paper articles exhibited a varied sensitivity to the infestation with 

microfungi and underwent very strong biodegradation. Addition of starch and resin glue altered the resistance of 

samples to infestations with test mycelia in comparison with samples manufactured without supplementation 

with mass additives. Self-rupture of the examined paper products decreased with the time of exposure to the 

biodegradation process. 

keywords: paper, microorganisms, biodegradation, mass additives, auxiliary chemical agents. 

INTRODUCTION 

Investigations on the biodegradation of products manufactured from broad-leaved 

cellulose pulp show how resistant they are to attacks by mould fungi. Production of paper 

using various mass additives makes it possible to assess their impact on paper strength 

properties and resistance to biotic factors. The aim of the performed experiments was to study 

the effect of starch and resin glue additives on the rate of sample infestation with selected 

microfungi by determining self-disruption of the examined paper articles manufactured from 

broad-leaved kraft pulp. 


Paper samples were manufactured using the following materials: dicotyledonous 

bleached kraft pulp, resin glue and starch. Materials applied for mycological experiments 

included: agar medium with the addition of Czapek-Dox salt and Chaeotomium globosum, 

Aspergillus niger, Penicillium funiculosum, Trichoderma viride test fungi. The total of 16 

kinds of paper products was manufactured from paper stock supplemented with various 

percentage proportions of individual mass additives. Experimental paper sheets from the 

dicotyledonous bleached kraft pulp were manufactured in accordance with the Polish PN- 

76/P-50060 standard. Samples measuring 15x83 mm were cut from each of 16 series of 

papers. Agar medium with Czapek-Dox salt was poured onto earlier prepared Petri dishes and 

sterilised in an autoclave. Next, paper samples were placed on each dish and inoculated with 

water suspension of test fungus spores. Samples infested in this way were placed in darkened, 

closed thermostat with optimal conditions for the development of microfungi inside. 

Observations of the degree of infestation of samples by microorganisms were carried out for 

14 days. The following four-grade scale was used to perform appropriate assessment of the 

sensitivity of paper to the infestation with the examined microfungi: 

Table 1. Scale of assessment of paper sensitivity to infestation with the examined microfungi. 

INDEX DEGREE OF SAMPLE COLONISATION 

3 No sign of mycelium growth on sample 

2 Less than 1/3 of the sample surface colonised by the test fungus mycelium 

1 Surface of sample between 1/3 colonised but 2/3 test fungus mycelium 

0 Surface of sample by test fungus mycelium entirely colonized 

314

Before placing the samples in the grips of the testing machine, paper sheets were 

removed from Petri dishes, cleaned and dried. Determination of the self-rupture of paper 

samples was conducted as described in Polish PN-74/P-50133 standard. This investigation 

also made it possible to assess the extent of degradation of the examined paper samples and 

estimate values of their self-breakage. Determination of pH was performed in accordance of 

the PN-62/P-50109 standard. 

RESEARCH RESULTS 

It was found that the development of test mycelia was proportional to the passage of 

time. In the case of Ch. globosum, its mycelium developed uniformly beginning with whiteyellow 

mould spots and single spores to black-dark brown spore zones. In the case of the 

fungal mixture, A. niger and T. viride turned out to be most active. The P. funiculosum fungus 

occurred only in individual Petri dishes in a form of reddish-orange spots on the bottom sides 

of samples and failed to become active directly on sample surfaces. The experimental samples 

became infected by mixtures of test fungi in different ways changing in consecutive days of 

observation. On the 14 th day of the trial, majority of samples was completely damaged and 

could not be removed from the Petri dish without their destruction. The character of sample 

infestation by fungi as well as the extent of their discolouration depended on the species of the 

given fungal genus. Paper articles manufactured from dicotyledonous bleached kraft pulp 

exhibited varied sensitivity to the infestation by mould fungi which depended on the applied 

percentage proportion of mass additives. All the examined paper samples were more sensitive 

to the attack by the fungus from the Ch. globosum genus than to the employed mixture of 

fungi from A. niger, P. funiculosum and T. viride genera. For all the applied fungi, a common 

conclusion can be drawn regarding all papers manufactured from the broad-leaved bleached 

kraft pulp with no supplementation using mass additives because they showed very high 

resistance to the attack by mould fungi. 

The evaluation of the extent of degradation was carried out using self-rupture tests of 

the examined paper products. The determined values decreased with the amount of time the 

samples were exposed to the biodegradation process. This can be explained by the fact that 

paper strength decreased uniformly as a result of the loss of cellulose in consecutive days of 

observations. Increased action intensity of the Ch. globosum fungus in comparison with the 

action of the applied fungal mixture was noticeable during strength tests, especially when test 

results from the 14 th day of observations were compared. There were individual cases when 

strongly infested samples exhibited strong resistance to breakage. This can be attributed to the 

fact that during its initial development, mycelium did cover the entire sample surface but it 

failed to penetrate it sufficiently deeply to damage its internal structure. Following the 

analysis of the performed investigations, it can be concluded that paper samples manufactured 

from the experimental dicotyledonous bleached kraft pulp without mass additives showed 

very strong resistance to the attack by all the applied mould fungi as evidenced by the 

obtained results regarding self-rupture in comparison with paper samples containing various 

percentage proportions of mass additives. 

315

Table. 2. 

Self-rupture of experimental paper samples subjected to the action of the 

Ch. globosum test fungus and fungal mixture (A. niger, P. funiculosum, 

T. viride) expressed in [km] on day 14 of observations. 

pH 

Type of 

pulp 

Resistance to infestation of paper samples by the Ch. globosum test 

fungus and fungal mixture (A. niger, P. funiculosum, T. viride ). 

3 3 2,4 2,4 1,9 1,7 2 1,9 1,6 1,1 L1 7,03 14,60 15,57 4,28 4,89 4,06 4,19 3,03 3,98 1,74 2,33 

3 3 1,7 2,2 1,6 1,7 0,7 1 0,2 0,6 L2 6,54 8,52 8,79 5,33 5,83 4,16 4,49 3,81 1,28 0,09 1,10 

3 3 1,5 2 0,9 2,5 0,5 1,1 0 0,9 L3 6,15 8,19 8,59 5,07 5,30 4,57 5,25 2,58 2,26 0,00 2,00 

3 3 0,3 1,3 1,3 1,5 0,9 1 0,1 0,6 L4 6,39 7,86 8,39 3,44 4,62 3,28 3,46 1,36 1,59 0,70 1,23 

3 3 1,9 2,2 1,7 1,9 2,3 1,2 0,2 0,6 L5 5,61 8,46 9,19 4,39 4,53 3,30 4,00 3,07 2,62 0,86 0,91 

3 3 2 1,8 1,6 1,7 2,7 1,3 0,3 0,6 L6 6,66 8,59 9,26 3,89 3,46 2,68 3,62 2,57 2,41 0,85 1,54 

3 3 1,6 2,4 1,7 1,2 0,8 0,6 0,5 0,8 L7 6,46 8,92 9,92 3,48 3,66 1,60 2,82 0,98 2,17 0,28 1,51 

3 3 1,4 1,8 1,9 1,4 0,5 1,5 0,3 0,4 L8 6,21 7,99 8,79 4,24 3,00 4,06 2,84 2,15 1,60 0,79 1,20 

3 3 1,5 1,6 1,7 1,8 1,5 1,4 1 0,6 L9 6,56 7,93 8,32 4,24 3,51 3,40 3,17 2,40 2,36 1,31 1,13 

3 3 1,6 1,9 1,8 1,9 0,9 0,5 1,2 0,9 L10 6,76 7,46 7,99 4,28 3,40 2,19 2,36 2,19 2,18 0,65 0,76 

3 3 1,4 1,9 2 1,7 1,4 1,8 0,9 0,8 L11 6,83 7,26 7,79 4,22 3,98 2,97 3,77 2,65 3,30 0,66 2,61 

3 3 1,4 1,7 1,9 1,6 1,5 1 0,9 0,5 L12 6,81 14,53 12,94 3,44 3,27 3,06 3,17 2,17 1,67 0,47 1,49 

316 

3 3 1,6 1,5 1,9 1,1 2,1 0,8 0,4 0,9 L13 6,54 11,07 11,06 3,10 2,81 2,45 2,38 2,38 2,08 0,12 1,25 

3 3 1,8 1,9 1,1 1,5 1,7 1,8 0,2 1,1 L14 6,93 13,33 13,54 3,85 3,94 2,39 2,81 2.1 2,65 0,00 1,49 

3 3 1,8 1,3 1,8 0,9 0,5 0,8 0,3 0,9 L15 7,04 11,73 14,78 3,06 3,88 2,43 3,06 1,44 2,80 0,00 1,40 

3 3 1,4 2 1 0,6 1,3 1,1 0,6 0,8 L16 6,95 12,62 13,33 3,50 3,62 2,67 3,04 1,07 1,72 0,22 1,46 

Ch M Ch M Ch M Ch M Ch M Type of Ch M Ch M Ch M Ch M Ch M 

pH 

Day 2 Day 4 Day 7 Day 10 Day 14 pulp 

Day 2 Day 4 Day 7 Day 10 Day 14 

Ch – Ch. globosum, 

M – fungal mixture: A. niger, P. funiculosum, T. viride. 

Starch Starch Starch Starch Starch Starch Starch Starch Starch 

Contents 

Resin Resin Resin 2%+ 2%+ 2%+ 3%+ 3%+ 3%+ 5%+ 5%+ 5%+ 

of addition Starch Starch Starch 

- 

glue glue glue Resin Resin Resin Resin Resin Resin Resin Resin Resin 

in waste 

2% 3% 5% 

2% 3% 5% glue glue glue glue glue glue glue glue glue 

paper 

2% 3% 5% 2% 3% 5% 2% 3% 5% 

Acronym L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10 L11 L12 L13 L14 L15 L16 

Types of 

the 

exammined 

paper

Ryc.1 Resistance to infestation of paper samples by the 

Ch. globosum test fungus and fungal mixture (A. niger, 

P. funiculosum, T. viride). 

REFERENCES: 

317 

Ryc. 2. Self-rupture of experimental paper samples 

subjected to the action of the Ch. globosum test fungus and 

fungal mixture (A. niger, P. funiculosum, T. viride) 

expressed in [km] on day 14 of observations. 

1. Drzewi�ska E. (2008): Przysz�o�� mas papierniczych z w�ókien pierwotnych. Przegl�d 

Papierniczy 64(12): 720-724. 

2. Fassatiová O. (1983): Grzyby mikroskopowe w mikrobiologii technicznej. 

Wydawnictwa Naukowo Techniczne. 

3. Godlewska K. (2009): Papier wobec wyzwa� przysz�o�ci. Przegl�d Papierniczy 65 

(8): 472-473. 

4. Jarczy�ski M. (2008): Perspektywy rozwoju produkcji papieru i tektury w Polsce. 

Przegl�d Papierniczy 64 (10): 575-576. 

5. Jaszczur A. (2008): Wp�yw biocydu na szybko�� degradacji wytworów papierniczych 

z dodatkiem otr�bów zbo�owych przez mikrogrzyby. Praca magisterska. Uniwersytet 

Przyrodniczy Pozna�. 

6. Kozielec T. (2008): Niezwyk�e i wszechstronne wykorzystanie papieru w XIX w. Cz. 

I. Od ubiorów do medycyny. Przegl�d Papierniczy 64 (2): 85-88. 

7. Norma na oznaczanie zrywania: PN - 76/P – 50060, PN - 74/P - 500133. Formowanie 

arkusików papieru. 

8. Osi�g�owski J. (2003): Ochrona ksi��ki bibliotecznej. Pozna�. 

9. Osi�g�owski J. (1979): Magazynowanie i ochrona zbiorów informacyjnych w 

regionie. Oddzia� Informacji Naukowej PAN w Poznaniu. 

10. Potrzebnicka E. (2001): Charakterystyka typowych zagro�e� i zniszcze� w zbiorach 

bibliotecznych XIX i XX wiecznych. Kwa�ny papier. 

11. Przybysz K. (1997): Technologia celulozy i papieru. Tom 2.Technologia papieru. 

Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne. 

12. Sobucki W., Rams D. (1999):Zagro�enia biologiczne i fizykochemiczne dla zbiorów 

bibliotecznych. Notes Konserwatorski nr 2. 

13. Strzelczyk A.B. (1998): Charakterystyka zniszcze� mikrobiologicznych w 

zabytkowych ksi��kach. Notes Konserwatorski nr 1. 

14. Strzelczyk A.B., Karbowska J. (1995): Specyficzne zniszczenia papieru – foxing i 

destrukcja puszysta. Ochrona zabytków nr 2. 

15. Szostak – Kotowa J. (2001): Mikrobiologiczne zagro�enia papieru. Kwa�ny papier. 

16. Wandelt P. (1996): Technologia celulozy i papieru. Tom 1. Technologia mas 

w�óknistych. 

17. Zerek B.F. (2007): Metody bada� mikrobiologicznych w Bibliotece Narodowej. 

Przegl�d papierniczy 63(11): 669-670.

18. Zyska B. (2000): Mikrobiologiczny rozk�ad i korozja materia�ów technicznych. 

Politechnika �ódzka. 

19. Zyska B. (1993): Ochrona ksi�gozbioru przed zniszczeniem t. 2. Czynniki niszcz�ce 

materia�y w zbiorach bibliotecznych: 124-132. 

Streszczenie: W�a�ciwo�ci wytrzyma�o�ciowe oraz biodegradacja wytworów papierniczych, wytworzonych z 

masy celulozowej siarczanowej bielonej li�ciastej z dodatkiem skrobi oraz kleju �ywicznego. 

W artykule przedstawiono wyniki bada� dotycz�ce podatno�ci próbek wykonanych z masy celulozowej 

siarczanowej bielonej li�ciastej z ró�n� procentow� zawarto�ci� skrobi oraz kleju �ywicznego, poddanych 

dzia�aniu grzybów ple�niowych. Wytwory papiernicze wykaza�y si� zró�nicowan� podatno�ci� na porastanie na 

mikrogrzyby, uleg�y one bardzo silnej biodegradacji. Dodatek skrobi oraz kleju �ywicznego spowodowa� zmian� 

odporno�ci próbek na porastanie przez grzybnie testowe w porównaniu do próbek wykonanych bez dodatków 

masowych. Samozerwalno�� badanych wytworów papieiczych zmniejsza�a si� w miar� up�ywu czasu, w jakim 

probki poddawane by�y procesowi biodegradacji . 


Anna Jaszczur 

Poznan University of Life Sciences, Institute of Chemical Wood Technology, 

ul. Wojska Polskiego 28/32, 60-637 Pozna�, Polska. 

E-mail address: jaszczuranna@poczta.onet.pl




The curved cutting edge wearing (back face) during greenwood turning 

L. JAVOREK 1 , J. HRIC 2 

1 Department of woodworking machines and equipments, Faculty of Environmental and Manufacturing 

Technology, Technical University in Zvolen, T.G. Masaryka 24, 960 53 Zvolen, Slovakia 

2 BOTO, Ltd., Považská 30, 940 01 Nové Zámky, Slovakia 

Abstract: The curved cutting edge wearing (back face) during greenwood turning. Turning with curved edge’s 

tools is used for roughing like operation before follows more clear-cut machining, for machining of very hard 

materials (steel and its alloys). This kind of tools is used in wood machining by reason of very good surface 

quality. It is used in modification with fixed, self-propeled) or powered cutting part. Tool wearing in this 

experiment depends on angle of inclination, depth of cut and sample of machining material. 

Keywords: wearing, curved edge’s tools, angle of inclination 

INTRODUCTION 

Tools with curved cutting edge are used very frequently for first machining – 

roughing. Axes of tool can be in vertical position (�s. =0 o ), or slanted under some angle (�s. 

�0 o ). Tool may rotate during machining around this ax or may be fixed. A lot of authors put 

one's mind to machining with self or forced rotate tool. In the focus of some them are forces 

needed for machining and its measuring [BANJAC, JAVOREK and HRIC], others present 

various design of tool in their papers, [WIELOCH and MOSTOWSKI], other are interested in 

surface quality. Plenty of experiments are focused to metal machining i.e. [ZASADA, PILC 

and MI�IETOVÁ], but this type of cutting is used in wood machining too [WIELOCH and 

MOSTOWSKI]. The economical aspects are mentioned in papers of i.e. [BANJAC]. 

a) Detail of the process b) ... of the tool c) ... of cutting edge 

Fig.1 Curved cutting edge tool during beech machining 

EXPERIMENT 

Beech and spruce were used in experiment. In this article are published results from 

machining of beech. Next parameters were used in this test: 

– moisture content: 12 %, 

– cutting speed [mpm]: 257; 206; 172; 132, 

– feed speed [mmpr]: 0,05; 0,1; 0,2; 0,4, 

– angle of inclination [deg]: 5; 10; 20; 40, 

– depth of cut [mm]: 2; 3; 4; 5, 

– fixed tool. 

The wear of back face was realised by microscope MTM 350 (Fig.2a) with digital 

monochromatic CCD camera, plus softwares CF Surface, Gipm R 2.0, software Statistica R. 

6.0 © was used for mathematical analyzes. Detail of back face was, for measure, magnified 

319

100 times. The wearing phenomenon was measured in 3 points (Fig.2b) on back face (��); 

every measuring was repeated five times. 

Fig. 2a) Microscope MTM 350 Fig. 2b) The position of measure 


It is evident from Fig. 3a,b and from table 1, that back wearing significantly depends to angle 

of inclination �s. Wearing was different in all three measure points, however from point of 

statistical aspect no meaningfully, because the confidence intervals are over lapsed. The 

minimum wearing of cutting edge was in case, if angle of inclination �s was 20°. Angle of 

inclination �s due measure point’s combination is from point of statistical view substantial. 

The mathematic formulation of wearing process can be described for point A by formula (1): 

��= 49,085 – 22,955·��s + 3,694·��s 2 (1) 

Tab.1 Univariate Significance Tests for ��, (spruce machining). Sigma-restricted parameterisation, Effective 

hypothesis decomposition 

Variables 

Degree 

of freedom 

Sum of 

squares 

Mean 

square 

F – test p- level 

Angle of inclination �s 888,65 4 222,16 44,322 0,000000 

Measure point 196,37 2 98,18 19,588 0,000000 

Angle of inclination �s + 

Measure point 

911,95 8 113,99 22,742 0,000000 

Error 300,75 60 5,01 

In next figures 3a, b are graphs that reflects wearing as function of angle of inclination and 

function of measure point for all feed speed vf, cutting speed vc and depth of cut ap 

combination in machining of spruce. 

D [�m] 

30 

28 

26 

24 

22 

20 

18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

Angle of inclination l s[ °]; Weighted Means 

Current effect: F(4, 60)=44,322, p=0,0000 

Effective hypothesis decomposition 

Vertical bars denote 0,95 confidence intervals 

5 10 20 

Angle of inclination l s [ °] 

30 40 

D [�m] 

26 

25 

24 

23 

22 

21 

20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

320 

Measure point; Weighted Means 

Current effect: F(2, 60)=19,588, p=,00000 

Effective hypothesis decomposition 

Vertical bars denote 0,95 confidence intervals 

A B C 

Measure point 

a) ..... in regard to angle of inclination �s b) .... in regard to measure point 

Fig. 3 Wearing functionality ��during spruce machining 

During beech machining were used as the same variables as during spruce machining. For 

back wearing has significantly influence angle of inclination �s only (see Fig. 4a and 4b). In 

interval angles of inclination (5° to 20°) and (30° to 50°) are not very significant changes in

wearing. In interval angles of inclination (20° to 30°) are significant differenced. The 

statistical values are in tab. 2. 

��[�m] 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

A ng le o f in cl ina tio n � s [°]; Weig hte d Me an s 

C u r r e n t e ffe c t: F(4 , 6 0 ) = 8 ,7 8 6 0 , p =,0 0 0 0 1 

Effectiv e hypothe sis dec om po sition 

Verticalbars 

denote 0,95 c o n f ide nc e i nte rv als 

5 10 20 

Angle of in c lina tion �s [°] 

30 40 

�� [�m] 

321 

14.5 

14.0 

13.5 

13.0 

12.5 

12.0 

11.5 

11.0 

10.5 

10.0 

9.5 

9.0 

Measure poin t; W e ighted Means 

Current effect: F(2, 60)=,51190, p=,60195 

Ef fec tive hy po the sis de co mp os itio n 

Vertical ba rs denote 0,95 confid ence inte rvals 

A B C 

Measure point 

a) .... in regard to angle of inclination �s 

b) .... in regard to measure point 

Fig. 4 Wearing functionality ��during beech machining 

Tab.2 Univariate Significance Tests for ��, (beech machining). Sigma-restricted parameterisation, Effective 

hypothesis decomposition 

Variables 

Degree 

of freedom 

Sum of 

squares 

Mean 

square 

F – test p- level 

Angle of inclination �s 333,38 4 83,34 8,786 0,000012 

Measure point 9,71 2 4,86 0,512 0,601952 

Angle of inclination �s + 

Measure point 

122,62 8 15,33 1,616 0,139372 

Error 569,16 60 9,49 

From experiment comes across angle of inclination �s as optimal �s � 25° for spruce 

machining and �s � 10° for beech machining. This deduction is from point of tool life for 

experimental conditions. We can assume that this phenomena is connected with different 

anatomic structure both wood samples and their different mechanical properties. Spruce is 

very soft wood (Brinell hardness is 3,2 and density is 460 kg.m -3 ), whilst beech is hard wood 

(Brinell hardness is 7,2 and density is 710 kg.m -3 ). During machining, mainly in point A was 

relatively high compression of wood joined with plastic deformation of wood and with 

increasing of contact area. In soft wood are quite marked differences is hardness of springwood 

and summer-wood. Exist presumption, that spring properties of soft wood, its 

expansion directly behind cutting edge are reason of higher wearing of the tool. 

References 

1. BANJAC, D., Sile rezanja pri struganju kruznim samoobrotnim nozevima. 

2. CHMIELEWSKI, K., CIELOSZYK, J., ZASADA, M.: Model kszta�towania stanu 

geometrycznego powierzchni w procesie toczenia narz�dziami z samoobracaj�c�cym 

si� ostrzem. Obróbka skrawaniem 2. Innowacje. Instytut Zaawansowanych 

Technologii Wytwarzania. Kraków. (2008). ISBN 978-83-912887-8-8. S. 352-359 

3. JAVOREK, �., HRIC, J. , Obróbka drewna narz�dziami z obracaj�c� si� kraw�dzi� 

skrawaj�c�. In: Obróbka skrawaniem 2. Innowacje. Kraków: Instytut 

Zaawansowanych Technologii Wytwarzania. ISBN 978-83-912887-8-8. (2008). S. 

402 – 407. 

4. JAVOREK, �., HRIC, J. , Non traditional turning technique - turning with selfpropelled 

rotary tool. In Annals of Warsaw university of life sciences. Forestry and 

Wood Technology. Warszawa: Warszaw University of Life Sciences Press, 2008. 

ISSN 1898-5912. No. 65 (2008), p. 144-149.

JAVOREK, �., HRIC, J. ,Si�y skrawania podczas obróbki narz�dziami z 

samoobracaj�c� si� kraw�dzi� skrawaj�c�. In Obróbka skrawaniem. 3, Zaawansowana 

technika. Bydgoszcz: Wydawnictwa Uczelniane Uniwersytetu Technologiczno- 

Przyrodniczego. (2009). ISBN 978-83-61314-96-7. S. 307-313. 

5. MOSTAWSKI, R., WIELOCH, G., OSAJDA, M., Analiza penetracji ostrza no�a 

grzybkowego o ma�ej srednicy. Wood-Machine-Tool-Workpiece. Agricultural 

University of Pozna�. Pozna�-B�dlewo. (2007). ISBN 83–907754–5–X. S.49-90 

6. PILC, J., MI�IETOVÁ, A., Obrábanie kovov autorotujúcimi nástrojmi. EDIS Žilina. 

(2003). ISBN 80-8070-047-8. s.106 

The contribution was created during the solution of grant project VEGA 1/0751/08 as a result of scientific 

activity of authors with strong support of Grant scientific agency of Slovak rep. 

Streszczenie: Zu�ycie zakrzywionej kraw�dzi tn�cej przy toczeniu drewna �wie�ego. Toczenie 

krzywoliniow� kraw�dzi� tn�c� jest najcz��ciej toczeniem zgrubnym, poprzedzaj�cym 

dok�adniejsze operacje przy obrabianiu bardzo twardych materia�ów (stali i jej stopów). Z 

kolei przy obróbce drewna ten typ narz�dzi jest u�ywany ze wzgl�du na wysok� jako�� 

obróbki. Jest u�ywany ze sta��, samobie�n� albo nap�dzan� cz��ci� tn�c�. Prezentowany 

eksperyment rozpatrywa� k�ty, g��boko�� toczenia oraz typ materia�u. 


Assoc. prof. �ubomír Javorek, PhD. 

Department of Woodworking Machines and Equipment, Technical University in Zvolen 

T. G. Masaryka 24, SK - 960 53 Zvolen, E-mail address: lubomir.javorek@vsld.tuzvo.sk




The influence of the tool design to cutting force 

L. JAVOREK 1 , D. PAULINY 1 , J. HRIC 2 

1 Department of woodworking machines and equipments, Faculty of Environmental and Manufacturing 

Technology, Technical University in Zvolen, T. G. Masaryka 24, 960 53 Zvolen, Slovakia 

2 BOTO, Ltd., Považská 30, 940 01 Nové Zámky, Slovakia 

Abstract: The influence of the tool design to cutting force. This paper presents the results of 

cutting force measurement in machining of wood-based composites (such as chipboards, 

medium density fiberboard or some other types composites on this basis). For their good 

mechanical properties are these materials used in the furniture industry more and more. Two 

tools are compared: one with cutting edges with the helical angle without chip breakers – 

roughening cutter, the second with the helical angle of cutting edges with chip breakers, for 

different depths of cut and machined material. 

Keywords: routing, force components, design of cutting edge, chip breakers 

INTRODUCTION 

The routing is one from the most frequent technology wood machining. The importances of 

this technology accrete together with more and more extensive using router machines. The 

routers are used in furniture production let us say in production its parts, or for technologies 

like moulding, profiling, trimming, grooving etc. (Fig.1). The critical value of cutting force 

[ISPAS et al] or some its component [JAVOREK, OSWALD, SCHELCHER], [JAVOREK 

and HRIC], torque moment [MARTHY and CISMARU]or some other parameter (amplitude, 

temperature, noise etc.) are used in CNC machines [OHUCHI and MURASE] for automatic 

scanning of correct working cycle. 

Fig.1. Routers possibility using 

EXPERIMENT 

The aim of this experiment was to compare influence of tool design to force components 

during wood machining. Next devices and tools were used in this experiment: 

MACHINE: milling machine MCV 1210 (chosen technical parameters) 

� max. feed speed: 20 mpm, 

� max. rotational speed: 18 000 rpm, 

� clamping taper: HSK-A63 ISO 40 HSK-A63, 

� power: 30/32 kW. 

Fig. 2 Helical cutters: (a) without chip breakers; (b) with chip breakers 

323

Two shanked helical cutters with three helical line were used; one with solid cutting edge, one 

with line interrupted by chip breakers. Cutters were with diameter 16 mm cutting circle, shank 

diameter was 16 mm too, length of cutting part was 45 mm. This type of cutter is very often 

used for cutting of slots or for mortising in green wood or in material based on the wood. 

EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS 

� machined material: chipboard and spruce, 

� moisture content: w = cca 9 %, 

� technological conditions: 

� axial depth of cut ap: 15 and 35 mm, 

� radial depth of cut ae: 16 mm, 

� rotational tool speed: 18 000 rpm, 

� feed speed: vf = 7200 mmpm, (fz = 0,13 mm), 

� scanning frequency: 6 kHz. 

EXPERIMENTAL CHAIN 

The measure chain consists from (Fig. 3a) milling machine MCV 1210, dynamometer Kistler 

9257B, amplifier Kistler 5070A11000, A/D modem and PC. Values were input to PC and 

elaborated by software DynoWare (Kistler.) 

Fig. 3. (a) Measure chain; (b) Machining and coordinate system. 


The aim of this experiment was to detect influence of chosen technological factors and 

influence of tool design to force components values which are needed for chip removal 

[HOLOPIREK and ROUSEK]. 

All values were evaluated by software Statistica Rel. 6, for data processing was used 

more factorial analyze, in graphs are results from all combinations and some results are 

present in next graphs. 

324

Fig. 4 Influence of wood sample’s to cutting force 

After analyze we may to say: 

- modification of cutting edge by chip breakers delivered positive result in values of force 

that was smaller at 68 N (i.e. 34 %) during spruce machining and at 42 N (i.e. 38 %) during 

chip board machining (Fig. 4). 

a) Sample of wood – chip board 

325

) Sample of wood - spruce 

Fig. 5 Influence of cutting edge design to cutting force and cutting force components during sample of wood 

machining (ap = 35 mm) 

Graphs in Fig. 5 reflects influence sample of wood to cutting force and cutting force 

components. Values from these graphs confirm the previous results, i.e. advantages of B-tool 

from point of view cutting forces. 

REFERENCES 

1. HOLOPÍREK, J., ROUSEK, M., Comparison of the theoretical calculation of 

resistance in cutting particleboards with an experiment. Zborník prednášok “Trieskové 

a beztrieskové obrábanie dreva 04“, Starý Smokovec, (2004). ISBN 80-228-1385-0. 

pp. 99- 105. 

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composites by routing with diamonded tools. PRO LIGNO Journal 2 (4). (2006). 

ISSN 1841-4737. pp. 27-34. 

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Research 46 (2). (2001). ISSN 0012-6136. pp. 29-36 

4. JAVOREK, �., HRIC, J., Konštrukcia nástroja a výkon potrebný na rezanie. In. Acta 

Facultatis Technicae. Technická univerzita vo Zvolene. VIII (1). (2005). ISBN 80- 

228-1517-9. pp. 107-116. 

5. MARTHY, M., CISMARU, I., Experimental study concerning the power consumption 

at the milling of pear. PRO LIGNO Journal 5 (3). (2009). ISSN 1841-4737. pp. 47-53. 

6. OHUCHI, T., MURASE, Y., Milling of wood and wood-based materials with a 

computerized numerically controlled router IV: development of automatic 

measurement system for cutting edge profile of throw-away type straight bit. The 

Japan Wood Research Society 51. (2005). pp. 278-281 

326

The contribution was created during the solution of grant project VEGA 1/0751/08 as a 

result of scientific activity of authors with strong support of Grant scientific agency of 

Slovak rep. 

Streszczenie: Wp�yw konstrukcji narz�dzia na si�� skrawania. Praca dotyczy pomiaru si� 

skrawania przy obróbce materia�ów drewnopochodnych takich jak p�yty wiórowe, MDF oraz 

innych. W zwi�zku z dobrymi w�asno�ciami wytrzyma�o�ciowymi s� to materia�y cz�sto 

u�ywane w przemy�le meblarskim oraz innych. Testowano dwa frezy o ostrzach �rubowych, 

z �amaczem wiórów oraz bez niego, dla ró�nych g��boko�ci frezowania oraz ró�nych 

materia�ów. 

Corresponding author 

Assoc. prof. �ubomír Javorek, PhD. 

Department of Woodworking Machines and Equipment, Technical University in Zvolen 

T. G. Masaryka 24, SK - 960 53 Zvolen, E-mail address: lubomir.javorek@vsld.tuzvo.sk




Biomechanics of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) trees coming from mature 

stands 

TOMASZ JELONEK, ARKADIUSZ TOMCZAK 

Poznan University of Life Sciences, Department of Forest Utilisation 

Wojska Polskiego St. 71A, 60-625 Pozna�, Poland 

Abstrakt. Biomechanika drzew piney zwyczajnej (Pinus sylvestris L.) pochodz�cej z drzewostanów r�bnych 

It was attempted in this study to determine the effect of former farmland soils and biosocial class on biomechanics 

and stability of trees by analyzing axial variation in basic density of wood, bending strength of absolutely dry wood 

and that of wood with moisture content above the fiber saturation point. 

The analyses were conducted on wood of Scots pines grown on four positions in northern Poland coming 

from mature stands aged from 97 to 102 years, growing on former farmland and on forest soils. Results showed 

significant differences in terms of wood properties analyzed in this study between compared groups of trees and at 

the same time indicated different stability of stands growing on former farmland soils in relation to trees growing on 

forest soils. 

Keywords: Scots pine, biomechanics of trees, former farmland, biosocial tree class 

INTRODUCTION 

Biomechanics of trees is directly connected with mechanical and hydraulic properties of 

anatomical elements. During growth and development of trees, and thus the cyclical formation of 

wood tissue, the structure of anatomical elements is optimized. Numerous modifications aim at 

achieving a compromise between mechanical and hydraulic properties of trees [Mencuccini et al. 

1997]. 

Biomechanics of trees and the effect of different external factors on physical and mechanical 

properties of wood tissue have been investigated by many researchers [Peltola et al. 1999; 

Pazdrowski and Sp�awa�Neyman 1997; Peltola et al. 2007; Jelonek et al. 2008; 2009a; 2009b]. 

In the initial stage studies on biomechanics of trees focused mainly on hydraulic functions 

modifying the mechanical stem skeleton [Zimmermann 1983; Tyree and Ewers 1991]. 

A simple biomechanical model of trees as a narrowing pole was presented at the end of 

the 19th century. Slightly later the tree model was modified, presenting it as a sum of two 

weights, i.e. the weight of the crown and the weight of the trunk being a homogenous column 

found in the state of weightlessness [Baker 1995]. 

In Finland studies on biomechanics of Scots pine were conducted by Hassinen et al. 

[1998]. Due to the complexity of integration and the dynamics of the phenomenon, biomechanics 

of trees is presented in a highly simplified form. This is a consequence first of all of a 

considerable variation of trees within a single species, as well as a relatively little known 

dynamic reaction of trees to the action of a stress factor such as wind [Kenneth et al. 2006]. 

A growing tree attempts to optimize its structure so that stresses are relatively uniformly 

distributed and there are no redundant (unstressed) areas. 

In terms of mechanics there are many force systems in a growing tree. Bending forces acting 

on the trunk (stem) are caused e.g. by wind and growth stresses, or static pressure resulting from 

the weight of the trunk and the crown [Hejnowicz 2002]. 

From the point of view of mechanics the most effective anatomical structure of the organ 

has to be a compromise of the counteraction to individual deformations (stresses) separately. For 

328

a woody plant on which a symmetrical crown is embedded, the radially symmetrical section 

seems to be optimal. 

According to Mencuccini et al. [1997] allocation of biomass during tree growth is subjected 

to biophysical limitations. For example, the size of the assimilatory organ, which directly affects 

photosynthetic productivity, must have some mechanical support. Thus the crown responsible for 

the production of xylem may be connected with a relatively large cross-section of a stem with a 

low density, or a cross-section being much smaller, but characterized by wood of high density. 

Such a system will always be a compromise between the diameter of tracheidal elements and the 

thickness of cell walls. For this reason the hydraulic system of a plant will be closely related with 

biomechanical requirements consisting in an appropriate distribution of mass at an adequate 

scale of anatomical elements [Schniewind 1962]. 

The slenderness factor, being a ratio of plant height to its diameter (in case of trees being 

determined at breast height), is a good indicator describing optimization of biomechanical 

systems in plants. 

The effect of former farmland soils on modifications of wood properties in Scots pine (Pinus 

sylvestris L.) and their effect on the biomechanical system of trees are relatively little known. In 

this study analyses were conducted on two basic properties, facilitating an evaluation of a 

relationship between axial variation of wood density and bending strength on the one hand and 

characteristics describing the distribution of biomass, affecting stability of trees. 


Analyses were conducted in mature pine stands of age classes V and VI, growing under 

conditions optimal for this forest-forming species at this latitude on former farmland and forest 

soils in northern Poland. Experimental plots were located in two neighbouring forest divisions, 

two in the Warcino Forest Division and two in the Trzebielino Forest Division. 

On each of the four experimental plots a 1 ha mean sample plot was established, on 

which breast height diameters of all trees were measured and heights were measured in 

proportion to their numbers in adopted (2 cm) diameter sub-classes. Based on the obtained 

diameter and height characteristics of trees twelve mean sample trees (three at each plot) were 

determined using the Urich II method [Grochowski 1973], representing the first three classes 

according to the classification presented by Kraft (1884). 

Crown projections were plotted for selected model trees in two geographical directions, 

i.e. N-S and E-W. Based on obtained projections crown diameter was determined accurate to 10 

cm. 

Next model trees were felled and first selected biometrical characteristics of trees were 

measured. On the basis of recorded biometric parameters of trees the slenderness ratio of trees 

was determined, being a ratio of their height to diameter at breast height. 

Next from felled trees material was collected for analyses of selected physical and 

mechanical wood properties, i.e. basic density (qu) and bending strength (Rg). Material for 

laboratory testing came from 50cm blocks collected from a distance of 1.30 m - 1.80 m from the 

kerf plane, next from the stem center (calculated from the stem base to the base of live crown) 

and the base of live crown. 

Wood density was determined using the stereometric method and it was referred to as basic 

density. Bending strength (Rg) was determined with the use of a Tira Test 2300 testing machine 

equipped with computer software by Matest Service. 

All determinations were made accurate to 0.01 MPa. 

Bending strength was tested on absolutely dry samples (W0%) and wet samples (W>30%), 

which moisture content exceeded fibre saturation point (30%). 

Collected empirical material was analysed using methods of mathematical statistics with the 

application of a Statistica 8.0 PL statistical software package. 

329

RESULTS 

It was attempted in this study to analyse the effect of external factors, in this case the type of 

soil and biological class of tree position in the stand, on tree stability described by stem 

biomechanics. On average pines growing on former farmland soils were characterised by a lower 

basic density of their wood tissue, lower strength parameters both for absolutely dry wood and 

wood with maximum water saturation of cell membranes as well as lower desorption 

strengthening than pines growing under conditions typical of forest sites. 

Analyses of wood basic density 

conducted in this study showed that it is 

statistically significantly lower in wood 

from trees growing on former farmland 

soils (398 [kg/m 3 ]) in comparison to 

wood density of pines growing in forest 

sites (430 [kg/m 3 ]). 

In all analysed trees wood density 

decreased gradually with an increase in 

the height of the measurement point on 

the stem and the recorded values differed 

statistically. On all the analysed levels 

wood of trees grown on forest soils on 

average had a higher density in 

comparison to that recorded when 

analysing wood of pines coming from 

former farmland soils (Fig. 1). Analysis 

of wood density coming from trees 

occupying different social classes of tree 

position in the stand only in case of pines 

coming from forest soils showed an 

upward trend for this property with 

transition to lower Kraft's classes. In 

pines growing on former farmland soils 

the highest density was recorded in 

dominant trees, while the lowest in 

predominant trees. However, it needs to 

be stressed here that in this case density 

was similar in dominant and co-dominant 

trees, with the recorded difference being 

statistically non-significant (Fig. 2). 

Fig. 1 Axial variation of basic density 

Fig. 2 Basic density of wood depending on social class of tree 

position in the stand 

Next bending strength of wood was tested at its moisture content of over 30% and in 

absolutely dry wood, and desorption strengthening was also determined. 

Pines coming from former farmland and forest soils were characterised by a similar 

strength of wood at maximum swelling. In turn, absolutely dry wood of pines coming from 

former farmland soils has a statistically significantly lower bending strength and a lower 

desorption strengthening in comparison to wood of trees coming from forest soils. 

In stems of pines coming from former farmland soils a gradual decrease in values of 

analysed mechanical properties was observed with an increase in the height of the measurement 

point on the stem. In turn, in stems of trees growing on forest soils the highest values of analysed 

330

strength were found at breast height (1.3 m), while at 1/2 tree height and at the base of live 

crown these values were similar (Fig. 3). 

Similarly as in case of bending strength, values describing desorption strengthening 

decreased gradually with an increase in the height of the measurement point. Only height 

referring to mid-height (1/2 h) and crown base (Cb) in pines coming from forest soils, where 

values of desorption strengthening were similar, was an exception in this respect. 

Fig. 3 Axial variation in mechanical properties of wood in Scots pine 

The distribution of strength in maximally saturated wood in view of the social class of tree 

position in the stand, both in pines coming from forest soils and from former farmland soils, 

showed its gradual increase with trees being transferred to lower social classes. A slightly 

different situation was observed in case of strength of absolutely dry wood and in desorption 

strengthening. In trees growing on former farmland soils the highest values of this property were 

recorded in dominant trees, in turn, in pines grown on forest soils in co-dominant trees (Fig. 4). 

Fig. 4 Axial variation in mechanical properties of wood in Scots pine 

331

Next analyses were conducted on biometric traits affecting statics of trees. 

Pines grown on former farmland 

soils were characterised by stems with a 

lower slenderness factor (from 53 to 64) 

than pines coming from forest soils, in 

which this coefficient was higher and 

ranged from 66 to 81 (Fig. 5). Slenderness 

factor in all the analysed trees fell within 

the range, in which trees may be classified 

to the group of stable trees [Burschel and 

Huss 1997]. In turn, trees grown on former 

farmland soils fell within the lower 

boundary of the interval, which would 

indicate their slightly higher stability in 

comparison to trees grown in stands 

coming from forest soils. 

It was also attempted in this study to 

Fig. 5. Slenderness factor of trees – stability of trees 

identify the dependence between observed properties of wood and properties determining tree 

stability. Statistical analyses showed that there is a statistical dependence between tree height 

and stability factor, and discussed wood properties. A particularly strong dependence was found 

between bending strength in wood with moisture content above fiber saturation point and tree 

height (r = 0.724) as well as its slenderness (stability) factor (r = 0.605). 

DISCUSSION 

Biomechanical theory of tree growth shows that the radial tree growth is a response to 

mechanical stress caused by the action of wind forces on trees [Baker 1995; Peltola 2006]. Other 

theories describe stem biomechanics as a response to tree growth and the transition of the centre 

of gravity subjected to gravity forces [Alméras and Fournier 2008]. 

The primary objective of this study was to make an attempt at a comparison of the effect 

of former farmland soil and social class of tree position in the stand on stem biomechanics in 

Scots pine. It was also attempted in this study to determine the stability of trees described by the 

slenderness factor [Erteld and Hengst 1966] and to determine its relationship with tree 

biomechanics. 

Pines coming from forest soils in relation to pines coming from former farmland soils 

were characterised by a higher slenderness factor (up to 80) and a similar strength of the outer 

wood "coat" at maximum swelling, i.e. like that found in a living tree. However, when 

considering axial distribution of wood strength it may be observed that in stems of pines coming 

from forest soils a markedly higher wood strength was recorded at breast height, which most 

probably protects the cross-section of relatively slender trees against bending moment coming 

e.g. from wind pressure. 

A gradual decrease of properties analysed in this study, occurring with an increase in 

height along the stem, seems justified. This is confirmed by the frequently stressed [Coutts and 

Grace 1995; Mencuccini et al. 1997] multifunctional role of the stem, which while raising the 

crown upwards has to provide its adequate mechanical support. At the same time it has to serve a 

hydraulic function, due to which its structure is optimised in terms of served functions. Thus it 

may be assumed that slender stems, more susceptible to wind damage, will most probably have 

much more resistant wood in the butt end in relation to trees exhibiting high stability. 

Moreover, recorded results indicate that the biological class of a tree to a lesser extent 

determines density and strength of wood with moisture content above fibre saturation point, 

while it significantly affects strength of absolutely dry wood and desorption strengthening. It was 

332

also observed that the trend for wood density in view of the biological class of a tree does not 

coincide with the trend in bending strength of absolutely dry wood and desorption strengthening. 

Moreover, significant differences were found in the distribution of the discussed properties 

(particularly strength of absolutely dry wood and desorption strengthening) between pines grown 

on former farmland and forest soils. In case of the former the highest strength was found in 

dominant trees, while in case of pines coming from forest soils it was for co-dominant trees. 

It may be assumed that in wood of compared pines there were differences in the 

submicroscopic structure of wood, manifested in the proportion of the crystalline form of 

cellulose in the wood tissue. The considerable number of secondary bonds, most probably found 

in wood with a lower proportion of crystalline cellulose, in this case significantly increased 

strength of absolutely dry wood in comparison to maximally swollen wood [Grzeczy�ski 1967, 

1975]. 

It was also observed that the slenderness (stability) factor determined for trees in this 

study significantly affects strength first of all in maximally swollen wood. This strength 

increased with a reduction of tree stability, i.e. with a disproportionate increase in its height in 

relation to breast height diameter. 

Recorded results indicate that most probably natural modifications of the wood tissue 

occur in trees, resulting in increased resistance and stability of individual trees and entire stands. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Pines grown on forest soils in comparison to trees grown on former farmland soils are 

characterised by a bigger stem slenderness and higher wood density at a similar bending 

strength of maximally saturated wood and a bigger strength of absolutely dry wood. 

Wood properties analysed in this study in all tested trees were characterised by a gradual 

decrease in values with an increase in the height of the measurement point on the stem. 

A slight effect was observed of biosocial variation in the stand on wood density as well as a 

significant effect on strength in absolutely dry wood. 

Moreover, a strong relationship was found between bending strength of maximally saturated 

wood and tree height and its slenderness (stability) factor. 


Acknowledgments: This work was supported by grant of Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education: N N309 

426938. 

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334

Streszczenie: Biomechanika drzew sosny zwyczajnej (Pinus sylvestris L.) pochodz�cej z 

drzewostanów r�bnych W pracy podj�to prób� okre�lenia wp�ywu gruntów porolnych oraz klasy 

biosocjalnej drzewa w drzewostanie na biomechanik� i stabilno�� drzew poprzez analiz� 

zmienno�ci g�sto�ci umownej drewna, wytrzyma�o�� na zginanie statyczne drewna absolutnie 

suchego oraz drewna o wilgotno�ci powy�ej punktu nasycenia w�ókien. Do bada� u�yto drewno 

sosny zwyczajnej wyros�ej w pó�nocnej Polsce pochodz�cej z drzewostanów r�bnych. Uzyskane 

wyniki wskazuj� na wyst�powanie istotnych ró�nic analizowanych w pracy w�a�ciwo�ci drewna 

pomi�dzy porównywanymi grupami drzew. Stwierdzono odmienn� stabilno�� biomechaniczn� 

drzew w zale�no�ci od klasy biologicznej drzewa w drzewostanie oraz warunków wzrostu i 

rozwoju. 


Tomasz Jelonek, PhD 

E-mail address: tomasz.jelonek@up.poznan.pl 


Department of Forest Utilisation 

Wojska Polskiego 71A St, 60-625 Pozna�, Poland 

Phone +48 61 8487754 

Fax +48 61 8487755




Dynamics of heartwood formation in European larch (Larix decidua Mill.) 

in terms of age and variation in social tree position in the stand 

TOMASZ JELONEK, WITOLD PAZDROWSKI, ARKADIUSZ TOMCZAK, MARCIN 

JAKUBOWSKI 

Poznan University of Life Sciences, Department of Forest Utilisation 

Wojska Polskiego 71A, 60-625 Pozna�, Poland 

Abstract. Dynamics of heartwood formation in European larch (Larix decidua Mill.) in terms of age and 

variation in social tree position in the stand It was attempted in this study to determine the effect of age and 

social class of tree position in the stand on the dynamics of heartwood formation and to determine the 

relationship between the area of sapwood and heartwood and biometric traits of the crown. 

The analyses were conducted on wood of European larch (Larix decidua Mill.) grown in western Poland and 

coming from stands of age classes I, II, III and IV. Recorded results indicate that both age and social class of tree 

position in the community play a significant role in the process of heartwood formation. It was found that the 

biggest dynamics of this process was recorded for trees after 50 years of age and they were dominant trees. A 

strong relationship was also found between the area of sapwood and heartwood in tree stems and biometric traits 

of crowns. 

Keywords: European larch, dynamics of heartwood formation, social class of tree position 

INTRODUCTION 

Wood structure is determined first of all by genotypic species-specific characteristics as 

well as individual traits, although at the same time several traits and properties of wood are 

determined by external factors, such as geographical location, climate or site [Jelonek 2006]. 

Heartwood is a major element of wood macroscopic structure and its formation may be 

ascribed to the joint effect of ageing and growth rate of a tree. Most trees at the cross stem 

section have a regular heartwood, similar in shape to the stem circumference. In some species 

heartwood may be of an irregular shape, which does not correspond to the boundary of the 

annual ring [Hillis 1987]. 

Bamber [1976] claimed that heartwood formation is a regulatory process aiming at the 

maintenance of sapwood area at an optimal level. In his opinion the initiation of heartwood 

formation is a result of activation of an unknown signal coming from the inside of the tree. 

Stoces and Berthier [2000] proposed several theories on the functioning of heartwood. 

The first hypothesis says that the proportion of heartwood has an effect on the maintenance of 

stem rigidity. However, other studies showed that there is no difference between sapwood and 

heartwood in the mean modulus of elasticity in the longitudinal direction [Berthier et al. 

2001]. This indicates that heartwood does not serve a significant mechanical role in a tree, 

thus its irregular shape does not depend on stresses in the growing tree. 

Another hypothesis is based on the Pipe Model Theory, initiated by Shinozaki et al. 

[1964a, 1964b]. This theory proposes that there is a strong interdependence between 

hydraulically conductive area of the cross stem section (sapwood) and the size of the 

transpiring and assimilating organ, as it is indicated by a highly significant regression between 

the area of sapwood, and the crown coat area. This dependence was verified for different 

336

species, sites as well as age levels of trees. Thus we may propose a hypothesis that the area of 

sapwood is maintained at the optimal level for the functioning of a tree, and the mechanism 

used for the preservation of this equilibrium is the internally controlled dynamics of sapwood 

transformation into heartwood [Jelonek et al. 2008]. 

Identification of mechanisms regulating the process of heartwood formation and the 

determination of dynamics of this process in European larches (Larix decidua Mill.) is a 

relatively little known research area. In Poland the effect of age, social class of tree position in 

the stand and site conditions on heartwood formation in this species was investigated e.g. by 

Nawrot et al. ([008a; 2008b]. Due to the commonly valued advantages of larch wood, its 

durability resulting first of all from a large proportion of heartwood in the stem, it seems 

justified to conduct studies aiming at the determination of possibly many factors determining 

the rate of heartwood formation. 

The aim of the study was to determine the effect of age, social class of tree position in 

the community as well as biometric traits of trees on the dynamics of heartwood formation in 

European larch. 


Investigations were conducted in 2009 in the �migród Forest Division located within 

the administrative boundaries of the Regional Directorate of the State Forests in Wroc�aw. 

Experimental plots were located in pine–larch stands of age classes I, II, III and IV, where 

larch constituted an approx. 20% volume share of large timber and belonged to quality classes 

I or II. Selected stands grew in sites optimal for this species and they were fresh mixed 

coniferous forests and fresh mixed broad-leaved forests. 

In each of the eight selected stands a 1-ha representative mean sample plot was established, 

on which breast height diameters were 

measured on all trees and height was 

measured in proportion to the numbers in 

the adopted diameter subclasses. Based on 

the diameter and height characteristics 

(Fig. 1) and with the application of the 

dendrometric Urich I method 

[Grochowski 1973], three model trees 

representing classes I, II and III were 

selected according to the classification 

developed by Kraft (Kraft 1884). 

Next, on the basis of crown 

projections for model trees, their 

diameters were measured in the northsouth 

and east-west directions. Next 

Tree height [m] 

model trees were felled and biometric traits of their crowns were determined and their stems 

were divided into 2-metre sections, from the centre of which 2cm discs were cut for further 

laboratory analyses. The zones of heartwood and sapwood were measured on cut discs. On 

this basis the area of both wood types was calculated at individual measurement levels. In the 

determination of the dynamics of heartwood formation a coefficient was used, resulting from 

a ratio of the area of heartwood to the area of the sapwood zone referred in this study as the 

H/S index [Jelonek 2006]. 

337 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 

DBH [cm] 

Fig. 1 Characteristics of model trees.

RESULTS 

It was attempted in this study to analyse the effect of age and biosocial class occupied 

by a tree on the dynamics of heartwood formation described by the H/S ratio. Depending on 

age, values of this coefficient 

ranged from 0.33 in the youngest 

stands to 1.97 in the oldest stands. 

In stands of the younger age 

classes, i.e. up to approx. 35 years 

of age, relatively limited dynamics 

of heartwood formation was 

observed. Only starting from 

approx. 40 years of age an 

acceleration of heartwood formation 

was found in larch trees. In the 

analysed age intervals two maxima 

were observed in the dynamics of 

this process, the first in the stand 

aged 50 years, while the other at the 

age of 75 years (Fig. 2). 

This was followed by the 

analysis of social class of tree position in the stand on the rate of heartwood formation in 

stems of the compared trees. 

An increase was observed in 

the dynamics of heartwood formation 

with the transition to higher parts of 

the stand. This means that the 

smallest dynamics of heartwood 

formation is found for co-dominant 

trees (H/S=0.35) and dominant trees 

(H/S=0.38), between which no 

significant differences were found in 

the fluctuations in the H/S index. In 

turn, dominant trees were 

characterised by the statistically 

significantly highest dynamics of 

heartwood formation and the H/S 

index in this case was 0.46 (Fig. 3). 

In this study analyses were 

Coefficient H/S 

4,0 

3,5 

3,0 

2,5 

2,0 

1,5 

1,0 

0,5 

0,0 

-0,5 

Mean 

Mean/Error std 

Mean/Standart deviation 

also conducted on the dependence between investigated traits and crown length of trees as 

well as their age and height. In case of all the analysed traits statistically significant 

dependencies were found. The H/S index described in this study showed the strongest 

relationship with height (r=0.88) and age (r=0.87) of trees (Tab. 1). A very strong relationship 

was also found in stems of the examined trees between crown width and the area of sapwood 

and heartwood. 

338 

15 20 35 40 50 55 70 75 

Age [years] 

Fig. 2 Dynamics of heartwood formation in terms of age 

Coefficient H/S 

3,5 

3,0 

2,5 

2,0 

1,5 

1,0 

0,5 

0,0 

Mean 

Mean/Error std 

Mean/Standard deviation 

I II III 

Kraft' class 

Fig. 3 Dynamics of heartwood formation in terms of social 

class of tree position in the stand

Table 1 Correlation coefficients for traits analysed in this study 

Determined correlation coefficients are significant at p 

< 0.05000 

Mean 

Standard 

deviation 

Age 

Crown 

length 

339 

Crown 

width 

Area of 

heartwod 

Area of 

sapwood 

Coefficient 

H/S 

Tree 

height 

Age 45 20.75 1.000000 0.570143 0.835994 0.820637 0.764542 0.869264 0.930458 

Crown length 8.59 2.01 0.570143 1.000000 0.700772 0.674042 0.641913 0.602487 0.643041 

Crown width 4.55 1.88 0.835994 0.700772 1.000000 0.956957 0.929963 0.852164 0.882381 

Area of heartwod 0.25 0.24 0.820637 0.674042 0.956957 1.000000 0.916298 0.856702 0.854095 

Area of sapwood 0.15 0.09 0.764542 0.641913 0.929963 0.916298 1.000000 0.706068 0.867227 

Coefficient H/S 1.36 0.78 0.869264 0.602487 0.852164 0.856702 0.706068 1.000000 0.880304 

Tree height 22.44 7.63 0.930458 0.643041 0.882381 0.854095 0.867227 0.880304 1.000000 

DISCUSSION 

Conducted investigations indicate a significant effect of age and social variation in the 

stand in the rate of heartwood formation in stems of European larches. In their studies on 

larch similar conclusions were reported by Nawrot et al. [2008a]. Those authors stated a 

gradual increase in the rate of heartwood formation with age, starting from age class II and 

ending with class IV. Recorded results seem justified, since in all species in which heartwood 

is found its formation is, among other things, a function of tree age. Moreover, the rate of 

sapwood transformation into heartwood results primarily from the hydraulic architecture of 

plants and a complicated system of dependencies between the hydraulically conductive zones 

and biometric traits of trees [Zwieniecki et al. 2001; Choat et al. 2003; Jelonek et al. 2008]. 

This assumption for European larch was to a certain degree verified and confirmed by the 

conducted analyses. Based on the recorded results a strong relationship was found between 

both the conductive area and the heartwood zone excluded from water conduction, and the 

length and width of tree crowns. 

Growth in woody plants on height is to a considerable degree determined by 

competition for light. This competition is manifested in the social variation of trees in the 

community. In case of larches differences in the dynamics of heartwood formation between 

the layer of dominant trees and co-dominant trees may be connected with the fact that trees 

occupying inferior social classes are characterised by a lower proportion of the light crown 

than trees coming from higher biosocial classes, in which the intensity of assimilation and 

transpiration processes are slightly different [Assmann 1968]. Thus these differences may 

result in a different crown productivity, which will regulate - through respective mechanisms - 

the rate of sapwood transformation into heartwood, maintaining a hydraulically conductive 

zone at the optimal level. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The effect of both age and biosocial class of trees in the stand on the rate of heartwood 

formation was found in stems of European larches. 

In trees, after they have reached the age of approx. 50 years of age, a marked acceleration 

was observed in the dynamics of heartwood formation. 

The biggest dynamics of heartwood formation was found for dominant trees in the stand. 

A strong relationship was observed between the area of both sapwood and heartwood, 

and biometric traits of tree crowns.

REFERENCES 

1. ASSMANN E., 1968, Nauka o produkcyjno�ci lasu [Science on forest productivity]. 

Warszawa, PWRiL. 

2. BAMBER R.K. 1976, Heartwood, its function and formation, Wood, Wood Science 

and Technology, vol. 10, pp. 1-8. 

3. CHOAT B., BALL M., LULY J., HOLTUM J., 2003, Pit membrane porosity and 

water stress-induced cavitation in four co-existing dry rainforest tree species. Plant 

Physiology, 131:41–48. 

4. GROCHOWSKI J., 1973, Dendrometria. [Dendrometry]. Warszawa, Poland. 

5. HILLIS WE. 1987, Heartwood and tree exudates, Springer series in wood science, 

Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. 

6. JELONEK T., PAZDROWSKI W., ARASIMOWICZ M., TOMCZAK A., 

WALKOWIAK R., SZABAN J 2008, The applicability of the pipe model theory in 

trees of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) of Poland. Journal of Forest Science. 54(11): 

519-531. 

7. KRAFT, G., 1884, Durchforstungen, Schlagstellungen und Lichtunghieben. 

Klindworth's Verlag, Hannover. 

8. NAWROT N., PAZDROWSKI W., SZYMA�SKI M.2008, Dynamics of heartwood 

formation and axial and radial distribution of sapwood and heartwood in stems of 

European larch (Larix decidua Mill.) Journal of Forest Science, 54(9): 409–417. 

9. NAWROT M., PAZDROWSKI W., SZYMANSKI M. 2008, Percentage share of 

sapwood and heartwood in stems of European larch (Larix decidua Mill.) representing 

II and III class of age grown in different forest site types, representing main tree stand 

at Kraft biosocial classification. Acta Sci. Pol. Silv. Colendar. Rat. Ind. Lignar. 7(1): 

31-38. 

10. SHINOZAKI, K., YODA, K., HOZUMI, K., AND KIRA, T. 1964a, A quantitative 

analysis of plant from - the pipe model theory I. Basic analyses. Jap. J. Ecol. 14: 97- 

105. 

11. SHINOZAKI, K., YODA, K., HOZUMI, K., AND KIRA, T. 1964b, A quantitative 

analysis of plant form: the pipe model theory. II. Further evidence of the theory and its 

application in forest ecology. Jap. J. Ecol. 14: 133–139. 

12. STOCES A., BERTHIER S. 2000, Irregular heartwood formation in Pinus pilaster Ait. 

is related to eccentric, radial, stem growth, Forest Ecology and Management, France. 

13. ZWIENIECKI M.H., MELCHER P., HOLBROOK N., 2001, Hydraulic properties of 

individual xylem vessels of Fraxinus americana. Journal of Experimental Botany, 

52:1– 8. 

340

Streszczenie: Dynamika procesu twardzielowania u modrzewia europejskiego (Larix 

decidua Mill.) na tle wieku oraz zró�nicowania socjalnego drzew w drzewostanie W pracy 

podj�to prób� okre�lenia wp�ywu wieku oraz klasy biosocjalnej drzewa w drzewostanie na 

dynamik� procesu twardzielowania oraz okre�lenie zwi�zku miedzy powierzchni� bielu i 

twardzieli a cechami biometrycznymi koron. 

Do bada� u�yto drewno modrzewia europejskiego (Larix decidua Mill.) wyros�ego w 

zachodniej Polsce pochodz�cej z drzewostanów I, II, III i IV klasy wieku. Uzyskane wyniki 

wskazuj�, i� zarówno wiek jak i pozycja biosocjalne drzewa w zbiorowisku odgrywa 

significant� rol� w procesie formowania si� twardzieli. Stwierdzono, �e najwi�ksz� dynamik� 

tego procesu charakteryzowa�y si� drzewa po przekroczeniu 50 roku �ycia i by�y to drzewa 

góruj�ce. Stwierdzono równie� silny zwi�zek pomi�dzy powierzchni� bielu i twardzieli w 

strza�ach drzew a cechami bimetrycznymi koron. 


Tomasz Jelonek, PhD 

E-mail address: tomasz.jelonek@up.poznan.pl 


Department of Forest Utilisation 

Wojska Polskiego 71A St, 60-625 Pozna�, Poland 

Phone +48 61 8487754 

Fax +48 61 8487755




Studies on combustibility of treated wood with fire retardant 

and antiseptic solutions 

ZBIGNEV KARPOVI� 1) , WALDEMAR JASKÓ�OWSKI 2) , 

ROMUALDAS MA�IULAITIS 3) , VLADAS PRANIAUSKAS 3) 

1) Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, 11 Saul�tekio st., LT-10223 Vilnius, Lithuania 

2) The Main School of Fire Service, 52/54 Slowackiego st., 01-629 Warsaw, Poland 

3) Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, 11 Saul�tekio st 11, LT-10223 Vilnius, Lithuania 

Abstract: Studies on combustibility of treated wood with fire retardant and antiseptic solutions Many countries 

widely use wood in construction. In order to protect wood from the impact of environmental factors and to 

reduce its combustibility the chemical means such as antiseptic and fire retardant solutions are used. Wood of 

spruce and pine being the most popular in construction is investigated in this work while non-treated and treated 

with antiseptic solution Asepas 2 and fire retardants solutions Flamasepas-2 and Bak-1. The research is 

performed according to the requirements of the standards LST EN ISO 1716:2002 and LST EN ISO 5657:1999. 

Keywords: wood, antiseptic, fire retardant, solution, heat flux, ageing 

INTRODUCTION 

Wood and wood products are widely used for construction and finishing of buildings 

(Stevens et al., 2006, Grexa, 2000). On purpose to increase wood durability and to reduce its 

combustibility, antiseptic and fire retardant solutions are used. In some cases for reducing 

wood combustibility antiseptic solutions are used instead of fire retardant solutions 

(Praniauskas et al., 2010). During the tests of wood treated with fire retardant solutions 

(Karpovi�, 2009, Šukys and Karpovi�, 2010) it was observed that process of ageing may 

affect the time to ignition of such wood. 

Purpose of work: to explore the calorific value of wood treated with antiseptic and fire 

retardant solutions and the dependence of ignition on process of ageing of wood treated with 

fire retardant solutions. 

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 

The research on calorific value of wood was performed using the test equipment, 

correspondent to the requirements of standard LST EN ISO 1716:2002 . This research method 

was chosen for the reason that taking samples this way, structures of a building are harmed at 

the least. Only 0.5 – 1.0 g of wood dust are used to perform one test. Tests of calorific value 

of wood were performed on samples of pine and spruce wood treated with antiseptic solution 

Asepas 2 and fire retardant solution Bak-1 and also on untreated samples of pine and spruce 

timber. Nine tests were performed in every series of research. 

The research on dependence of ignition on process of ageing of wood treated with fire 

retardant solutions was performed using the test equipment, correspondent to the requirements 

of standard LST EN ISO 5657:1999. Test was terminated if sample did not ignite after 900 s 

from the start of test. During the tests samples were subjected to heat fluxes of 30, 35, 40, 45, 

50 kW/m 2 . Dependence of ignition on process of ageing of wood was estimated by the time to 

ignition of the sample. Pine and spruce wood samples used in these tests were treated with 

fire retardant solutions Flamasepas-2 and Bak-1. Five tests were performed in every series of 

research. Samples during ageing were kept in the temperature of 20°–25° C and at 40–80 

percent relative humidity; the humidity of samples did not exceed 15 percent. 

342

RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

The calorific value of wood treated with fire retardant solutions is lower compared to the 

calorific value of the same kind untreated wood and the calorific value of wood treated with 

antiseptic solutions is higher compared to the calorific value of the same kind untreated wood. 

The calorific values of pine and spruce wood samples treated with fire retardant solution Bak- 

1 and antiseptic solution Asepas 2 and the calorific values of untreated samples are shown in 

Fig.1. 

a) b) 

Fig. 1. Calorific values of pine (a) and spruce (b) timber samples treated with fire retardant solution Bak-1 and 

antiseptic solution Asepas 2 and the calorific values of untreated samples. 

Dependence of ignition on process of ageing of wood treated with fire retardant solutions 

when samples were subjected to heat fluxes of 30, 35 kW/m 2 is not shown here because in the 

first, second and third years time to ignition of the samples was more than 900 s. Average 

times to ignition of the treated pine and spruce wood samples, subjected to heat fluxes of 40, 

45, 50 kW/m 2 , correspondent to the years, are shown in Fig. 2, 3, 4 and 5. 

When pine wood samples, treated with fire retardant solution Flamasepas-2, were 

subjected to heat fluxes of 40, 45 kW/m 2 , it was estimated that time to ignition of the second 

year (2009) samples was shorter when compared to the time to ignition of the first year (2008) 

samples: 40 kW/m 2 – 1.25 times, 45 kW/m 2 – 1.22 times on the average; time to ignition of 

the third year (2010) samples was shorter when compared to the time to ignition of the first 

year (2008) samples: 40 kW/m 2 – 1.33 times, 45 kW/m 2 – 1.66 times on the average (Fig. 2). 

Time [s] 

Qs [MJ/kg]. 

180 

160 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

22 

20 

18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

16,079 

Spruce coated 

BAK-1 

19,101 

2008 

2009 

2010 

19,614 

Spruce Spruce coated 

Asepas 2 

40 45 50 

Heat flux [kW/m 2 ] 

Fig. 2. Average times to ignition of the pine wood samples treated with fire retardant solution Flamasepas-2, 

subjected to heat fluxes of 40, 45, 50 kW/m 2 , correspondent to the years. 

When spruce wood samples, treated with fire retardant solution Flamasepas-2, were 

subjected to heat fluxes of 40, 45 kW/m 2 , it was estimated that time to ignition of the second 


343 

Qs [MJ/kg]. 

22 

20 

18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

16,464 

Pine coated 

BAK-1 

19,804 

20,948 

Pine Pine coated 

Asepas2

samples: 40 kW/m 2 – 3.31 times, 45 kW/m 2 –3.33 times on the average; time to ignition of the 

third year (2010) samples was shorter when compared to the time to ignition of the first year 

(2008) samples: 40 kW/m 2 –3.65 times, 45 kW/m 2 – 4.07 times on the average (Fig. 3). 

Fig. 3. Average times to ignition of the spruce wood samples treated with fire retardant solution Flamasepas-2, 

subjected to heat fluxes of 40, 45, 50 kW/m 2 , correspondent to the years. 

When pine wood samples, treated with fire retardant solution BAK-1, were subjected to 

heat fluxes of 40, 45 kW/m 2 , it was estimated that time to ignition of the second year (2009) 

samples was shorter when compared to the time to ignition of the first year (2008) samples: 

40 kW/m 2 – 1.58 times, 45 kW/m 2 – 2.93 times on the average; time to ignition of the third 


samples: 40 kW/m 2 – 1.82 times, 45 kW/m 2 – 3.57 times on the average (Fig. 4). 

Time [s] 

Time [s] 

280 

260 

240 

220 

200 

180 

160 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

650 

600 

550 

500 

450 

400 

350 

300 

250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

2008 

2009 

2010 

40 45 50 

2008 

2009 

2010 


40 45 50 


Fig. 4. Average times to ignition of the pine wood samples treated with fire retardant solution BAK-1, subjected 

to heat fluxes of 40, 45, 50 kW/m 2 , correspondent to the years. 

When spruce wood samples, treated with fire retardant solution BAK-1, were subjected to 

heat fluxes of 40, 45 kW/m 2 , it was estimated that time to ignition of the second year (2009) 

samples was shorter when compared to the time to ignition of the first year (2008) samples: 

40 kW/m 2 – 3.84 times, 45 kW/m 2 – 1.11 times on the average; time to ignition of the third 


samples: 40 kW/m 2 – 6.11 times, 45 kW/m 2 – 1.79 times on the average (Fig. 5). 

When all samples of the second (2009) and third (2010) year were subjected to heat flux 

of 50 kW/m 2 , it was estimated that time to ignition when compared to the time to ignition of 

all the first year (2008) samples was similar. 

344

Time [s] 

360 

320 

280 

240 

200 

160 

120 

80 

40 

0 

2008 

2009 

2010 

40 45 50 


Fig. 5. Average times to ignition of the spruce wood samples treated with fire retardant solution BAK-1, affected 

by 40, 45, 50 kW/m 2 heat fluxes, correspondent to the years. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The calorific value of timber treated with fire retardant solution is lower when compared 

to the calorific value of the same kind untreated timber and the calorific value of timber 

treated with antiseptic solution is higher when compared to the calorific value of the same 

kind untreated timber. 

Process of ageing influences the combustibility of wood treated with fire retardant 

solutions when the heat flux varies from 40 to 45 kW/m 2 

It is not possible to estimate the influence of ageing on combustibility of timber treated 

with fire retardant solutions when heat flux is lower than 40 kW/m 2 (time to ignition is longer 

than 900 s) by the used research methodology. The influence of ageing on combustibility of 

wood treated with fire retardant solutions when heat flux is 50 kW/m 2 , is not substantial. 

REFERENCES 

1. STEVENS, R., DAAN, S., BEZEMER R., KRANENABARG A., 2006: The structure 

– activity relationship of fire retardant phosphorus compounds in wood. Polymer 

Degradation and Stability 91; 832–841. 

2. GREXA O., 2000: Flame retardant treated wood products. The proceedings of wood 

and fire safety (part one). Zvolen; 101–110. 

3. PRANIAUSKAS V., MA�IULAITIS R., LIPINSKAS D., 2010: Research of variuos 

fire-retardant treated wood species. The 10 th international conference ,,Modern 

buildings materials, structures and techniques“ May 19-21, 2010 Lithuania. Selected 

papers, vol. 2; 1286-1291. 

4. KARPOVI� Z., 2009: Antipireniniais tirpalais impregnuotos medienos 

užsiliepsnojimo priklausomyb� nuo medienos tankio [The influence of flame retardant 

treated timber density on the combustibility]. Mokslas – Lietuvos ateitis [Science – 

future of Lithuania], 1(5); 30–33. 

5. ŠUKYS R., KARPOVI� Z., 2010: Research on toxicity of pine timber treated and 

non-treated with fire retardants. The 10 th international conference ,,Modern buildings 

materials, structures and techniques“ May 19-21, 2010 Lithuania. Selected papers, vol. 

2, 1306-1313. 

6. LST EN ISO 1716:2002: Reaction to fire tests for building products - Determination 

of the heat of combustion (Badania palno�ci wyrobów budowlanych – oznaczanie 

ciepla spalania). 

345

7. LST EN ISO 5657:1999: Reaction to fire test. Ignibility of building products using a 

radiant heat source (Badania reakcji na ogie�. Zapalene si� wyrobów budowlanych 

poddanych bezpo�redniemu dzia�aniu promieniowania cieplnego). 

Streszczenie: Badania drewna impregnowanego ognioochronnymi i antyseptycznymi 

�rodkami chemicznymi. W wielu krajach szeroko wykorzystuje si� drewno w budownictwie. 

W celu ochrony drewna przed wp�ywem czynników �rodowiskowych oraz w celu 

zmniejszenia palno�ci s� u�ywane antyseptyczne i ognioochronne �rodki chemiczne. W pracy 

przedstawiono wyniki bada� dla drewna �wierkowego i sosnowego impregnowanych 

�rodkiem antyseptycznym Asepas 2 i �rodkami ognioochronnymi Flamasepas-2 i Bak-1. 

Badania przeprowadzone zgodnie z wymaganiami norm LST EN ISO 1716:2002 i LST EN 

ISO 5657:1999. 


Zbignev Karpovi�, Vladas Praniauskas, Romualdas Ma�iulaitis 

Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, 

11 Saul�tekio st. , 

LT-10223 Vilnius, 

Lithuania 

e-mail: zbignev.karpoovic@vgtu.lt 

email: romualdas.maciulaitis@vgtu.lt 

email: vladas.praniauskas@vgtu.lt 






Poland 

e-mail: wjaskolowski@sgsp.edu.pl




The effect of ageing in natural conditions on the basic properties of waterbased 

paint coatings 

ANDRZEJ K�DZIERSKI, 1) ANNA POLICI�SKA – SERWA 2) 

1) Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, 

2) Building Research Institute – ITB 

Abstract: The effect of ageing on selected properties of paint coatings made with water-based paints. The 

analysis concerned the aesthetic and decorative properties – important to users of fenestration joinery. 

Observations were conducted before and during the ageing test performed in natural conditions according to PN- 

EN 927-3. It was determined that water-based coatings, opaque and transparent, applied on samples of wood 

from oak, pine, spruce, and larch, did not undergo significant changes in appearance, sheen, colour, and 

adhesiveness after 3, 6, and 12 months of ageing. 

Key words: exterior fenestration joinery, paint coatings on wood, ageing of paint coatings, change of colour, 

change of appearance, adhesiveness. 

INTRODUCTION 

Natural environments in which buildings are exploited differ in specific characteristics 

resulting from the degree of urbanisation and saturation with industrial facilities. The air and 

precipitation containing region-specific quantities of pollutants have different effects on 

surfaces, such as the wooden fenestration joinery. 

Experience proves the importance of good-quality paint coating on the durability and 

usability of the joinery. Meanwhile, the quality of the joinery is strictly related to the coating 

system applied, and the user's care exercised. What is also an interesting research subject is 

the relationship between new-generation, environmentally-friendly water-based coatings and 

the environment affecting them, as well as the duration of such effect. 

Coatings made with chemically cured, oil- and polyurethane-based varnishes and 

paints whose advantages were discovered in earlier research projects [Paprzycki, Proszyk, 

etc.] are currently replaced with water-bases paints. These coatings are also increasingly 

popular as study subjects [Proszyk, No�ewnik-Mate�ko, etc.]. 

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of ageing – occurring in natural 

conditions of two essentially different environments: urban and industrial one – on basic 

properties of water-based coatings, opaque, applied on four types of wood, most commonly 

used in the manufacture of windows in Poland – pinewood, oak, and less frequently 

(regionally) – spruce and larch. 

The scope of research included the assessment of appearance and properties of the 

coating before ageing, and after 3 and 6 months. Ageing research is continued. 

EXPERIMENTS 

The research programme was developed on the basis of the recommendations of the 

PN-EN 927-3:2002 standard. Paints and varnishes. Varnish products and coating systems 

were applied on exterior surfaces. Part 3: Study in normal weather conditions. 

Two exposures were performed: in Warsaw and in Katowice. 

Studied samples were of the same shape and size, i.e. 20x78x375 mm. The pinewood 

and spruce samples selected for the study were sapwood-free. All four wood types had ring 

orientation of 5 to 45%. 

347

Paint coatings were applied on samples at a window-production plant, using an 

industrial method recommended by the coating system producer. 

The coatings were applied on weathered wood with a humidity recommended by the 

system producer. 

The coating system applied on samples of pinewood, spruce, and larch consisted of the 

following: 

- impregnation, by immersion; 

- priming coat, by immersion; 

- intermediate coat, sprayed (180-200 μm, wet) 

- protective treatment of cross-section surfaces; 

- top coat (150-175 μm, wet) 

The coating system applied on samples of oak wood consisted of the following: 

- impregnation by immersion; 

- base coat, by immersion; 

- base coat, sprayed; 

- top layer, sprayed (150-175 μm, wet), 

- second top layer, sprayed (150-175 μm, wet). 

After the coating was cured in laboratory conditions, the first stage of so-called 

opening tests was conducted. These were made with research methods described in PN-EN or 

PN-EN ISO standards. They included the assessments most important to window users, i.e. 

the appearance – through the assessment of the degree of blistering, peeling, cracking, colour, 

sheen, and adhesiveness to the ground surface. The post-curing thickness of coatings and 

wood humidity were also measured. 

In each of the exposure locations 25 samples of each variant were exposed to outdoor 

conditions. 2 samples of each solution were kept in the laboratory for comparison purposes. 

The effect of the environment on the condition of the coatings was assessed after 3 and 

6 months from the start of the research project. 

In the assessment of the appearance/condition of sample surfaces procedures described 

in PN-EN or PN-EN ISO standards were applied. 

The same properties will be determined after longer periods of outdoor exposure in natural 

conditions. 

RESULTS 

Properties of coatings before and after ageing on exposures in Warsaw and Katowice 

were presented in Tables 1 and 2. 

348

Table 1. Results of coating assessments before and after ageing on exposure in Warsaw 

Results of assessments on different wood types, period of exposure (months), average 

Property 

pine oak 

values 

larch spruce 

Research 

standard 

0 3 6 0 3 6 0 3 6 0 3 6 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 

Sheen 

Initial 

appearance 

35.2 34.6 32.3 34.1 34.2 33.2 34.9 32,7 32,2 36,1 32.6 33,4 

PN-EN 

ISO 2813 

- blistering (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 PN-ISO 

- peeling (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 4628-1; 

- cracking (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)1 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 -2; -4; -5 

- chalking 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

- moulds 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Adhesiveness 

to ground 

surface 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

PN-EN 

ISO 2409 

Table 2. Results of coating assessments before and after ageing on exposure in Katowice 

Results of assessments on different wood types, period of exposure (months), 

Property 

pine oak 

average values 

larch spruce 

Research 

standard 

0 3 6 0 3 6 0 3 6 0 3 6 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 

Sheen 

Initial 

appearance 

35.2 34.5 32.1 34.1 34.1 30.8 34.9 33,5 31,3 36,1 32.0 31.2 

PN-EN 

ISO 2813 

- blistering (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 PN-ISO 

- peeling (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 4628-1; 

- cracking (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)1 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 (S0)0 -2; -4; -5 

- chalking 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

- moulds 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Adhesiveness 

to ground 

surface 

1 1 1 1 1 1/2 1 1 1 1 1 1/2 

PN-EN 

ISO 2409 

Having analysed the results given in the tables, it may be determined that ageing in 

natural conditions for the period of 3 and 6 months had little effect on the condition of the 

coatings, with greater changes being observed at the Katowice exposure. 

The only change noted was the reduction of coating adhesiveness to oak and spruce by 

one degree. 

Other parameters such as blistering, peeling, cracking, chalking, and mould development did 

not change or occur at all in the 3 or 6 months of exposure. 

CONCLUSION 

1. 3- and 6-month natural ageing of studied coatings results in minor loss of sheen, with 

the loss being a little greater in Katowice. 

2. No significant negative changes in the appearance of coatings were noted after 3 and 6 

months in neither Warszawa nor Katowice. 

3. It is reasonable to continue the study of properties of paint coatings on samples 

subjected to natural ageing. 

4. Research conducted in accordance with the above-mentioned standards are simple to 

be carried out, but as the samples are small and do not fully reflect the actual usage 

349

conditions, observations are also conducted of finished products made of the same 

types of wood and finished in analogical coating systems. 

REFERENCES 

1. PAPRZYCKI O., PROSZYK S., PRZYBYLAK A. 1985, Wyd. AR Pozna�. Materia�y 

do �wicze� z technologii wyka�czania powierzchni drewna i tworzyw sztucznych; 

2. PECINA H., PAPRZYCKI O.; Pokrycia lakierowe na drewnie PWR i L 1997; 

3. MATE�KO - NO�EWNIK M., PROSZYK S., 2004 „Influence the thermal aging 

exposition upon the prosperities of lacquer coating for Windows joinery, Part I 

Aesthetic – decorative features”; Annals of Warsaw Agricultural University, Forest 

and Wood technology, (55): 346-349. 

4. GRZE�KIEWICZ M., K�DZIERSKI A., SWACZYNA I., �WIETLICZNY M., 2005, 

Evaluation of degradation of paint coatings due to exposure to natural climate. Annals 

of Warsaw Agricultural University, Forest and Wood technology, (56): 272-274. 

Streszczenie: Powietrze i opady atmosferyczne, zawieraj�ce charakterystyczne dla 

okre�lonego regionu ilo�ci zanieczyszcze� mog� inaczej w zale�no�ci od regionu 

oddzia�ywa� na powierzchnie drewnianej stolarki otworowej. Celem pracy jest zbadanie 

wp�ywu starzenia - odbywaj�cego si� w warunkach naturalnych, w dwu zasadniczo ró�nych 

�rodowiskach: miejskim i przemys�owym, na podstawowe w�a�ciwo�ci pow�oki 

wodorozcie�czalnych, kryj�cej, wykonanej na czterech gatunkach drewna, najcz��ciej w 

Polsce stosowanych do produkcji okien - so�nie, d�bie, i rzadziej - regionalnie, modrzewiu i 

�wierku. Zakres pracy obejmuje ocen� podstawowych cech wygl�du i przyczepno�ci pow�oki 

do pod�o�a po up�ywnie 3 i 6 miesi�cy ekspozycji. Badania s� kontynuowane. 


Andrzej K�dzierski, 


159 nowoursynowska str., 02-776 Warszawa 

e-mail Andrzej_Kedzierski@sggw.pl; 

Anna Polici�ska – Serwa, 

Building Research Institute 

21, Ksawerów str, 02-656 Warszawa 

e-mail a.serwa@itb.pl




�� , �� 

�� 

N.A. KHODOSOVA, JAN SEDLIACIK*, V.A. VARIVODIN, �.�. ANISIMOV 

Faculty of wood processing technology of Voronezh State Academy of forestry Engineering 

*�� , ��, �. �� 

Abstract: � �� , �� 

��: �� , �� . �� 

�� . �� 2 % 

�� 2 �� 

�� . �� 

�� : �� 20 �� 50 � � �� 

�� 21 %. �� 

��, �� 30 % �� 50 % �� 20 

%, � �� (100 %) – �� 84 %. 

Keywords: ��, ��, ��, ��, �� 

INTRODUCTION 

�� 50 

�� [1]. �� 

�� – 96,1%, �� 

�� 100 % �� 5 – 6 ��, �� 

�� – �� 10 ��. 

�� – 

��, �� , �� 

��, �� , ��, �� . �� 

�� 

��, �� 

�� . �� 

�� , ��, �� 

�� . 

�� 

�� . �� 

�� [2]. �� 

�� , �� 

��, �� [3]. 

�� 

��. ��, �� 

�� (�� ) �� 

�� 

�� . 

351

�� 

�� , �� , 

�� . 


�� , � �� Al 3+ - 

Fe 3+ - Mg 2+ - �� , 

�� 2:1 – �� 

��. � �� 

�� 0,03 – 0,12 ��, � � �� 

�� . �� 

�� 

�� 0,011 �� 48 

�� 453 � [4,5]. 

�� , �� , �� 

�� [6]. 

RESULTS AND DISCUTION 

�� 

�� . �� 

�� , � �� 

�� . �� 

� �� 1 - 4 % �� . �� 

�� 1. 

�� 1. �� 

�� 

�� 

�� , ��/� 

�� , % 

3 

�� 0,141 

1 0,138 

2 0,134 

3 0,133 

4 0,134 

�� , �� 2 % �� 

�� . 

�� 

�� 

�� 

�� , �� 

�� [1]. 

�� , 

�� , �� 

��, � �� , �� 

�� [7]. 

� �� , �� 

�� 

352

��, ��: ��, �� 

[8]. 

� �� 

�� , �� 

��, � �� , �� 

� �� , � �� 48 �� 453 �. 

�� 2 � 3. 

�� 2. – �� 

�� , ��/� 3 

�� 2 % �� (�/� + ��) 

t = 20 o C 

(t = 20 o C) (t = 30 o C) (t = 40 o C) (t = 50 o C) 

0,124 0,056 0,059 0,063 0,068 

�/� – �� (453 �), �� – �� 

�� 55 %. �� 

�� 20 �� 30 � � �� 5,3 %, �� 

�� 20 �� (�� 20 �� 40 � �) �� 

�� 12 %. �� 50 � � �� (�� 21 %). �� 

�� . 

�� 3. – �� (W) �� 

�� 

W = 30 % 

�� , ��/� 3 

� �� 2 % �� (�/� + ��) 

(W = 30 %), (W = 50 %) (W = 100 %) 

0,124 0,056 0,067 0,103 

�� 

�� 30% �� 55 %. 

�� 30 �� 50 % �� 

�� 20 %. �� 100 % �� 

�� 84 %. �� , �� 

�� , �� 

��, �� , �� 20 % � �� 

�� , �� . 

CONCLUSION 

��, �� 20 �� 

50 � � �� 21 %, �� 

�� , �� 

�� 84 %. ��, � �� 

�� 0,056 ��/� 3 , �� 2 �� 

�� . �� 

��, �� 

�� . 

353

LITERATURE 

1. ��, �.�. �� 

�� – ��, 

�� / �� . �.�. 

�� // www.health.gov.ua. 

2. ��, �.�. �� / �.�. ��, �.�. 

�� – ��.: �� , 1975.– 350 �. 

3. ��, �. �. �� ./ �.�. 

�� – �.: ��, 1979. – 231 �. 

4. ��, �. �. �� 

��, �� / �� . �., 

�� .�., �� .�. // �� 

��. – 2009. – �.45. �2. – �.218-221. 

5. Khodosova, N.A. Adsorption of Formaldehyde from Gaseous Phase by Thermally 

Activated Nanoporous Celite / N.A. Khodosova, L.I. Belchinskaya, G.A. Petuchova , 

O.V Voisheva // Protection of Metals and Physical Chemistry of Surfaces. – 2009. 

Vol. 45, � 6, �p. 722 – 727. 

6. ��, �.�. �� 

�� 

��: ��-��. / �.�. �� . �. ��, �.�. 

��. – �.: ��, 1987. – �. 16-19. – (�� ; ��. 

12). 

7. Weigel, H.I. The effects of air pollutats on forest free from a plant physiological 

View/ H. I.Weigel, G. Halbwacha, H.I. Tager // Z. Pflanzenkzukh, 1989. Bd. 96.H.2. 

S. 203-217. 

8. ��, �. �. �� : ��. / �. �. 

��, �. �. ��, �. �. ��. – 2-� ��., ��. ��. – �.: 

��. ��-��, 1987. – 224 �. 

Streszczenie: Badania czynników wp�ywaj�cych na emisj� formaldehydu ze sklejki Pod 

uwag� brane s� nast�puj�ce czynniki wp�ywaj� na emisj� formaldehydu ze sklejki: masa 

wype�niaczy, temperatura i wilgotno�ci otoczenia. Warunki korzystania ze sklejki i jej 

produktów by�y rozpatrywane na stopie� emisji formaldehydu. I tak: wzrost temperatury 

otoczenia od 20 do 50 ° C zwi�ksza emisj� formaldehydu o 21%. Innym wa�nym czynnikiem 

jest wilgotno��. Wzrost jej od 30% do 50% prowadzi do wzrostu emisji formaldehydu o 20%.




Application of acoustic signals in preventing of animal damages in farming 

and forest cultivations 

SYLWESTER KOWALCZYK 

Forestry Inspectorate Wali�y 

Abstract: Article presents working principle and application possibilities of prototype acoustic chaser to repel 

animals from faming and forest cultivations. Reaction testing of wild animals was assessed, in their home areas 

and at the bait stations. This enables of testing accustomization of animals to specific acoustic signals. Chaser 

emits signals consisting of natural alarming-informative sounds. 

Keywords: UOZ-1, animal damages, forest and farming crop protection 

INTRODUCTION 

Last years increased density of wild hoofed mammals is being observed, such as: roedeers, 

(Capreolus capreolus) , wild boars (Sus strofa), deers (Cervus elaphus) (GUS 2009). 

Dynamic increase of deer density is supported by the lack of predators such as: wolfs (Canis 

lapus),lynxes (Lynx lynx), bears (Ursus arctos). Considering lack of natural enemies deers 

create larger swarms, influencing damage’s size (Zaborowski, 1977; K�osi�ska, Kowalczyk, 

2005). What is more, winter emergency feeding, artificially enriching natural diet mainly in 

non-existing in natural biotope highly caloric hydrocarbons, has its influence in deer density 

as well. Winter emergency feeding limits death rate and increases fertility (Drozd, Florek, 

1977). Occuring in high densities hermivores cause damages in the forests and surrounding 

farms. Most frequent damages are tapping trees in the young stands, shoot baiting and 

trampling down of forest and farming crops ( K�osi�ska, Bobi�ska, 2006) (Fig. 1 and 2). 

Fig. 1. Tapped pine 

355

Fig. 2. Pine shoot baiting 

Wild animals increasingly penetrate urban areas. This phenomena is visible in the 

holiday resorts, such as Krynica Morska, Sopot, but also in the large cities like Warsaw, 

noticing two times increase in the wild boar density. (data of Lasy Miejskie-Warsaw) (Fig. 3). 

Fig. 3. Wild boars (Sus scrofa) in the city 

356

Despite methods of forest an farming crops protection applied yet (biological, mechanical and 

chemical), damages are not substantially lowered. According to Polish Hunting Association 

insurance compensations for 2007/2008 season increased by half in comparison to 2006/2007 

and equal 33 millions of PLN. This proves lack of effectiveness fo far applied methods of 

animal damages prevention. 

Working principle of UOZ-1 device 

Fencing and chemical treatment are presently used as an forest and agricultural 

cultivations protective means. They do not however fulfill expectations of farmers and 

foresters. Crops fencing is expensive, and protects only small part of agrocenosis and forest 

cultivations. Animals are getting used to most of the preventive chemicals as well (Szukiel 

2001). 

Idea of utilization of natural acoustic signals for animal repelling arised during research 

on the topic of wild animal preservation in the railway areas. Device UOZ-1 utilized in this 

application is presently tested in Puszcza Knyszy�ska at Wali�y Forest Inspectorate (Fig. 4). 

Aims of the tests are: 

Fig. 4. UOZ-1 device during field test. 

1. Development of natural sounds sequence having response from the animals. 

Warning signal consisting of natural sounds will have alarming-informative 

character. 

357

2. Testing of animals accustomization level to natural warning signals. 

3. Development of innovative device based on acoustic signals for repelling animals 

away from farming areas and other places where their presence is undesirable. 

During the device tests direct observation of animal behavior should be applied. Method 

bases on analysis of animal reaction on natural sounds, being dummy stimulus, which means 

set of factors of highest priority triggering animal’s fear mechanisms. 

Yearlong animal observations are performed in two variants: 

1. Animals at open farming cultivations. 

2. Animals at bait site. 

In the first variant observations are made at open agricultural cultivations, where 

following individual sounds are being tested: jay sounds, barking dogs, roe-buck, howling 

wolfs etc. 

These sounds are emitted to individual animal species appearing at open cultivations, 

causing highest damages such as wild boars, roe-deers, or deers. Individual animals and 

animal groups are observed. Various cultivations are tested, considering aerial placement in 

the forest neighborhood as an animal shelter. Observations are videotaped or photographed 

automatically. 

This observation manner allows determination of type and time of reaction, from sound 

to animal escape. Analysis of various sounds will enable acoustic sequent determination with 

best animal reaction properties 

Second variant incorporates bait site tests. Test area placed in standard farming-meadow 

cultivations, with feed placed in aim to obtain high number of animals in one place. Nearby 

bait site, at 6 meter pole, recording system is placed. System is based on high quality high 

definition camera with infrared lighting, connected with computer stand placed at 500 meter 

distance. At the moment of animal appearance at the bait site automatic chasing sound 

emission occurs. 

Analysis of collected material enables of individual animals recognition. This 

determines time of second appearance at the bait site after repelling, and reaction time after 

signal emission. At the same time reaction times after the first and following emissions are 

determined. This procedure gives basis to conclusion if animals are getting accustomed to 

repelling natural sounds. 

Tests made with UOZ-1 enable determination of sound sequences causing animal 

repelling and degree of accustomization to them. Obtained data should result in creation of 

functional device for forest and farming cultivation protection. 

Device for wild animal chasing will have use mainly for: 

- Crops protection against animal damages both at large area and small farming cultivations 

(cereals, root crops, meadows, pastures) or gardening cultivations like hazelnut orchard. 

- Preventing of wild animals intrusion into urban areas. 

- Creation of safety barrier against animals on motoring lanes. 

Device will be technologically innovative, portable, and competitive in comparison to 

present technologies of animal damage prevention. What is more important, unit will conform 

to European Union standards of limited chemical treatment of wild animals. 

358

REFERENCES 

1. Drozd L., Florek M., 1997: Le�nictwo, WAR, Lublin 

2. K�osi�ska T., Kowalczyk S., 2005: Forest stands protection against Animals In the 

Rogów for estry inspectorate, Ann. Warsaw Agricult. Univ. – SGGW, For. and Wood 

Technol. 56: 336-340 

3. K�osi�ska T., Bobi�ska R., 2006: The animals-caused damages impact on trees 

condition in pine forest stands, Ann. Warsaw Agricult. Univ. – SGGW, For. and Wood 

Technol. 58: 409-412 

4. Szukiel E., 2001: Ochrona drzewostanów przed ro�lino�ernymi ssakami, CILP, 

Warszawa 

5. Zaborowski S., 1977: Ochrona Lasu, PWRiL, Warszawa 

Streszczenie. Wykorzystanie sygna�ów akustycznych do zapobiegania szkodom �owieckim w 

uprawach rolnych oraz le�nych. W artykule przedstawiono zasad� dzia�ania oraz mo�liwo�ci 

wykorzystania prototypowego urz�dzenia do odstraszania dzikich zwierz�t z upraw rolnych 

oraz le�nych. Zwrócono uwag� na mo�liwo�� przebadania reakcji zwierz�t na sygna�y 

akustyczne zarówno w obr�bie ich area�ów jak i na obszarach n�cisk. Pozwala to sprawdzi� 

przyzwyczajanie si� zwierz�t do okre�lonych sygna�ów akustycznych. Emitowane przez 

urz�dzenie ostrze�enie sk�ada si� z ci�gu naturalnych alarmuj�co-informacyjnych sygna�ów 

d�wi�kowych zaczerpni�tych ze �wiata przyrody. Urz�dzenie UOZ-1 jest konkurencyjne 

cenowo w stosunku do dotychczas stosowanych sposobów ograniczaj�cych szkody w 

uprawach rolnych i le�nych. Jednoczenie, co najwa�niejsze jest to produkt zgodny z 

zaleceniami przepisów Unii Europejskiej ograniczaj�cych stosowanie �rodków chemicznych 

w przypadku dziko �yj�cych zwierz�t. 


Sylwester Kowalczyk, Nadle�nictwo Wali�y, ul. Bia�ostocka 3, 16-040 Gródek; e-mail: 

sylwester.kowalczyk@bialystok.lasy.gov.pl




The noise level of circular sawblades with the irregular tooth pitch 

ZDEN�K KOPECKÝ, MIROSLAV ROUSEK, P�EMYSL VESELÝ 

Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Czech Republic 

Abstract: The noise level of circular sawblades with the irregular tooth pitch. 

The paper describes effects of the irregular tooth pitch and dilatation and noise-elimination grooves on the level 

of noise. The measurement of noisiness was carried out by standard operational methods at idle run and at 

sawing on prototype circular sawblades of Stelit and Pilana companies. The sawblades of the same diameter of 

350 mm were equipped with 36 sintered carbide teeth. Positive effects have been proved of the irregular pitch of 

teeth and dilatation and noise-elimination grooves on the noise level of a circular sawblade. 

Keywords: circular sawblade, vibration, resonance, noise level 

INTRODUCTION 

Emissions of circular sawblades are affected by two factors. The first factor consists in 

the air compression and turbulence due to circulating teeth at the disk rotation. This factor can 

be affected by the suitable design of teeth, tooth gaps or reducing the circumferential speed of 

the disk. The second factor consists in vibrations of the sawblade body and rim. These 

vibrations are affected particularly by the circular sawblade construction, the sawblade grip, 

cut material and the cutting force size. In some cases, particularly at reaching resonance rpm, 

the sawblades emit sometimes higher noise levels at idle run than at sawing. This noise is 

intense resonance noise known also as “whistling circular sawblades”. 

In present furniture and timber industries, asymmetric circular sawblades are often used. 

In the sawblade body, compensation and noise-elimination grooves are created by laser. 

Effects of the number of grooves, their length and shape were examined in many research 

papers, eg NISHIO S. – MARUI E. (1996), SIKLIENKA M. – SVORE� J. (1997), STACHIEV Y.M. 

(1989), ORLOWSKI, K.A. (2005), SVORE� J. (2006). 

a) Faba b) Pilana c) Freud 

Fig. 1. Noise-elimination grooves 

360

Noise-elimination grooves demonstrate rather important effects on reducing the noise 

level at circular sawblades equipped with sintered carbide teeth (according to literature data, 

the reduction reaches 3 to 5 dB). At least three and more grooves are used. The circular 

sawblade manufacturers created their own specific shapes in the course of time. Thus, the 

majority of companies (Freud, Pilana, Schmidt etc.) consider these groove shapes to be their 

“know-how” (see Fig. 1). Other modifications consist in the use of copper rivets at the end of 

dilatation grooves, using dampening plates, teflon coatings etc. Using the circular sawblade 

rims with the irregular tooth pitch appears to be a rather new adjustment. 


The research focal point was aimed at the experimental part of the noise level 

evaluation. The experiment was realized on trial machinery intended for research into sawing 

by circular sawblades (see Fig. 2.). Measured data were transferred using the Spider 8 logger 

and subsequently processed in tables and diagrams by the Conmes Spider program. 

12 

7 8 

11 

5 

M 

9 

10 

4 

F 

vf f 

1 – spindle, 2 – electric motor with rpm regulation LS, 3 - cutting force Fc and speed vc sensor, 

4 – contactless sensor of vibrations A, 5 - grate table, 6 - noise meter, 7 – feeding carriage, 8 –electric motor for 

the carriage feed, 9 - ball screw, 10 – nut, 11 – feeding force sensor Ff, 12 – frequency converter for the feeding 

speed change vf 

Fig. 2. The experimental stand scheme 

Three similar circular sawblades (marked K8, K9 and K10) intended for sawing 

massive wood were the subject of our research. It refers to prototype disks, which were 

manufactured by Pilana and Stelit companies. All three disks are of the same thickness s=2.4 

mm and the same number of teeth z=36, the geometry of teeth �=15�, �=65�, �=10� and the 

same bevel angle �=10�. However, substantial differences occur at the K8 disk, which shows 

the irregular tooth pitch (supposed objective – reduction of the level of noise). The size of 

particular pitches and their placing along the circular sawblade circumference are 

demonstrated in Fig. 3. In the disk body, noise-elimination grooves in the form of a 

harmonica are created. These grooves are terminated by bores of a diameter of 6 mm. In 60° 

361 

Spider 8 

A 

PC 

Fc 

Fc 

vc vc L 

1 3 2 6 

M LS

spacing, radial grooves are created in the disk body to compensate tangential stress. Also 

these grooves are terminated by 6 mm bores. No compensation rolling was carried out on the 

disk. The K9 disk shows the uniform tooth pitch standard modifications being carried out on 

the disk body including compensation rolling, which is usual at standard circular sawblades. 

The K10 disk was manufactured without noise-elimination and dilatation grooves. 

Obr. 5 Konstrukce pilové kotou�e K9 Pilana 

a) A disk with the irregular tooth pitch b) A disk with the uniform tooth pitch 

Fig. 3. K8 Stelit and K9 Pilana disks 

The circular sawblade noise was measured by means of a Chauvin Arnoux CA834 

noise meter with the digital record of the noise level accurate to ±1.5%. The noise meter was 

placed 100 cm from the measured disk and 150 cm above the ground in the place of the saw 

operator working zone. 

Fig. 4. Chauvin Arnoux noise meter and its placing at the experimental stand 

Increasing the noise level is closely connected with a vibrating circular sawblade and 

resonance frequencies. At present, allowable noise levels are dealt with by the decree of the 

CR government No. 148/2006 Gaz., which is related to “Acoustics – noise in the working 

environment”. Thus, a duty results from this statutory order, namely preferably not to exceed 

362

the noise level of 85 dB. Already at these levels, it is recommended to use protective aids. At 

exceeding the acoustic pressure level by 10 dB, using the aids for the protection of ear from 

damage is required (ear protectors inserted into the operator auditory canal). At noise 

expositions over 95 dB, head-phone protectors have to be used. 

The level of acoustic pressure Lp [dB] related to the reference acoustic pressure p0 = 20 

μPa, which corresponds to audibility threshold at the frequency of 1000 Hz, is a basic 

descriptor to characterize the noise level in the working environment. 

An expression of the noise level in decibels [dB] partly describes the physiology of 

hearing when the linear increment of the acoustic perception corresponds to the stimulation 

relative change (Fechner-Weber law) and partly makes possible to classify noise data because 

a dynamic range from the audibility threshold p = 20 μPa to the threshold of pain p = 200 Pa, 

ie 7 orders, is covered by the range of 140 dB. 

The acoustic pressure level (dB) is then determined from a relation 

where 

L 20 log� 

p 

p � [dB] ( 1 ) 

po 

p – acoustic pressure 

p0 = 2.10 –5 Pa – the lowest value of acoustic pressure – audibility threshold 

From the dynamic range aspect the audibility zone extends from the audibility 

threshold (the level of acoustic pressure 0 dB) to the pain threshold, ie more than 130 dB. The 

threshold of inadmissibility, where irrecoverable damage to hearing occurs (loss of hearing), 

happens at the level of acoustic pressure 140 dB (p = 200 Pa). 

RESULTS 

Static fst and dynamic frequencies fd of characteristic vibrations of circular sawblades 

and coefficients of a centrifugal force � were determined in cooperation with TU Zvolen on a 

special trial machinery (VESELÝ-KOPECKÝ-SVORE�, 2010). Calculated resonance and critical 

rpm of tested disks are given in Tab. 1. 

Tab. 1. Resonance and critical rpm of tested circular sawblades 

Disk 

type 

K8 

K9 

K10 

Nodal 

diameters 

k 

The first 

resonance 

rpm 

nr1 

(min -1 ) 

363 

The second 

resonance rpm 

nr2 

(min -1 ) 

Critical 

rpm 

nk 

(min -1 ) 

1 3 801 2 252 - 

2 2 973 2 085 5 807 

3 3 036 2 347 4 398 

1 3 479 2 111 - 

2 3 206 2 223 6 713 

3 3 762 2 881 5 600 

1 4 414 2 416 - 

2 4 075 2 743 11 007 

3 4 912 3 721 7 557

At assessing the effect of construction modifications on the noise level of tested 

circular sawblades the zone of minimum vibrations with n = 4200 min -1 was selected. Cutting 

conditions were set in the zone of commonly used parameters for circular sawblades of this 

type, viz. vc = 77 m.s -1 and vf = 10 m.min -1 . The noise level test was carried out at idle run and 

at sawing softwood (spruce) and hardwood (beech). 

Scantlings 32 mm thick and 700 mm long with the moisture content of 11% were cut. 

Results of the noise level measurement at the idle run and at sawing beech scantlings are 

given in Fig. 5. 

Fig. 5. Comparison of the noise level of tested disks at idle run and at cutting 

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 

Construction adjustments, particularly noise-elimination grooves, show positive effects 

on decreasing the noise level mainly at sawing when differences between the unaltered disk 

K10 and the modified disk K9 were 3 dB, ie the reduction of acoustic pressure up to 50% (see 

Fig. 5). Even better results were achieved at a disk with the irregular tooth pitch (K8). Here, 

decline by 4 dB was noted as against the noise level of a disk without adjustments (K10). 

Another favourable effect of the disk consisted in the change of the noise character from 

periodically repeated uniform noise frequencies to irregularly repeated noise waves, which are 

(at the same acoustic pressure) more acceptable for man. 

At idle run, insignificant differences in the noise level occurred between the disks (see 

Fig. 5). It is given by a fact that in this case, only aerodynamic noise is dominant and, thus, 

the effect of dilatation and noise-elimination grooves is not exerted. Similar results were also 

obtained in research carried out abroad where the noise level reduction was noted at similarly 

modified circular sawblades with irregular tooth pitch, namely by 2 to 4 dB (Svore�, 2006). 

364

These findings correspond well with data mentioned in brochures of some manufactures of 

circular sawblades (Leitz, Freud). 

A certain paradox of dilatation and noise-elimination grooves consists in the decrease 

of the disk stiffness and the shift of resonance and critical rpm to lower speed levels (see Tab. 

1). For example, the difference of critical rpm between the K10 plain disk (without noiseelimination 

and dilatation grooves, nk3 = 7557 min -1 ) and the disk with the irregular tooth 

pitch K8 (nk3 = 4398 min -1 ) was 3159 min -1 . However, it is necessary to take into account that 

the plain disk of the circular sawblade is excessively liable to increased temperatures and at 

higher temperatures, considerable deformations of the disk and the disk rim occur. Thus, the 

critical condition of instability can happen even at lower rpm. 

REFERENCES 

1. JAVOREK L´. – SOKOLOWSKI W. (2000): Drgania pil tarczowych plaskich. In: 

Proceedings 14 th Scientific Conference „Drewno – material wszech czasów“. 

Warsaw, 2000, pp. 118 – 121. 

2. FENDELEUR D. – AUBRY E. – KAISER E.– RENNER M. (1999): Dynamical 

measurements and evaluation of the tension of circular saw blades. In: Proceedings 

14 th International Wood Machining Seminar. Paris, 1999. 

3. GOGLIA V. – LUCIC R.B. (1999): Some possibilities of reducing circular saw idling 

noise. In: Proceedings 14 th International Wood Machining Seminar. Paris, 1999. 

4. KOPECKÝ Z. – SVORE� J. – HRIC J.- PERŠIN M. (2007): Comparison of the circular-saw 

blade vibrations. In: Wood-Machine-Tool-Workpiece. Bedlewo-Pozna�, 2007. 

5. NISHIO S. – MARUI E. (1996): Effects of slots on the lateral vibration of circular saw 

blade. In: Proccedings of the tenth Wood Machining Seminar, 1996, pp. 159 –164. 

6. SIKLIENKA M. – SVORE� J. (1997): Frekvencie vlastných tvarov kmitov pílových 

kotú�ov p�i statickom kmitaní. TU Zvolen. [Scientific studies]. 

7. STACHIEV Y.M. (1989): Rabotosposobnos� ploskich kruglych pil. Moskva: Lesnaja 

promyšlenost, 1989, 384 pp. 

8. SVORE� J. (2006): Vplyv kompenza�ních drážok, medených nitov a nerovnom�rného 

rozstupu zubov pílového kotú�a na hladinu hluku v procese rezania. In: Sborník V. 

mezinárodní v�decké konference “Trieskové a beztrieskové obrábanie dreva”, 2006, 

pp. 271–276. 

9. VESELÝ P. – KOPECKÝ Z. - SVORE� J. (2010): Vliv konstrukce t�la pilového kotou�e 

na jeho kritické otá�ky a vibrace v pásmu použitelných otá�ek. In: Sborník VII. 

mezinárodní v�decké konference “Chip and Chipless Woodworking Procesess”, 2010. 

Acknowledgement: This paper was prepared in connection with a partial project within the CR MSM 

6215648902 Research Plan. The author thanks for a financial support to deal with the project. 

365

Streszczenie: Ha�as pi� tarczowych z niejednorodnym rozstawem z�bów. Praca dotyczy 

wp�ywu niejednorodnego uz�bienia i naci�� przeciwrezonansowych na poziom szumu pi�. 

Testy by�y przeprowadzane na biegu luzem oraz standardowym pi�owaniu przy u�yciu pi� 

prototypowych firm Stelit i Pilana. Pi�y o �rednicy 350 mm by�y wyposa�one w 36 nak�adek 

z w�glików spiekanych. Udowodniono pozytywny wp�yw niejednorodnego uz�bienia oraz 

naci�� na zmniejszenie ha�asu. 


Doc. Ing. Zden�k Kopecký, CSc., Prof. Ing. Miroslav Rousek, CSc., Ing. P�emysl Veselý 

Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology 

Zem�d�lská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic 

tel: +420 545134527 e-mail: kopecky@mendelu.cz




Thermal characteristic of the particleboards produced from fibrous chips 

GRZEGORZ KOWALUK 1 , PIOTR BORUSZEWSKI 2 , PIOTR BORYSIUK 2 , MARCIN 

ZBIE� 2 

1 Certification Centre of Wood Industry Products, Wood Technology Institute 

2 Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 

Abstract: Thermal characteristic of the particleboards produced from fibrous chips. In the present paper the 

investigation of the thermal conductivity coefficient, thermal capacity and temperature conductivity coefficient 

of the laminated particleboards produced from fibrous chips from willow Salix Viminalis L. and robinia Robinia 

Pseudoacacia L. are described. The above mentioned parameters are connected to the panels’ density. There is 

no significant dependence between the particles’ raw material and the thermal parameters of investigated panels. 

Key words: particleboard, fibrous chip, thermal capacity, thermal conductivity, temperature conductivity 

INTRODUCTION 

Development of wood based panels results in intensified demand for raw materials. In 

last five years production of particleboard in Poland increased about 25 % 

(www.faostat.fao.org). Thus, it seems obvious that search for new resources is reasonable 

and justified. In literature there are many reports on utilizing of fast-growing species like 

willow and poplar (Czechowska et al. 2010, Fr�ckowiak et al. 2008, Kowaluk et al. 2010, 

Kuzovkina and Volk 2009) It must be stressed that using alternative raw materials usually 

results in a change of mechanical and physical properties when compared to the standard 

boards (Niemz 1993). 

The aim of this work was to measure the thermal parameters of the laminated panels 

produced from fibrous chips from different raw materials. 


The investigated 3-layer panels were produced in laboratory scale from fibrous chips 

from willow Salix Viminalis L. and robinia Robinia Pseudoacacia L, as well as from 

industrial particles. The main production parameters were: density (assumed) 600 and 660 

kg/m3 respectively, thickness 16 mm, face layers share 32 %, urea-formaldehyde resin 

Silekol W-1C, resination 12 % core, 8 % face layers, pressing time coef. 10 s/mm. The test 

of the produced panels show that the density variations between the assumed and real values 

were less than 5 %. The panels were sanded on the industrial grinding machine to achieve the 

equal panel thickness, as well as the better surface roughness before laminating. The panels 

were both-face covered by commercial short-cycle laminate film. 

The measurement of the thermal parameters of the panels was conducted with use heat 

transfer analyzer Isomet 2104. 


The most significant parameter, describing the thermal features of the materials, is the 

thermal conductivity coefficient �. With this parameter the ability to heat conductance can be 

characterized. In case of isolating materials, the better is, when the � is low. For the 

investigated panels, the � is in the range of 0.132 – 0.136 W/mK for the panels with the 

density of 600 kg/m 3 and 0.141 – 0.143 W/mK for the panels with the density of 660 kg/m 3 

367

(fig. 1). It can be pointed that the type of the raw material of the panels do not influence on 

the thermal conductivity coefficient of the investigated panels. To compare the parameters of 

the investigated panels with the � of other materials: pine wood with the density 550 kg/m 3 

have thermal conductivity coefficient � = 0.160 W/mK, and for isolating porous panel from 

wood fibres, with the density 300 kg/m3 the � = 0.060 W/mK (according to PN-EN ISO 

6946: 2008). 

thermal conductivity coef. [W/mK] 

0.16 

0.14 

0.12 

0.1 

0.08 

0.06 

0.04 

0.02 

0 

willow 660 willow 600 robinia 660 robinia 600 ind. part. 660 ind. part. 600 

Fig. 1. Thermal conductivity coefficient of the investigated panels with the different density 

The thermal capacity of the investigated panels depends on the density of them (fig. 2). 

For the panels with the density of 600 kg/m 3 the thermal capacity was about 0.973 – 1.005 x 

10 6 J/m 3 K, and for the panels with the density of 660 kg/m 3 the thermal capacity was in the 

range of 1.066 – 1.115 x 10 6 J/m 3 K. Generally, the thermal capacity is the amount of heat to 

change the temperature of the (volume of the) body. The increase of the thermal capacity 

connected to the density of the panels can be due to the decrease of the empty spaces between 

the particles inside panel. The change of the temperature of the empty space (which is in fact 

filled by air) needs less heat than the change of the temperature of the space filled by wood 

particle, because of the differences between the specific heat of the air and wood. The panel 

with the higher density needs more heat to change the temperature. 

thermal capacity x10 6 [J/m 3 K] 

1.40 

1.20 

1.00 

0.80 

0.60 

0.40 

0.20 

0.00 


Fig. 2. Thermal capacity of the investigated panels with the different density 

368

The temperature conductivity coefficient has an opposite dependence than the thermal 

conductivity coefficient. For the investigated panels the temperature conductivity coefficient 

values were in the range of 0.133 – 0.138 x 10 -6 m 2 /s for the panels with the density of 600 

kg/m 3 and 0.127 – 0.134 x 10 -6 m 2 /s for the panels with the density of 660 kg/m 3 (fig. 3). The 

temperature conductivity can be important in case of panels for furniture production, because 

the materials with the low value of the temperature conductivity makes impression of “warm” 

bodies. For wood with the density between 450 and 700 kg/m 3 the temperature conductivity 

coefficient is about 0.153 x10 -6 – 0.111 x 10 -6 m 2 /s. The temperature conductivity coefficient 

for investigated panels was in the range of above mentioned values for wood. 

temperature conductivity coef. x10 -6 [m 2 /s] 

0.16 

0.14 

0.12 

0.1 

0.08 

0.06 

0.04 

0.02 

0 


Fig. 3. Temperature conductivity coefficient of the investigated panels with the different density 

CONCLUSIONS 

According to the above mentioned investigation it can be concluded that there is 

dependence between the density of the panels and values of the thermal conductivity 

coefficient, thermal capacity and temperature conductivity coefficient of the investigated 

panels. The research also shows that there is no significant dependence between the particles’ 

raw material and the thermal parameters of the panels. 




REFERENCES 

1. PN-EN ISO 6946: 2008, Building components and building elements - Thermal resistance 

and thermal transmittance - Calculation method. 

2. CZECHOWSKA J., BORYSIUK P., MAMI�SKI M., 2010: Low-density particleboards 

made of populus species (Populus L.), Ann. Warsaw Agricult. Univ.– SGGW, For. and 

Wood Technol. 70, 44-47. 

3. FR�CKOWIAK I., IDZIAK A., BENDOWSKA R., FUCZEK D., 2008: The 

characteristic of lightweight panels made from fast growing willow tree Salix viminalis. 

In: Proceedins of the International Symposium Cost E49 Lightweight wood-based 

composites Production, properties and usage, Slovenia, 81-95. 

369

4. KOWALUK G., PA�UBICKI B., FR�CKOWIAK I., MARCHAL R., BEER P., 2010: 

Influence of ligno-cellulosic particles on tribological properties of boards. Eur. J. Wood 

Prod. 68, 95-98. 

5. KUZOVKINA Y. A., VOLK T. A., 2009: The characterization of willow (Salix L.) 

varieties for use in ecological engineering applications: Co-ordination of structure, 

function and autecology. Ecol. Eng. 35, 1178-1189. 

6. NIEMZ P., 1993: Physik des Holzes und der Holzwerkstoffe. DRW-Verlag, Stuttgart. 

7. www.faostat.fao.org 

Streszczenie: Charakterystyka cieplna p�yt wiórowych z wiórów w�óknistych. W niniejszym 

artykule opisano wyniki bada� wspó�czynnika przewodnictwa cieplnego, pojemno�ci cieplnej 

oraz wspó�czynnika przewodzenia temperatury p�yt wiórowych laminowanych wytworzonych 

z wiórów w�óknistych z wierzby Salix Viminalis L. oraz robinii Robinia Pseudoacacia L. 

Badania wykaza�y zale�no�� wymienionych parametrów od g�sto�ci p�yt. Nie stwierdzono 

istotnej zale�no�ci pomi�dzy rodzajem surowca na wióry w�ókniste a parametrami cieplnymi 

badanych p�yt wiórowych. 


Grzegorz Kowaluk (corresponding author) 

Certification Centre of Wood Industry Products, Wood Technology Institute, 

Winiarska Str. 1, 60-654 Pozna�, Poland, 

e-mail: g_kowaluk@itd.poznan.pl 

Piotr Boruszewski, Piotr Borysiuk, Marcin Zbie�, 



Nowoursynowska 159, 02 – 776 Warsaw, Poland 

e-mail: piotr_boruszewski@sggw.pl, piotr_borysiuk@sggw.pl, marcin_zbiec@sggw.pl,




The quality of milling of the particleboards produced from fibrous chips 

GRZEGORZ KOWALUK 1 , MARCIN ZBIE� 2 , PIOTR BEER 3 

1 

Certification Centre of Wood Industry Products, Wood Technology Institute, Winiarska Str. 1, 60-654 


2 

Department of Mechanical Processing of Wood, Warsaw University of Life Science, Nowoursynowska 159, 02- 

776 Warsaw, Poland 

3 

Department of Construction and Technology of Final Wood Products, Warsaw University of Life Science, 

Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland 

Abstract: The quality of milling of the particleboards produced from fibrous chips. In the present paper the 

investigation of the quality of milling of the laminated particleboards produced from fibrous chips from willow 

Salix Viminalis L. and robinia Robinia Pseudoacacia L. are described. With the cutting edge bluntness the 

average laminate damage depth increases. The investigation shows also the better machining quality of the 

panels with higher density. 

Keywords: particleboard, fibrous chip, milling, quality, machining, laminate 

INTRODUCTION 

As it was investigated and confirmed by 0, the cutting edge stage is the main factor 

influencing the quality and accuracy of particleboard’s milling. According to 2, the 

production parameters of the panels, which influences on the mechanical features of the 

panels, also can be the solution to change the final quality of the laminated particleboards 

milling. Above mentioned investigations were conducted on the commercial or produced in 

laboratory conditions panels from industrial particles. There is no research on the quality of 

the laminated particleboards produced from fibrous chips. 

The aim of this work was to investigate the influence of the cutting edge’s wear on the 

quality of milling of the laminated panels produced from fibrous chips from different raw 

materials. 


The investigated 3-layer panels were produced in laboratory scale from fibrous chips from 

willow Salix Viminalis L. and robinia Robinia Pseudoacacia L, as well as from industrial 

particles. The main production parameters were: density (assumed) 600 and 660 kg/m 3 

respectively, thickness 16 mm, face layers share 32 %, urea-formaldehyde resin Silekol W- 

1C, resination 12 % core, 8 % face layers, pressing time coef. 10 s/mm. The test of the 

produced panels show that the density variations between the assumed and real values were 

less than 5 %. The panels were sanded on the industrial grinding machine to achieve the equal 

panel thickness, as well as the better surface roughness before laminating. The panels were 

covered by commercial short-cycle laminate film. 

The milling was conducted on industrial down-spindle milling machine GOMAD with the 

tool rotation speed 3000 min -1 , feed speed 3 m/min, cutting diameter 160 mm, thickness of 

cutting layer 2 mm, number of knives 1, knife material: HSS. The bluntness of the tool was 

measured as the edge loss in the edge rake face. 

371


The average laminate damage depth, depending on the edge bluntness for the investigated 

panels with the density of 600 kg/m 3 is shown on fig. 1, and for panels with the density of 660 

kg/m 3 on fig. 2. The linear regression equations are collected in table 1. As it is shown, in all 

presented cases the average laminate damage depth increases with the raising edge bluntness. 

This conclusion confirms the remark of previous research 3. The high square regression 

coefficient R 2 (table 1 – from 0.78 to 0.94) show that in this range of edge wear (under 240 

�m) the average laminate damage depth changes linearly. There is also strong dependence 

between the density of the panels and the intensity of damage depth increase: according to the 

slope coef. of the linear regressions, the all investigated panels with higher density had the 

smaller average laminate damage depth intensity. The most significant changes of the 

laminate damage depth increase with the panel density change were found for panels 

produced from willow fibrous chips, and the smallest – for panels from industrial particles. 

avg. laminate damage depth [�m] 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

0 50 100 150 200 

edge loss [�m] 

372 

ip 

w 

r 

linear (ind.part.) 

linear (willow) 

linear (robinia) 

Fig. 1. Average laminate damage depth after milling of the panels with the density 600 kg/m 3 ; panel from 

industrial particles (ip), willow (w) and robinia (r) 

avg. laminate damage depth [�m] 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

ip 

w 

r 

linear (ind.part.) 

linear (willow) 

linear (robinia) 

0 

0 50 100 150 200 

edge loss [�m] 

Fig. 2. Average laminate damage depth after milling of the panels with the density 660 kg/m 3 ; panel from 

industrial particles (ip), willow (w) and robinia (r)

Table 1. The linear regression equations of the dependence of the laminate damage depth on the 

edge bluntness 

Panel’s raw material Density [kg/m 3 ] Linear regression equation R 2 

industrial particles 

willow 

robinia 

CONCLUSIONS 

600 y = 0.4251x + 12.288 0.93 

660 y = 0.4086x + 6.418 0.78 

600 y = 0.5448x – 5.271 0.94 

660 y = 0.3236x + 1.5126 0.92 

600 y = 0.5014x + 5.8935 0.92 

660 y = 0.3779x + 5.0652 0.87 

The average laminate damage depth of the particleboards produced from fibrous chips 

during milling is strongly connected to the edge loss. In these investigation in the above 

mentioned edge loss range, this dependence could be the most precisely described by linear 

regression. 

The increase of the density of the panels causes the improvement of the quality of the 

particleboards milling. 




REFERENCES 

1. B. PORANKIEWICZ, Tool wear and the quality of machined material when 

cutting of Particleboard [in polish], Rozprawy Naukowe. Roczniki Akademii 

Rolniczej w Poznaniu, Zeszyt 341, 2003 

2. P. BEER, G. SINN, M. GINDL, S. E. STANZL-TSCHEGG, Work of fracture and 

of chips formation during linear cutting of particle-board. Journal of Materials 

Processing Technology 159, 2005 

3. G. KOWALUK, Work of cutting in the aspect of the quality of selected laminated 

particleboards machining, Ph.D. thesis, typescript in Faculty of Wood Technology, 

Poznan University of Life Sciences, Poznan, 2006 

Streszczenie: Jako�� obróbki frezowaniem p�yt wiórowych z wiórów w�óknistych. W 

niniejszym artykule opisano wyniki bada� jako�ci obróbki frezowaniem p�yt wiórowych 

laminowanych wytworzonych z wiórów w�óknistych z wierzby Salix Viminalis L. oraz robinii 

Robinia Pseudoacacia L. Wraz ze wzrostem st�pienia ostrza ros�a �rednia g��boko�� 

uszkodzenia laminatu. Badania wykaza�y równie� lepsz� jako�� obróbki p�yt o wy�szej 

g�sto�ci. 


Certification Centre of Wood Industry Products, Wood Technology Institute, Winiarska Str. 1, 

60-654 Pozna�, Poland, 

E-mail address: g_kowaluk@itd.poznan.pl (Grzegorz Kowaluk)




Shrinkage and swell in pine wood coming from XIX-th century 

constructional wood 

PAWE� KOZAKIEWICZ, MAGDALENA SZCZ�SNA, MA�GORZATA TOMCZAK 


Abstract: Shrinkage and swell in pine wood coming from XIXth century constructional wood. Many valuable 

monumental objects are made of regular pine wood (Pinus sylvestris L.). Approaching conservational work on 

the mentioned objects requires some knowledge of their physical properties such as shrinkage and swell. 

Professional literature does not have consistent opinion on his topic, showing sometimes even opposite 

statements. Considering various theories dealing with long-time wood aging effect in closed compartments, it is 

necessary to undertake research timing At precise descriptions of monumental wood. 

Keywords: shrinkage, swell, pine wood, natural wood aging 

INTRODUCTION 

Despite progress in analysis of aging impact on physical properties of wood, there is a 

lack of reliable information on wood used in closed compartments of buildings. Wood 

gradually degrades with time, under biotic and abiotic influence. Result of these is 

degradation of initial properties. In the conditions of negligible impact of biotic factors, 

natural wood aging process can be stated. Research results of the shrinking and swelling of 

the naturally aged wood were published by many authors: Moll (1930), Buck (1952), Kohara 

i Okamoto (1955), Burmester (1970), Holz (1981). Last of the mentioned authors described 

swell and shrinkage of 180-year old spruce wood, with comparison with 2-4 years 

conditioned wood. It was concluded that mentioned physical parameters are not dependent on 

time, usage or storage of wood. Holz observed lower shrink caused by lowered internal wood 

stress. Burmester (1970) testing wood doming from Berlin buildings concluded that time 

causes lowering of swell and shrinkage in radial and tangential directions in coniferous 

species, in broadleaved species swell coefficient drops in radial direction, but in tangential 

Romains unchanged and stays the same like in fleshly cut wood. There results are neglected 

by Buck (1952). Basing on the ancient wood tests (from around 400 up to 3700 years old), 

author concluded that in the oldest samples swell and shrinkage coefficients actually increase. 

Aim of this work is to determine changes (swell and shrinkage) occurring during 

natural aging in regular pine wood in closed compartments. 


Ancient and contemporary pine wood were used for tests. Aged elements come from 

five monumental buildings from Warsaw, dating on crossing of XIX and XX century. These 

were parts like rail fragments, door frames, wainscots and altar. Each element was cut into 6 

rectangular prism samples with anatomical directions without any visible faults. One omission 

from the PN-82/D-04111 standard was application of slightly smaller samples (35x15x10 

mm). Contemporary pine wood was also tested for comparison reasons. Test samples were 

made of seasoned wood with similar annual ring width as ancient samples.. 

Six sets of samples were conditioned after conditioning in 75% moisture content air 

with 20�C temperature). All samples were tested in the following manner: 

b) conditioning over saturated KCl solution (air relative moisture content of 85%), 

374

c) conditioning over saturated MgCl2 × 6H2O solution (air relative moisture content of 35%), 

d) drying at 60�C, 

e) kiln drying at 105�C, 

f) soaking in water. 

After each step samples were measured and weighted. 

Work consisted of linear dimensions change determination in radial and tangential 

directions, described by specific shrinkage, specific swell, shrinkage and swell coefficients in 

preset moisture content values. 

RESULTS 

Specific shrinkage in tangential direction is almost two times higher than radial one. 

Similar ratio showed with specific swell of tested samples (table 1). Considering average 

specific swell of Kot=9,5% and average specific shrinkage of Kwt=8,7% of contemporary 

wood in tangential direction it was concluded that the closest results were reached by the 

series A of tested monumental wood. Considering average specific swell of Kot=3,7% and 

average specific shrinkage of Kwt=3,6% of contemporary wood in radial direction it was 

concluded that the closest results were reached by the series B of tested monumental wood. 

Table 1. Specific linear swell and shrinkage of pine wood in radial and tangential directions. 

Series 

Specific swell 

in tangential 

direction Kot 

[%] 

375 

Specific swell 

in radial 

direction Kor 

[%] 

Specific 

shrinkage in 

tangential 

direction Kwt 

[%] 

Specific 

shrinkage in 

radial direction 

A – rail, wide ring sapwood 9,8 4,5 8,9 4,3 

B – internal frame, wide ring sapwood 10,9 4,1 9,8 3,9 

C – wainscot, wide ring sapwood 8,4 3,1 7,7 3,0 

D – altar, wide ring heartwood 6,1 3,3 5,7 3,2 

E – internal frame, wide ring 

heartwood 

10,6 4,6 9,6 4,4 

Average 9,2 3,9 8,3 3,8 

AN – contemporary wood 9,5 3,7 8,7 3,6 

Performed tests confirm Kozakiewicz and Matejak (2003) results, showing that in first 

desorption wood is exposed to highest capillary forces and that shrinkage and swell ale higher 

in radial than in tangential direction. During the next drying and wetting cycles shrinkage and 

swell become more stabilized, anisotropy diminishes. Above results fit into Kot=6,1-9,8% and 

Kor=2,6-5,1% ranges (Kozakiewicz 2003), confirm conclusion (Matejak 1986), that 

hygroscopic properties of monumental wood are the same as contemporary wood and 

Wanin’s opinion (1953), that samples dimension after wetting and drying do not match. 

Kwr 

[%]

Table 2. Swell and shrinkage coefficients in tangential and radial directions for selected moisture content ranges, 

connected with relative air moisture content. 

swell (at, ar) and shrinkage (�t, �r) coefficients for climates 

Series 

0-100 0-35 35-85 85-100 

�t �r �t �r �t �r �t �r �t �r �t �r �t �r �t �r 

A 0,34 0,15 0,31 0,15 0,35 0,19 0,32 0,18 0,44 0,23 0,39 0,22 0,28 0,10 0,26 0,10 

B 0,38 0,14 0,34 0,14 0,32 0,19 0,30 0,18 0,39 0,15 0,35 0,14 0,40 0,11 0,36 0,11 

C 0,29 0,11 0,27 0,10 0,34 0,15 0,31 0,14 0,37 0,19 0,34 0,19 0,24 0,06 0,22 0,06 

D 0,21 0,11 0,20 0,11 0,18 0,14 0,19 0,14 0,34 0,17 0,30 0,16 0,16 0,08 0,15 0,07 

E 0,36 0,16 0,33 0,15 0,32 0,18 0,29 0,18 0,37 0,19 0,34 0,18 0,39 0,13 0,35 0,12 

Average 0,32 0,13 0,29 0,13 0,30 0,17 0,28 0,16 0,38 0,18 0,34 0,18 0,29 0,10 0,27 0,09 

AN 0,33 0,13 0,30 0,12 0,32 0,22 0,29 0,21 0,40 0,14 0,36 0,13 0,29 0,08 0,27 0,08 

Considering averaged swell and shrinkage coefficients for contemporary pine wood 

(table 2) it was determined, that closest results were obtained for series B wood. 

D series wood had average swell coefficient lower by 0,12 in tangential direction and 

0,02 in radial direction than contemporary wood (AN series). A an B series had swell 

coefficient higher by 0,05 in tangential direction and by 0,03 in radial direction than 

contemporary wood (AN series). According to Keylwerth (1962) swell coefficient for pine 

wood in tangential direction ranges from 0,28 to 0,35. Lowest obtained swell coefficient in 

tangential direction is 0,10 lower from the lowest reference range, highest obtained swell 

coefficient is 0,03 higher than reference value. Keylwerth’a (1962) determined also radial 

swell coefficient for pine wood, ranking from 0,17 to 0,22. Obtained lowest radial swell 

coefficient is 0,07 lower, and highest obtained radial swell is 0,04 higher than presented 

values. 

Obtained results gave good basis on application of contemporary wood in patching of 

ancient structures during conservation work. It is necessary however to take precaution about 

proper seasoning, relevant moisture content for assumed usage conditions and selection 

against anatomical properties, grain and annual ring width. 

CONCLUSION 

Performed shrinkage and swell tests of pine wood coming from XIX-century 

constructional wood allow to conclude as follows: 

1. Average specific swell in tangential and radial direction of 100/150-year old pine wood do 

not show any significant differences when compared to contemporary wood parameters. 

2. Average shrinkage and swell coefficients in radial and tangential directions in monumental 

wood are similar to corresponding values in contemporary wood. 

REFERENCES: 

1. BUCK R.D., 1952: A Noto on the effect ot Age on the Hydroscopic Behaviour of 

Wood. “Studies in Conservation”, s. 39-44. 

2. BURMESTER A., 1970: Veränderung des Sorptions – und Quellungsvermögens 

verschiedener Holzarten durch Alterung. Materialprüfung 12/4, s. 132-134. 

3. HOLZ D., 1981: Zum Alterungsverhalten des Werkstoffes Holzeinige Ansichten. 

Untersuchungen, Ergebnisse, „Holztechnologie“ nr 2. 

4. KEYLWERTH R., 1962: Untersuchungen über freie und behinderte Quellung von 

Holz. - Erste Mitteilung: Freie Quellung. Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff. Berlin 7, 252- 

259. 

376

5. KOHARA J., OKAMOTO H., 1955: Studies of Japanese old Timbers Science Repts. 

Saikyo Univ. Kyoto nr 7, s. 9-20. 

6. KOZAKIEWICZ P., 2003: Fizyka drewna w teorii i zadaniach. Wydawnictwo 

SGGW. Warszawa 

7. KOZAKIEWICZ P., MATEJAK M., 2003: Über die Schwindungsanitropie des 

Holzes. Annals of Warsaw Agricultural University, Forestry and Wood Technology. 

No. 53: 109-114. 

8. MATEJAK M. 1986: Untersuchungen über die Variabilität der 

Sorptionseigenschaften und der Schwindung von Holz. Berlin. Promotionsarbeit. 

9. MOLL F., 1930: Künstliche Holztrocknung. Springer Verlag. 

10. WANIN S., 1953: Nauka o drewnie. PWRiL, Warszawa. 

Streszczenie: Badania skurczu i p�cznienia drewna sosnowego pochodz�cego z XIX-wiecznej 

stolarki budowlanej. W niniejszej pracy zbadano wielko�� skurczu i sp�cznienia starego 

drewna sosnowego pozyskanego z dziewi�tnastowiecznej stolarki budowlanej w Warszawie i 

porównano z analogicznymi wynikami uzyskanymi dla drewna o zbli�onej g�sto�ci, 

pozyskanego wspó�cze�nie. Uzyskane wyniki wskazuj�, �e w warunkach pomieszcze� 

zamkni�tych (w warunkach naturalnego starzenia) drewno sosnowe praktycznie nie zmienia 

swoich w�a�ciwo�ci. Wspó�czynniki skurczu i sp�cznienia starego i wspó�czesnego drewna s� 

takie same. 



Magdalena Szcz�sna 






Poland 


e-mail: magdalena_szczesna@sggw.pl




Kreissägen 

PAWE� KOZAKIEWICZ, MIECZYS�AW MATEJAK 


Abstrakt: Kreissägen. In der Arbeit wurden fünf Kreissägen mit Hand- oder Fußbetrieb besprochen, zwei 

französische, eine russische und zwei englische. Eine der englischen Kreissägen von Shuttleworth hat ihren 

Platz in der Literatur wegen Unbrauchbarkeit gefunden. Alle diese Konstruktionen gehören zur Geschichte der 

Holzbearbeitungsmaschinen, darum auch sind sie einer Erinnerung würdig. 

Schlüsselwörter: Holzbearbeitung, Maschinen, Kreissäge, Antrieb, Geschichte. 

Die Kreissäge wurde 1793 in England erfunden, erst um 1860 hat sich die Kreissäge 

in amerikanischen Sägewerken durchgesetzt [Radkau ,Schäfer 1987]. 

Die Kreissägen dienen zu allerlei Arbeiten in Tischlerwerkstätten, einmal für 

Querschnitt, einmal zum Längsschnitt, zum Zuschneiden kleiner Holzblöcke und werden vom 

Arbeiter im Falle des Bedarf selbst angetrieben. Es ist kein Zweifel, dass bei solchen 

Werkzeugmaschinen, die durch Fußtritt in Bewegung versetzt werden, die erfahrungsgemäß 

notwendige Geschwindigkeit des Kreissägeblattes nicht erreicht wird. Eine solche Maschine 

sollte also eigentlich eine Maschine von schlechter Qualität darstellen und doch wird sie im 

Vergleiche zur Leistungsfähigkeit eines Handwerkzeuges vorzügliche Dienste liefern. Ist ein 

Motor in der Werkstätte nicht vorhanden oder nicht notwendig, so kann eine solche 

Werkzeugmaschine angezeigt erschienen, schrieb 1878 Exner. 

Folgende Abbildungen nach Exner 1878, zeigen zwei Kreissägen: eine Kreissäge mit 

Fußbetrieb von Arbey in Paris ,und eine Kreissäge für Handbetrieb auch von Arbey in Paris. 

Bild. 1. Eine Kreissäge mit Fußbetrieb von Arbey in Paris. Nach Exner [1878] 

378

Bild. 2. Eine Kreissäge mit Handbetrieb von Arbey in Paris. Nach Exner [1878] 

Bild. 3. Eine Kreissäge mit Fußbetrieb von Gromeyer und Trautschold aus St. Petersburg. 

Nach �� [1885] 

Im Jahre 1826 erschien im Mechanics´ Magazine N. 128. 4. Febr: S. 248. ein Artikel 

unter dem Titel: Hrn, Shuttleworth’s Handsäge-Mühle, im gleichen Jahr auch in dem 

Polytechnischen Journal dessen Verfasser beschrieb folgenderweise seine Erfindung der 

Handsäge- Mühle: 

„Ich habe oft gedacht, daß der Grundsatz des Mechanismus der Sägemühlen mit 

Vorteil auf Handsäge-Mühlen für solche Individuen angewendet werden kann, welch nicht 

Vermögen genug zu einer Dampfmaschine besitzen; aus diesen Ideen ging die Maschine 

hervor, welche die Zeichnung hier darstellt. Sie kann in beliebiger Größe erríchtet werden; 

eine Maschine dieser Art, für eine große Sägegrube gebaut, kann leicht von zwei Männern 

getrieben werden, welche, bei weit geringerer Anstrengung, und in der Hälfte der Zeit, 

doppelt so viel Arbeit liefern werden, als auf die gegenwärtig gewöhnliche Weise. Kleinere 

Maschinen dieser Art fordern kaum so viel Raum, als eine Hobelbank, und irgend ein Mann, 

oder selbst ein Junge, kann alle kleinere Säge-Arbeit mit einer Genauigkeit und Feinheit auf 

dieser Maschine liefern, wie sie der beste Arbeiter mit den bisher gebräuchlichen 

Instrumenten nicht zu verfertigen vermag, Kunst Tischler können damit ihre Furnituren zur 

eingelegten Arbeit ohne alle Mühe und wohlfeiler schneiden, als auf den bisherigen 

Sägemühlen. 

379

Bild 4. Hrn, Shuttleworth’s Handsäge-Mühle [1826] 

A, die kreisförmige Säge. 

BBB, drei Räder, die mittelst der Kurbel, E, gedreht werden, und die Säge, A, im Umtrieb 

bringen. 

C, das eiserne, oder eichene Gestell der Maschine. 

D, das Leitbrett zum Leiten des Holzes. 

Dieselben Buchstaben bezeichnen dieselben Gegenstände in allen drei Figuren, wovon 

Fig. 12. diese Maschine vom Ende her gesehen, Fig. 13. im Seiten- Aufrisse, Fig. 14. im 

Grundrisse zeigt.“ 

Im Mechanics´ Magazine, N. 129, 11ten Febr. 1826, S. 267, auch Polytechnisches 

Journal Band. XXI. H.1. fragt Jemand „was durch diese 3 Zahnräder an Kraft oder 

Geschwindigkeit gewonnen ist, da die 2 kleineren von gleicher Größe zu sein scheinen, und 

eben so viel Zähne führen ? Mir scheint dadurch kein Gewinn, sondern bloß Verlust, und 

zwar ein bedeutender Verlust zu entstehen, (sowohl an Kraft, als an Geschwindigkeit), durch 

die große Reibung, welche durch Räder entsteht, die unter so nachteiligen Umständen 

arbeiten. 

Im gleichen Jahr schreibt das Mechanics Magazine folgendes: Hrn. Shuttlework´s 

Handsäge- Mühle, von welcher wir im polyt. Journ. B. XX. S. 155 Abbildungen und 

Nachricht erteilen, wird im Mechanics´ Magazine N. 136.S. 379. für gänzlich unbrauchbar 

erklärt.(Polytech. Journal Band. XXI. H. 1. 1826) 

380

Bild 5. Eine kleine Maschine zum schneiden des Holzes so wie sie man in England hat. [1824] 


1. ANONYMUS 1824: Beschreibung einer kleinen Maschine zum Schneiden des Holzes 

und der Metalle so wie sie man in England hat. Aus Bulletin de la Societé 

dÉnciuragement, Nr. 230 S. 269. Polytechnisches Journal Band. XIII. H.1. Stuttgart. 

In der J. G. Cotta´schen Buchhandlung. 

2. ANONYMUS 1826: Hrn. Shuttleworth´s Handsäge- Mühle. Mechanics´ Magazine N. 

128. 4. Febr: 1826, S. 248. Polytechnisches Journal Band. XX. H.2. Stuttgart. In der 

J. G. Cotta´schen Buchhandlung. 

3. ANONYMUS 1826: Hrn. Shuttlework´s Handsäge- Mühle. Polytechnisches Journal 

Band. XXI. H.1. Stuttgart. In der J. G. Cotta´schen Buchhandlung. 

4. EXNER W.F. 1878: Die Handsägen und Sägemaschinen. Leipzig, Verlag von Bernh. 

Friedr. Voigt. 

5. ��, K.A. 1885: ��xa�� . �� 

6. RADKAU J., SCHÄFER I. 1987: Holz, ein Naturstoff in der Technikgeschichte. 

Rohwolt Taschenbuch Verlag GmbH. 

381

Streszczenie: Pilarki tarczowe. Pilarki tarczowe zosta�y wynalezione w Anglii w pod koniec 

XVIII wieku, jednak w Europie kontynentalnej i w Ameryce sta�y si� popularne dopiero w 

kolejnym stuleciu. W artykule przedstawiono pi�� typów dziewi�tnastowiecznych pilarek 

tarczowych z nap�dem r�cznym lub no�nym. Dwie z nich to tarczówki produkcji s�awnego 

francuskiego wytwórcy obrabiarek firmy Arbey w Pary�u (rys.1 i 2), jedna z nap�dem 

no�nym (rys.3) wyprodukowana przez firm� Gromeyer & Trautschold z St. Petersburga, 

kolejna (rys.5) równie� z nap�dem no�nym stosowana ok. 1824 roku w Anglii do obróbki 

drewna i metalu oraz pilarka Shuttleworth (rys.4) z roku 1826, która o czym donosi�a 

angielska prasa techniczna z tego samego roku, nie mog�a sprawnie dzia�a� ze wzgl�du na 

b��dy konstrukcyjne. Pilarki te by�y rekomendowane do pracy w niewielkich stolarniach oraz 

jako obrabiarki pomocnicze w tartakach. Obecnie stanowi� istotne �wiadectwo historii 

rozwoju technik obróbki drewna. 


Pawe� Kozakiewicz, Mieczys�aw Matejak 






Poland 





Die Sägegatter in der deutschen Literatur des 18. Jh. 

Nach Florin und Leupold 

PAWE� KOZAKIEWICZ, EWA DOBROWOLSKA 


Abstrakt: Die Sägegatter in der Literatur des 18. Jh. Nach Florin und Leupold. In der Arbeit wurden zwei 

wichtige Literaturquellen über die Konstruktion von Gattersägen und Sägemühlen des 17. und 18 Jh. 

ausführlich zitiert. Beide Autoren beschrieben die Konstruktion eines Sägegatters und einer Sägemühle. Ihre 

Arbeiten gehören zu den wichtigsten Quellen des Wissens über die damalige Technik und Technologie. 

Schlüsselwörter: Holz, Gattersäge, Geschichte 

Florinus, eigentlich Pfalzgraf Florinus Philipp von Sulzbach, geb. 1630, gest. 1699. Seine 

praktische Erfahrung als Landwirt in Verbindung mit jener eines herzoglichen Bibliothekars 

qualifizierte ihn als Herausgeber und teilweise auch Autor des mit seinem Namen 

verbundenen Werkes der Hausväterliteratur, eben „des Florinus“. Er selbst hat dabei „das 

wenigste elaborieret“, sondern weitere Mitverfasser herangezogen. 

Nach Florin [1721] 

Statt eines Inhalts, der hier unnöthig, beliebe der Leser sich dieses Göttlichen Spruchs zu 

bedienen: Halt im Gedächtnis JESUM Christum, der auferstanden ist von den Todten. 2. Tim. 

2/8 

§ 1. Immassen leicht erachtlich daß manchem Hauß-Vatter mit Fürstellung dieses Wercks 

nicht nur zur Belustigung durch Anschauen und lesen; sondern auch zum grossen Nutzen 

durch würckliche Anrichtung gedienet wird, als haben wir auch solches nicht unterlassen 

wollen. 

1. Ist der Sägschrot, so an der Säge lieget. 

2. Eine Spann oder Grappen Winde, womit der Sägschrot auf dem Säg Wagen angezogen 

wird. 

3. Der Säg=Wagen, auf welchem der Sägschrot liegt. 

4. Der Falz, in welchem der Säg=Wagen gehet. 

5. Das Gestelle, hat einen Falz, in welchem die Säg=Leiter gehet. 

6. Die Leiter oder das Gestelle, in welchem das Sägblat eingespannet wird. 

7. Das Säg=Blat, ist in einem Kloben eingespannet, wie eine Klon=Säge, und mit einem 

Keil, aber besser mit einer Schrauben, Hülzen und Schlüssel angezogen. 

8. Der Zenk=Ring welcher durch die Gabel geschoben wird... 

9. Die Gabel, welche der Zenk=Ring schiebt wie gesagt... 

10. Ist die Stange die der Säg=Leiter eingestecket ist.... 

11. Die Bewegung, in welcher die Schieb=Gabel eingerichtet ist. 

12. Das Rad am Wagen... 

13. Der Kumpf mit 6. Tribeln, welcher das Wagen=Rad treibt... 

14. Das Schwung=Rad, das die Säg-Leiter ziehet ist mit einem schweren Viertel gemachet, 

auch ist die Korbel in das Rad gerichtet, daß wann das schwere Viertheil fällt, die Korbel 

die Säge desto leichter ziehet.... 

15. Die Korbel ist 1-2 Schuh=weit im Bug, und ziehet die Säg 1. Schuh... 

16. Die Zug=Stange von Eisen ist an der Säg=Leiter und Korbel angerichtet. 

17. Das Lager, worauf das Schwung=Rad laufft. 

383

18. Das Kammrad, welches das Schwung=rad treibt... 

19. Der Geiß=Fuß, womit der Schnitt zusamm gehalten wird. 

20. Der eingehenckte Schutz=Baum 

21. Ein Nagel, der den Schutz=Baum am Wagen ausschiebet, welcher Nagel hier unsichtbar, 

aber in der andern Figur num 12. sich zeiget. 

22. Ein Sperr=Haggen, so den Zenck=Rinck hält, daß er steht, wenn sich die Gabe zurück 

ziehet. 

§ 2. Etliche sonderes angezeigte Sücke. 

1. Die Winde, womit der Sägschrit vest auf dem Säg=Wagen angezogen wird. 

2. Die Säg=Leiter, wird weiter gemacht als der dickeste Sägschrot, den man auflegt, damit 

der Schnit in seine Schnitt kan gerücket werden. 

3. Der Wagen samt dem Stock, worauf der Geiß=Fuß zu sehen, zwischen welchen die Säge 

den Schnitt anfanget. Der Geiß=Fuß aber wird in den Baum geschlagen, damit er den 

Schnitt zusamm halte. Wann man einen Baum von 18. Schuhen schneidet, so ist von A in 

B 18 Schuh. An A. liegt der Baum an dem Stock, und bey B. wird er mit der Winden auf 

den Wagen vest verspannet. 

4. Der Geiß-Fuß 

5. Das Schwung-Rad, ist 4. oder 5. Schuh-hoch, hat einen hohen Kumpf von 12. Tribeln. Hat 

aber das Wasser eine starcke Krafft, so kan der Kumpf 8. Tribel haben, so geht die Säg 

geschwinder. 

6. Die Platten und Schliessung, welche vor die Zug-Stangen an der Korpel vorgemacht wird, 

damit die Zug=Stange nicht herab gehe. 

7 . Die Zug-Stange, welche bey 9. in der Säg-Leiter angemacht wird. Der Nagel und die 

Schließ-Feder, welcher bey 9. durch die Zug-Stangen und Säg-Kloben gesteckt wird. 

8. Das Loch am Säg-Kloben 

9. Da wird die Säg mit einer Hültzen vest mit dem Schlüssel angezogen. 

10. Eine Kette, welche an den Schutz-Baum angemacht. Wann nun der Nagel 12. der im 

Wagen eingemachet ist, hinruckt biß an den Ring, der im Haggen bey 13. eingehenckt zu 

sehen ist, so schiebet der Nagel den Ring vom Haggen, so fällt die Schütz vor den 

Einfluß des Wassers, und hält das Wasser auf, und das Rad stehet still, und die Säg höret 

auf zu schneiden. Daher muß der Nagel 12. die Schutz-Kette etwas eher ausschieben, als 

die Säge den Schnitt vollendet, damit, wann das Rad ausgeloffen ist, zugleich der Schnitt 

sein End erreichet habe. 

384

11. Der Ausschieb-Nagel, ist im Wagen eingemacht. 

12. Der Haggen, in welchem der Ring an der Schutz-Ketten eingehencket ist. 

13. Die Kämme an dem Säg-Wagen, deren bey 60. eingerichtet werden, wann der Kamm 

zwey- zöllig ist, und ein Schnitt 18. Schuh-lang schneidet. 

Leupold, Jacob, geb. 1674, gest. den 12. Jan. 1727 Er studierte in der Schule zu Zwickau, 

und zog hernach nach Jena, den berühmten Weigel zu hören, muste aber wegen des 

damahligen wüsten Lebens der Studierenden, und den Mangel nöthigen Unterhalts nach 

Wittenberg gehen. 1701 wurde er ein Oeconomicus in dem Lazareth zu Leipzig, 1714 gab er 

die Oeconomie in dem Lazareth auf, setzte sich in der Stadt und richtete ein offenes Gewölbe 

auf. Er wurde von der königlichen Societät der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, ingleichen zu 

einem Mitgliede der Academie del’ Onore letterario zu Forli und erhielt den Titel als 

königlicher preußischer Commercienrath. An. 1725 wurde er von seiner königlichen Majestät 

in Pohlen zu dero wircklichen Berg=Commisario ernennet, und mit dem Titel eines 

königlichen Raths begnadiget. [AGL 1750] 

Nach Leupold [1735] 

Die Säge- oder Schneide-Mühlen, welche auch einer Orten Bret- Mühlen genannt 

werden, sind ein sehr nutzbares Stück der Hauß-Wirtschaft, wo man neulich viel haubares 

Gehölze in der nahe haben kann, sonderlich wann große Städte und Märkte w nicht weit 

entfernt , wo es gemeiniglich viel Tischler, Zimmerle4ute und dergleichen Handwerker gibt, 

welche Pfosten, Bretter und Latten zu ihrer Notdurft bedürfen. 

Es haben sich einige seit vielen Jahren her (aber umsonst) bemühet, die Säge- Mühlen 

mir so viel neben einander gestellten Sägen anzulegen, dass dadurch ein ganzer Block in so 

viel Bretter, als seine Stärke austraget, auf einmal geschnitten werden könne. Weil es nun 

unsers Wissens noch keinen gelungen, so wollen wir kürzlich, wie nämlich die Sache 

anzufangen, einige Vorschläge tun. Erstlich muss man der Maschine mehr Kraft geben: d.i. 

das Wasser-Rad muss doppelt weit, und auch zwei mal so viel Wasser, ale eine einfache 

Säge-Mühle haben. Vors andere muss man die Säge-Blätter schwacher machen lassen, damit 

sie nicht einen allzu großen Schnitt verursachen. Drittens müssen die Sägen bei einem 

Umlauf des Wasser-Rades, nicht so viel mahl, als bei einer gemeinen Säge-Mühle geschieht, 

auf und nieder gehen. Das erste belangend: So wird wohl niemand leugnen können, dass die 

holländischen Säge-Mühlen , in welchen eigentlich viel Sägen befindlich, von der in Holland 

beständigen See –Luft weit mehr Kraft bekommen, als unsere gemeinen Säge-Mühlen von 

dem Wasser haben. Das andere betreffend: so ist bekannt und offenbar, dass wenn man zwei 

Säge-Blätter nur so stark machte, als sonsten eines ist, beide hernach auch zwei Schnitte 

machen würden, welche zusammen genommen, nur so stark sind, als außer dem eíner ist. 

Und drittens: so betrachte man doch eine holländische Säge-Mühle, mit viel Sägen, wie man 

denn zu Berlin eine dergleichen gesehen zu haben sich erinnert, so wird man wahrnehmen, 

dass die Sägen weit langsamer, als bei unsern gemeinen Säge-Mühlen gehen, und hält man 

davor, aß mit dergleichen Art, wie wir hier im Risse vorgestellt haben, einer würde viel mal 

durchschneiden können, bevor besagte Holländische es einmal verrichtete. Weswegen dann 

auch unsere Säge-Mühlen vor andern dieses voraus haben, dass sie weit geschwinder gehen, 

ob selbige gleich nur einen Schnitt auf einmal machen. Hier wollen wir noch mit wenigem zur 

Bestätigung des dritten Satzes beifügen, was bei einer Säge-Mühle mit zwei Sägen 

observieret worden: Vor wenig Jahren wurde von einen gewissen Baumeister eine Säge- 

Mühle mit zwei Sägen erbauet, dieser legte nun das Radewerk also an, dass die Sägen bei 

einen Umlauf des Wasser-Rades eben so viel mahl auf und nieder ginge , als wenn es eine 

gemeine Säge-Mühle gewesen wäre; Ob nun wohl das Wasser-Rad doppelte Krafft hatte, so 

erfolgte doch der Effekt nicht also, wie man den vornehmen Bau-Herrn, der das Werk 

385

erbauen ließ, persuadiret hatte. Und hielte man dieses vor den größten Fehler, so dabei 

begangen worden: dass gedachter Baumeister die Bewegung derer Sägen allzu schnelle haben 

wollte; daher es denn geschahe, weil das Wasser-Rad sehr langsam gehen musste, dass das 

Wasser über die Schaufeln wegsprunge, und die neue Maschine nicht allzu gute Dienste 

verrichtete. Dieses wären nun kürzlich die Haupt-Requisita , worauf es bei Säge-Mühlen mit 

viel Sägen, wann man anders den vorgesetzten Zweck glücklich erhalten will, größten teils 

ankömmt, welche man so dann den Kunst-verständigen Leser zu fernern Nachsinnen 

überlassen will, maßen vor dieses mahl deutlicher zu explizieren, und des ersten Autoris Text 

mit allzu langen Anmerkungen, aus eigener Erfahrung zu vermehren nicht nötig ist. 

386


GOTTLIEB JÖCHER CHRISTIAN, 1750-1751: Allgemeines Gelehrten Lexicon, darinnen die 

Gelehrten aller Stände sowohl männ= als weiblichen Geschlechts, welche vom Anfange der Welt bis 

auf ietzige Zeit gelebt, und sich der gelehrten Welt bekannt gemacht, Nach ihrer Geburt, Leben 

merckwürdigen Geschichten, Absterben und Schrifften aus den glaubwürdigsten Scribenten in 

alphabetischer Ordung beschrieben werden. Erster Theil A-C , Zweyter Theil D-L Dritter Theil M-R. 

Vierter Theil; S-Z, herausgegeben von Christian Gottlieb Jöcher, der H. Schrift Doctore, und der 

Geschichte öffentlichem Lehrer auf der hohen Schule zu Leipzig. Leipzig in Johann Friedrich 

Gleidischens Buchandlung. 

FLORINUS FRANCISKUS PHILIPPUS, 1721: Francisci Philippi Florini Serenissimi ad Rhenum 

Comitis Palatini Principis Solibacensis P. in Edelsfelden & Kirmreuth, Oecnomus Prudens et Legalis 

Oder Allgemeiner Kluger und Rechts =verständiger Haus-Vatter bestehend in Neun Büchern, 

Deren Erstes handelt von dem allgemeinen Grund, worinnen die Haushaltung bestehen soll: Nemlich 

von des Haus=Vatters und der Haus=Mutter Pflicht, von der Ehe, der Sorge für die Kinder beyderley 

Geschlechts, auch des Gesindes, Gebühr gegen der Nachbarschaft, Guttärtigkeit gegen die Armen, 

Erkenntis des Rechts, der Aerzney, des Gestirns, und der Bau=Kunst. 

Das II Buch von dem Bau=Wesen und denen darzu gehörigen Materialien, als Holz, Steinen, Ziegeln, 

Sand und Kalch, von denen zum Bau erforderten Metallen, Bestellung der Handwerckleute, Starck= 

und Festigkeit, Bequem= und Zierlichkeit des Gebäues, von Grundgraben und Unterbau, von denen 

Mauren, Verding= und Eröffnung derselben, von Dach und Feuer=Mauren, etlichen Vorbildern der 

Gebäude, völliger Fürstellung eines unmangelhaften Meyer=Hofs, Bräu=Hause, Malz=Tennen und 

Dörr Stuben, von Wein= Obst= und Oel=Pressen, Cisternen, Quell und Brunn- Stuben, 

Wasserleitungen,Wasserfang, Schöpf=Brunnen, grossen Pump=Werck, von Hand= Roß= Mahl= 

387

Zain= Schleiff= und Säg= Mühlen, Feuer=Sprützen, Feldmessen, Marck= und 

Gräntz=Scheidungen,Visieren und Sonnen=Uhren, item was bey Erkauff= und Verpachtung eines 

Guts zu beobachten, von Witterung der vier Jahrs=Zeiten, denen Winden, Sternen= und Cometen, 

samt einem Haus=Calender, was in jedem Monat das ganze Jahr zu verrichten. 

Das III. Buch von der Wirthschaft in denen Städten, Dörffern und Höfen, vom Acker=Bau, Verzäun= 

und Versicherung der Felder, Gärten und Wiesen, von Aeckern auch darzu gehörigen Werkzeug, von 

Dung= und Bauung der Felder, Besaamung allerhand Früchte, und wie man den Saamen fruchtbar 

machen könne, Erkenntnis der Erden, Verbesserung derselben, von Hanf, Flachs, Taback, deren 

Zubereitung, auch Wässer= und Wartung der Wiesen. 

Das IV. Buch vom Garten=Leben, Gärten, dem Gärtner und dessen Zeug, vom Grund und des Gartens 

Eintheilung, Umgraben, Mistbeeten und Saamen=Bewahrung, dessen Aussähung, Umsetzen und 

Begiessen, von der Baum=Schul, derselben Ordnung, unterschiedlichen Arten des Peltzens, Versetz= 

und Wartung der grossen Bäume, von Wildlingen, Stein= Kern= und Stauden=Obst, wie solches 

abzunehmen und zu bewahren, auch die Bäume vor bösen Zufällen zu beschirmen, vom Weinbau, wie 

ein Weinberg anzulegen, von Fechsern, unterschiedliche Art dieselben künstlich zu peltzen, 

ingleichen vom Hacken= Pfählstecken, Anleiten und Entblätterung der Reben, Abnehmung der 

Trauben, Keltern des Mosts und Bewahrung desselben, wie nach der Leese der Weinberg zu 

tractieren, Abbindung des Geschirs und wie mit dem Wein im Keller umzugehen, unterschiedlichen 

raren Wein=Künsten, von der Waldung und Holtz=Wachs, wie solches mit Nutzen abzugeben, vom 

Bechhauen, Kohlen= und Rus=Brennen, und was sonst bey dem Wald zu beobachten. 

Das V. Buch wie eine Stutterey anzulegen, Stutten und Füllen zu warten und zu erkennen, von 

Belegung und Eigenschaften der Pferde, Zäumen und Beschlag derselben, deren Artzney, von der 

Viehzucht, des schmalen und Fasel=Viehs, und Hünern, Enten, Gänsen, u.d.gl. 

Das VI. Buch von Seiden=Würmmern, und völliger Abhandlung der Seiden, biß zu deren 

Verkauffung, von Bienen, derselben Wartung, vom Honig und Wachs, wie solches zu bleichen, von 

Weihern, wie selbe anzulegen und zu besetzen, von Fischen, deren Unterschied, Art und 

Eigenschaften. 

Das VII. Buch vom Brodbacken, Mulzen, Bierbrauen, unterschiedliche Künsten, das Bier gut zu 

erhalten, Pichung der Fässer, vom Schlachten, Fleich dörren, Saltzen, Bleichen, Zubereitung allerhand 

Getrancks, Thee, Caffee und Choccolata, auch denen Handwerckern, die zur Wirthschaft nöthig sind. 

Das VIII. Buch von der Anatomia, Erkänntnüs der Kranckheiten, und dargegen dienlichen Arzneyen, 

bey allerhand sich ereigneten Zufällen, samt einem Anhang bewährter Haus=Mittel. 

Das IX. Buch bestehet in einem kurtz=gefassten Koch=Buch. Ferner sind alle obige Bücher und 

Capitel mit Rechtlichen Anmerckungen auf allerhand vorfallende Begebenheiten, versehen, Durch 

Herrn Johann Christoph Donauern, J.V.D. Hoch=Fürstl. Nassauischen Rath, des Heil. Röm. 

Reichs=Stadt Nördlingen Consulenten. 

Welches nicht nur allen Menschen insgemein, sondern auch allen Amtleuten, Pflegern, Kastnern, 

Cent=Grafen, Verwaltern, Schöffern, Voigten, Richtern, Kellern, etc. nützlich und nötig ist. Durchaus 

mit schönen und netten hierzu dienlichen, sowol eingedruckten, als Folio Kupffern versehen. Mit 

Röm. Keiserl. Majest. und ihro Churfürstl. Gnaden zu Mainz allergnädigsten PRIVILEGIS. Nürnberg, 

Franckfurt und Leipzig, In Verlegung Christoph Riegels. Gedruckt bey Johann Ernst Adelburnern. 

A.1721 

LEUPOLD JACOB, 1735: Theatrum Machinarum Molarium, oder Schau=Platz der 

Mühlen=Bau=Kunst, Welcher allerhand Sorten von solchen Machinen, die man Mühlen nennet, so 

wohl historisch als practisch, nebst ihren Grund= und Auf=Rissen vorstellet, und zwar wird in 

selbigen gehandelt: Von Untersuchung des Gefälles, der Quantität des Wassers, so ein Fluß in 

gewisser Zeit schüttet, Wassertheilungen und Wägen, Wehr= und andern nöthigen Wasser=Bau, von 

Grund=Werck und dem Unterschied, so zwischen Staber= Strauber= und Panster=Zeug ist, von 

Oberschlächtigen und Schiff=Mühlen, samt ihren Vorgelegen und sämtlich gangbaren Zeuge, 

Räderwerck und Mühlgerüste;Ingleichen auch von Wind= Hand= Roß= und Feldmühlen, über dem 

auch von allerhand improprie so genannten Mühlen, als: Oehl= Graupen= Hierse= Gewürtz= Loh= 

und Pulver= Mühlen, ferner von Papier= Walck= Glaß= und Eisen= Schleif= Polier= Bohr= Säge= 

und Steinschneide= Dresch= und Heckerlings= Mühlen, u.a.m. auch was insonderheit mit jeglicher 

besonders vor Vortheil geschaffet werden kan. Welchem am Ende beygefüget: Ein Real=Register aller 

388

und jeder bey gesagten Machinen vorkommender Terminorum technicorum oder Kunst=Wörter. In 

dem Andern Theile dieses Wercks sind allerley in= und ausländische Mühlen= und dahin gehörige 

Ordnungen und Befehlige, nebst dem Kern des Mühlen= Rechts, welches mit auserlesenen Responsis 

erläutert ist, ingleichen allerhand Berichte und Gutachten in streitigen Wasser=Bau=Sachen, sammt 

nochmahligen Register darüber, enthalten. Ein Buch, welches im gemeinen Wesen mit gar besondern 

guten Nutzen, und als Der Neundte Theil von des seel. Herrn Jacob Leupolds Theatro Machinarum 

sehr wohl wird können gebrauchet werden. Ausgefertiget und zusammen getragen von Johann 

Matthias Beyern und Consorten. Leipzig, verlegts Wolfgang Deer, 1735 

Streszczenie: Traki w niemieckiej literaturze 18 wieku, na podstawie prac Floriná i 

Leupoldá. W niniejszym artykule zacytowano obszerne opisy dotycz�ce budowy i 

eksploatacji osiemnastowiecznych traków o konstrukcji drewnianej. Informacje te pochodz� z 

dwóch ksi��ek: autorem jednej jest Franciskus Philippus Florinus, a drugiej Leupold Jacob - 

krótkie biogramy tych postaci do��czono do opracowania. Cytowane prace zaliczane s� do 

najwa�niejszych �ród�owych tekstów o ówczesnych konstrukcjach traków i budowie 

tartaków. 

Sk�adamy serdeczne podzi�kowania Pracownikom Dzia�u Starych Druków Biblioteki 

Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego za udost�pnienie cytowanych prac oraz ilustracji. 








Poland 








Poland 

e-mail: ewa_dobrowolska@sggw.pl



(Ann. WULS-SGGW, For. and Wood Technol. 71 , 2010) 

Holzspielzeuge damals und Heute in der Slowakei 

KRAJ�OVI�OVÁ MÁRIA 

Technische University Zvolen, Die Fakultät der environmentale und Erzeugungstechnick, 

Lehrstuhl Holzmaschinen und Mechanismen. 

Abstract: In jede Familie gibt es wenigstens etwas aus Holz, und wenigstens ein Spielzeug, das aus Holz 

erzeugt war. Holz ist sehr haptische feine Material mit vielen sehr guten Eigenschaften, der vorbestimmt für die 

Erzeugung der Holzspielzeuge ist. Wir sollten kennen die Geschichte den Spielzeugen, damit wir besser unsere 

Vorväter verstehen, und damit wir unsere Kultur besser kennen lernen. 

Schlüsselwörter: Holz, Spielzeug, Geschichte, Handwerker, Volksspielzeug, 

HOLZSPIELZEUGE IN DER SLOWAKEI IN VERGANGENHEIT 

In Vergangenheit kamen die Spielzeugerzeuger dazu, dass sehr interessantes und sehr 

komfortables Material Holz ist. 

Holzspielzeuge stammen aus verschiedenen Holzarten. In der Slowakei war Holz immer sehr 

gut greifbares Rohmaterial, worüber spricht auch große Menge der Handwerker, die mit dem 

Holz gearbeitet haben. Unsere Kultur hat ihre spezifische Charakteristik, und die kann man 

sehen auch bei den Holzspielzeugen, die wir heute Volksspielzeuge nennen. Diese haben 

sehr große Aussagewert, die über der Niveau und Reifer des Lebens unseren Vorvätern 

aussagen. Volksspielzeuge haben auch heute ihren Platz in unseren Leben. Unwiederholbaren 

Zaubers befinden wir gerade bei den Bewegungsspielzeugen, die technisch an sehr einfachem 

Prinzip funktionieren. Es gibt verschiedene Tiere, Männer oder Frauen Figürchen. Zu den 

Holz-spielzeuge die auch heutige Gene-rationen noch erinnern, kann man Holz Würfel, 

Baukasten oder den Holz Pferd Orden. 

Bild 1. Geschichte der Tischler 

Untergrund der heutigen Form des Designs hat in diesen Bereich Václav Kautman, der 

Pädagoge an der Hochschule der darstellende Kunst in Bratislava gründet hat. Er schaffte es 

die Liebe zu dem Holz mit der Liebe zum Volkskunst verbinden. 

390

Der nächste Künstler, der seine liebe verband, war Vladimir Kopánek. Zu seinem lieben 

gehörten Malerkunst, Bildkunst und Holz. I den 20.ten Jahrhundert suchten schon die 

genannten Künstler die Möglichkeit Skulpturen oder auch Spielzeugen eine neue Dimension 

zu geben, so mit sie die Tradition mit heutige Aussah des Spielzeug verbinden könnten. 

Bild 2. Holzrassel 

In diesen Zeitraum ist das Holzspielzeug ein spezielles Objekt geworden, bei denen wurde die 

künstlerische und förmige Lösung vor der Funktion. 

HOLZSPIELZEUGE IN DER SLOWAKEI HEUTE 

In der Zeit wenn die Spielzeuge aus Metall, Plastik und anderen Materialen erzeugt sind, 

verliert das Holzspielzeug nicht seine Bedeutung und Wunder. In Vergleich mit dem 

Spielzeug, der Industrial erzeugt ist, der sehr oft zu kompliziert ist und viel elektronick 

umfasst, ist der Holzspielzeug viel emotiver, was mit dem Handwerk betont ist auch heute 

viele Künstler oder Handwerker die uralte Technik nutzen. Heutige Holzspielzeuge in sich die 

traditionelle Technik mit dem gegenwärtigen Design verbinden. So beriechendes Spielzeug 

kann mit sehr markanter Form die Motorik des Kindes entwickeln. 

Bei detaillier Analyse, so erzeugenden Spielzeug ist es möglich in der Zukunft solche 

Spielzeug entwickeln, die sehr spezifische Charakter und sehr eigene Identität. 

In der Slowakei dank der reiche Geschichte, langfristige Tradition und vielerlei Inspirationen 

hat der Holzspielzeug spezifische Bereich für sein entwickeln. In Vergleich mit den andreren 

Spielzeugen so wie aus Plastik, oder Textil, oder Metall, haben Holzspielzeuge bessere Vision 

in Zukunft. 

In letzten Jahrzenten war es ein Paar Versuchen, eine Art von den Holzspielzeugen 

durchzusetzen. Produktion der Baukasten GRINGO, deren Autor Tibor Uhrín ist, begann so 

auch endete in Kremnické Bane. Gestaltern und auch die Erzeuger schaften nicht GRINGO 

zwischen anderen klassischen Erzeuger mit langer Tradition durchzusetzen 

Letzte Versuche erzeugen, so wie auch verkaufen die Holzspielzeuge haben 

zusammenzerbricht gerade wegen dem Verkauf. Da bietet sich die Frage, wie kann Man 

Holzspielzeug erzeugen, denn es nicht nur einzigartig aber auch für den usuelle Verbraucher 

Preiswert war. 

Für bessere Spezifikation und Erkennung der Holzspielzeuge wäre es nötig diese Spielzeuge 

zu kategorisieren. Heute können wir sagen, dass die Holzspielzeuge kann man in ein paar 

Kategorien verteilen, nach den Benutzung. 

391 

Bild 3. Kindlich wagen

Es gibt Spielzeuge die Koordination oder Kreativität des Kindes ausbauen, die letzte 

Kategorie bilden die Spielzeuge die wir auch als Nutzspielzeuge nennen, gerade die die 

Fantasie ausbauen. 

Zu den die, die Koordination ausbauen, können wir zum Beispiel verschiedene 

Zusammensetzspielzeuge einteilen. 

Für die größeren Kinder gibt es viel komplizierte Zusammensetzspiele, wie zum Beispiel das 

Puzzle und 3D Puzzle: 

Bild 4. Holz Puzzle 

Bild 3. Zusammensetzspiel aus Holz 

392 

Bild 5. Holz 3D Puzzle

Weiter gibt es Kopfzerbrechen und Labyrinth Spiele: 

Bild 6. Holz Kopfzerbrechen 

Die nächste Gruppe bilden die Holzspielzeuge, die die Kreativität ausbauen, so wie die 

Baukasten: 

Bild 7. Holz Baukasten 

393

Die letzte große Gruppe, dass sind die Nutzspielzeuge: 


In der Slowakei gibt es also ein paar Producern der Holspielzeugen, verschiedenen Arten. 

Man muss nur die richtige Konzeption finden, die dem Produzenten hilft sich gut durchsetzen. 

Die Möglichkeit wird ist hier, aber nötig ist die Verbraucher zu überzeugen, das unsere 

Spielzeuge anders und sehr original sind, und dass, sie den anderen konkurrieren können. 

LITERATUR 

1. BANSKY M.: 2007: Development and production of machines for the production of 

wooden toys and construction block“. in „Obróbka drewna“ Pozna�, AR KOiPKM 

2. PAN�UHOVÁ E. 1988: Drevené l udové hra�ky v slovenských múzeách. Martin Osveta 

S.l. Etnograf. ústav SNM v Martine [vyd.] ,. 

3. SLOVENSKÝ NÁRODOPIS: �asopis Slovenskej akadémie vied, Zväzok 29, Veda, 1981 

4. http://www.adler.sk/za-slovnicek-pojmov 

5. http://www.BEST.sk 

6. http://sk.wikipedia.org 

7. http://www.moraviantoys.com 

8. http://www.woodentoys.cz 

Streszczenie: Zabawki z drewna dawniej i obecnie na S�owacji W ka�dej rodzinie jest 

przynajmniej co� z drewna, i co najmniej jedna zabawka, która jest wykonana z drewna. 

Drewno jest materia�em bardzo dobrze obrabialnym i znanym z wielu doskona�ych 

w�a�ciwo�ci, jest tak�e przeznaczony do produkcji zabawek. Powinni�my pozna� histori� 

zabawek, tak aby lepiej zrozumie� naszych przodków, i tak nasz� kultur�. 


Technische University Zvolen, 

Die Fakultät der environmentale und Erzeugungstechnick, 

Lehrstuhl Holzmaschinen und Mechanismen. 

T.G. Masaryka 25, 96001, Zvolen 

Bild 8. Buch aus Holz

Annals of Warsaw University if Life Science – SGGW 


(Ann. WULS – SGGW, For. and Wood Technol. 71, 2010) 

Exotic species of wood borers in investigations of Wood Protection Division 

SGGW in Warsaw in years 1997 – 2009 

ADAM KRAJEWSKI, ANDRZEJ MAZUREK 

Warsaw University of Life Science – SGGW, Department of Wood Science and Wood Protection 

Abstract: Exotic species of wood borers in investigations of Wood Protection Division SGGW in Warsaw in 

years 1997 – 2009. In last ten days rise importans of exotic wood comerce. The exotic wood sometimes includes 

damages by animals. Signification of animal species, which wood damages made, is sometimes difficult. In the 

paper are published taxonomic signification results of insects and shellfishes, which exotic wood damages made. 

The exotic wood samples of Tieghemella heckelii, Triplochiton scleroxylon, Guibourtia ehie, Terminalia 

superba, Millettia laurentii, Microberlinia brazzavillensis, Entandrophragma cylindricum, Nesogordonia 

papaverina from West Afrika and Shorea negrosensis, Tectona grandis from South Est Asia and miocenic wood 

of Taxodioxylin taxodii from Poland ware send in yares 1997 – 2009 to Faculty of Wood Protection in SGGW in 

Warsaw. Most dangerous of all insects, which are in Poland bring Lyctus brunneus and Sinoxylon anale ware. 

Damages of exotic wood samples by ambrosia beetles ware not significated to species. Some cases of Attagenus 

smirnovi presence, new species in Poland, ware state. Attagenus smirnovi doesn't destroy the wood. Wood 

damage of Taxodioxylon taxodii from miocen in Poland was by marine borers made. 

Keywords: exotic wood damages, Taxodioksylon taxodii, Lyctus brunneus, Sinoxylon anale, Attagenus smirnovi, 

shipworm 

INTRODUCTION 

Last two decades have enabled the trade development of exotic species timber in Poland. 

Insects and other organisms are occasionally brought to Poland with wood, which cause (or 

caused) the destruction of wood. In such cases the questions came out, about the pest species 

and the circumstances, which conditioned the creation of damage. Especially, mass 

appearance of pests imagines causes concerns regarding the possibility of further damage to 

wood and spread of pests, although (as it appears in the course of identification) do not 

always have to deal with wood borers. Samples from collections of exotic or fossil wood 

provide interesting observations as well. 


The paper contains insect species identification and taxonomic classification of other animals, 

which have damaged wood samples, received in the years 1997 - 2009 by the Wood 

Protection Division, Department of Wood Science Wood and Wood Protection, Warsaw 

University of Life Sciences. Only the species non-included to Polish entomofauna were taken 

into account, or at least freshly included ones. Determinations were based on the relevant keys 

[Dominik 1957, Dominik and Starzyk 2004]. A well-developed electronic media were also 

used (in the case of powder-post beetles, Bostrichidae). 

For most insects identifications were made on the basis of beetles residues seen in 

magnification under a binocular microscope. In some cases, however, indications were 

limited to the traces of feeding in the timber (ambrosia beetles and molluscs) or damaged 

remains of larvae (longhorn beetles, Cerambycidae). In such cases, identification of the 

damage perpetrator to species level failed and more general classifications were pointed only. 

The destructions of contemporary timber were recognised on the base of tunnel features, 

including the presence of layers of calcium carbonate. In the case of petrified wood, 

diagnosis, if the damages were caused by insects or by the mussels, was based on the relief of 

395

the tunnel surface, using preparations from the collections held in the Division of Wood 

Protection. 

Designation of Attagenus smirnovi Zhantiev, the beetle alien to Polish entomofauna at the end 

of the twentieth century (as it appears in the literature), would not be possible without the 

judgement of Professor Mieczys�aw Mroczkowski, whom the authors would like to thank for 

his valuable assistance. 

Taxonomic classification of exotic wood species was determined using the atlas [Wagenführ 

and Scheibler 1989]. The authors would like to thank Dr. Pawe� Kozakiewicz for verification 

of the identification results. 

RESULTS 

Results of determinations of tree species of damaged timber, together with insect species and 

taxonomic classification of molluscs, which left the damages, are shown in Table 1. 

Table 1. Alien species of invertebrates found in recent years in the timber of exotic and native trees or buildings 

used for wood storage 

Time of Invertebrate species Wood species Damage size Notes 

specification 

1997 – 1999 Attagenus smirnovi Insects were found No damage to the Places of numerous 

(Zhantiev), 

outside the timber wood, very beetles occurrence: 

Dermestidae, 

numerous conservator studio in 

Coleoptera 

appearance of museum, exhibition 

imagines 

spaces of another 

museum and two flats 

(all in Warsaw) 

March, 1999 unspecified species of Makore - Very numerous, Timber samples from 

shipworm (Teredinidae), Tieghemella heckelii densely bored the didactic collection 

clams (Molusca, (A.Chev) Pierre ex tunnels with well- of University 

Bivalvia, 

Dubard 

preserved layer of 

Lamellibranchiata) 

calcium carbonate 

on the walls of 

feeding ground in 

the timber 

September, 

Persian walnut, Few feeding Pieces of furniture 

2001 Lyctus 

(Steph.), 

Coleoptera 

brunneus 

Lyctidae, 

Juglans regia (L.) grounds, and imago 

outlets, few dead 

beetles in feeding 

areas in timber 

made in Italy, 

delivered to a company 

in Poland 

November, unspecified species of Fossilised fossil A single tunnel with Specimen of petrified 

2007 shipworm (Teredinidae), species Taxodioksylon excellent preserved wood from the private 

clams (Molusca, taxodii Gothan from surface texture collection 

Bivalvia, 

Siedliska locality near 

Lamellibranchiata) Hrebenne, Tomaszów 

Lubelski district 

November, 

samba -Triplochiton Large Timber delivered to a 

2008 Lyctus 

(Steph.), 

Coleoptera 

brunneus 

Lyctidae, 

scleroxylon 

Schum.) 

(K. 

company in Poland 

December, 

Unspecified species, Very large Furniture imported 

2008 Sinoxylon anale 

(Lesne), Bostrychidae, 

Coleoptera 

in trade as "rose 

wood" 

from India 

June, 2009 

samba -Triplochiton Very large constructional 

Lyctus brunneus scleroxylon K. Schum 

woodwork 

(Steph.), 

Coleoptera 

Lyctidae, 

396

DISCUSSION 

Attention is paid to relatively high number of occurrences in Warsaw, which reported the 

presence of Attagenus smirnovi, species accidentally brought to Poland, being a scavenger in 

natural environment. Although the larvae of some species of Dermestidae can cause damage 

[Dominik 1970] biting into the timber to hide during the pupation, but it was not proved yet 

for this species. The presence of numerous beetles of this species may often cause great 

anxiety, especially in conservation and museum facilities. 

Most emerging among the beetle species identified was cosmopolitan Lyctus brunneus, 

species scattered in the area of the warm and temperate climates, probably originating from 

the region of Indo-Malays [Cymorek 1961, Dominik and Starzyk 2004]. It is believed that he 

could have been acclimatised in Poland, due to the repeated assertion of his presence in wood 

storages (Dominik and Starzyk 2004). All the cases described here were related to wood 

brought with larvae from outside Poland territory. Twice the timber of numerous beetle 

emergence was samba Triplochiton scleroxylon K. Schum., a species also known by other 

names (Wagenführ and Scheibler 1989): obeche (Nigeria, France and Belgium), abachi 

(Germany, Ivory Coast and Netherlands), wawa (Ghana, UK and Germany), ofa, sam (Ivory 

Coast), ayous (Gabon, Cameroon, Central African Republic and France), arere, sam (Nigeria). 

Representative of Bostrychidae family, Sinoxylon anale Lesne species was found only once in 

the wood furniture imported from India. Damage caused by this beetle is a dense maze of 

tunnels of circular cross-section (about 3 mm in diameter), filled with fine, loose wood flour. 

Although destruction was related to only one piece of furniture, but it was heavy. A 

possibility of very heavy damage during shipping timber was also emphasized by Dominic 

and Starzyk (2004). Numerous dead beetles were found on furniture, and near them, with a 

characteristic relief of elytra ridge. Dominik (1970) also demonstrated bringing this species 

together with timber, imported to Poland, and indicated that this is one of the most dangerous 

pests of wood in the Indian subcontinent. Additionally, he noted the cases of the arrival of 

other species of Bostrychidae: Dinoderus minutus Fabr. and Trogoxylon impressum Comolli, 

which are not stated by the authors in the last decade among the reported cases of wood 

damage. 

Recognised feeding grounds of the representatives of shipworms (Teredinidae) are connected 

with makore wood - Tieghemella heckelii Pierre and fossil species Taxodioksylon taxodii 

Gothan from the Miocene period (K�usek 2006). The closest living relative of Taxodioksylon 

taxodii is bald cypress (Taxodium distichum Rich). It occurs in lowland areas in the southeast 

United States of America along the Atlantic coast. It grows in marshes and flood plains, 

where it forms a monospecific stands with few associated species (Seneta 1973). It is believed 

that Taxodioksylon taxodii lived in similar conditions, which might favour taking wood by 

floods to seawater, where the molluscs inhabited it. 

In some specimens of petrified wood from the Roztocze region, well-preserved tunnels are 

found, assigned to insects [Laurów and Narojek 2005, K�usek 2006]. Undoubtedly, they bore 

traces of living shipworms, not the larvae of insects. These molluscs leave quite distinctive 

marks by scraping the wood with the front side of vary small shell [Bieda 1966, Krajewski 

1987, Krajewski and Witomski 2005]. This behaviour leads to a characteristic texture of the 

tunnel surface, resulted from the capitate abrasive surface treatment by dimensionally reduced 

shell, which was clearly visible on fossil described here. We know that Teredinidae are a 

group of invertebrates existed for a very long time, as it is shown by fossilized fragments of 

tree trunks from the Jurassic and Cretaceous period, containing traces of existence of these 

molluscs [Bieda 1966]. 

In the years 1999 - 2009 several samples of wood were brought to the Division of 

Wood Protection that bore the traces of feeding insects, whose taxonomic affiliation failed to 

397

e determined. It can be generally stated, that the damages were caused mainly by ambrosia 

beetles and representatives of longhorn beetles (Cerambycidae). Feeding grounds of ambrosia 

beetles were found in wood of six species of trees known by many names, brought from West 

Africa: Guibourtia ehie J. Léonard (known most commonly as ovangkol), Terminalia superba 

Engl & Diels (known commercially as limba), Millettia laurentii De Wild. (known most 

commonly as wenge), Microberlinia brazzavillensis A. Chev. (known most commonly as 

zebrano or zinga), Entandrophragma cylindricum Sprague (usually known as sapelli, sapeli or 

sapele) and Nesogordonia papaverina Capuron (known commercially as kotibé). No 

identification to species level is due to availability feeding ground features only, which cannot 

be the sufficient base for reliable identification, consideration multiplicity of insect species 

growing in the wood. It is known from the literature that species of ambrosia beetles growing 

in the wood (at least some of those listed trees) belong both to Scolytinae and Platypodinae 

families [Wagenführ and Scheibler 1989]. 

Representatives of longhorn beetles left feeding traces in the mentioned sapeli and wenge 

wood from West Africa, in wood of Shorea negrosensis Foxb. (known commercially as 

meranti, usually with the adjective specifying the color in different languages) and in wood of 

Tectona grandis L, known commonly as teak. In the latter case, the damage came from the 

under-bark longhorn beetles. In the case of meranti wood, brought in 2005, the sample 

contained a pupa cradle at the end of single oval tunnel, width of about 15-20 mm, with a 

strongly dried, partly decayed larva with a length of 55 mm. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The investigations conducted lead us to the following conclusions. 

� Powder-post beetles (Lyctidae) and false powder-post beetles (Bostrychidae) are still 

the most dangerous xylophagous pests brought with imported exotic timber, just as it 

did in past decades. 

� Wood with traces of existence of shipworms (Teredinidae) occurs rarely in Poland, 

apart from fossil Taxodioksylon taxodii Gothan from Roztocze region, in which the 

tunnels of the molluscs are confused with feeding grounds of insects. 

� False alarms of threats to wood are often induced by the mass emergence of Attagenus 

smirnovi Zhantiev, a non-xylophagous beetle species new to Polish entomofauna. 

Spreading of this species in our country can be expected. 

� The amount of exotic timber imported to Poland with damages caused by insects in 

the forest or in storages appears to will be increasing. Taxonomic classification of the 

destructive species will often be difficult to determine unequivocally if the 

identification will be made on the base of wood damage features only. 

Streszczenie: Ksylofagi obcego pochodzenia w badaniach Zak�adu Ochrony Drewna SGGW 

w Warszawie w latach 1997 – 2009. W ostatniej dekadzie w Polsce wzrasta znaczenie handlu 

egzotycznym drewnem. Drewno to niekiedy zawiera uszkodzenia spowodowane przez 

zwierz�ta. Przynale�no�� tych zwierz�t czasem jest trudno ustali� ze wzgl�du na ogromn� 

liczb� ksylofagoicznych gatunków owadów. W publikacji podano wyniki oznacze� 

przynale�no�ci taksonomicznej owadów i ma��ów, które uszkodzi�y drewno egzotycznych 

gatunków drzew. Próbki egzotycznego drewna Tieghemella heckelii, Triplochiton 

scleroxylon, Guibourtia ehie, Terminalia superba, Millettia laurentii, Microberlinia 

brazzavillensis, Entandrophragma cylindricum, Nesogordonia papaverina z Afryki 

Zachodniej, Shorea negrosensis i Tectona grandis z Po�udniowo - wschodniej Azji oraz 

mice�skiego Taxodioxylin taxodii z terenu Polski zosta�y nades�ane do Zak�adu Ochrony 

Drewna w latach 1997 – 2009. Najgro�niejszymi gatunkami owadów przywo�onych wraz z 

398

egzotycznym drewnem do polski s� Lyctus brunneus Steph. i Sinoxylon anale Lesne. 

Uszkodze� próbek egzotycznego drewna przez chrz�szcze ambrozyjne nie uda�o si� przypisa� 

konkretnym gatunkom. Stwierdzono kilka przypadków obecno�ci w Polsce nieszkodliwego 

dla drewna szubaka Smirnowa (Attagenus smirnovi), gatunku nowego dla Polski. 

Uszkodzenie drewna Taxodioxylon taxodii z miocenu spowodowa�y ma��e z rodziny 

�widrakowatych (Teredinidae). 

Scientific work granted from government funds for science in the years 2008 - 2011 as a 

research project No. N309 N 297834th 

REFERENCES 

1. F. BIEDA, Paleozoologia, Vol. 1 Cz�� ogólna, Zwierz�ta bezkr�gowe, Wydawnictwa 

Geologiczne, Warszawa, 1966, 

2. S. CYMOREK, Die in Mitteleuropa einheimischen und eingeschleppten 

Splintholzkäfer aus der Familie Lyctidae, Entomologische Blätter für Biologie und 

Systematik der Käfer, 57 (1961), 76 – 102, 

3. J. DOMINIK, Klucze do oznaczania owadów Polski, Part XIX, 43 – 44, Miazgowce 

– Lyctidae, Drwionki – Lymexylonidae, PWN, Warszawa, 1957, 

4. J. DOMINIK, Z obserwacji nad niektórymi gatunkami owadów obcego pochodzenia 

przywo�onych do Polski wraz z wyrobami z drewna, Sylwan, 1(1970), 35 – 39, 

5. J. DOMINIK, J.R. STARZYK: Owady uszkadzaj�ce drewno, PWRiL, Warszawa, 

2004, 

6. M. K�USEK, Fossil wood from the Roztocze region (Miocene SE Poland) – a tool for 

paleoenvironmental reconstruction, Geological Quarterly, 50 (4), 2006, 465 – 474, 

A. KRAJEWSKI, Zwierz�ta morskie jako szkodniki drewna, Przemys� Drzewny, 

7 (1987) , 28 – 32, 

A. KRAJEWSKI, P. WITOMSKI, Ochrona drewna – surowca i materia�u, Wydawnictwo 

SGGW, Warszawa, 2005, 

7. Z. LAURÓW, K. NAROJEK, Wspó�czesna technika w badaniach skamienia�o�ci 

drewna: tomografia komputerowa (part 2), Przemys� Drzewny, 3 (2005), 6 – 20, 

8. U. SENETA: Dendrologia, PWN, Warszawa, 1973, 

9. [R. WAGENF�HR, CHR. SCHEIBLER R., Holzatlas, 3. Auflage mit 890 zum Teil 

mehrfahrbigen Bildern, VEB Fachbuchverlag Leipzig, 1989. 


Adam Krajewski 

Department of Wood Science and Wood Protection 



Poland 

e-mail:adam_krajewski@sggw.pl

Annals of Warsaw University if Life Science – SGGW 



The species of wood construction in historic churches in Mazovia region - 

Part 2 

ADAM KRAJEWSKI 

Warsaw University of Life Science – SGGW, Department of Wood Science and Wood Protection 

Abstract: The species of wood construction in historic churches in Mazovia region - part 2. 

The wood building species in 12 historic churches on Mazovia region were determined. From the XVII c. were 

the 2 objects (both very rebuilt at a later time), the 4 objects were from XVIII c., 3 objects were from XIX c. 

century and 3 objects were from XX c. These studies are a continuation of the earlier, the other 25 historic 

wooden churches from the Mazovia region. Only 1 (from 12) was affirmed oak wood as building material in the 

timbered walls (Go�czyce - walls of the XIX or XX c.) and in foundations (Kucice - XVIII c.) and in 1 (Nowy 

Secemin - XX c.) white poplar as a inner layer of wall boards. In other churches found in the walls only timber 

of Scots pine. The building material of large-size structural elements of roof constructions were all Scots pine. 

The results obtained here confirm previous observation that, contrary to the findings of ordinary, building 

material components of large-size wooden construction in the Mazovia region was Scots pine (except here 

identified 2 exceptions from the XIX - XX c.). Change the oak wood for Scots pine wood in liaison elements 

(dowels and pins of roof constructions) occurred in the XVIII c. 

Keywords: wood material of historical churches, old buildings, Pinus sylvestris 

INTRODUCTION 

In previous publications, there is no information on the use of certain species of wood for the 

construction of historic churches in Mazovia [Sza�ygin and Wi�niewski 1994, Wi�niewski 

1998, Ruszczyk 2001]. Previously published results of investigations performed in the years 

1994 - 2001 the species composition of wood 25 historic churches in Mazovia region 

[Krajewski, 2005]. By 2009, studied at the Department of Wood Protection species 

composition of structural timber further 12 historic wooden churches from the region. This 

work contains the results. 


Wood samples were collected from 12 wooden churches in the years 2001-2009. Not all parts 

of buildings are fully accessible for sampling. Membership of the species of wood samples 

identified under the microscope, using an atlas [Wagenführ and Scheibler 1989]. Objects 

dating from the information contained in the literature [Sza�ygin and Wisniewski 1994, 

Ruszczyk 2001]. 


Sometimes there was no information on the exact time of construction, especially the 

reconstruction and rehabilitation of some churches in the existing publications. Much of the 

objects are not saved before the changes in mass and interference in the construction of roof 

structure. Often it blurs the clarity of wood materials in the past centuries. The original 

construction of large-size timber in the churches from the XVII to the XIX c. was handled 

solely chipping technique. Churches were built of wood obtained in the area - only in one 

case (the church in Troszyn from 1636) found evidence for the presence of supply of timber 

for construction through the flotation. 

The results of the species composition of wood historic wooden churches in the Mazovia 

region are presented in Table 1. 

400

Table 1. The species of wood construction in a historic wooden churches in Mazovia 

The 

foundations 

of walls 

Beams of 

walls 

Dowels in 

walls 

large-size 

structural elements 

of roof 

constructions 

1. Troszyn - rebuilt church from 1636, the roof construction from 1982 

- 6 x Scots pine 10 x Scots 

pine 

1 x oak 

401 

Pins of roof 

constructions 

4 x Scots pine metal elements of the 

liaison 

2. Sarbiewo - the church of the XVII - XVIII c., the roof construction of the XX c. 

- 7 x Scots pine - 2 x Scots pine 

(original) 

6 x Scots pine 

(new) 

7 x Scots pine (new) 

1 x oak (original 

3. Kucice – the church from 1783, the original roof construction 

2 x oak 4 x Scots pine 5 x Scots pine 13 x Scots pine 11 x Scots pine 

(original) 

1 x scots 

pine (new) 

4. Barcice - the church from 1758, the original roof construction 

- - - 3 x Scots pine 3 x oak 

5. Go�czyce - the church from 1740, much rebuilt in the XIX and XX c., the roof construction is only 

partly original 

- 

nave: 15 x 

oak (XIX - 

XX c.), 

- 

- 

nave: 

6 x oak, 

(XIX - XX c.), 

sanctuary: 

3 x scots pine 

(XIX - XX c.) 

- 

- 

- 

old original part 

over nave: 

9 x Scots pine, 

new part of roof 

construction of XX 

c.: 


subsequent parts. 

modeled on the 

orig.: 9 x Scots 

pine 

sanctuary: 

9 x Scots pine 

6. Leoncin - the church from 1789, moved in 1879, renovated in 1970 

5 x scots 

pine (not 

orig.) 

- - - - 

the old, original part 

over nave: 

10 x oak, 

new part of roof 

construction of XX c.: 


the later part. over the 

nave, modeled on the 

orig.: 9 x oak, 

sanctuary: 

part the original 

construction: 

3 x oak, 

part of the latest: 

4 x scots pine 

7. Brwinów - the church around the XIX c., the original roof construction 

- 4 x Scots pine - 7 x Scots pine 3 x Scots pine

8. Boguty Pianki - church from 1865, the original roof construction 

1 x scots 

pine 

4 x Scots pine - 6 x Scots pine 2 x Scots pine 

9. Lipce Reymontowskie - the church of the first half XIX c., the roof construction from 1985 - 1989 

- 4 x Scots pine - 12 x Scots pine metal elements of the 

liaison 

10. Nowy Secemin - the church from 1923, the original roof construction 

- 

not samples of 

construction, 

- 


1 x white poplar 

- 

inner layer of 

wall boards: 

white poplar 

(cradling) 

11. Radachówka – the church from 1935 - 1937, the original roof construction 

- - - 5 x Scots pine metal elements of the 

liaison 

12. Warszawa, ul. G��bocka – church badly dated (probably XIX - XX c.), the roof construction from 1950 

- - - 5 x Scots pine 3 x Scots pine 

Not all places in certain buildings give the possibility of sampling for the determination of 

wood. Based on the results obtained and previous results [Krajewski, 2005] found two general 

trends. Large-size items of historical, no rebuilt structures were made of wood of Scots pine 

(Pinus sylvestris L.), which agrees with the comments about using the historical building of 

indigenous churches in Ma�opolska region in the XIV - XV c. [Brykowski 1981]. Except in 

Mazovia region are few instances of the use of oak (Quercus sp) to do the groundwork 

[Krajewski, 2005]. Only 1 church (Go�czyce) has walls made in the XIX and XX c. in oak, 

instead of the original from 1740. In the church from 1923 in Nowy Secemin were boards in 

white poplar wood (Populus alba L.) in interior layer of skeletal walls. 

Based on the residue found liaison elements can be stated, that oak was originally material of 

dowels and pins of roof constructions framing 2 objects from the XVII c. and 2 objects from 

the XVIII c. Other churches: 1 object from the XVIII c. and 2 objects from the XIX c. had 

pine liaison elements, 3 roof structures of the XX century had a liaison metal parts. There 

were no oak in pins of walls and pins of roof constructions from the XIX and XX c. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The investigations conducted lead us to the following conclusions. 

• The presence of larch, ash or yew churches in Mazovia region is a myth, yet sustained even 

in some (fortunately rare) studies. In general, large-size structural components were made 

from wood of Scots pine. 

• Gives a previously placed a proposal to maintain the presence of oak fittings (dowels and 

pins in the roof constructions) only in the older constructions, namely the XVIII c., inclusive. 

Streszczenie: Gatunki drewna budowlanego w zabytkowych ko�cio�ach na Mazowszu – cz�� 

2. Oznaczono przynale�no�� gatunkow� drewna budowlanego w 12 zabytkowych, 

drewnianych ko�cio�ach na Mazowszu. Z XVII w. by�y 2 obiekty (oba bardzo przebudowane 

w pó�niejszym czasie), z XVIII w. 4 obiekty, z XIX w. 3 obiekty i z XX w. 3 obiekty. 

Badania te s� kontynuacj� wcze�niejszych , dotycz�cych innych 25 zabytkowych, 

drewnianych ko�cio�ów z tego regionu. Jedynie w 1 (spo�ród 12) stwierdzono drewno 

d�bowe jako materia� budowlany �cian w konstrukcji zr�bowej (Go�czyce - �ciany z XIX lub 

XX w.) i podwalin (Kucice – XVIII w.) oraz w 1 ko�ciele (Nowy Secemin - XX w.) topol� 

402

ia�� jako deski wewn�trznej warstwy �cian. W pozosta�ych ko�cio�ach znaleziono w 

�cianach wy��cznie drewno sosny pospolitej. Materia�em konstrukcyjnym 

wielkowymiarowych elementów wi��b dachów wszystkich obiektów by�a sosna pospolita. 

Uzyskane tu wyniki potwierdzaj� wcze�niejsze spostrze�enie, �e wbrew potocznym 

stwierdzeniom materia�em budowlanym wielkowymiarowych elementów konstrukcji 

drewnianych na Mazowszu by�a sosna (poza stwierdzonymi tu 2 wyj�tkami od regu�y z XIX - 

XX w.). Zmiana drewna d�bowego na sosnowe w elementach ��cznikowych (ko�ków wi��b 

dachowych i tybli) zasz�a w XVIII w. 

Scientific work granted from government funds for science in the years 2008 - 2011 as a 

research project No. N309 N 297834th 

REFERENCES 

1. R. BRYKOWSKI, Drewniana architektura ko�cielna w Ma�opolsce XV w., Studia z 

historii sztuki, tom 31, Zak�ad Narodowy im. Ossoli�skich, Wydawnictwo PAN, 

Wroc�aw – Warszawa – Kraków – Gda�sk – �ód�, 1981, 

2. KRAJEWSKI, Drewno jako materia� budowlany w zabytkowych ko�cio�ach na 

Mazowszu, [in:] Renowacja i modernizacja budynków obszarów zabudowanych, 

Oficyna Wydawnicza Uniwersytetu Zielonogórskiego, Zielona Góra, 2005, 291 – 

300, 

3. G. RUSZCZYK, Drewniane ko�cio�y w Polsce 1918 – 1939. Tradycja i 

Nowoczesno��, Instytut Sztuki PAN, Warszawa, 2001, 

4. J. SZA�YGIN, J.A. WI�NIEWSKI, Materia�y do katalogu drewnianego budownictwa 

sakralnego na Mazowszu, Mazowsze, nr 3 (1994), 3 – 104, 

5. R. WAGENF�HR, CHR. SCHEIBLER, Holzatlas, 3. Auflage mit 890 zum Teil 

mehrfahrbigen Bildern, VEB Fachbuchverlag, Leipzig, 1989, 

6. [J.A. Wi�niewski, Ko�cio�y drewniane Mazowsza. Cz�� 1: Dawne województwo 

mazowieckie, Oficyna Wydawnicza „Rewasz“, Pruszków, 1998. 


Adam Krajewski 

Department of Wood Science and Wood Protection 



Poland 

e-mail:adam_krajewski@sggw.pl

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences-SGGW 


(Ann. WULS-SGGW, For. And Wood Technol. 71, 2010) 

The radial variability of the modulus of elasticity along the grain of Scots 

pine wood 

ANDRZEJ KRAUSS, WALDEMAR SZYMA�SKI, GRZEGORZ PINKOWSKI 

Department of Woodworking Machinery and Basis of Machine Construction, 


Abstract: The radial variability of the modulus of elasticity along the grain of Scots pine wood. Radial variation 

of the elasticity modulus in Scots pine wood (Pinus sylvestris L.) and the microfibril angle (MFA) in the 

tangential cell walls were analysed. According to the results, in a narrow range of wood density changes, 

microfibril angle is the main determinant of variation of the elasticity modulus of cell walls in longitudinal 

direction. 

Keywords: Scots pine, microfibril angle, density, cell wall, ultrasound velocity, modulus of elasticity along the 

grain 

INTRODUCTION 

In the light of recent research results, density of wood is not sufficient for explanation of 

great variation of its mechanical properties (Moli�ski & Raczkowski 1993, Krauss 2009). 

Should wood density be the only parameter determining the mechanical properties of wood, 

the relation between these should be linear but according to the present state of knowledge it 

is not so. At the same wood density the elasticity modulus and wood strength can be much 

different (Zhang 1997). The differences stem from diversity of the ultrastructure of cell walls 

and first of all from different angles made by cellulose microfibrils and the longitudinal axis 

of the cells (Yamashita et al. 2000, Yang & Evans 2003). 

Physical, rheological and mechanical properties of bulk wood and individual wood fibres 

are closely related with orientation of microfibrils (Cave 1972, Kojima & Yamamoto 2004). 

Relations between the microfibril angle (MFA) in cell walls and the mechanical parameters 

have been mainly studied by testing tensile strength along the grain. It has been shown that 

the mechanical strength of wood and cell walls and elasticity modulus are the higher the 

lower the MFA, but this relation is not linear (Cave & Walker 1994; Reiterer et al 1999). 

Much less attention has been paid to analysis of relations between MFA and mechanical 

parameters of wood upon compression along the grains. So far mainly the relation has been 

studied between mechanical strength and MFA (Polusen et al. 1997, Gindl & Teischinger 

2002) as determination of Young modulus from compressive force and strain of the sample is 

unreliable. When the modulus is high the strain can be too small to be measured accurately 

and when other phenomena contribute to produce strain (e.g. creep or deformation of nearsurface 

layers) then the value of the modulus can be falsified. In material engineering the best 

method for Young modulus determination is based on ultrasound velocity measurements as 

the velocity of longitudinal vibrations is directly related to Young modulus and material 

density (Ashby & Jones 1995). 

The aim of the study reported is to establish the influence of MFA in cell walls on the 

radial variation of the wood elasticity modulus determined on the basis of measurements of 

velocity of longitudinal ultrasound waves in wood along the grains. 


Measurements were performed on samples of the size 20(T)x20(R)x30(L) mm cut out of 

the small beams that were cut out along the northern ray of the pith board from the tree trunk 

404

at a distance of about 2m from the root neck. The tree was a 60-year old pine (Pinus sylvestris 

L.) of dominant position in the stand. Prior to the measurements a 30 mm thick lath was cut 

off this board in which the width of annual rings, the contribution of latewood in the rings and 

MFA in the tangential walls of tracheids were determined. The samples were conditioned in 

the laboratory at T=20-22ºC and RH = 35-41%, until reaching the equilibrium moisture 

content. Densities of all samples were determined by the stereometric method, while the 

moisture contents of three samples from each beam were measured by the gravimetric 

method. The linear sizes of the samples were measured to the accuracy of 0.01 mm, while 

their mass to the accuracy of 0.001g. The samples were dried to oven dry state at 103�2°C. 

The time of the ultrasound wave passage through wood along the grain was measured to the 

accuracy of 0.02 �s using an ultrasound probe ”Unipan 543”, with the measuring heads 

operating at the frequency 0.5 MHz. The moisture content in wood at the moment of 

measurement varied from 7.6 to 8.2%. 

The ultrasound wave velocity was calculated from the formula: 

LL [m/s], 

CL = t 

where: LL – the path covered by the wave equal to the size of the sample in the longitudinal direction [m], 

t – time of the wave passage through the sample [s]. 

The elasticity modulus of wood was calculated from the fundamental relation between the 

ultrasound wave velocity and density and elastic modulus of the material studied: 

CL= 

( � 

9 

E L / �) 

10 [m/s], 

where: CL-velocity of propagation of a longitudinal ultrasound wave [m/s], 

EL-elasticity modulus of wood along the grain [GPa], 

� – density of wood [kg/m 3 ], 

10 9 - a factor needed to match the units. 

The above formula is valid for isotropic materials. For anisotropic materials it is necessary 

to introduce a correction (p) taking into account the reduced Poisson coefficient (k) (Dzbe�ski 

1984, Ma�kowski & Gierlik 2001). The value of k was calculated for pine wood assuming the 

material constants after Aszkenazi (1978). Taking into regard the correction, the elasticity 

modulus of wood along the grain was calculated from the formula: 

EL = 

2 

CL � � � 0,83 � 10 -9 [GPa] 

The elasticity modulus of cell walls (E c.w.) was found from the relation: 

E c.w.= EL 

where: 

1500 – density of wood [kg/m 3 ], 

EL – elasticity modulus of wood [GPa], 

� - density of wood [kg/m 3 ]. 

1500 

[GPa], 

� 

405

MFA in individual tracheids were measured by the direct method described by Fabisiak & 

Moli�ski (2007), the mean value of MFA was calculated according to the procedure proposed 

by Krauss et al. (2009). 

RESULTS 

Analysis of changes in the elasticity modulus of wood determined from the measurements 

of velocity of longitudinal ultrasound wave propagation, Fig.1, indicates its increase with 

growing maturity of wood tissue. Over the juvenile zone the mean value of the modulus 

increases from about 10 to 14 GPa and remains at this level through the mature zone. The 

mean value of elasticity modulus for all zones of the stem cross-section is 12.3 GPa, which is 

the same as the mean value for pine wood (Pinus sylvestris L.) reported by Krzysik (1974) 

and Wagenführ (2007). 

Modulus of elasticity, 

EL (GPa) 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

0 10 20 30 40 50 

Cambial age of annual rings (years) 

Fig.1. The radial variability of the modulus of elasticity 

The radial variations in the elasticity modulus and density of wood suggest that the 

correlation between these parameters for a given tree is not clear. The mean wood density 

against the mean elasticity modulus of wood from different zones of the stem cross-section is 

plotted in Fig. 2. Analysis of the data does not confirm the earlier reported and generally 

accepted positive correlation between the mechanical properties of wood and its density. The 

reasons for this difference can be a narrow range of the wood density changes and relatively 

low density of near-circumferential wood characterised by high elasticity modulus. 

Modulus of elasticity, EL (GPa) 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

420 440 460 480 500 520 

Density (kg/m3) 

406

Fig.2. The modulus of elasticity vs. density 

As follows from the data in Fig. 3, the elasticity modulus of cell walls is not constant but 

increases with the cambial age of annual rings. This observation means that its value is not 

determined exclusively by the density of wood because if it was it should take a constant 

value irrespective of the position of a given zone along the radius. The elasticity modulus of 

cell walls changes in the range from 32.1 GPa (rings 2–7) to 49.4 GPa (rings 37–49). The so 

significant change in its value is attributed to changes in the microfibril angle, as follows from 

Fig. 3. The trends of changes in the elasticity modulus of cell walls and MFA are practically 

the mirror reflections; the Young modulus of cell walls increases when MFA decreases. 


E(c.w.) (GPa) 

55 

50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

y = 23,248x 0,1957 

R 2 = 0,9715 

407 

y = 24,405x -0,1376 

R 2 = 0,9739 

0 10 20 30 40 50 

Cambial age of annual rings (years) 

Fig. 3. Radial variation in the modulus of elasticity of tracheid cell walls and the microfibril angle 

The elasticity modulus of cell walls versus MFA is shown in Fig. 4. Their relation can be 

approximated by an exponential function of the type y=ae -bx . As indicated by the high value 

of the correlation coefficient of this relation (0.96), in the narrow range of changes in wood 

density of 440-500kg/m 3 , the elasticity modulus of cell walls is almost totally determined by 

MFA. Yang & Evans (2003), who investigated the tensile strength of wood, have reported 

that the variation in the elasticity modulus depends more on MFA than on wood density. 

Similarly, Yamashita et al. (2000) have proved that the variation in the elasticity modulus 

cannot be fully explained by changes in wood density and suggested a significant role of 

MFA as determinant of the elasticity modulus. 

22 

20 

18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

Microfibril angle (deg)


E (c.w.) (GPa) 

55 

50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

y = 156,47e -0,0814x 

R 2 = 0,9588 

25 

12 14 16 18 20 22 

Microfibril angle (deg) 

Fig.4. Empirical relation between the modulus of elasticity of tracheid cell walls and the microfibril angle 

CONCLUSIONS 

1. The elasticity modulus of Scots pine wood increases with maturation of wood tissue, its 

changes are dynamic in the juvenile zone and much smaller in the mature zone. 

2. Increase in MFA leads to reduction in the elasticity modulus of cell walls. 

3. The relation between the elasticity modulus of cell walls and MFA is well approximated 

by the exponential function y=ae -bx of a high coefficient of determination (R 2 =0.96). 

4. In the narrow range of wood density variation the elasticity modulus of cell walls is 

almost totally determined by MFA. 

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(Cryptomeria japonica ) logs among eighteen cultivars. Mokuzai Gakkaishi 46, 6: 

510-522 

18. YANG J.L., EVANS R., 2003: Prediction of MOE of eucalypt wood from microfibril 

angle and density. Holz a.Roh-u.Werkstoff 61:449-452 

19. ZHANG S.Y.,1997: Wood specific gravity-mechanical property relationship at 

species level. Wood Sci. Technol. 34:181-191 

Streszczenie: Promieniowa zmienno�� modu�u spr��ysto�ci wzd�u� w�ókien drewna sosny 

zwyczajnej. W pracy przedstawiono wyniki pomiarów promieniowej zmienno�ci modu�u 

spr��ysto�ci liniowej drewna sosny (Pinus sylvestris L) oznaczonego na podstawie pomiaru 

pr�dko�ci propagacji pod�u�nej fali ultrad�wi�kowej w drewnie w kierunku wzd�u� w�ókien. 

Wykazano, �e modu� spr��ysto�ci wzrasta w miar� dojrzewania tkanki drzewnej, 

dynamicznie w strefie drewna m�odocianego i nieznacznie w strefie drewna dojrza�ego 

Stwierdzono tak�e, �e w w�skim przedziale zmienno�ci g�sto�ci drewna, orientacja 

mikrofibryl w �cianach komórkowych jest g�ównym determinantem modu�u spr��ysto�ci 

�cian komórkowych, a zwi�zek tych wielko�ci dobrze aproksymuje funkcja wyk�adnicza 

y=ae -bx (R 2 =0,96). 


Andrzej Krauss 

Waldemar Szyma�ski 

Grzegorz Pinkowski 


Pozna� University of Life Sciences, 

60-627 Pozna�, Poland, 

38/42 Wojska Polskiego st., 

e-mail: akrauss@up.poznan.pl




Influence of urban environment originated heavy metals pollution on the 

content of extractives, cellulose and lignin in the oak wood 

DONATA KRUTUL, TOMASZ ZIELENKIEWICZ, ANDRZEJ RADOMSKI, JANUSZ 

ZAWADZKI, MICHA� DRO�D�EK, ANDRZEJ ANTCZAK 

Department of Wood Science and Wood Protection, Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life 

Science – SGGW 

Abstract: Influence of urban environment originated heavy metals pollution on the content of extractives, 

cellulose and lignin in the oak wood. Contents of extractives, cellulose and lignin on the cross- and longitudinalsection 

of oak stem (Quercus robur L.) were examined. Samples were gained from Jab�onna upper forest 

district, Zegrze forest district. Dusts (few tons a year) falling on this area originate mainly from �era� heat and 

power station and from Arcelor Warszawa steel plant. Analysis of oak stem gained from unpolluted environment 

was also made. Results show that envoronmental pollution causes the increase extractives content, particularly in 

sapwood adjacent heartwood, but also in heartwood and pith adjacent heartwood. The environmental pollution 

does not influence spacing and content of cellulose and lignin in analysed oak sections. 

Key words: oak wood, sapwood, heartwood, extractives, cellulose, lignin. 

INTRODUCTION 

Substances harmfully interacting with animals and plants because of the presence in 

the atmosphere are acknowledged as air pollutants. These substances are divided into: solids 

(dusts and soots), liquids (vapours) and gas. Harmfulness of dusts is determined by fall size, 

refinement degree, chemical composition and water solubility. Dusts and soots deposit on 

plants assimilative apparatus, plug the stomate and make the sunshine penetration to 

chloroplasts difficult. The sediment of much amount of dusts on the soil surface may cause its 

reaction change, which makes the nutrients (especially phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen and 

micronutrients) colletion harder for a tree (multi-author work 1998). Most harmful (for plants) 

air pollutants are sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, ozone, hydrohalogenes. Gas get at 

assimilation organs interior mainly across stomate. It can be damaged by high concentration 

of gas pollutants (multi-author work 1998). 

Occurance of heavy metals, particularly lead (Gulson et al. 1981), is the measure of 

industrial environmental pollution. Heavy metals pollution is caused by human activity, what 

mainly means fuels combustion in industry, transport and households. Heavy metals contents 

are raised in the upper soil layer in forests growing in urban area (in relation to nonindustrialized 

areas), according to Pouyat et al. (1991). Studies on the influence of heavy 

metals on living organisms were carried out on the areas neighbouring to punctual source of 

metals (Freedman & Hutchinson 1980) and in urban environment (Getz et al. 1977, Ash & 

Markkoke 1995). 

Environmental pollution significantly influences on the content of elements 

acknowledged as macronutrients and heavy metals in wood on the cross- and longitudinalsection 

as well as in the bark, roots, branches and conifer needles (Krutul & Makowski 2004, 

2004; Krutul et al. 2006, 2006b). According to Krutul et al. (2006), heat and power station 

(Kozienice) originated pollution does not influence the content and spacing of extractives and 

structural substances in pine stems sampled in the range of 1km and 21km from emitter. 

The aim of this work was to examine the influence of environmental pollution on the 

content of extractives, cellulose and lignin on the cross- and longitudinal-section of oak stem 

(Quercus robur L.) Pollution originated from power and heat and power station and steel 

plant, which had been emiting amount of dusts exceeding obligatory standards. 

410


Samples were obtained from three circa 100 years old oak stems (Quercus robur L.), 

which were grown in Mazovia-Podlasie region, Jab�onna (near Warsaw) upper forest district, 

Zegrze forest district. Examined trees were growing in fresh mixed forest, on the fertile, 

dusty-loamy soil. Amount of dusts falling on this area significantly exceed obligatory 

standards. 

Analysed wood discs with the height of 200 mm were obtained from three stems (butt 

end, half stem height and top part). 

Oak wood from non-polluted area was also analysed. There were examined three circa 

100 years old stems which was grown in Mazuria-Podlasie II region (on the frontier with 

Baltic I region), St�pniewo forest district. Trees of II stand quality classification were 

analysed, from forest stand with intermittent fault, growing on podsol. Analogical discs were 

cut from stems for analysis. 

Samples were gained from following zones on the cross-sections: pith adjacent 

heartwood, heartwood, sapwood adjacent heartwood and sapwood. Wood in the range of 5 

mm from the line between heartwood and sapwood was acknowledged as sapwood adjacent 

heartwood. Other samples were obtained from the middle of each zone. Samples were 

comminuted and fractioned using sieves. The undersize 0,6-mm and oversize 0,49-mm mesh 

sawdust fraction was taken for the study. 

Extractives content designation was performed in the Soxhlet apparatus using ethanolbenzene 

(1:1) mixture, cellulose content was analysed with Kürschner-Hoffer method, 

according to Krutul (2002). Lignin content was determined according to PN-74/P 50092 

standard. 

RESULTS 

Fig. 1a and 1b present extractives content in different zones of polluted and unpolluted 

oak wood. Collected data shows that the extractives content in sapwood adjacent heartwood, 

pith adjacent heartwood (butt end) is higher in oak wood from polluted area, correspondingly 

of 13,4% and 27,2%. In the wood from upper mentioned zones from half stem height this 

difference is equal to about 21,5%. In the stem top part content of extractives in sapwood 

adjacent heartwood is 26,2% higher in polluted wood. This difference in heartwood and pith 

adjacent heartwood equals correspondingly 24,3% and 26,7%. Extractives content on the 

cross-sections of polluted wood increases in the direction from perimeter to pith but these 

changes are much more irregular in relation to cross-sections of unpolluted wood. 

Apart from the forest site of trees growth, wood from the stem top part contains more 

extractives than wood from half height and butt end. 

Krutul & Buzak (1986) stated that oak wood (Quercus petraea Liebl.) contains more 

extractives in pith adjacent heartwood than in sapwood. Extractives content is higher in the 

stem cross-section from 14 m height in relation to cross-sections from 2 m, 6 m and 10 m 

height. This data confirm results presented in current paper. 

Fig. 2a and 2b shows values of cellulose content in analysed oak wood 

(correspondingly polluted and unpolluted) in the cross- and longitudinalsection. Values are 

similar for both kind of oak wood. The highest cellulose content was measured for sapwood 

in half-height and butt end. It equals 49,8% for polluted wood and 49,2% for unpolluted. This 

data is similar to former results presented by Krutul (1986, 1988) and Krutul et al. (2009). 

Apart from the forest site of trees growth, cellulose content increases in the direction from 

pith to perimeter. Such a character of cellulose content changes is compatible to results 

presented by Krutul (1986, 1988) and Krutul et al. (2009), as well as Uprichard (1971) and 

Harwood (1971) who stated that in the cross-section of Pinus radiata wood the cellulose 

411

content increases in the same direction. 

Values of lignin content in polluted and unpolluted oak wood are presented 

correspondingly in fig. 3a and 3b. Lignin content decreases in the direction from pith to 

perimeter in both kinds of oak wood. Data shows that environmental pollution does not 

influence content and spacing of lignin in any section. Lignin content is the highest in pith 

adjacent heartwood from stem top part and equals to 23,3-23,5%. Presented results are not 

compatible to data concerning pine wood (Pinus sylvestris L.) which was obtained from area 

polluted by heat and power station “Kocienice”. Content of lignin in the polluted pine wood 

was higher in relation to unpolluted samples. 

a - polluted 

sapwood heartwood adjacent sapwood 

extractives content/ % 

extractives content/ % 

9 

7,5 

6 

4,5 

3 

4,5 

4 

3,5 

3 

3,7 

heartwood heartwood adjacent pith 

5,2 

4,6 

6,6 

3,8 

6,6 

412 

5,3 

6,9 

4,4 

7,6 

butt-end middle 

cross section 

top 

7,0 

b - unpolluted 

sapwood sapwood adjacent heartwood 

heartwood pith adjacent heartwood 

3,1 

3,8 

3,7 

4,2 

3,5 

3,9 

3,6 

4,1 

3,4 

3,6 

butt-end middle 

cross section 

top 

Fig. 1 Extractives content in the oak wood sampled from a – polluted, b – unpolluted environment. 

3,8 

7,9 

4,0

cellulose content/ % 

cellulose content/ % 

51 

50 

49 

48 

47 

46 

51 

50 

49 

48 

47 

46 

49,8 

49,2 

a - polluted 



49,3 

48,3 

47,4 

49,7 

48,8 

413 

48,3 

46,5 

49,1 

48,1 

butt-end middle top 

cross section 

47,6 




48,8 

48,1 

46,3 

49,1 

49,0 

48,8 

47,4 

48,9 

48,4 


cross section 

Fig. 2 Cellulose content in the oak wood sampled from a – polluted, b – unpolluted environment. 

48,2 

46,3 

47,5

lignin content/ % 

lignin content/ % 

24 

23 

22 

21 

20 

24 

23 

22 

21 

20 

22,0 

21,8 

a - polluted 



22,5 

22,5 

22,8 

22,0 

22,6 

414 

23,1 

23,0 

22,4 

22,9 


cross section 

22,9 




22,6 

22,9 

23,1 

22,1 

22,7 

23,1 

23,4 

22,0 

23,0 


cross section 

Fig. 3 Lignin content in the oak wood sampled from a – polluted, b – unpolluted environment 

CONCLUSIONS 

Obtained results lead to following conclusions: 

1. Environmental pollution causes the increase of extractives content. Extractives content 

raises in the direction from perimeter to pith both in polluted and unpolluted wood, but 

in polluted samples these changes are much more irregular. 

2. Environmental pollution does not influence content and spacing of cellulose and lignin 

in the cross-sections as well as in longitudinal-sections. 

23,1 

23,3 

23,5

REFERENCES 

1. ASH C. P. J., LEE D. L. 1980: Lead, cadmium, copper and iron in earthworms from 

roadside sities. Environmental Pollution 22, 59-67. 

2. FREEDMAN B., HUTCHINSON T. C. 1980: Long-term effects of smelter pollution 

at Sudbury, Ontario, on forest community composition. Canadian Journal of Botany 

58, 2123-2140. 

3. GETZ L. L., BEST L. B., PRATHER M. 1997: Lead in urban and rural songbirds. 

Environmental Pollution 12, 235-238. 

4. GULSON B. L., TILLER K. G., MIZON K. J., MERRY R. H. 1981: Use of lead 

isotopes to identify the source of lead contamination near Adelaide, south Australia. 

Environmental Science and Technology 15, 691-696. 

5. HARWOOD V. D. 1971: Variation in carbohydrate anlyses in relation to wood age in 

Pinus radiata. Holzforshung 25, 3, 73-77. 

6. KRUTUL D. 1986: Charakterystyka celulozy w drewnie d�bowym wzd�u� osi i 

promienia pnia. SGGW – AR Warszawa. 

7. KRUTUL D. 1988: Udzia� celulozy i niektóre jej w�a�ciwo�ci badane na przekroju 

poprzecznym i pod�u�nym pnia d�bowego. Folia Rorestalia Polonica s. B., 18, 41-56. 

8. KRUTUL D. 2002: �wiczenia z chemii drewna oraz wybranych zagadnie� z chemii 

organicznej. SGGW, Warszawa. 

9. KRUTUL D., BUZAK J. 1986: Rozmieszczenie substancji ekstrakcyjnych w drewnie 

pnia drzewa d�bowego i sosnowego. Sylvan 8, 130, 65-77. 

10. KRUTUL D., MAKOWSKI T. 2004: Content of the mineral substances in the oak 

wood (Quercus petraea Liebl.) Annals of Warsaw Agricultural University – SGGW, 

Forestry and Wood Technol. 55, 315-320. 

11. KRUTUL D., MAKOWSKI T. 2005: Influence of agglomeration environment on 

content of some mineral substances in bark, roots and wood of Norway maple (Acer 

platanoides L.). Annals of Warsaw Agricultural University SGGW, Forestry and Wood 

Technol. 56, 369-376. 

12. KRUTUL D., MAKOWSKI T., HROLS J. 2006: Influence of heating power station on 

the chemical composition of wood, bark, brances and main roots of scotch pine (Pinus 

sylvestris L.). Annals of Warsaw Agricultural University SGGW, Forestry and Wood 

Technol. 59, 16-23. 

13. KRUTUL D., MAKOWSKI T., ZAWADZKI J. 2006: Influence of environmental 

pollution on the chemical composition of bark and wood of scotch pine (Pinus 

sylvestris L.). Wood Structure and Properties'06. Zvolen – Slovakia, 67-70. 

14. MARKKOLA A. M, OHTONEN R., TARRAINEN O., AHONEN-JONNARTH U. 

1995: Estimates of fungal biomass in scots pine stands on an urban pollution gradient. 

New Phytologist 131, 139-147. 

15. Multi-author work 1998: Podstawy fizjologii ro�lin. PWN Warszawa. 

16. POUYAT R. V., MCDONELL M. J. 1991: Heavy metal accumulation in forest soils 

along an urban-rural gradient in southeastern New Youk, USA. Water Air and Soil 

Pollution 57-58, 797-807. 

17. UPRICHARD J. M. 1971: Cellulose and lignin content in Pinus radiata D. Don 

within tree variation in chemical composition, density and tracheid length. 

Holzforshung 25, 4, 97-105. 

Streszczenie: Wp�yw �rodowiska ska�onego metalami ci��kimi na zawarto�� substancji 

ekstrakcyjnych, celulozy i ligniny w drewnie d�bu szypu�kowego Quercus robur L. Zawarto�� 

substancji ekstrakcyjnych, celulozy i ligniny okre�lono w drewnie pni d�bowych ok. 100letnich, 

pozyskanych z le�nictwa Zegrze k/ Warszawy. Py�y opadaj�ce na teren pochodz� z 

415

Elektrociep�owni �era� oraz z Huty Arcelor Warszawa, a ich ilo�� wynosi kilka ton rocznie i 

przekracza dopuszczalne normy. Wykonano równie� oznaczenie w drewnie pni d�bowych 

(ok. 100-letnich) pozyskanych ze �rodowiska nieska�onego z krainy Mazursko-Podlaskiej. 

Próbki do bada� pobrano w postaci kr��ków o wysoko�ci ok. 200 mm z cz��ci odziomkowej, 

po�owy wysoko�ci pnia i z cz��ci wierzcho�kowej. W ka�dym kr��ku na przekroju 

poprzecznym wyró�niono stref� drewna przyrdzeniowego, twardzieli, stref� twardzieli 

granicz�cej z biel� i stref� bielu. 

Z przeprowadzonych bada� wynika, �e ska�enie �rodowiska wp�ywa na zwi�kszenie 

zawarto�ci substancji ekstrakcyjnych w badanym drewnie d�bowym, szczególnie w drewnie 

strefy twardzieli granic�cej ze stref� bielu a tak�e w drewnie strefy twardzieli i strefy 

twardzieli przyrdzeniowej w stosunku do drewna d�bowego pozyskanego ze �rodowiska 

nieska�onego. W przekrojach poprzecznych w drewnie d�bowym pozyskanym ze �rodowiska 

ska�onego równie� wyst�puje zwi�kszanie si� zawarto�ci substancji ekstrakcyjnych w 

kierunku od obwodu do rdzenia, ale przebieg jest bardziej nieregularny w stosunku do 

przekrojów poprzecznych drewna d�bowego pozyskanego ze �rodowiska nieska�onego. 

Ska�enie �rodowiska nie wp�yn�lo na zawarto�� i rozmieszczenie celulozy i ligniny w 

drewnie na przekrojach poprzecznych i pod�u�nych pni. 


Donata Krutul 

Tomasz Zielenkiewicz 

Andrzej Radomski 

Janusz Zawadzki 

Micha� Dro�d�ek 







Poland 

e-mail: tomasz_zielenkiewicz@sggw.pl 

e-mail: andrzej_radomski@sggw.pl 

e-mail: janusz_zawadzki@sggw.pl 

e-mail: michal_drozdzek@sggw.pl 

e-mail: andrzej_antczak@sggw.pl



(Ann. WULS – SGGW, For and Wood Technol. 71, 2010) 

Effect of thermal aging on properties of HDF boards finished in lacquer 

analogue printing technology. Part I. Coatings resistance upon thermal 

factors 

TOMASZ KRYSTOFIAK, STANIS�AW PROSZYK, BARBARA LIS, ANNA JURGA 

Department of Gluing and Finishing of Wood, Pozna� University of Life Sciences 

Abstract: Effect of thermal aging on properties of HDF boards finished in lacquer analogue printing 

technology. Part II. Coatings resistance upon thermal factors. In the article chosen results in the range of 

investigations of resistance upon thermal factors (temperature in „dry heat” version and steam action) of coatings 

prepared in lacquer analogue printing technology and the course these parameters after the thermal aging in the 

procedure of cycles changing temperatures were presented. Boards furniture elements were finished in industry 

conditions in analogue printing technology with imitation of selected wood species in pattern versions: „birch” 

(Betula verrucosa), „white oak” (Quercus alba), and „black oak” (Quercus nigra). It was stated among others, 

that the coating imitative „birch” showed the highest resistance on the steam action. In this case cycles of 

changing temperatures conduced to the slight decrease of this parameter, instead on remaining lacquer coatings 

had no that influence. The „birch” finishing characterized with the best resistance on the high temperature, which 

was shaped on the nearing level in the function of cycles of changing temperatures. Only in the case of „white 

oak” cycles made worse this parameter. 

Keywords: HDF board, analogue printing technology, lacquer coating, thermal aging, resistance, high 

temperature, dry heat, steam action 

INTRODUCTION 

In the analogue printing technology are imitated noble wood species on surfaces of 

MDF and HDF boards. Practical are multi-layers system embracing both lacquer products 

hardened UV radiation which assures basic functional properties and resistance of obtained 

coatings and special paints (inks) deciding about aesthetical-decorative features. Generally 

finishing processes consists of three stages. First from them embraces the preparation of the 

surface and applying of the putty. In the second stage follows the application of products of 

ground (sealer) and printing the imitative drawing of wood, and final process of spreading 

layer of top lacquer. Into the composition of extremely automatized technological lines they 

enter in order of: devices to preparation of the substrate, rollers to applying ground products 

of substrate, printing of decorative layers imitative the drawing of wood, tunnel dryers 

equipped into nozzle air-jet systems and IR and UV radiators (Proszyk 2007, Schreck 2007, 

Krystofiak, Lis and Proszyk in press). 

To advantages of the analogue printing system belongs to count considerable 

possibilities within the pattern-designing range at relatively small quantity of applied lacquer 

products, which is formed on level 30÷35 g/m 2 , usually at 5÷7 layers. Thanks to the use of 

modern technological lines the process happens at conveyor velocity exceeding 100 m/min 

(Ketzer, Steinrücken and Oechler 2008). 

Kitchen furniture or equipments of baths are subject on the elevated temperature 

action. The warmth activity, particularly local, can call out the different kind negative results 

within the range of utylity properties of coatings, which most often appear in the form of 

permanent traces in superficial influences for example in contact with the glass with tea, 

coffee or with table- equipments („ring effect”). In turn the steam action can make for 

beginnings of the different kind of discoloration and decrease of the adherence of coatings. 

In paper Krystofiak et al. 2009, results of investigations in scope of the influence of 

thermal aging in version of changing temperature on the course of aesthetic-decorative 

417

features of finishing’s prepared in analogue printing technology was presented. The aim of 

investigations was determination of resistance of lacquer coatings upon selected thermal 

factors. 

EXPERIMENTS 

Furniture board elements in the industrial scale in SWEDWOOD company (division 

in Babimost town), in lacquer analogue printing technology (Anonymous 2005, 2009a,b) 

with the pattern of following wood species in versions: „birch” (Betula verrucosa), „white 

oak" (Quercus alba) and the „black oak” (Quercus nigra) were prepared. The preparation of 

lacquer coatings for experiments in the article of Krystofiak et al. (2009) was described. 

Investigations on the resistance to high temperature at „dry heat” test were done acc. to PN- 

EN 12722 standard, during time 20 min. After that time the block was removed and samples 

were conditioned during 24 h and then the evaluation of surface coatings quality were made, 

using 5-degree number scale. Tests were conducted until the constant temperature was set, at 

which a visible defects or colour-off appeared. The test of resistance to steam action was 

made acc. to PN-88/F-06100/06 standard. Investigations of resistance of coatings upon steam 

action and temperature in “dry heat” version were carried out in artificial conditions of 

thermal aging acc. to PN-88/F-06100/07 standard in version of changes temperatures at 

normal loading (method A) in function of number appropriate 3, 6 and 9 cycles. 

RESULTS 

Results of investigations of lacquer coatings resistance upon high temperature in 

version „dry heat” in Table 1 were presented. 

Table 1. Results of investigations of lacquer coatings with various pattern printing 

upon resistance to high temperature at „dry heat” vs. of number of thermal aging cycles 

Number 

of cycles 

60 

Note 

Temperature [°C] 

70 

Note 

„Birch” 

85 

Note 

0 - *) - 5 ; 5 5 4 ; 4 4 

3 - - 5 ; 5 5 3 ; 3 3 

6 - - 5 ; 5 5 4 ; 4 4 

9 - - 5 ; 5 5 4 ; 4 4 

„Black oak” 

0 5 ; 5 5 4 ; 4 4 - - 

3 5 ; 5 5 4 ; 4 4 - - 

6 5 ; 5 5 3 ; 3 3 - - 

9 5 ; 5 5 3 ; 3 3 - - 

„White oak" 

0 - - 5 ; 5 5 3 ; 3 3 

3 5 ; 5 5 4 ; 4 4 - - 

6 5 ; 5 5 4 ; 4 4 - - 

9 

*) 

lack of measure 

5 ; 5 5 4 ; 4 4 - - 

Analysing obtained data it was stated, that the temperature 60°C had not caused visible 

changes in the appearance and the structure of tested lacquer coatings, and in the case of the 

imitation of the birch either at 70°C. For this finishing the thermal aging did not make the 

influence on the formation of the resistance on high temperature. In the case whereas designs 

imitative „the white oak” and the black „oak” was noted down a little lower resistance on the 

418

high temperature. This parameter lowered in the function of number of aging cycles within 

the range from 1 to 2 degrees. 

Results of investigations of lacquer coatings resistance on the steam action in function 

of thermal aging cycles in Table 2 were presented. Making estimations obtained results on 

surfaces of particular finishes, it was stated enough differential changes both within the range 

colours, as and structures, which were dependent from the printing pattern and influence time 

of the steam action. The highest resistance showed lacquer coatings imitative „birch”. Aging 

tests did not exert the significant influence on the course of this property. 

Coatings 

(pattern) 

„Birch” 

„White 

oak” 

„Black 

oak” 

Table 2. Results of investigations of lacquer coatings with various pattern printing 

upon resistance to steam action in different time vs. of number of thermal aging cycles 

Number 


cycles 

0 

3 

6 

9 

0 

3 

6 

9 

0 

3 

6 

9 

Number 

Action time [min] 

Final 

of 15 30 45 60 note Description of changes 

samples 

Note (acc. to PN-88/F-06100/06) 

1 3 3 3 3 3 - 

2 2 2 2 2 2 3 

- 

3 2 5 5 5 4 30' crackings of the surface 

1 2 2 3 3 3 - 

2 2 2 3/4 3/4 3 3 45' slightly changes of the structure 

3 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3/4 

2 

2 

60' slightly changes of the structure 

2 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

2 

3 

3 

3 

2 

2 

15' slightly changes of the structure 

1 2 2 2 2 2 - 

2 1 2 2 2/3 2 2 60' changes of the structure 

3 1 1 2 3 2 

- 

1 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 4 

3/4 3/4 

4 

3 4 

45' changes of the structure 

3 3 4 4 4 4 yellowing of the coatings 

1 3 3 4 4 4 30' changes of the structure 

2 3 3 4 4 4 4 


1 3 4 4 4 4 

2 3 3/4 4 4 4 4 30' changes of the structure 


1 3/4 4 4 4 4 

2 3/4 4 4 4 4 4 15' minimal changes of the structure 

3 3/4 4 4 4 4 

1 2 2 2 3 2 

2 2 2 3 3 3 3 

3 3 3 3 3 3 

1 2 3 3 3 3 

2 2 2 3 3 3 3 

3 2 2 2 3 2 fading of the surface 

1 2 2 3 3 3 

2 2 3 3 3 3 3 

3 2 5 5 5 4 

1 3 3 3 3 3 

2 3 3 3 3 3 3 

3 2 3 3 3 3 

419

RECAPITULATION 

Among tested finishing’s, the lacquer coatings imitative „birch” showed the highest 

resistance on the steam action. In this case of thermal aging, it was stated, that cycles of 

changing temperatures conduced to the slight decrease of this parameter, instead on remaining 

lacquer coatings had no influence. The „birch” finishing characterized with the best resistance 

on the high temperature, which was shaped on the nearing level in the function of cycles of 

changing temperatures. Only in the case of „white oak” cycles made worse this parameter. 

REFERENCES 

1. ANONYMOUS, 2005: Materia�y informacyjne firmy Bürkle; 1-28. 

2. ANONYMOUS, 2009a: http://www.buerkle-gmbh.de/ 

3. ANONYMOUS, 2009b: Materia�y informacyjne firmy Swedwood; 1-3. 

4. KETZER M., STEINRÜCKEN R., OECHLER H., 2008: Innovatives 

Direktbedrucken von Möbel-Dekorplatten. 7. Internationale Möbeltage (29- 

31.05.2008). IHD Dresden; 121-129. 

5. KRYSTOFIAK T., JURGA A., PROSZYK S., LIS B., 2009: Influence of thermal 

aging upon the aesthetic-decorative features of HDF boards finished in lacquer 

printing technology. VIII th International Symposium “Selected processes at the wood 

processing” (09-11.09.2009 Šturovo). TU in Zvolen, CD version - ISBN 978-80-228- 

2005-9; 1-8. 

6. KRYSTOFIAK T., PROSZYK S., LIS B., in press: Economic-technological aspects 

of finishing of wood based materials surfaces in printing technologies. Intercathedra. 

Annual Scientific Bulletin of Plant Economic Department 26. 

7. PROSZYK S., 2007: Post�p w dziedzinie wyrobów lakierowych i technologii ich 

stosowania w drzewnictwie. Studia i szkice na Jubileusz Profesora Ryszarda 

Babickiego. ITD Pozna�; 115-123. 

8. SCHRECK T., 2007: Vergleich verschiedener Oberflächentechnologien für die 

Herstellung von Laminatfußböden. Bürkle Symposium. Freudenstadt 09.11.2007; 1- 8. 

Streszczenie: Wp�yw starzenia termicznego na w�a�ciwo�ci p�yt HDF uszlachetnionych w 

technologii lakierowego nadruku analogowego. Cz. I. Odporno�� pow�ok na czynniki 

termiczne. Dla pow�ok lakierowych przygotowanych w uwarunkowaniach przemys�owych 

(firma SWEDWOOD), imituj�cych odpowiednio „brzoz�”, „d�b bia�y” i „d�b czarny”, 

okre�lono odporno�� na wybrane czynniki termiczne (kontaktowe dzia�anie temperatury w 

wersji „suche ciep�o” wg PN-EN 12722 i pary wodnej wg PN-88/F-06100/06 przy ró�nych 

czasach oddzia�ywania). Badania prowadzono po starzeniu termicznym próbek w funkcji 

liczby cykli zmiennych temperatur wg PN-88/F-06100/07 (metoda A). Stwierdzono, �e na 

odporno�� termiczn� wyko�cze� wywiera� wp�yw rodzaj imitowanego wzoru w technologii 

nadruku. Spo�ród testowanych wyko�cze� najwy�sz� odporno�� na dzia�anie pary wodnej 

wykaza�o pokrycie imituj�ce „brzoz�”. Wyko�czenia wykazywa�y w miar� stabiln� 

odporno�� na czynniki termiczne w warunkach prowadzonego testu. 


Tomasz Krystofiak, Stanis�aw Proszyk, Barbara Lis, Anna Jurga 

Katedra Klejenia i Uszlachetniania Drewna 

Uniwersytet Przyrodniczy w Poznaniu 

ul. Wojska Polskiego 38/42, 60-627 Pozna�, Poland 

e-mail: tomkrys@up.poznan.pl, sproszyk@up.poznan.pl, blis@up.poznan.pl



(Ann. WULS – SGGW, For and Wood Technol. 71, 2010) 

Effect of thermal aging on properties of HDF boards finished in lacquer 

analogue printing technology. Part II. Coatings resistance upon mechanical 

factors 

TOMASZ KRYSTOFIAK, BARBARA LIS, STANIS�AW PROSZYK, ANNA JURGA 


Abstract: Effect of thermal aging on properties of HDF boards finished in lacquer analogue printing 

technology. Part II. Coatings resistance upon mechanical factors. In article chosen results in the scope of 

investigations of resistance upon mechanical factors (abrasion resistance acc. to PN-ISO 7784-1, impact acc. to 

PN-93/F-06001/03, and scratch acc. to PN-65/C-81527) of lacguer coatings prepared in analogue printing 

technology and the course upon these parameters after the thermal aging in the procedure of cycles changing 

temperatures were presented. It was stated among others, that lacquer coatings imitative „white oak” was 

characterized with the highest abrasion resistance. Thermal aging caused as result of curing, the height of the 

resistance of coatings with the „birch” imitation. „White oak” finishing was characterized with the lowest impact 

resistance. 

Keywords: HDF board, analogue printing, lacquers coating, thermal aging, resistance, abrasion, impact, scratch 

INTRODUCTION 

In the production of the various kind of furniture are practical more and more often 

materials so called light or ultra-light about the considerably lower density with relation to 

conventional solutions. To these materials is accepted first of all composites, and especially 

frame on board, whose facing-layers with HDF or MDF surfaces finished in lacquer printing 

technology (Anonymous 2004,2005). 

In previous part of these article results of investigations in the scope of influence of 

the thermal aging on the course of resistances on thermal factors of finishing’s prepared in 

printing technology were presented (Krystofiak et al. 2010). Continuing work researches 

who’s an aim was determination of resistance of lacquer coatings on selected mechanical 

factors action. 

The aim of this paper were investigations of resistance upon selected mechanical 

factors (containing abrasion, impact and scratch) of lacquer coatings with three printing 

various pattern and the course of these parameters in condition of thermal aging. 

EXPERIMENTS 

Furniture board elements for experiments described in previous papers (Krystofiak et al. 

2009). Investigation of abrasion resistance of lacquer coatings was conducted with apparatus 

Taber Abraser 5130 model 352, acc. to PN-ISO 7784-1 standard, with the use abrasive paper 

S-33 type, within the range 200 rot., and registering decreases masses (0.0001 g) at every 50 

rots. 

Determination of the impact resistance of coatings was done acc. to PN-93/F-06001/03, 

using the prototype apparatus PUD-1 (DOZAFIL Polifarb Wroc�aw). Five attempts for every 

height was from which removed weight: 10, 25, 50, 100, 200, 400 mm were performed, then 

one made estimations destructions and diameters of resultant impacts and cracks with 

magnifying glass with scale were measured. 

Investigation of scratch resistance was performed by Clemen’s methods acc. to PN- 

65/C-81527, consisting in to the qualification of the peak load of the graver at which does not 

follow the exposure of the surfaces. Measurements were carried on using loads of graver 

within the range 600 ÷ 1800 g, at elementary step 200 g. Additionally one faced with the 

421

microscope at the elementary plot 1.65 μm, the maximum width assurgent scratches. 

Thermal aging procedure in paper of Krystofiak et al. (2009) was described. 

RESULTS 

In Table 1 was taken down results of the abrasion resistance (at the different number 

of rotations of the disc) of lacquer coatings with various pattern printing and the course of this 

parameter in the procedure of thermal aging. 

Table 1. The course of abrasion resistance of tested coatings with various printing pattern 

in function of number of thermal aging cycles 

Coatings 

(pattern) 


cycles 

50 

Number of rotations 

100 150 

Mass loss [g/50 rot.] 

200 

0 0.0075 0.0066 0.0062 0.0058 

„Birch” 

3 

6 

0.0068 

0.0066 

0.0064 

0.0054 

0.0057 

0.0060 

0.0049 

0.0041 

9 0.0052 0.0053 0.0047 0.0051 

0 0.0055 0.0053 0.0040 0.0047 


3 

6 

0.0091 

0.0055 

0.0051 

0.0043 

0.0045 

0.0045 

0.0047 

0.0049 

9 0.0091 0.0058 0.0043 0.0048 

0 0.0081 0.0042 0.0045 0.0041 

„White oak” 

3 

6 

0.0064 

0.0045 

0.0051 

0.0040 

0.0044 

0.0049 

0.0045 

0.0004 

9 0.0066 0.0053 0.0048 0.0055 

The general analysis data from Table 1, shows that optimum in the comparative 

arrangement with parameters finishes imitative the „black oak” were characterized. Thermal 

aging with reference to each finishing’s caused enough differential changes of tested surfaces. 

It was stated their profitable influence on the considered parameter for the surface in the 

„birch” and „white oak” versions. The elevated abrasion resistance could be due progressive 

curing processes of coatings, where upon could influence components contracted in practical 

paints (inks) to the obtainment of each examples in printing processes. Instead in the case of 

„black oak” finishing’s was noted down the slightly decrease on the abrasion (after 3 and 9 

cycles). Registered dependences can show, that for the talked decorative pattern, dominant 

degradative processes connected with thermal stresses of coatings in thermal aging 

conditions. 

Table 2. The course of impact resistance of coatings upon depending 

on the height of fall weight in function of number of thermal aging cycles 

Coatings 

(pattern) 

Number 


10 

Height of impact [mm] 

25 50 100 200 

Note (scale acc. to PN-93/F-06001/03) 

400 

0 5 4 3 2 1 1 

„Birch” 

3 

6 

5 

5 

4 

4 

3 

4 

2 

3 

2 

2 

1 

2 

9 5 4 3 3 3 2 

0 5 4 3 3 2 2 


3 

6 

5 

4 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

2 

2 

2 

1 

2 

9 4 3 3 3 2 2 

0 5 3 3 2 1 1 


3 

6 

5 

4 

3 

3 

3 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

9 4 3 3 2 2 1 

422

Results of investigations of the resistance of lacquer coatings upon impact in function 

of number of cycles of changing temperatures was placed in Table 2, giving data obtained in 

measurement of the diameter of the sign in Table 3 was presented. 

Table 3. The course of diameters of indents of tested coatings depending on the height 

of fall weight in function of number of thermal aging cycles 

Coatings 

(pattern) 

Number 


10 25 

Height of impact [mm] 

50 100 

Diameter [mm] 

200 400 

0 - *) 2.9 4.2 4.9 5.7 6.6 

„Birch” 

3 

6 

- 

- 

3.2 

2.2 

3.9 

3.4 

4.9 

4.5 

5.8 

5.4 

6.7 

6.2 

9 - 3.2 4.2 4.7 5.4 6.3 

0 - 3.8 4.2 4.8 5.7 6.6 


3 

6 

- 

- 

3.7 

3.7 

4.1 

4.0 

4.7 

5.0 

5.5 

5.5 

5.8 

5.5 

9 - 3.5 3.8 4.5 5.5 5.4 

0 - 3.9 4.7 5.4 6.4 7.4 


3 

6 

- 

- 

3.9 

4.0 

4.4 

4.4 

5.3 

5.1 

6.1 

5.9 

7.1 

6.8 

*) 


9 - 3.7 4.2 4.7 5.5 6.4 

Analysing data took placed in Tables 2 and 3 it were stated, that highest estimations 

within the range resistances on mechanical failures of the percussive type for coatings, which 

were not surrendered to aging cycles, reached finishing’s imitative the „black oak”, lowest 

while the „white oak”. It is proper to underline the fact, that the resistance of coatings on 

impact was conditioned considerably properties of the basis about the relatively high 

hardness. Aging cycles action did not influence into the significant manner on the course of 

this parameter. 

In Table 4 were taken down results of measurement of the maximum width of the split 

for lacquer coatings at the various weight of the needle. 

Table 4. The course of measurements of maximal width of rise of lacquer coatings 

in function of number of thermal aging cycles at various weight of needle 

Coatings 

(pattern) 

Number 


600 800 

Needle weight [g] 

1000 1200 1400 

Maximum width of the split [mm] 

1600 1800 

0 0.91 0.99 1.05 1.08 1.15 1.20 > 1.32 

3 - *) „Birch” 

6 0.92 

- 

0.97 

0.98 

1.03 

1.09 

1.07 

1.13 

1.15 

1.20 

1.22 

> 1.32 

> 1.32 

9 1.02 1.04 1.04 1.05 1.20 1.24 > 1.32 

0 1.06 1.08 1.12 1.19 1.28 1.28 

„Black 3 - - - - 1.02 1.08 1.23 

oak” 6 - 1.05 1.17 1.18 1.21 1.29 > 1.32 

9 - - - - 1.08 1.19 > 1.32 

0 - - - 1.01 1.05 1.13 > 1.32 

„White 3 - - - 1.05 1.10 1.17 > 1.32 

oak” 6 - - - 1.07 1.09 1.16 > 1.32 

9 - - - 1.10 1.12 1.15 1.20 

*) 


423

The general analysis data from this Table shows, that with the highest resistance were 

characterized finishes imitative the „white oak” and „black oak”. In turn for the decorative 

pattern „birch” was registered in the relative system ca. 50% lower resistance with reference 

to the „white oak””. Practically the thing taking in the case of „birch” and „white oak” were 

did not register the dependence between the number of aging cycles, and with the course 

consider parameters, which were stable in conditioning of the thermal aging. 

CONCLUSIONS 

1. Lacquer coatings imitative pattern „white oak” was characterized with the highest 

abrasion resistance. In conditions of thermal aging, it was stated the height of the 

resistance of coatings with the „birch” imitation. 

2. „White oak” finishing was characterized with the lowest impact resistance. It did not 

stated the distinctly dependence between the number of cycles of changing 

temperatures, and with analyzed parameter. 

3. With the highest resistance on the scratch were characterized finishing’s imitative the 

„white oak” and the „black oak”. In the case of the „black oak” aging cycles maked 

the favourable influence on the course of this parameter, instead on remaining 

finishing’s did not have this influence. 

REFERENCES 

1. ANONYMOUS, 2004: Uszlachetniane powierzchniowo p�yty drewnopochodne wobec 

przepisów UE. Meblarstwo 11; 35-36. 

2. ANONYMOUS, 2005: P�yta prawie jak drewno. Meblarstwo 11; 42-43. 

3. KRYSTOFIAK T., PROSZYK S., LIS B., JURGA A., 2010: Effect of thermal aging on 

properties of HDF boards finished in lacquer analogue printing technology. Part I. Resistance 

upon thermal factors. Ann. WULS – SGGW, For and Wood Technol. 71; 417-420. 

Streszczenie: Wp�yw przyspieszonego starzenia na w�a�ciwo�ci p�yt HDF uszlachetnionych w 

technologii nadruku analogowego. Cz. II. Odporno�� pow�ok na czynniki mechaniczne. W 

ramach kontynuacji bada� w�a�ciwo�ci pow�ok lakierowych okre�lono ich odporno�� na 

wybrane czynniki mechaniczne (�cieranie, uderzenie i zarysowanie) po testach starzenia 

termicznego. Odporno�� pow�ok na �cieranie oznaczano wg procedury PN-ISO 7784-1, na 

uderzenie wg PN-93/F-06001/03, za� na zarysowanie wg PN-65/C-81527. Stwierdzono, �e 

farby u�yte do nadruku poszczególnych wzorów imitacji wp�ywa�y na kszta�towanie si� 

odporno�ci pow�ok na czynniki mechaniczne w warunkach starzenia termicznego. I tak 

przyk�adowo, pow�oki z nadrukiem wzoru „d�b bia�y”, cechowa�y si� najwy�sz� odporno�ci� 

na �cieranie. W warunkach starzenia termicznego odnotowano zwi�kszenie tej odporno�ci dla 

pow�ok z imitacj� „brzozy”. Z kolei wyko�czenie „d�b bia�y” charakteryzowa�o si� najni�sz� 

odporno�ci� na uderzenie. Nie stwierdzono wyra�nej zale�no�ci mi�dzy liczb� cykli 

zmiennych temperatur, a analizowanym parametrem. Natomiast najwy�sz� odporno�ci� na 

zarysowanie charakteryzowa�y si� wyko�czenia imituj�ce „d�b bia�y” oraz „d�b czarny”. W 

przypadku „d�bu czarnego” cykle starzeniowe wywar�y pozytywny wp�yw na kszta�towanie 

si� tego parametru, natomiast na pozosta�e wyko�czenia nie mia�y wp�ywu. 


Tomasz Krystofiak, Barbara Lis, Stanis�aw Proszyk, Anna Jurga 




e-mail: tomkrys@up.poznan.pl, blis@up.poznan.pl, sproszyk@up.poznan.pl




Qualität von polnischem festigkeitssortierten Kieferschnittholz aus 

verschiedenen Wuchsgebieten 

S�AWOMIR KRZOSEK 

Fakultät für Holztechnologie, der Warschauer Naturwissenschaftlichen Universität - SGGW 

Abstrakt: Qualität von polnischem festigkeitssortierten Kieferschnittholz aus verschiedenen Wuchsgebieten. In 

diesem Referat wurden die gewählten Eigenschaften (Elastizitätsmodul, Biegefestigkeit und Rohdichte) von 

visuell nach Festigkeit sortiertem Kieferschnittholz aus verschiedenen Wuchsgebieten in Polen dargestellt. Das 

Schnittholz (766 Stück) war zuerst visuell nach PN-82/D-94021 Tarcica iglasta konstrukcyjna sortowana 

metodami wytrzyma�o�ciowymi sortiert und anschließend, mit Einsatz von einer Biegemaschine im Labor 

geprüft. Es wurde nachgewiesen, dass das Schnittholz in derselben Sortierklasse, aber von verschiedenen 

Wuchsgebieten, durch verschiedene untersuchte Eigenschaften charakterisiert ist. 

Schlüsselwörter: Festigkeitssortierung, Nadelschnittholz, Konstruktionsschnittholz, Bauholz 

EINFÜHRUNG 

Bei der Fertigung von Holzkonstruktionen darf man nur nach Festigkeit sortiertes 

Konstruktionsschnittholz verwenden. Es gibt 2 Sortiermethoden der Festigkeitssortierung: 

visuelle und maschinelle. In Polen verwendet man zur Zeit in der Praxis nur die visuelle 

Methode. Man sortiert visuell nach PN 82/D 94021. Derzeit ist in Polen keine Maschine für 

Festigkeitssortierung im Einsatz. Einzige Ausnahme ist GoldenEye 706 von Microtec, bei der 

Firma STEICO in Czarnków. Die Anlage wird bei der I-Trägerproduktion verwendet. Vor 

einigen Jahren wurden Untersuchungen im Bereich von Festigkeitssortierung an der Fakultät 

für Holztechnologie vorgenommen. In Rahmen des Forschungsprojekts wurde 

Kiefernkonstruktionsschnittholz von verschiedenen Wuchsgebieten Polens untersucht. Das 

gewählte Schnittholz wurde nach Festigkeit sortiert mit Verwendung sowohl visueller als 

auch maschineller Verfahren. Anschließend wurde das Versuchsmaterial im Labor mit 

Einsatz von der Biegemaschine TiraTest 2300 untersucht. Eine Anregung für die 

Untersuchungen waren auch Die EU Vorschriften, die ab 01. 09. 2011 eine CE-Markierung 

von Konstruktionsschnittholz in allen EU Ländern verlangen. In diesem Referat wurde ein 

Teil der Ergebnisse dargestellt. 

ZIEL UND UMFANG DES FORSCHUNGSVORHABENS 

Als Ziel des Vorhabens wurde ein Vergleich von bestimmten Eigenschaften der 

polnischen visuell festigkeitssortiertes Kiefernschnittholz von verschiedenen Wuchsgebieten 

vorgenommen. Als Vergleichseigenschaften waren: Elastizitätsmodul (MOE), Biegefestigkeit 

(MOR) und Rohdichte genannt. Nach Polnischer Norm für visuelle Festigkeitssortierung PN 

82/D 94021 „Tarcica iglasta konstrukcyjna sortowana metodami wytrzyma�o�ciowymi“ gibt 

es gibt 3 Sortierklassen: KW, KS, KG und Abfall. In Polen gibt es 8 verschiedene 

Wuchsgebiete. Kiefer ist die wichtigste Holzart im polnischen Wald. Auf 69% der gesamten 

Waldflache in Polen in allen Wuchsgebieten wächst Kiefer und Lärche. Kiefernholz ist 

natürlich industriell die wichtigste Holzart Polens. Es scheint interessant zu sein ein Vergleich 

der gewählten Eigenschaften von Schnittholz welche in dieselbe Sortierklasse eingestuft 

wurde, welches aber von verschiedenen Wuchsgebieten in Polen stammt. 

425

Es wurde eine Partie von 5 Sagewerken, die in 5 verschiedenen Wuchsgebieten in Polen 

liegen, Kiefernschnittholz gekauft. Die genaue Informationen darüber sind in anderen 

Publikationen beschrieben [Krzosek, Grze�kiewicz, Bacher, 2008, Krzosek, Bacher, 

Grze�kiewicz, 2009]. In Tabelle 1 wurden die Masse und Zahl der Bretter eingeführt. 

Tabelle 1. Versuchsmaterial. Querschnitte und Zahl der Bretter von gewählte Wuchsgebiete 

Querschnitt 

Wuchsgebiet Zusammen 

[mm] A B C D E 

Zahl der Bretter 

38x200 50 50 

50x120 50 50 50 50 53 253 

50x140 50 50 50 50 52 252 

50x225 50 50 

63x160 50 50 

75x175 50 50 

100x100 61 61 

Insgesamt 150 150 150 150 166 766 

METHODIK DER ARBEIT 

Alle Bretter wurden visuell nach Festigkeit, gemäß PN 82/D – 94021, sortiert. Die 

Methodik war schon in früheren Publikationen des Autors dargestellt [Krzosek 2009, 

Rohanova, Jab�o�ski, Krzosek 2009]. Nach der Sortierung wurden alle Bretter im Labor mit 

Hilfe von einer Biegemaschine TiraTest 2300 untersucht. Es wurden Elastizitätsmodul, 

Biegefestigkeit und Rohdichte gemäß PN EN 408 bestimmt. Alle diese Eigenschaften waren 

gemäß PN EN 384 umgerechnet. Danach wurden die Mittelwerte für die untersuchten 

Eigenschaften für die Sortierklassen KW, KS, KG und Abfall berechnet mit Berücksichtigung 

des Wuchsgebietes. Anschließend wurden auch die Mittelwerte für die Sortierklassen ohne 

Berücksichtigung des Wuchsgebietes berechnet. Die obigen Berechnungen wurden nur für 

659 Stück durchgeführt. Es wurden nur die Bretter berücksichtigt, bei welchen die Äste in der 

Mitte des Biegebereiches (Länge des Biegebereichs: 5h wo bei, h bedeutet Breite des Brettes) 

waren, oder mindestens innerhalb des Biegebereichs. 

ERGEBNISSE UND DISKUSSION 

Für jedes Wuchsgebiet haben alle drei geprüfte Eigenschaften: Elastizitatsmodul 

(Tabelle 2), Biegefestigkeit (Tabelle 3) und Rohdichte (Tabelle 4) hatten die größte 

Mittelwerte für die Sortierklasse KW und niedrigste Mittelwerte für Abfall. Die Mittelwerte 

für Sortierklasse KS waren niedriger als für die Sortierklasse KW, aber höher als Mittelwerte 

für die Sortierlasse KG. Innerhalb einer Sortierklasse sind leicht wesentliche Unterschiede 

von geprüften Eigenschaften zu sehen. Diese Unterschiede kann man nur unter 

Berücksichtigung des Herkunftes des Schnittholz klären. Die Ergebnisse zeigen deutlich, dass 

das beste untersuchte Schnittholz stammt vom Wuchsgebiet A (Ba�tycka Kraina 

Przyrodniczo-Le�na) und vom Wuchsgebiet D (Wielkopolsko-Pomorska Kraina 

Przyrodniczo-Le�na). Das schlechteste untersuchte Schnittholz stammt vom Wuchsgebiet B 

(Karpacka Kraina Przyrodniczo-Le�na) und Wuchsgebiet C (Ma�opolska Kraina 

Przyrodniczo-Le�na). 

426

Tabelle 2. Mittelwerte vom Elastizitätsmodul [N/mm 2 ] (korrigiert nach EN 384) für geprüfte 

Schnittholz 

Wuchsgebiet 

Sortierklasse nach PN – 82/D 94021 

KW KS KG Abfall 

Kraina Ba�tycka (A) 13700 11900 9900 8700 

Kraina Karpacka (B) 11200 9100 7500 6500 

Kraina Ma�opolska (C) 10300 10200 9300 8300 

K. Wielkopolsko-Pomorska (D) 13100 11800 10100 8900 

K. Mazursko-Podlaska (E) 12500 10700 9000 7300 

Ganze Schnittholz 12500 11100 9100 7500 

Tabelle 3. Mittelwerte von Biegefestigkeit N/mm 2 ] (korrigiert nach EN 384) für geprüfte 

Schnittholz 

Wuchsgebiet 









Tabelle 4. Mittelwerte von Rohdichte (korrigiert nach EN 384) für geprüfte Schnittholz 

Wuchsgebiet 









SCHLUSSFOLGERUNGEN 

1. Die mittleren Werte vom Elastizitätsmodul (korrigiert nach PN EN 384:2004) für die 

Sortierklasse KW liegen zwischen 10300 N/mm 2 und 13700 N/mm 2 , für die 

Sortierklasse KS liegen diese zwischen 9100 N/mm 2 und 11900 N/mm 2 , für die 

Sortierklasse KG liegen zwischen 7500 N/mm 2 und 10100 N/mm 2 . 

2. Die mittleren Werte der Biegefestigkeit (korrigiert nach PN EN 384:2004) für die 

Sortierklasse KW liegt zwischen 42 N/mm 2 und 54 N/mm 2 , für die Sortierklasse KS 

liegt diese zwischen 37 N/mm 2 und 46 N/mm 2 , für die Sortierklasse KG liegt sie 

zwischen 25 N/mm 2 und 37 N/mm 2 . 

3. Die mittleren Werte der Rohdichte (korrigiert nach PN EN 384:2004) für die 

Sortierklasse KW liegen zwischen 495 kg/m 3 und 580 kg/m 3 , für die Sortierklasse KS 

liegen zwischen 478 kg/m 3 und 535 kg/m 3 , für die Sortierklasse KG liegen zwischen 

445 kg/m 3 und 494 kg/m 3 . 

427

LITERATURVERZEICHNISS 

1. KRZOSEK S., GRZE�KIEWICZ M., BACHER M., 2008: Mechanical properties of 

Polish-grown Pinus silvestris L. structural sawn timber. COST E53 Conference 

proceedings, 29-30 of October, Delft, Netherlands. p. 253-260. 

2. KRZOSEK S., DZBE�SKI W., 2009: Wytrzyma�o�ciowe sortowanie tarcicy 

budowlano-konstrukcyjnej metod� maszynow�. VIII Konferencja naukowa: Drewno 

i Materia�y Drewnopochodne w Konstrukcjach Budowlanych, Szczecin, 5-6 czerwca, 

s. 115-120. 

3. KRZOSEK S., 2009: Vergleich der Sortierergebnisse bei visuelle 

Festigkeitssortierung von polnischen Kieferkonstruktionsschnittholz nach PN-82/D- 

94021 und nach DIN 4074-1:2003. Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences - 

SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology No 68, p. 448-452. 

4. KRZOSEK S., BACHER M., GRZE�KIEWICZ M., 2009: Comparison of strength 

grading machine settings for different grade Combinations for Polish-grovn Pinus 

sylvestris L. structural sawn timber. COST Action E53 Conference 22 – 23 October, 

in Lisbon, Portugal. 

5. ROHANOVÁ A., JAB�O�SKI M., KRZOSEK S., 2009: Strength grading of 

constructional lumber in regard to European, German, Slovak and Polish standards. 

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, Forestry and Wood 

Technology No 69, p. 227-233. 

6. PN–82/D–94021: Tarcica iglasta konstrukcyjna sortowana metodami 

wytrzyma�o�ciowymi. 

7. PN EN 384:2004 Drewno konstrukcyjne. Oznaczanie warto�ci charakterystycznych 

w�a�ciwo�ci mechanicznych i g�sto�ci. 

8. PN EN 408:2004 Konstrukcje drewniane – Drewno konstrukcyjne lite i klejone 

warstwowo – Oznaczanie niektórych w�a�ciwo�ci fizycznych i mechanicznych. 

9. PGL LP Raport o stanie lasów w Polsce 2008. www.lasy.gov.pl 

Streszczenie: Jako�� polskiej tarcicy sosnowej sortowanej wytrzyma�o�ciowo, pochodz�cej z 

róznych Krain Przyrodniczo-Le�nych. W referacie zosta�y zaprezentowane wyniki badania 

tarcicy sosnowej pochodz�cej z pi�ciu wybranych krain przyrodniczo-le�nych Polski. Badanie 

polega�o na wytrzyma�o�ciowym sortowaniu partii tarcicy o liczebno�ci 766 sztuk metod� 

wizualn�, wed�ug PN 82/D 94021 Tarcica iglasta konstrukcyjna sortowana metodami 

wytrzyma�o�ciowymi. W efekcie badania tarcic� zakwalifikowano do klas sortowniczych KW, 

KS, KG i do odrzutów. Nast�pnie tarcic� badano w laboratorium przy u�yciu maszyny 

wytrzyma�o�ciowej, wyznaczaj�c dla ka�dej sztuki modu� spr��ysto�ci i wytrzyma�o�� na 

zginanie. Badania wykaza�y, �e tarcia pochodz�ca z ró�nych krain przyrodniczo-le�nych, 

mimo jej zakwalifikowania do tej samej klasy sortowniczej, charakteryzowa�a si� znacznymi 

ró�nicami badanych w�a�ciwo�ci. 


S�awomir Krzosek 

Katedra Nauki o Drewnie 

i Ochrony Drewna, 




e-mail: S�awomir_krzosek@sggw.pl




Density and shear strength as solid wood and glued laminated timber 

suitability criterion for window woodwork manufacturing 

AGNIESZKA KUROWSKA*, PAWE� KOZAKIEWICZ** 

* Department of Technology, Organization and Management in Wood Industry 

**Department of Wood Science and Wood Protection 

Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Live Science - SGGW 

Abstract: Significance of window woodwork has been increasing in value lately (production distinct increase) 

thus generating demand for raw material complemented by import of exotic wood, of most frequently new not 

very well known species. Suitability of glued laminated timber from selected species and types of tropical wood 

for manufacturing of window woodwork, on the basis of the determined density and shear strength in air-dry 

and wet condition has been defined in the present study. Taking the entire results into consideration it should be 

stated that density and moisture of wood used for manufacturing of glued laminated timber is the crucial factor 

of shear strength. The greater the wood density (with given moisture) the better shear strength. Presence of glue 

lines will not have negative impact upon noted shear strength along the grain (these are D4 class water resistant 

glue lines). 

Keywords: density, shear strength, solid wood, glued laminated timber, glulam, glue line, window woodwork 

INTRODUCTION 

Solid wood and glued laminated timber (also called glulam) provided for opening 

woodwork must comply with several requirements as presented in several standards: EN 

942:2008, EN 13307-1:2007 and EN 14220:2007 or EN 14221:2007. The requirements 

concern, among others, basic characteristic of the applied wood (appearance, admissible 

faults, natural durability, density and strength) dimension tolerance, wood surface quality, 

moisture, applied glues and characteristic of glue lines. The documents contain basic 

terminology and definitions of notions applied with this kind of products also. 

Glued laminated timber used for manufacturing of window woodwork is, most 

frequently, the so-called “scantling” obtained by gluing of three planks thickness. The planks, 

after elimination of faults, are then joined along with mini dovetails. These are rather short 

elements in a ready product thus their shear strength is essential (element with slenderness 

ratio below 6 is most often destroyed by tangential stresses – causing longitudinal 

delamination and cracking). 

As far as examination of wood and glue lines shear strength is concerned, there are 

several, not synchronized so far, standards (e.g. PN-D-04105:1979, PN-B-03156:1997, EN 

408:2004). Different examination procedures recommended by the said standards (various 

quantities and shapes of specimen and ways of their loading) causing significantly different 

results. Unfortunately it is often the case that the choice of given procedure (standard) is not 

described or there is no such information in glued laminated timber characteristic. 


Glued, three layer laminated timber with section of 72x86 mm and length of 2100 mm, 

made of the following wood kinds and species: bintangor (Calophyllum spp.), durian (Durio 

spp.), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus grandis W. Hill ex. Maid.), kembang semangkok (Scapium 

spp.), dark red meranti (Shorea spp.), light red meranti (Shorea spp.) and pine (Pinus 

sylvestris L.) has been used for examination as a reference point – naming as per EN 

13556:2005. The used glue (polyvinyl acetate, in short PVA or PVAc) gave D4 class water 

429

esistant joints. From each of the three layer laminated timber, made of given wood kind or 

species, specimens comprising solid wood with respectively situated glue lines (in the plane 

of the future cutting) have been obtained. The following physical and mechanical properties 

of wood have been determined: 

- moisture as per PN-77/D-04100, 

- density as per PN-77/D-04101, 

- shear strength of solid wood along the grains (from which glued laminated timber has 

been made) and strength of glue lines in air-dry condition (after 7 days of seasoning in 

normal climate, 20±2 ºC and 65±5% relative humidity) and in wet condition (after 4 

days of soaking in water) as indicated by PN-79/D-04105 standard. This method has 

been selected for examinations with regard to possibility of comparing the results 

(glue line strength - solid wood strength). 

RESULTS 

The wood applied in (window) opening woodwork should be sorted by density. 

Minimal density of deciduous wood in air-dry condition (moisture of 12%) should be 450 

kg/m 3 at least and 350 kg/m 3 for coniferous wood respectively (EN-942:2008). For coniferous 

wood, the so called late wood is crucial as far as strength is concerned and therefore it s 

average density can be lower. Deciduous wood has more “balanced” structure of annual rings 

(“does not appear” on the so-called late wood zone) and thus higher minimal density is 

required. 

Figure 1 shows examination results, i.e. determination of solid and glued laminated 

timber density with moisture showing 12±2%. It has been found that with reference to wood 

applied for glued laminated timber, bintangor (745 kg/m 3 ) and dark red meranti (741 kg/m 3 ) 

show the most average density, while light red meranti (435 kg/m 3 ) shows the least average 

density. 


900 

800 

700 

600 

500 

400 

300 

200 

100 

0 

bintangor durian eucalyptus kembang 

semangkok 

Fig. 1 Solid wood and glued laminated timber density 

430 

dark red 

meranti 

Wood species 

light red 

meranti 

solid wood glued laminated timber 

Apart from the a/m it has been found that in most cases (except glued bintangor and 

light red meranti wood) the density of glued wood is greater than the solid wood density. This 

is first of all because of significant dispersion of wood density within the glued element 

(glued laminated timber). It can be seen from the above data that the examined light red 

pine

meranti will not comply with the minimal density condition and the glued laminated timber 

made of it should not be applied in window woodwork. 

As per data presented in literature, pine wood in air-dry condition, shows density in 

range of 330-520-890 kg/m 3 (Krzysik 1974), bintangor wood: 450-650-720 kg/m 3 

(Wagenführ 2007), durian wood: 470-640-830 kg/m 3 (Dahms 1995), eucalyptus wood: 550- 

650-720 kg/m 3 (Wagenführ 2007), kembang semangkok: 470-520-670 kg/m 3 (Dahms 1995), 

light red meranti: 380-500-580 kg/m 3 (Kozakiewicz 2008). 

Light red meranti is considered the material of bright red color and density not 

exceeding 580 kg/m 3 in air-dry condition. For example, heavier wood, although obtained 

partly from same wood species, appears on the market as approved name of dark red meranti. 

The examined wood species, except bintangor and eucalyptus, showed density as per the data 

expressed in tables (literature). Bintangor had a little higher density (745 kg/m 3 ) and 

eucalyptus wood – slightly lower density (447 kg/m 3 ) as compared with the data presented in 

literature. 

Tab. 1. Specification of results: determination of solid wood and glued laminated timber shear strength 

Shear strength [MPa] 

basic statistic 

measures bintangor durian eucalyptus 

431 

wood species 

kembang 

semangkok 

dark red 

meranti 

light red 

meranti 

solid wood 

after 7 days of seasoning in normal climate 

mean 10,82 7,70 5,63 6,50 6,75 6,87 7,84 

SD 0,72 1,18 0,19 0,45 0,28 0,37 0,54 

wood moisture 12 ± 2% 

after 7 days of seasoning in normal climate and 4 days of soaking in water 

mean 7,49 6,41 4,33 4,65 5,05 4,86 4,54 

SD 0,23 0,80 0,13 0,25 0,11 0,11 0,24 


- 38 90 55 90 42 75 70 

glued laminated timber 

after 7 days of seasoning in normal climate 

mean 12,57 8,09 10,04 11,13 11,32 4,91 8,51 

SD 1,00 0,63 1,09 1,18 0,60 0,51 0,70 

WFP 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 


after 7 days of seasoning in normal climate and 4 days of soaking in water 

mean 7,55 7,31 5,08 6,06 7,49 3,52 3,31 

SD 0,65 0,67 0,74 0,59 0,36 0,52 0,30 

WFP 100 100 100 100 100 100 


- 38 90 55 90 42 75 70 

Table 1 shows solid and glued laminated timber strength examination results, obtained 

in particular tests together with their basic statistic measures (SD – standard deviation), 

including WFP – mean apparent cohesive wood failure. The value of this coefficient has been 

determined by visual method with accuracy of 10%. As far as solid wood specimens in air-dry 

condition are concerned, the highest shear strength in dry condition, about 10.42 MPa was 

shown by bintangor wood, while the least value of 5.63 MPa was shown by eucalyptus wood. 

The remaining wood species showed approximate values of the feature noted for pine wood 

pine

(7.84 MPa). The shear strength in air dry condition measurement results obtained for 

particular solid wood species confirm the data as presented in literature. As per the data 

presented in literature, the shear strength of pine wood in air dry condition is 9.0-10.0 MPa 

(Krzysik 1957), for bintangor: 9.0-11.5-16.0 MPa (Kozakiewicz, Milewska 2009a), durian 

wood: 7.2-8.0 MPa (Kozakiewicz, Milewska 2009b), eucalyptus wood 5.3-7.8-9.6 MPa 

(Wagenführ 2007), kembang semangkok wood: 6.5-10.1-12.2 MPa (Kozakiewicz 2010), light 

red meranti: 6.3-6.9-7.3 MPa (Kozakiewicz 2008). 

With reference to solid wood in wet condition (after 4 days soaking in cold water) the 

greatest strength in wet condition of 7.49 MPa was noted for bintangor, while the least value 

of 4.33 MPa was obtained for eucalyptus. The remaining species of wood showed the strength 

values close to pine wood strength, namely 4.54 MPa. 

For specimens containing glue lines, the greatest shear strength - 12.57 MPa was noted 

for glued bintangor wood and the least value - 4.91 MPa was obtained for light red meranti. 

The remaining wood species (except durian) showed greater shear strength than glued pine 

wood (8.51 MPa). Similar dependence (with respect to exotic wood) was obtained for glued 

wood specimens, additionally subject to 4 days soaking in cold water. The above results 

confirm the dependence (fig. 1, tab. 1) that wood strength grows along with increase in 

density. The strength should be considered fully sufficient, remembering that the strength of 

sawn wood sorted by strength is required to be at the level of about 3 MPa. 

It should be emphasized that for glued laminated timber - both in dry and wet test - the 

glue lines destruction at breaking loads occurred in solid wood layers. The percentage share 

of cutting in wood after dry test was included in range of 80-100%. Thus wood, not glue 

line, was found to be the weakest element of the tested joints. For wet test, the percentage 

share of cutting in wood was included in range of 0-20% for glued bintangor, eucalyptus, dark 

red meranti, light red meranti and pine; 0-50% for kembang semangkok and 50-100% for 

glued durian. 

Satisfactory (correct) final effect in a form of durable, decorative and functional 

window is obtained by keeping up with the requirements, at each of the production stages: 

from selection of wood, throughout its processing into glued laminated timber, to end with 

appropriate use in ready product construction. The records of European standards, i.e. EN 

14220:2007 in connection with EN 350-2:2000, EN 460: 1997 and EN 335-1: 2007 show that 

wood with higher natural durability, i.e. class 1, 2 and 3 is to be used for window (opening) 

woodwork with regard to biological hazard class 3. 

According to EN 350-2 and L’Associacion Technique des Bois Tropiceaux CIRAD 

(http://tropix.cirad.fr) natural durability of pine heart wood is 3-4 (in a 5 degree scale, where 1 

means very durable wood). The examined types and species of exotic wood show durability 

comparable with that of pine wood: eucalyptus and red light meranti: 3-4, kembang 

semangkok and bintangor: 3 and dark red meranti: 2-4. With regard to the above, wood 

protection should be applied when the wood is used for window woodwork. Regardless the 

species, the white wood zone (especially wide in pine wood) has lowest natural durability of 

class 5. 

SUMMARY 

Apart from light red meranti, all remaining species (eucalyptus – Eucalyptus grandis 

W. Hill ex Maid, dark red meranti – Shorea spp, durian – Durio spp., bintangor – 

Calophyllum spp, kembang semangkok – Scapium spp,) comply with the requirement of 

minimal density for deciduous wood applied in opening woodwork, i.e. 450 kg/m 3 , like pine 

wood (Pinus sylvestris L.) complies with the requirement for coniferous wood (350 kg/m 3 ). 

All the examined semi finished products (solid wood and glued laminated timber) 

showed respective high shear strength in both air-dry and wet condition. The crucial factor of 

432

shear strength is density and moisture of wood used for manufacturing of glued laminated 

timber. The greater density of wood (for given moisture) the higher shear strength. Presence 

of glue lines does not have negative impact upon noted shear strength along the grain, 

provided that they are D4 water resistant class glue lines. 

REFERENCES 

1. DAHMS K.,G., 1995: Tropical Timber Atlas (Includes timbers exported from Japan). 

Part II – Asia, Australia. L’Association Technique Internationale des Bois Tropicaux 

(Commission VI). 

2. EN 460:1997 Durability of wood and wood-based products. Natural durability of solid 

wood. Guide to the durability requirement 

3. EN 350-2:2000 Durability of wood and wood-based products - Natural durability of 

solid wood - Part 2: Guide to natural durability and treatability of selected wood 

species of importance in Europe 

4. EN 408:2004 Timber structures – Structural timber and glued laminated timber – 

Determination of some physical and mechanical properties 

5. EN 13556:2005 Round and sawn timber. Terminology in the timber trade in Europe 

6. EN 335-1:2007 Durability of wood and wood- based products - Definition of use 

classes - Part 1: General 

7. EN 13307-1:2007 Timber blanks and semi-finished profiles for non-structural uses - 

Part 1: Requirements 

8. EN 14220:2007 Timber and wood-based materials in external windows, external door 

leaves and external doorframes - Requirements and specifications 

9. EN 14221:2007 Timber and wood-based materials in internal windows, internal door 

leaves and internal doorframes - Requirements and specifications 

10. EN 942:2008 Timber in joinery - General requirements 

11. KOZAKIEWICZ P., 2008: Meranti ró�owe (Shorea sp.) – drewno egzotyczne z 

po�udniowo-wschodniej Azji. Przemys� Drzewny nr 1 2008, s.33-36. Wydawnictwo 

�wiat. 

12. KOZAKIEWICZ P., MILEWSKA A., 2009a: Gumiak (Calophyllum sp.) – drewno 

egzotyczne z po�udniowo-wschodniej Azji. Przemys� Drzewny nr 1, s.27-30. 

Wydawnictwo �wiat. 

13. KOZAKIEWICZ P., MILEWSKA A., 2009b: Durian (Durio sp.) – drewno 

egzotyczne z po�udniowo-wschodniej Azji. Przemys� Drzewny nr 6, s.23-26. 


14. KOZAKIEWICZ P., 2010: Kembang semangkok (Scaphium sp.) - drewno egzotyczne 

z po�udniowo-wschodniej Azji. Przemys� Drzewny nr 3 2010 Rok LXI, s.11-14. 


15. KRZYSIK F., 1957: Nauka o drewnie. Pa�stwowe Wydawnictwo Rolnicze i Le�ne. 

Warszawa. 

16. PN-77/D-04100 Drewno. Oznaczanie wilgotno�ci 

17. PN-77/D-04101 Drewno. Oznaczanie g�sto�ci 

18. PN-79/D-04105 Drewno - Oznaczanie wytrzyma�o�ci na �cinanie wzd�u� w�ókien 

19. PN-B-03156:1997 Konstrukcje drewniane - Metody bada� - No�no�� z��czy 

klejonych 

20. PN-D-04105:1979 Drewno. Oznaczanie wytrzyma�o�ci na �cinanie wzd�u� w�ókien 

21. WAGENFÜHR R., 2007: Holzatlas.6., neu bearbeitete und erweitere Auflage. Mit 

zahlreichen Abbildungen. Fachbuchverlag Leipzig im Carl Hanser Verlag. 

22. http://tropix.cirad.fr 

433

Streszczenie: G�sto�� i wytrzyma�o�� na �cinanie jako kryterium przydatno�ci drewna litego i 

pó�fabrykatów klejonych do produkcji stolarki okiennej. W ostatnich latach stolarka 

drewniana znów zyskuje na znaczeniu (wyra�ny wzrost produkcji), co generuje 

zapotrzebowanie na surowiec uzupe�niany importem drewna egzotycznego, cz�sto nowych, 

nie w pe�ni poznanych gatunków. W niniejszej pracy okre�lono przydatno�� pó�fabrykatów z 

wybranych gatunków i rodzajów drewna tropikalnego do produkcji stolarki okiennej na 

podstawie oznaczonej g�sto�ci i wytrzyma�o�ci na �cinanie w stanie powietrzno-suchym i w 

stanie mokrym. Bior�c pod uwag� ca�o�� wyników nale�y stwierdzi�, �e czynnikiem 

decyduj�cym o wytrzyma�o�ci na �cinanie jest g�sto�� i wilgotno�� drewna u�ytego do 

wykonania pó�fabrykatów klejonych. Im wi�ksza g�sto�� drewna (przy danej wilgotno�ci) 

tym wy�sza wytrzyma�o�� na �cinanie. Obecno�� spoin nie wp�ywa negatywnie na notowan� 

wytrzyma�o�� na �cinanie wzd�u� w�ókien (s� to spoiny wodoodporne klasy D4). 


Agnieszka Kurowska 

Department of Technology, Organization and Management in Wood Industry 





Poland 

e-mail:agnieszka_kurowska@sggw.pl 







Poland 





An attempt at the use of laboratory density analyzer for determination of 

solid wood cross section density distribution 

AGNIESZKA KUROWSKA*, PAWE� KOZAKIEWICZ**, PIOTR BORYSIUK* 

* Department of Technology, Organization and Management in Wood Industry 

**Department of Wood Science and Wood Protection 

Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Live Science - SGGW 

Abstract: An attempt at the use of laboratory density analyzer for determination of solid wood cross section 

density distribution. Density profile has an essential role in evaluation of both, physical and mechanical, 

properties of solid wood and wood based materials. Usefulness of x-ray laboratory density analyzer for 

evaluation of density distribution in solid wood, at cross section in radial direction has been determined within 

the present study. The laboratory density analyzer permits continuous measuring of solid wood density within 

entire specimen thickness. The specimen thickness is of essential importance during examination of solid wood 

density profile – the thicker the specimen, the greater scope of examined material measurement, and this means 

more correct and easiness of the analyzed data in consequence. The main vice of the applied instrument is that it 

can be used for examination of parallel grain wood density profile first of all. 

Keywords: solid wood density, density profile, laboratory density analyzer 

INTRODUCTION 

Solid wood examinations, based on x-ray methods, were carried out as early as in the 

first half of the last century (Worschitz 1932, Fischer and Tasker 1940). At the beginning, the 

examinations referred to qualitative evaluation of wood (flaw detection). In the course of 

time, application of x-ray methods was extended and their use for quantitative evaluation of 

various sorts of solid wood was begun (densitometry), e.g. in wood saw milling (Bajkowski 

2000, Ma�kowski and Krzosek 2001). The x-ray methods are used especially for determining 

the degree of wood biodegradation by biotic factors, e.g. evaluation of the general condition 

of trees (Schwartz et al. 1989) and verification of the impact of certain forestry activities upon 

wood properties (Tomazello 2008) and diagnosing of historical objects (Paciorek 1993, 

Kozakiewicz and Gawarecki 2003). 

Fig. 1. Diagram of density distribution measurement with the use of x-ray density analyzer (1 – X-ray tube, 2 – 

Shutter: above – closed, below – open, 3 – diaphragm, 4 – sample, 5 – semiconductor detector) 

435

Laboratory Density Profile Measuring System from GreCon, shortly called laboratory 

density analyzer, is widely used in both industrial and laboratory conditions, for examining of 

density distribution at cross section of wood based materials. The instrument measures the 

volumetric density profile of board specimen with the use of x-rays (fig. 1). 

The laboratory density analyzer permits quick and precise determination of density 

distribution at the thickness of the examined wood based material. The specimen dimensions 

are: height and width 50 mm, thickness max. 150 mm respectively. The instrument can 

operate at measurement speed from 0.05 to 5 mm/s. The measurement of subsequent density 

values is carried out every 0.02 mm of examined material thickness. The examination results 

are generated by computer program operating the analyzer in a form of diagrams or digital 

data specifications (Excel format). 

Type and structure of the board (plywood, particleboards, fiberboards, WPC etc.), 

density, thickness, size of wood particles used for their manufacturing, type of adhesive 

(resins, thermoplastics), way of board surface protection (foil, laminate, varnish), exert 

influence upon density distribution at cross section of wood based materials. Press closing 

time, i.e. the time span between starting of pressing until the assumed thickness is obtained is 

essential as far as density profile is concerned. The greatest differences in density distribution 

are obtained at short time of press closing and high pressure (Wong et al. 1998, Wong et al. 

1999, Wong et al. 2000). The density profiles at cross section of the selected wood based 

materials are presented in figure 2. 

a) b) c) 


1200 

1000 

800 

600 

400 

200 

0 

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 


1200 

1000 

800 

600 

400 

200 

d) e) 


1200 

1000 

800 

600 

400 

200 

0 


0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 


0 

0 2 4 6 8 101214161820 


436 


1400 

1200 

1000 

800 

600 

400 

200 

0 


1200 

1000 

800 

600 

400 

200 

0 

0 2 4 6 8 1012141618202224 


0 1 2 3 4 5 


Fig. 2. Density profiles of selected wood based materials: a) 3-layer particleboard – density 697 kg/m 3 , b) MDF 

– density 768 kg/m 3 , c) OSB – density 605 kg/m 3 , d) 9-layer birch plywood –density 680 kg/m 3 , e) hardboard – 

density 1060 kg/ 3 


Examinations aiming at adaptation of x-ray laboratory density analyzer for analysis of 

density distribution in solid wood cross section (in radial direction) have been carried out in 

the framework of the present study. 

Density distribution at cross section of pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) poplar (Populus alba 

L.) and ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) wood has been examined. Wood specimen with nominal 

dimensions (height x width x thickness) of 50x50x50 mm and 12 ± 2% MC have been used 

for examinations. It is worth mentioning that the weight of the specimen should not exceed 90

g, so with given dimensions of height and width of the specimen (50 x 50 mm) and solid 

wood density, the thickness of the specimen should be selected on the basis of adequate 

calculation. The examination has been carried out with measuring speed of 0.05 mm/s. The 

examined cross sections of the particular wood species have been presented in figure 3. 

RESULTS 

The results of profile density determination at cross sections of particular wood 

species have been presented in figure 3 and 4. 

a) b) c) 

Fig. 3. Solid wood cross section density profiles: a) pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), b) poplar (Populus alba L.), c) ash 

(Fraxinus excelsior L.) 


800 

700 

600 

500 

400 

300 

200 

100 

Pine 

Poplar 

0 

Ash 

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 


Fig. 4. Specification of density profiles for examined solid wood species: pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), poplar 

(Populus alba L.), ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) 

Laboratory density analyzer permits continuous measuring of solid wood density for 

entire specimen thickness. Apart from density, width of particular annual rings can be 

determined on the basis of the accumulated data. 

On the basis of the performed examinations it has been found that the average density 

of the examined solid wood species: pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), poplar (Populus alba L.) and 

ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) is 411, 449 and 656 kg/m 3 respectively. Kollmann (1951) presents 

437

limit values of wood density variability in absolutely dry condition: pine - from 300 to 860 

kg/m 3 (average value being 490 kg/m 3 ), poplar - from 320 to 710 kg/m 3 (average value being 

410 kg/m 3 and ash - from 410 to 820 kg/m 3 (average value being 650 kg/m 3 ). The data 

coming from determinations confirm the data presented in literature. 

The presented diagrams (fig. 3 and 4), within the given wood species, show density 

differences between early and late wood. As a result of the performed examinations it has 

been found that the density of early pine wood ranges from 306 to 372 kg/m 3 and from 430 to 

519 kg/m 3 for late pine wood respectively. In accordance with the data as presented in 

literature, for pine wood in absolutely dry condition, the density of early wood ranges from 

300 to 370 kg/m 3 and for late wood from 760 to 900 kg/m 3 respectively (Kollmann and Côte 

1968). The ratio of late and early wood density is average 2.5 for pine wood, like for 

remaining coniferous species. It has been found that for poplar wood the density of early 

wood ranges from 368 to 441 kg/m 3 and for late wood from 450 to 489 kg/m 3 respectively. 

The ratio of late and early wood density in deciduous wood with dispersed vascular system is 

about 1.3 ( Kollmann and Côte 1968). As a result of the performed examinations it has been 

found that early ash wood density ranges from 510 to 650 kg/m 3 and from 660 to 785 kg/m 3 

for late wood respectively. According to the data as presented in literature, the ratio of late 

and early wood density in deciduous wood of ring vascular system is about 2.0 (for ash wood 

the early wood density ranges from 385 to 500 kg/m 3 and for late wood from 720 to 800 

kg/m 3 respectively). 

The data coming from the determinations confirm the data as in literature partly. This 

is because wood, as anisotropic material, shows much variability within given species. 

Moreover, the instrument can measure the volumetric density of specimen and the results, 

especially for non parallel grain wood, can make an average value, e.g. of early and late wood 

density measurement. 

SUMMARY 

On the basis of the performed examinations it has been found that it is possible to use 

x-ray laboratory density analyzer for evaluation of density distribution in solid wood cross 

section in radial direction. First of all it should be applied for parallel grain wood density 

profile examination. 

REFERENCES 

1. BAJKOWSKI B., 2000: Uk�ady tomografii komputerowej do skanowania k�ód. XIV 

Konferencja Naukowa wydzia�u technologii drewna SGGW „Drewno - materia� 

wszechczasów” Rogów 13-15 listopada: 7-10. 

2. FISCHER R.C., TASKER H.S., 1940. The detection of wood boring insects by means 

of X-rays. Annals Applied Biology 27 (1): 92-100. 

3. KOLLMANN F., 1951: Technologie des Holzes und der Holzwerkstoffe, Vol. I, 2nd 

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technology. Solid wood – part I. Berlin-Heidelberg-N.York. 

5. KOZAKIEWICZ P., GAWARECKI K., 2003: Examination of Historical Wood 

Internal Structure Using Roentgen-Ray Computed Tomography. Annals of Warsaw 

Agricultural University. Forestry and Wood Technology No 53, s.223-227. Warszawa. 

6. MA�KOWSKI P., KRZOSEK S., 2001: Zastosowanie promieniowania RTG w 

nieniszcz�cych badaniach drewna. Przemys� Drzewny nr 6 : 19-24. 

7. PACIOREK M., 1993: Badania wybranych tworzyw termoplastycznych stosowanych 

do impregnacji drewna. Studia i materia�y Wydzia�u Konserwacji i Restauracji Dzie� 

438

Sztuki Akademii Sztuk Pi�knych w Krakowie. Tom III. Wydawnictwo Literackie 

Kraków. 

8. SCHWARTZ V., HABERMEHL A., RIDDER H.W., 1989: Zerstorugsfreier 

Nachweis von Kern- und Wandfaulen im Stamm stehender Baume mit der Computer 

– Tomographie. Forstarchiv 60: 239-245. 

9. TOMAZELLO M., BRAZOLIN S., CHAGAS M. P., OLIVEIRA J. T. S., 

BALLARIN A. W., BENJAMIN C. A., 2008: Application of x-ray technique in 

nondestructive evaluation of eucalypt wood. Maderas: Ciencia y tecnología 10 (2): 

139-149. 

10. WONG E.-D., ZHANG M., WANG Q., KAWAI S., 1998: Effects of mat moisture 

content and press closing speed on the formation of density profile and properties of 

particleboard. Journal of Wood Science. Volume 44 (4) 1998: 287-295. 

11. WONG E., ZHANG M., WANG Q., KAWAI S., 1999: Formation of the density 

profile and its effects on the properties of particleboard. Wood Science and 

Technology. Volume 33 (4): 327-340. 

12. WONG E.-D., ZHANG M., HAN G., KAWAI S., WANG Q., 2000: Formation of the 

density profile and its effects on the properties of fiberboard. Journal of Wood 

Science. Volume 46 (3): 202-209. 

13. WORSCHITZ F., 1932. L’utilization des rayos X en vue de l’etude de la qualité du 

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Streszczenie: Próba wykorzystania profilomierza g�sto�ci do oznaczania rozk�adu g�sto�ci w 

drewnie litym na przekroju poprzecznym. Profil g�sto�ci odgrywa istotn� rol� przy ocenie 

w�a�ciwo�ci, zarówno fizycznych jak i mechanicznych drewna litego oraz tworzyw 

drzewnych. W ramach niniejszej pracy okre�lono przydatno�� rentgenowskiego profilomierza 

g�sto�ci do oceny rozk�adu g�sto�ci w drewnie litym na przekroju poprzecznym w kierunku 

promieniowym. Profilomierz g�sto�ci, umo�liwia ci�g�y pomiar g�sto�ci drewna litego na 

ca�ej grubo�ci próbki. W trakcie badania profilu g�sto�ci drewna litego istotn� rol� odgrywa 

grubo�� próbki - im grubsza próbka, tym wi�kszy zakres pomiarowy materia�u badawczego, 

co w konsekwencji przek�ada si� na wi�ksz� poprawno�� i �atwo�� analizowanych danych. 

Zasadnicz� wad� przyrz�du jest to, i� mo�e by� stosowany przede wszystkim do badania 

profilu g�sto�ci drewna równoleg�ow�óknistego. 


Agnieszka Kurowska, Piotr Borysiuk 

Department of Technology, Organization and Management in Wood Industry 





Poland 

e-mail:agnieszka_kurowska@sggw.pl 

e-mail:piotr_borysiuk@sggw.pl 







Poland 


Annals of Warsaw Unversity of Life Sciences-SGGW 

Foresty and Wood Technology No 71, 2010: 440-443 

(Ann. WULS-SGGW, For. and Wood Technol, 71, 2010) 

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1. �� . �., �� . �. 2000: �� 

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2. Górski J., 2005: Projektowanie procesów technologicznych obróbki skrawaniem 

drewna i tworzyw drewnopochodnych-zagadnienia ogólne, Wyd. SGGW 

3. Jemielniak K., 2004: Obróbka skrawaniem, Wyd. Politechniki Warszawskiej 

4. Orlicz T. 1988: Obróbka drewna narz�dziami tn�cymi. Wyd. SGGW 

5. Palmqvist J., Lenner M., Gustafaon S. 2005: Cutting-forces when up-milling in beech, 

Wood Science Technology, 39 (2005), s. 674-684 

6. Palmqvist J. 2003: Parallel and normal cutting forces in peripheral milling of wood, 

European Journal of Wood and Wood Products, 61 (2003), s. 409-415 

Poznaniu 

Streszczenie: Si�y skrawania podczas frezowania p�yty MDF frezem trzpieniowym 

dwuostrzowym. W artykule okre�lono eksperymentalnie i przeanalizowano wp�yw takich czynników 

jak posuw na z�b i zu�ycie narz�dzia na si�y skrawania podczas frezowania surowej p�yty MDF. 

Proces obróbki by� realizowany przy zastosowaniu trzech warto�ciach posuwu, odpowiednio 

0,2, 0,4 i 0,6 mm. W eksperymencie wykorzystano standardowy frez trzpieniowy 

dwuostrzowy. Analiza sygna�ów si� by�a przeprowadzona dla dwóch stopni zu�ycia 

narz�dzia: 0,2 i 0,4 mm. Stwierdzono istotny wp�yw zarówno zu�ycia narz�dzia jak i warto�ci 

posuwu na warto�ci sygna�ów si� zarejestrowanych podczas frezowania surowej p�yty MDF. 


Katarzyna Laszewicz, Jaros�aw Górski, 

Faculty of Wood Technology SGGW, 

Department of Mechanical Woodworking, 


02-776 Warsaw, Poland, 

e-mail: katarzyna_kl@o2.pl 

e-mail: jaroslaw_gorski@wa.home.pl

Annals of Warsaw Unversity of Life Sciences-SGGW 

Foresty and Wood Technology No 71, 2010: 444-449 

(Ann. WULS-SGGW, For. and Wood Technol, 71, 2010) 

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1. Davim P., Clemente V. C., Silva S. 2009: Surface roughness aspects in milling MDF 

(medium density fibreboard), The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing 

Technology �40 

2. Laszewicz K., Górski J., 2009: �� 

�� MDF 

3. Zakrzewski W., Staniszewska A. 2002: Dok�adno�� obróbki drewna cieciem. Wyd. 

AR w Poznaniu 

448

Streszczenie: Wp�yw w�a�ciwo�ci p�yty MDF oraz pr�dko�ci posuwu na dok�adno�� 

wymiarow� podczas frezowania. W niniejszym artykule okre�lono eksperymentalnie i 

przeanalizowano wp�yw warto�ci posuwu oraz fizycznych i mechanicznych w�a�ciwo�ci p�yty 

MDF na wymiary zewn�trzne uzyskane w procesie frezowania. Obróbka realizowana by�a z 

wykorzystaniem frezarskiego centrum obróbkowego CNC. W badaniach zastosowano trzy 

warto�ci posuwu, odpowiednio 0,2, 0,4 i 0,6 mm. W badaniach wykorzystywano narz�dzia o 

ró�nym, �ci�le okre�lonym, stopniu zu�ycia obserwowanego na powierzchni przyda freza. 

Analiza uzyskanych wyników pozwoli�a stwierdzi� brak istotnego wp�ywu warto�ci posuwu 

oraz w�a�ciwo�ci p�yty MDF na dok�adno�� wymiarow� podczas frezowania. 

Zaobserwowano natomiast znaczne ró�nice we wra�liwo�ci rozpatrywanych wymiarów na 

zu�ycie freza. Kszta�t obrabianego przedmiotu oraz specyfika zabiegu realizowanego podczas 

operacji technologicznej ma zasadniczy wp�yw na dok�adno�� obróbki. Wymiar A, który 

powsta� poprzez poszerzenie rowka, znacznie silniej reaguje na zu�ycie narz�dzia ni� wymiar 

C, uzyskany w wyniku wykonania dwóch rowków. 


Katarzyna Laszewicz, Jaros�aw Górski, 

Faculty of Wood Technology SGGW, 

Department of Mechanical Woodworking, 


02-776 Warsaw, Poland, 

e-mail: katarzyna_kl@o2.pl 

e-mail: jaroslaw_gorski@wa.home.pl




Studies of the resistance upon some factors of UV acrylic lacquer coatings 

on MDF boards. Part I. Resistance of heat and cold liquid action 

BARBARA LIS, TOMASZ KRYSTOFIAK, STANIS�AW PROSZYK 

Department of Gluing and Finishing of Wood, Poznan University of Life Sciences 

Abstract: Studies of the resistance upon some factors of UV acrylic lacquer coatings on MDF boards. Part I. 

Resistance of heat and cold liquid action. Determined resistance of selected thermal (high temperature in version 

„dry heat” test acc. to PN-EN 12722) and chemical factors (cold liquid action acc. to PN-EN 12720) of lacquer 

coatings from new solutions of two products type UV acrylic lacquers (with different compositions of coating 

substances), applied in spraying pneumatic technic, in hot system painting (60°C). It was stated, that tested UV 

acrylic lacquers without respects of used component in form tris (2-hydroxyethyl) isocyanurate-triacrylate were 

given comparable properties of obtain coatings. Coatings showed good thermo resistance in „dry heat” test, 

placing on the level 85°C. Lacquer finishing’s was characterized with the high resistance on the chosen cold 

liquids action, behind exception the ethanol. 

Key words: MDF board, UV acrylic lacquer, composition, hot spray, coating, heat resistance, resistance of cold 

liquid action 

INTRODUCTION 

Lacquer products designed to the hardening with the UV radiation, basing itself 

especially on acrylic copolymers and the different kind of hybrid solutions perform the 

leading part in woodworking industry, dominating in technologies of the production of 

furniture, equipments of interiors and wooden flooring materials (Chrystian 2006, Proszyk 

2007). The application of these products reached now, best level of technical solution, so 

within the range high- as and eco-technology, making possible the obtainment of coatings 

about the differential scale of the aesthetic-decorative features and utylity properties (Van den 

Branden 2002, Lis, Krystofiak i Proszyk 2009, Wnuk 2010). Its own kind a innovation within 

the range possibilities of their application are UV lacquer products designed to correcting of 

the working viscosity, through their heating, what is raised by consequently wide possibilities 

of spreading among other things with spraying technics in hot system painting (temp. to 

60°C), to these also by means of automatic equipment and lacquer robots. Together with the 

widening range of application of these products are carried out investigations on new lacquer 

compositions, what in turn demands their verification in respect of the quality of obtained 

coatings (Nebioglu and Soucek 2006). Bearing in mind preceding reason were undertaken the 

investigations, whose an aim was the evaluation of chosen parameters of coatings designed 

for furniture production, which was prepared in conditioning of the producer (Lankwitzer 

Lackfabrik GmbH in Osterwieck) on the basis of two acrylic UV lacquer with various 

coatings compositions. In both lacquers a basic common coating substances was 

dipropylenoglycol diacrylate and hybrid polyol-acrylate system, and the fotoinitiator 

(diphenylketone and benzylbenzol on the level 7.5±2.5%) and a little amount of auxiliary 

agents (ca. 2.5%) on the basis of siloxane and silicone (lacquer 85/15). As addition curing 

systems was applied in one of lacquers compound in form tris (2-hydroxyethyl)isocyanurate 

triacrylate (marking 85/14). In this part of work were performed resistances of obtained 

coatings on the action of chosen thermal (high temperatures in version „dry” heat) and 

chemical (cold liquids action) factors. 

450

EXPERIMENTS 

Preparation of the substrate, spreading and hardening of coatings in technical conditions 

of the producer of lacquer products - LANKWITZER company was carried out. In the 

character of the substrate MDF (850 kg/m 3 , MC 8±1%) was used, which was grinded with 

papers properly no. 120 and 180, then was precoated with waterborne UV acrylic ground 

lacquer with LW UP 2661 mark. As top layers were applied 2 acrylic UV lacquers about 

marking properly 85/14 and 85/15, which were applied in two layers with interoperating 

grinded with the paper no. 240. Products were applied with the conventional pneumatic (up 

cup gun) spraying at parameters given in Table 1. Samples before investigations of properties 

of coatings were conditioned (23±2°C, RH 50±5%) during 168 h. 

Table 1. Parameters of pnematic spraying of lacquers on MDF surface 

Marking of lacquers 

Specification Precoating Top 

LW UP 2661 85/14 and 85/15 

Lacquer temperature [°C] 20 60 

Nozzle diameter [mm] 1.0 1.2 

Unit pressure [MPa] 0.5 

Total amount of TC (2X) 

spreading [g/m 2 ] 

25÷30 

Drying in temp [°C] 60 - 

Drying time [min] 10 - 

Velocity of conveyor [m/min] 8 

Power of UV radiator [W/cm] 120 

Investigation on the resistance of lacquer coatings upon high temperature at „dry heat” 

test was done acc. to PN-EN 12722 during 20 min time. After that time the thermal block was 

removed and sample was conditioned (23/50) in time 24 h, and then the evaluation quality of 

surface coatings was made, using 5-degree number scale (5 - no visible changes of surface, 1 

– distinctly changes surface structure). 

Determination on the resistance on cold liquid action of lacquer coatings was 

performed acc. to PN-EN 12720. Selected agents are specified below together with the time 

of their action after 1 and 24 h: ethyl alcohol (40%), tee, coffee, acetic acid, citric acid, 

blackcurrant juice, sodium carbonate and water. Places of the test were cleaned with a cloth 

soaked with a cleaning agent and distillate water. An evaluation of results was made using 

descriptive 5-degree number scale acc. to PN-EN 12720. 

RESULTS 

Results of investigations of the resistance of lacquer coatings on high temperature 

action in „dry heat” test were contained in Table 2. 

Table 2. Results of investigations of lacquer coatings resistance on the high temperature action in „dry heat” test 

Marking of 

lacquer 

Note 

65 

Temperature of measurements [°C] 

85 

Note Note 

100 

85/14 5 ; 5 5 5 ; 5 5 4 ; 4 4 

85/15 5 ; 5 5 5 ; 5 5 4 ; 4 4 

Analysing results of investigations, it was stated lack of changes on tested surface of 

coatings both in temperature 65 and 85°C. Instead in temp. 100°C was observed enough 

451

distinctly changes of the surface resistance, at estimations for the level 1 degree lower. 

Results of the resistance of lacquer coatings on the cold liquids action were took down 

in Table 3. Analysing results the resistance of surface on the liquids action, it was stated, that 

7 from chosen agents had caused no changes on coatings even after 24 h. Only the ethyl 

alcohol showed negative impact on evaluated surfaces, causing slight changes, being qualified 

to the estimation note 4 after elapsion time 1h. 


lacquer 

85/14 

85/15 

*) - lack measure 

Table 3. Results of lacquer coatings resistance on the cold liquids action 

452 

Time of liquid action [h] 

Kind of liquid 

1 24 

Note (acc. to PN-EN 12720) 

Partially Total Partially Total 

Ethyl alcohol (40%) 5 ; 5 5 - *) 

- 

Tea - - 5 ; 5 5 

Coffee - - 5 ; 5 5 

Acetic acid - - 5 ; 5 5 

Citric acid - - 5 ; 5 5 

Blackcurrant juice - - 5 ; 5 5 

Sodium carbonate - - 5 ; 5 5 

Water - - 5 ; 5 5 

Ethyl alcohol (40%) 4 ; 5 5 - - 

Tea - - 5 ; 5 5 

Coffee - - 5 ; 5 5 

Acetic acid - - 5 ; 5 5 

Citric acid - - 5 ; 5 5 

Blackcurrant juice - - 5 ; 5 5 

Sodium carbonate - - 5 ; 5 5 

Water - - 5 ; 5 5 


Finishing’s from UV acrylic lacquers with the differential compositions of the 

coatings substances, sprayed with the technique of the pneumatic spraying in the hot version 

(60°C), was characterized with high aesthetic-decorative features. It wasn't stated positive 

effect of amount of curing monomer in compound form tris (2-hydroxyethyl) isocyanuratetriacrylate 

in acrylic lacquer upon properties of obtain lacquer coatings. Coatings showed 

good thermo resistance in „dry heat” test, placing on the level 85°C. Lacquer finishing’s was 

characterized with the high resistance on the chosen cold liquids action, behind exception the 

ethyl alcohol. 

REFERENCES 

1. CHRYSTIAN H-D., 2006: Controlling glos. How silica types and formulation variables 

affect the matting of 100% UV coatings. Europ. Coatings J. 4; 26-30. 

2. LIS B,. PROSZYK S., KRYSTOFIAK T., 2009: Low energy consuming of hardening of 

lacquer coatings by means of UV – LED radiators. Inthercathedra. Annual Biull. of Plannt 

of the European Wood Technology. University Studies. Pozna� no. 25.; 75-79.

3. NEBIOGLU A., SOUCEK M.D., 2006: Optimization of UV curable acrylated polyesterpolyurethane/polysiloxane 

coatings using a response surface methodology. JCT Research 

3 (1); 61-68. 

4. PROSZYK S.; 2007: Post�p w dziedzinie wyrobów lakierowych i technologii ich 

stosowania w drzewnictwie. Technologia drewna, wczoraj, dzi�, jutro. Studia i szkice na 

Jubileusz Profesora Ryszarda Babickiego. ITD. Pozna�;115-124. 

5. WNUK R., 2010: Wodne materia�y utwardzane promieniowaniem UV. Przysz�o�� w 

lakierowaniu drewna., dodatek specjalny do czasopisma Lakiernictwo Przemys�owe. 

Uszlachetnianie powierzchni drewna cz.2, Wydawnictwo GOLDMAN Tczew; 16-18. 

6. VAN DEN BRANDEN S.; 2002: Survey of radiation-curable systems for wood coatings. 

Surface Coatings International Part A. 85; 189-191. 

Streszczenie: Badania odporno�ci na wybrane czynniki pow�ok z akrylowych lakierów UV 

na p�ytach MDF. Cz. 1. Odporno�� na ciep�o i zimne p�yny. Badano w�a�ciwo�ci 

odporno�ciowe pow�ok na bazie 2 nawierzchniowych akrylowych lakierów UV, 

przeznaczonych dla meblarstwa, oferowanych do nak�adania natryskiem pneumatycznym, w 

wersji na gor�co (60°C), o zró�nicowanym sk�adzie w zakresie substancji b�onotwórczych i 

identycznym rodzaju zastosowanych fotoinicjatorów oraz �rodków pomocniczych. Dla 

pow�ok lakierowych okre�lono odporno�� na wysok� temperatur� w próbie „suche ciep�o” wg 

PN-EN 12722 oraz na dzia�anie zimnych p�ynów wg PN-EN 12720. Stwierdzono, �e 

testowane wyko�czenia bez wzgl�du na zastosowanie modyfikatora lakieru w postaci tris (2hydroksyetylo) 

izocyjanuranu-triakrylowego, charakteryzowa�y si� wysokim walorami 

estetyczno-dekoracyjnymi. Pow�oki lakierowe wykaza�y dobr� termoodporno�� w próbie 

„suche ciep�o”, plasuj�c� si� na poziomie 85°C. Wyko�czenia lakierowe charakteryzowa�y 

si� wysok� odporno�ci� na dzia�anie wybranych zimnych p�ynów, za wyj�tkiem alkoholu 

etylowego. 


Barbara Lis, Tomasz Krystofiak Stanis�aw Proszyk 




e-mail: blis@up.poznan.pl, tomkrys@up.poznan.pl, sproszyk@up.poznan.pl




Studies of the resistance upon some factors of UV acrylic lacquer 

coatings on MDF boards. Part II. Mechanical factors 

BARBARA LIS, TOMASZ KRYSTOFIAK, STANIS�AW PROSZYK 


Abstract: Studies of the resistance upon some factors of UV acrylic lacquer coatings on MDF boards. Part II. 

Mechanical factors. Studied resistance of coatings with two product type UV acrylic lacquers upon some 

mechanical factors. Determined adherence of coating to substrate with pull-off method's (acc. to PN-EN ISO 

4624 and PN-EN 24624 standards), exerting the failure loading with the hydraulic manner, with use of the 

PostiTest® equipment. Impact resistance (acc. to PN-93/F-060001/03) and scratch resistance (acc. to PN- 

65/81527) of lacquer coatings were investigated. It was stated among others that tested coatings regardless of 

UV acrylic lacquer with different composition were characterized comparable value parameters, within the range 

both of adherence to the substrate and impact resistance. Coatings from lacquer containing additionally in their 

composition, chemical compound in form tris (2-hydroxyethyl)isocyanurate-triacrylate showed the higher 

scratch resistance. 

Key words: MDF board, UV acrylic lacquer, composition, hot spray, coating, adherence, impact resistance, 

scratch resistance 

INTRODUCTION 

In the first part of this article (Lis, Krystofiak and Proszyk 2010), were presented results 

of the resistance upon of the warm- and cold liquids action. of coatings from acrylic UV 

lacquers, with different composition within the range of coatings substances. About the 

usability of lacquer coatings under certain conditions uses, in the essential degree decides their 

adherence to the substrate and resistance on mechanical factors, first of all impact and scratch 

resistance (Brewis and Critchlow 2002, Budzi�ski 2006, Anonymous 2008a, b, Lis and 

Krystofiak 2010, Syka and Paradowska 2010). Within the framework of the continuation of 

above subject were carried out further investigations upon of the mechanical properties of 

coatings, determining their adherence to substrate and the impact and scratch resistance. 

EXPERIMENTS 

Preparation of lacquer coatings for experiments in first part of this article was described 

(Lis, Krystofiak and Proszyk 2010). Estimation of the adherence of lacquer coatings to the 

substrate with the pull-off method was carried out, exerting the failure loading with the 

hydraulic method acc. to the procedure described in PN-EN ISO 4624 and PN-EN 24624, with 

the use of the PostiTest® tester. Before the accession to the investigation on tested surfaces 

were glued measuring-stamps (diameter 20 mm), using two-component, monosilane - epoxy 

adhesive with trade name JOWAT 690.00. After 24 h of conditioning time were made round 

them incisions by means of the circular cutter, then were placed it in the measuring-head of the 

apparatus, subjecting of loading. Delaminating images at failure loadings were evaluated with 

the visual manner consider the scale of estimations contracted in cited above standards. 

Investigations of the impact resistance of lacquer coatings was carried out acc. to the procedure 

described in PN-93/F-06001/03, using the prototype apparatus PUD-1 (DOZAFIL Polifarb 

Wroc�aw). 5 attempts for every height was from which removed weight: 10, 25, 50, 100, 200, 

400 mm were performed. Researches of scratch resistance was performed with Clemens 

apparatus acc. to PN-65/C-81527, consisting in to the qualification of the peak load of the 

graver at which does not follow the exposure of the surfaces. 

454

RESULTS 

Results of the adherence of lacquer coatings to the substrate, together with the 

interpretation of disconnections mechanisms at failure loadings were took down in Table 1. 

Table 1. Results of the adherence of lacquer coatings to MDF boards together with kinds of disconnections 

mechanisms 


lacquers 


samples 

Adherence 

[MPa] 

Xav 

Kind of disconnection 

(scale acc. to PN-EN 

ISO 4624) 

1 1.50 100A 

2 0.58 100A 

3 1.91 95A,5-/Y 

4 1.82 100A 

85/14 

5 

6 

1.73 

2.06 

1.41 

95A,5-/Y 

100A 

7 1.77 80A,20-/Y 

8 0.65 100A80A,20-/Y 

9 0.60 100A 

10 1.47 

90A,10-/Y 

1 0.62 90A,10-/Y 

2 0.51 100A 

3 1.71 100A 

4 1.58 100A 

85/15 

5 

6 

1.81 

0.66 

1.36 

100A 

100A 

7 2.14 50A,50-/Y 

8 2.10 90A,10-/Y 

9 0.83 100A 

10 1.66 

100A 

Average values of the adherence parameter of coatings from tested lacquers placed her 

on the level of the values fully comparable. However analysed data were characterized with 

the enough significant scattering, which was due delaminating itself the MDF board at failure 

loadings. Means that, the adherence of coatings to the substrate was fully satisfying, exceed 

of the cohesion forces of MDF and a most weak places of the analysed arrangement was the 

substrate. Results of the impact resistance of lacquer coatings were presented in Table 2. 

Table 2. Results of investigations of impact resistance of lacquer coatings 

High of impact 

Marking of lacquers 

[mm] 

Estimation (scale acc. to PN-EN ISO 4624) 

Partially Final 

10 4,4,4,4,4 4,4,4,4,4 4,4,4,4,4 4 

25 4,4,4,4,4 4,4,4,4,4 4,4,4,4,4 4 

85/14 

50 

100 

3,3,4,3,3 3,3,3,3,3 3,3,3,3,4 

3,4,3,3,3 3,3,3,3,3 3,2,3,3,2 

3 

3 

200 2,3,2,2,2 2,2,2,2,2 2,2,3,2,2 2 

400 1,1,1,1,1 1,1,1,1,1 1,1,1,1,1 1 

10 4,4,4,4,4 4,4,4,4,4 4,4,4,4,4 4 

25 4,4,4,4,4 4,4,4,4,4 4,4,4,4,4 4 

85/15 

50 

100 

4,4,4,4,4 3,4,3,3,3 4,3,4,4,4 

2,3,3,3,3 3,3,3,3,3 3,3,3,3,3 

4 

3 

200 2,2,2,3,3 3,3,3,2,2 2,2,2,2,2 2 

400 1,1,1,1,1 1,1,1,1,1 1,1,1,1,1 1 

455

The general of analysis data proves, that coatings from tested lacquers, regardless of 

their composition, were characterized with the very low resistance on impact stresses. Very 

unfavorably tooked coatings after the impact of the ball from the highest height 400 mm, for 

which practically the thing taking, it was stated the lack resistance on this stresses. The 

relatively low resistance on level of the estimation 2 was noted down for coatings at the 

height of the impact 200 mm. In the equality circuit tested lacquer coatings formed on the 

MDF surfaces, showed very low, but fully comparable impact resistance. 

Results of investigations of the scratch resistance of lacquer coatings were took down in 

Table 3. 

Table 3. Results of investigations of scratch resistance of lacquer coatings 

Marking of Number of 

Scratch resistance [g] 

lacquers samples Partially Final 

1 1400 

85/14 

2 1550 

1500 

3 1550 

1 1000 

85/15 

2 1250 

1150 

3 1200 

Evaluating the scratch resistance of finishing’s it was stated, that a little better 

properties in this regard were characterized coatings from 85/14 lacquer, for which the 

average value of loading of the graver not causing the exposure of the substrate was shaped 

on the level 1500 g, however for 85/15 product amounted 1150 g. 

CONCLUSIONS 

1. Coatings regardless of the top UV acrylic lacquer with different composition were 

characterized comparable value parameters, within the range both of adherence to the 

substrate and impact resistance. 

2. Coatings from lacquer containing additionally in their composition, chemical 

compound in form tris (2-hydroxyethyl)isocyanurate-triacrylate showed the higher 

scratch resistance. 

3. Tested both UV acrylic lacquers can find the application in hot spraying technic in 

furniture industry for finishing of surfaces of boards fulfilling not working functions, 

so subject on the reasonable influence of mechanical factors. 

REFERENCES 

1. ANONYMOUS, 2008a: Technologia w zgodzie z natur�. 

http://www.plantag.pl/dokumenty/PLANTAG.pdf. 

2. ANONYMOUS, 2008b: Techniki radiacyjne intensywnego utwardzania lakierów, farb 

w ultrafiolecie oraz w podczerwieni - maszyny drukarskie, sitodruk, opakowania. 

http://www.mikon.waw.pl/pol/tr.htm 

3. BREWIS D. M., CRITCHLOW G. W., 2002: The use of surface analytical techniques to 

understanding adhesion performance. JOCCA Part B 85 (1); 39-47. 

4. BUDZI�SKI A. 2006: UV dla praktyków. Kilka wybranych zagadnie� zwi�zanych z 

lakierowaniem drewna. (dodatek specjalny do czasopisma) Lakiernictwo Przemys�owe. 

Uszlachetnianie powierzchni drewna cz.1, Wydawnictwo GOLDMAN Tczew; 58-59. 

5. LIS B., KRYSTOFIAK T., 2010: Badania adhezji pow�ok lakierowych do drewna. 

Maksymalna przyczepno��. (dodatek specjalny do czasopisma) Lakiernictwo 

456

Przemys�owe. Uszlachetnianie powierzchni drewna cz.2, Wydawnictwo GOLDMAN 

Tczew; 44-46. 

6. LIS B., KRYSTOFIAK T., PROSZYK S., 2010: Studies of the resistance upon some 

factors of UV acrylic lacquer coatings on MDF boards. Part I. Resistance of heat and 

cold liquid action. Ann. WULS.-SGGW. For. and Wood Technol., 71; 450-453. 

7. SYKA A., PARADOWSKA M.; 2010: Ekologiczne lakiery niskoemisyjne. Trwa�a 

pow�oka. dodatek specjalny do czasopisma Lakiernictwo Przemys�owe. Uszlachetnianie 

powierzchni drewna cz.2, Wydawnictwo GOLDMAN Tczew; 46-49. 

Streszczenie: Badania odporno�ci na wybrane czynniki pow�ok z akrylowych lakierów UV na 

p�ytach MDF. Cz.2. Czynniki mechaniczne. Badano w�a�ciwo�ci odporno�ciowe pow�ok na 

bazie 2 nawierzchniowych akrylowych lakierów UV, przeznaczonych dla meblarstwa, do 

konwencjonalnego nak�adania walcami oraz natryskowymi metodami w wersji na gor�co 

(60°C), o zró�nicowanym sk�adzie w zakresie substancji pow�okotwórczych i identycznym 

rodzaju zastosowanych fotoinicjatorów oraz �rodków pomocniczych. Ocen� przyczepno�ci 

pow�ok lakierowych do pod�o�a przeprowadzono metod� odrywow�, wywieraj�c obci��enie 

niszcz�ce sposobem hydraulicznym zgodnie z procedur� opisan� w PN-EN ISO 4624 oraz 

PN-EN 24624, przy u�yciu testera PostiTest®. Odporno�� pow�ok na uderzenie okre�lano 

wg PN 93/F06001/03, za� na zarysowanie metod� Clemena wg z PN-65/C-81527. 

Stwierdzono, �e testowane wyko�czenia bez wzgl�du na sk�ad substancji pow�okotwórczej 

charakteryzowa�y si� porównywaln� przyczepno�ci� do pod�o�a, która determinowana by�a 

odporno�ci� p�yt MDF na rozwarstwianie. Wyko�czenia lakierowe wykaza�y tak�e zbli�on� 

odporno�� na uderzenie. Pow�oki z lakieru w sk�adzie którego oprócz diakrylanu glikolu 

dipropylenowego i systemu hybrydowego poliol - polimer akrylowy, dodatkowo 

zastosowano �rodek sieciuj�cy na bazie zwi�zku chemicznego w postaci tris (2hydroksyetylo) 

izocyjanuranu-triakrylowego wykaza�y wyra�nie wy�sz� odporno�� na 

zarysowanie. 


Barbara Lis, Tomasz Krystofiak Stanis�aw Proszyk 








Influence of thermal aging of veneering boards finished PUR lacquers in 

HC technology upon coatings properties. Part III. Resistance to thermal 

and chemical factors 

BARBARA LIS, TOMASZ KRYSTOFIAK, STANIS�AW PROSZYK, AGNIESZKA 

WO�NIAK 


Abstract: Influence of thermal aging of veneering boards finished PUR lacquers in HC technology upon 

coatings properties. Part II. Resistance to thermal and chemical factors. Determined resistance of thermal 

(steam action acc. to PN-88/F-06100/06) and chemical factors (cold liquid action acc. to PN-EN 12720) of 

lacquer coatings from PUR lacquers applied in HC technology and then protected with layers of top UV acrylic 

lacquers with various gloss degree. Investigations were done after 3, 6, and 9 cycles of thermal aging in version 

of changes temperatures acc. to PN-88/F-06100/07 (method A). It was stated among others, that tested PUR HC 

lacquer coatings without respects both on the kind of the substrate, as and top layer, comparable and at this 

stabile in conditions of the thermal aging with the were characterized. 

Key words: particleboard, wood veneer, PUR HC lacquer, top acrylic lacquer, coating, property, thermal aging, 

resistance, thermal factor, chemical factor 

INTRODUCTION 

In previous parts of this article were presented results of aesthetic-decorative features 

and resistance upon some mechanical factors of coatings with PUR lacquers applied in HC 

technology. The course of these parameters of lacquer coatings vs. number of thermal aging 

cycle were determined (Lis et al. 2009a,b). To basic abiotic factors causing the decrease of 

values of functionality lacquer coatings is utility properties. From among them favor one can 

essentially connected factors is resistance of lacquer coatings upon thermal and chemicals 

factors abrasion, impact and scratch (Krzoska-Adamczak and Nowaczyk-Organista 2006). 

Continuing the initiated studies was prepared article, whose an aim was estimation of 

resistance of PUR HC lacquer coatings with UV acrylic TC layers at various gloss degree on 

selected thermal (steam action) and chemical (cold liquids action) factors with determination 

of the course of these parameters in condition of thermal aging. 

EXPERIMENTS 

Preparation of the substrate and lacquer coatings was described in the first part of this 

paper (Lis et al. 2009a). The test of resistance to steam action was made acc. to PN-88/F- 

06100/06 on samples with dimensions 70x70 mm, which were put on the holes of the cover a 

tank filled with boiled water. Samples were subjected to steam action during 1 h. Then 

surfaces were dried with a blotter and conditioned during 24 h and then evaluation was made 

with estimation 5-degree scale. Resistance of surface to liquids action was determined with 

chemical test described in PN-EN 12720 standard and result expressed in 5 degree scale (5no 

visible changes of surface, 1- structure changes). Selected agents are specified in Table 1. 

458

Table 1. Kind of cold liquids used to experiments with their adopted marking 

Marking of liquid Kind of liquid 

Al. Ethyl alcohol 48% 

Ac. Acetone 

Sp. Black currant juice (from Herbapol company) 

Kr. Instant coffee (trade name Jacobs ) 

Kc. Citric acid 10% 

Liquids were applied with the use of blotting paper of mass weight 400-500 g/m 2 and 

diameter 25 mm. Pieces of blotting paper were dipped for 30 s in particular liquids and then 

were put on tested surfaces and covered with vessel for weighing tightened with paraffin. 

After specified time both utensils and pieces of blotting paper were removed and then samples 

were conditioned for 12-24 h. Then the place of the test was cleaned with a cloth soaked with 

a cleaning agent and distillated water. An evaluation of results was made using descriptivenumerical 

grade scale acc. to PN-EN 12720. 

Investigations were done after 3, 6, 9 cycles of thermal aging in the version of 

changing temperatures acc. to PN-88/F-06100/07 (method A). 

RESULTS 

Results of investigations on the steam action of HC PUR coatings in Table 2 were presented. 

Table 2. Results of investigations of resistance of steam action of HC PUR coatings with TC 817.2 and 817.5 top 

lacquers on various substrates in the function of number of cycles of changing temperature 

Kind of top lacquers 

Kind of 

veneers 

Beech 

Number 


817.2 817.5 

Number of samples 

1 2 3 Total 1 2 3 Total 

Note (scale acc. to PN-88/F-06100/06) 

0 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 

6 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 

9 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 

Oak 0 3 3 4 3 4 4 4 4 

3 3 3 3 3 5 4 4 4 

6 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 

9 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 

Birch 

Nut 

0 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

Generally it can be stated, that tested coatings were characterized low (estimation 3-4), 

and at this with the comparable resistance on the steam action accepting according to the 

scale contracted in standard. On coatings formed on the beech wood veneer was observed 

apparently clearly darkening, on of nut - and birch wood lighting up, instead on of oak large 

cracks and knots. These changes could get out of the kind of the substrate, his composities, 

porosities etc. Besides during variable temperatures action, as result of thermal stresses in 

coatings, could come into being microcracks making possible diffusions of the steam inside 

substrate. It can observed, that in function of the number of aging cycles, the coatings 

showed the large stability. Only in some cases followed the height of the resistance for 1 

degree with relation to the control samples. 

459

In Table 3 were placed results of investigations of the resistance of lacquer coatings on 

the cold liquids action and the course of these parameter in function of the number of cycles 

of changing temperatures. 

Table 3. Results of the resistance on the cold liquids action at the different influence time 

of HC coatings with TC 817.1 lacquer on various substrates 

Action 

time [h] 


liquid (acc. to 

Table 1) 

Kind of veneers 

beech oak birch nut 

Note (scale acc. to PN EN 12720) 

24 Ac. 4 5 5 4 

Ac. 5 - *) - 4 

16 

Sp. 4 4 4 4 

Kr. 4 4 4 4 

Al. 4 4 4 4 

6 

Ac. 

Sp. 

- 

4 

- 

4 

- 

4 

5 

5 

Kr. 4 4 4 5 

Al. 5 5 5 5 

1 

Sp. 

Kr. 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

- 

- 

Kc. 5 5 5 5 

*) lack of measures 

Table 4. Results of the resistance on the cold liquids action at the different time of HC coatings with 

top lacquers on various substrates in the function of the number of cycles of changing temperature 

Marking 

Kind of top lacguers 

Time 

[h] 

Number 


cycles 


liquids 

(acc. to 

Table 1) beech 

817.2 817.5 

Kind of veneers 

oak birch nut beech oak birch 

Note (acc. to PN EN 12720) 

nut 

0 Ac. 4 5 5 4 4 5 5 4 

24 

3 

6 

Ac. 

Ac. 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

9 Ac. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 

Ac. 5 - - 5 5 - - 5 

16 0 Sp. 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 

Kr. 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 

Al. 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 

0 Sp. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 

Kr. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 

3 Sp. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 

6 

Kr. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 

6 Sp. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 

Kr. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 

9 Sp. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 

Kc. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 

0 Al. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 

Sp. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 

1 3 Al. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 

6 Al. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 

9 Al. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 

3 Sp. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 

20 min 6 Sp. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 

9 Sp. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 

460

It was stated, that on obtained results the most essential influence had maked the kind 

and the influence time of testing liquid, smaller while the meaning had growing old of 

coatings. Analysing results it were stated that only acetone, from taken into account on the 

work liquids, had not caused changes on coatings formed on the veneer of the oak and the 

birch even after 24 h the contact. Remaining instead resources showed negative impact on 

evaluated surfaces, causing slight changes, being qualified to the estimation 4. However the 

shortening of the time of their influence to 16 h, in most cases caused the rise of the note for 1 

degree. With the strong activity lowering values aesthetical-decorative of coatings was 

characterized 10% lemon-acid whose testing one finished after 20 min influence. 


Tested PUR HC lacquer coatings protected with layers of top UV acrylic lacquers with 

various gloss without respects both on the kind of the substrate, as and top layers, were 

characterized comparable and stabile properties in the range of steam- and cold liquid actions 

in conditions of the thermal aging. 

REFERENCES 

1. KRZOSKA-ADAMCZAK Z., NOWACZYK-ORGANISTA M., 2006: Badania 

powierzchni mebli metody i wymagania, dodatek specjalny do czasopisma 

Lakiernictwo Przemys�owe, Uszlachetnianie powierzchni drewna cz. 1, Wydawnictwo 

GOLDMAN Tczew; 59-62. 

2. LIS B., KRYSTOFIAK T., PROSZYK S., WO�NIAK A., 2009a: Influence of 

thermal aging of veneering boards finished with PUR lacquers in HC technology upon 

coatings properties. Part I. Aesthetic-decorative features, Ann. WULS.-SGGW. For. 

and Wood Technol., 68; 476--480. 

3. LIS B., KRYSTOFIAK T., PROSZYK S., WO�NIAK A., 2009b: Influence of 


coatings properties. Part II. Resistance to mechanical factors, Ann. WULS.-SGGW. 

For. and Wood Technol., 68; 481--484. 

Streszczenie: Wp�yw termicznego starzenia p�yt okleinowanych wyko�czonych lakierami 

PUR w technologii HC na w�a�ciwo�ci pow�ok. Cz. II. Odporno�� na czynniki termiczne 

oraz chemiczne. Dla pow�ok przygotowanych na elementach p�ytowych oklejonych 

naturalnymi okleinami (brzoza, buk, d�b i orzech), a nast�pnie wyko�czonych w technologii 

PUR HC z dodatkow� zabezpieczaj�c� warstewk� nawierzchniowego lakieru akrylowego UV 

o zró�nicowanym stopniu po�ysku, okre�lono odporno�� na par� wodn� oraz zimne p�yny. 

Próbki poddawano termicznemu starzeniu w funkcji liczby cykli zmiennych temperatur wg 

PN-88/F-06100/07 (metoda A). Odporno�� pow�ok na dzia�anie pary wodnej wykonano wg 

PN-88/F-06100/06, natomiast na zimne p�yny wg PN-EN 12720. W podsumowaniu 

stwierdzono, �e testowane wyko�czenia bez wzgl�du na rodzaj pod�o�a oraz zastosowanej 

warstwy nawierzchniowej, charakteryzowa�y si� w warunkach cykli termicznego starzenia 

porównywaln� i stabiln� odporno�ci� na dzia�anie pary wodnej oraz zimnych p�ynów. 


Barbara Lis, Tomasz Krystofiak, Stanis�aw Proszyk, Agnieszka Wo�niak 








Influence of thermal aging of veneering boards finished of PUR lacquers in 

HC technology upon coating properties. Part IV. Wettability and adherence 

BARBARA LIS, TOMASZ KRYSTOFIAK, STANIS�AW PROSZYK, AGNIESZKA 

WO�NIAK 


Abstract: Influence of thermal aging of veneering boards finished of PUR lacquers in HC technology upon 

coating properties. Part IV. Wettability and adherence. An experimental studies were to determine the effect of 

thermal aging of veneering boards finished with PUR lacquers applied in HOT COATING (HC) technology and 

then protected with top UV acrylic lacquers (TC) at various gloss degree upon adherence to substrates and 

wettability of obtain finishing’s. Measurement of contact angle (�) and on the basis of this values were 

calculated the following parametres: surface free energy (�s), work of adhesion (Wa) and surface tension on the 

interface (�SL). Investigations were done appropriate after 3, 6, and 9 cycles of thermal aging in version of 

changes temperatures acc. to PN-88/F-06100/07 (method A). On the basis of the obtained results it was stated, 

among others, that tested tested lacquer coatings depending on the kind of the substrate and the top layer were 

characterized with proper relations within the range of values of the surface free energy (45÷48 mJ/m²), with the 

distinct domination of the dispersion share (31÷33 mJ/m²) and with profitable parameters with reference to the 

work of adhesion (90÷110 mJ/m²), not fulfilling however the criterion of the minimization of energy on the 

interface of phases. The adherence of lacquer coatings to the substrate placed herself within the range values 

0.5÷1.6 MPa, being exclusively qualified with the delamination resistance of particleboard. 

Key words: particleboard, natural veneer, PUR HC lacquer, top UV layer, coating, thermal aging, adherence, 

contact angle, free surface energy, work of adhesion, surface tension on the interface 

INTRODUCTION 

In previous parts of this article were presented results of aesthetic-decorative features 

and resistance upon some mechanical-, thermal- and chemical factors of coatings with PUR 

lacquers applied in HC technology. The course of these parameters of lacquer coatings vs. 

number of thermal aging cycle were determined (Lis et al. 2009a,b, 2010). About very 

important utylity-functional properties, and also resistance of lacquer coatings are decided by 

their adhesion to the substrate (Lis and Krystofiak 2010). This parameter can be consider in 

relations within the range of surface forces being in contact materials according with 

assumption of the adsorption theory of adhesion. On the basis of this theory is possible the 

qualification of the theoretically maximum adhesion at the foundation that all influences of 

surface forces will become put-upon. Values of the contact angle (�) of the surface of 

coatings, effecting upon of the surface free energy (�s), work of adhesion (Wa) and the 

surface tension on the interface (�SL) with separating of dispersion and polar shares. 

In the article was presented chosen results from the scope of investigations of the 

adherence of lacquer coatings to the substrate with of pull-off methods and foundations of 

adsorption theory of surface phenomena occured in wood-lacquer coatings system with the 

calculation on the basis of measurement values of angle �, such parameters, how: �S, Wa and 

�SL, together with their dispersion and polar shares during the thermal aging of lacquer 

coatings in the procedure of cycles of changing temperature. 

EXPERIMENTS 

Preparation of lacquer coatings to investigations was given in study Lis et al. 2009a. 

Measurement of the contact angle � the surface of lacquer coatings was passed for the 

distilled water as wetting liquid, acc. to the procedure PN-EN 828. Water was applied with 

462

the chromatographic syringe in the form of drops about the volume 3.5 �l (10 repeats) and 

was made after the outflow of 5 s measurements the contact angle, with the specialist 

microscope with the goniometric equipment. On the basis of measurement values of the 

angle �, at the regard well known from the literature theoretical formulas (Potente and Kr�ger 

1978) was marked in turn values �S, Wa, �SL together with dispersion and polar shares (. In 

turn investigations of the adherence was performed acc. to EN 4624 procedure. For gluing of 

aluminum-measuring stamps was used 2K hybride version of silane-epoxy adhesive. After 7 

day of conditioning time of samples (20/50), was qualified the adherence in the SCHOPPER 

testing-machine (ZDM 2.5/91 type), disposed on the range 500 daN (5 mm/min). 

Investigations were performed for lacquer coatings thermally aged in artificial conditions, in 

function of number of cycles of changing temperatures acc. to PN-88/F-06100/07 (method A), 

properly 3, 6 and 9. 

RESULTS 

On the basis of measurement angle � was calculated parameters: �S, Wa and �SL 

together with their dispersion and polar shares. On Fig. 1÷2 in the form of examplepresentations 

were pictured the course of particular adhesion parameters for PUR HC coatings 

with the layer from acrylic TC lacquer formed on beech wood veener. 

Surface free energy [mJ/m 2 ] 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

Surface free energy with shares: 

�S d 

�S p �S TC 817.2 TC 817.5 

0 3 6 9 . 0 3 6 9 

Number of aging cycles 

Fig.1. The course of values of surface free energy and its dyspersion and polar shares of PUR HC coatings with 

TC (817.2 and 817.5) lacquers on the beech wood veneer vs. number of cycles of changing temperatures 

The general estimation of results of �s (45÷48 mJ/m 2 ) parameter showed that values for 

each finishing’s were nearing, containing themselves within the range 30,90÷32,80 mJ/m². 

Instead the component �S p had considerably lower values which in the function of the number 

of carried out aging tests lowered, showing consequently on the progressive hydrophobic 

phenomena of the coatings. It was stated, that tested coatings had been characterized with 

high of Wa values within the range 90÷110 mJ/m², what in the light of literature data can be 

acknowledged too much profitable relations. In the function of the number of aging cycles 

followed the reduction of this parameter. In turn values �SL, for considered systems contained 

within the range 7÷16 mJ/m2, running away consequently from criteria foundations 

concerning of the minimum-energy on the interface of phases (�SL� 0) according. to which 

the interrelationship between lacquers and substrate is this more effective, to them is higher 

the value Wa and lower �SL (Liptáková and Kudela 1994). Results of the adherence of 

463

coatings to chosen wood veneers and their course in the function of number of aging cycles 

were illustrated on the Fig. 3. 

Work of adhesion [mJ/m 2 ] 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

Work of adhesion with shares: 

Wa 

Wad Wap TC 817.2 

0 3 6 9 . 0 3 6 9 

Number of aging cycles 

464 

TC 817.5 

Fig.2. The course of values of work of adhesion and its dyspersion and polar shares 

of PUR HC coatings with TC (817.2 and 817.5) lacquers on the beech wood 

veneers vs. number of cycles of changing temperatures 

Adherence [MPa] 

1,8 

1,6 

1,4 

1,2 

1,0 

0,8 

0,6 

0,4 

0,2 

0,0 

Number of aging cycles: 

0 

3 

6 

TC 817.2 TC 817.5 

9 

oak beech . oak beech 

Kind of wood 

Fig.3. The course of adherence of PUR HC coatings with the layer of TC lacquer (817.2 and 817.5) 

to chosen wood veneers vs. of the number of cycles of changing temperatures 

The adherence of tested lacquer systems was shaped within the range of 0.5÷1.6 MPa 

values. Experimental data were characterized with the enough significant scattering, which 

was main due delamination of the particleboard, occurrent in the test of disconnection of the 

stamp, at failure stresses, both in presurface layers, as and central. Means this, that a most 

weak places in the considered arrangement systems was veneered board. On obtained values 

did not exert the influence also such parameters as the kind of the veneer, top TC lacquer, 

whether the number of cycles of the thermal aging.

CONCLUSIONS 

1. On the basis of criteria assumptions of the adsorption theory of adhesion of polymers 

to wood it can be stated, that tested lacquer coatings depending on the kind of the 

substrate and the top layer were characterized with proper relations within the range 

of values of the surface free energy (45÷48 mJ/m²), with the distinct domination of the 

dispersion share (31÷33 mJ/m²) and with profitable parameters with reference to the 

work of adhesion (90÷110 mJ/m²), not fulfilling however the criterion of the 

minimization of energy on the interface of phases. 

2. The adherence of tested lacquer coatings to the substrate placed herself within the 

range values 0.5÷1.6 MPa, being exclusively qualified with the delamination 

resistance of particleboard. 

REFERENCES 

1. LIS B., KRYSTOFIAK T., 2010: Badania adhezji pow�ok lakierowych do drewna. 

Maksymalna przyczepno��, dodatek specjalny do czasopisma Lakiernictwo 

Przemys�owe, Uszlachetnianie powierzchni drewna cz. 2, Wydawnictwo GOLDMAN 

Tczew; 44-46. 

2. LIS B., KRYSTOFIAK T., PROSZYK S., WO�NIAK A., 2009a: Influence of thermal 

aging of veneering boards finished with PUR lacquers in HC technology upon 

coatings properties. Part I. Aesthetic-decorative features, Ann. WULS.-SGGW. For. 

and Wood Technol., 68; 476-480. 

3. LIS B., KRYSTOFIAK T., PROSZYK S., WO�NIAK A., 2009b: Influence of 


coatings properties. Part II. Resistance to mechanical factors, Ann. WULS.-SGGW. 

For. and Wood Technol., 68; 481-484. 

4. LIS B., KRYSTOFIAK T., PROSZYK S., WO�NIAK A., 2010: Influence of thermal 

aging of veneering boards finished with PUR lacquers in HC technology upon 

coatings properties. Part III. Resistance to thermal and chemical factors, Ann. WULS.- 

SGGW. For. and Wood Technol., 71; 458-461. 

5. POTENTE I., KRÜGER R., 1978: Bedeutung polarer disperser 

Oberflächenspannungsanteile von Plastomeren und Beschichtungsstoffen für die 

Haftfestigkeit. Farbe u. Lack 84 (2); 72-75. 

465

Streszczenie: Wp�yw termicznego starzenia p�yt okleinowanych wyko�czonych lakierami 

PUR w technologii HC na w�a�ciwo�ci pow�ok. Cz. IV. Zwil�alno�� i adhezja. Dla pow�ok 

przygotowanych w technologii PUR HC i dodatkowo zabezpieczonych lakierem akrylowym 

UV o ró�nym stopniu po�ysku, przeprowadzono badania przyczepno�ci metod� odrywow� wg 

EN 4624 oraz wykonano pomiary k�ta zwil�ania metod� mikroskopow� w warunkach 

statycznych. Na podstawie za�o�e� adsorpcyjnej teorii adhezji polimerów do drewna 

wyznaczono wybrane parametry (swobodna energia powierzchniowa, praca adhezji oraz 

napi�cie powierzchniowe na granicy faz wraz z ich sk�adowymi dyspersyjn� i polarn�). 

Stwierdzono, �e testowane pow�oki lakierowe w zale�no�ci od rodzaju pod�o�a oraz warstwy 

nawierzchniowej, charakteryzowa�y si� w�a�ciwymi relacjami w zakresie kszta�towania si� 

warto�ci swobodnej energii powierzchniowej (45÷48 mJ/m²), z wyra�n� dominacj� sk�adowej 

dyspersyjnej (31÷33 mJ/m²) oraz korzystnymi parametrami w odniesieniu do pracy adhezji 

(90÷110 mJ/m²), nie spe�niaj�c jednak�e kryterium minimalizacji energii na granicy faz. 

Przyczepno�� testowanych pow�ok lakierowych do pod�o�a plasowa�a si� w zakresie warto�ci 

0.5÷1.6 MPa, b�d�c wy��cznie uwarunkowana odporno�ci� na rozwarstwianie si� p�yt 

wiórowych. 


Barbara Lis, Tomasz Krystofiak Stanis�aw Proszyk, Agnieszka Wo�niak 







(Ann. WULS-SGGW, For and Wood Technol. 71,2010) 

Strength analysis of layered wood composite 

ANDRZEJ MAKOWSKI 

Department of Engineering Mechanics and Thermal Techniques, Poznan University of Life Sciences 

Abstract: Strength analysis of layered wood composite. The article the discusses theoretical analysis and 

numerical verification of problems associated with calculations of strength parameters of a multi-layer wood 

laminate. The object of studies was a laminate subjected to under in-plane loading. Analytical calculations were 

carried out with the assistance of the method of classical lamination theory – assumptions typical for the theory 

of thin plates. Values of transformed stiffness and compliance matrices in on-axis and off-axis configuration 

were determined for individual orthotropic layers. Results of the performed investigations were presented in the 

form of tables, diagrams and bitmaps of displacements and strains. 

Key words: finite elements method (FEM), wood composite, plywood, lamination theory. 

INTRODUCTION 

Wood, as a building material, has been used by man for centuries to execute a wide 

range of various constructions. It is a completely renewable material and, at the present time, 

due to rapidly shrinking resources of good raw materials, enjoys a growing demand. That is 

why, for a number of years now engineers and scientists alike have been looking for new 

materials based on wood of high strength parameters which could successfully compete with 

other building materials. Plywood can easily be considered in this group of materials. 

Plywood can be manufactured from different wood species of varying strength properties 

developed in the course of the production process [2]. Made of permanently combined layers, 

it can be included in the group of materials called composites of layered structure described as 

laminates. In practice, they can be found as flat boards with arbitrarily formed construction 

elements in layers taking into account directions of possible loads. Elastic properties of 

laminates are affected by two factors: the kind of the applied material and the sequence of 

individual layers [. Classical lamination theory utilising assumptions from the theory of thin 

plates is employed to analyse strength properties of a given composite. 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND ANALYTIC ASSUMPTIONS 

It is generally assumed that in a multilayer laminate, individual laminate layers are in a 

flat state of strains and Kirchhoff-Lovee hypothesis is adopted referring to the theory of thin 

plates and small displacements [1]. This means that shear strains in the plane perpendicular to 

the middle surface are omitted. Once we decide to confine ourselves to consider linear-elastic 

behaviour of plates within boundaries of Hooke’s law, it is necessary to adopt certain 

essential assumptions. We assume that, in the adopted model of layered plate, the connection 

between layers is ideal, strains perpendicular to mid-surface are negligible, out-of-plane shear 

strains are zero. There is continuity of displacements between layers, in other words there is 

no glide between them. Each layer possesses property of an orthotropic medium. Analysing 

interrelationships between displacements and strains in very thin orthotropic layers, we 

assume flat state of strains. In such case, constitutive relations are reduced to the following 

form: 

467

� 1 

� 

�� 

� � 11 

11 

� � �� 

12 

�� 

22 � � 

� 

� � E11 

�� 

12 � � 

� 0 

�� 

�� 

21 

E22 

1 

E 

22 

0 

� 

0 � 

�� 

11 � 

� � 

0 

� 

�� 

22 � 

�� 

� 

1 �� 

12 � 

� 

G12 

�� 

E , and 

� E11 

� 21E22 

� 

� 

0 � 

�� 

� 1�� 

12� 

21 1�� 

12� 

21 

11 � 

�� 

11 � 

� � � �12E11 

E22 

�� 

� 

�� 

22 � � 

0 �� 

22 � 

� � 

�1�� 

� � 

12� 

21 1 �12� 

21 

� 

� 

� � 

��12 

� 0 0 G �� 

12 � 

12 

� 

� 

� 

� 

(1) 

In both cases, we have symmetrical matrices in the function of engineer constants in 

which the first is known as the compliance matrix and the second as the stiffness matrix. By 

introducing the m=(1-�12�21) -1 dependence, the reduced stiffness matrix assumes the 

following form: 

� mE11 

m� 

12E22 

0 � �Q11 

Q12 

0 � 

� 

m E mE 

� 

� 

� 

Q Q 

� 

� 

� 21 11 

22 0 

� � 21 22 0 

� 

� �Q� �� 

0 0 G �� 

�� 

Q � 

12 0 0 66 � 

(2) 

In short, constitutive relations can be written down as follows: {�} = [Q] -1 {�} or {�} = 

[Q]{�}. The compliance or stiffness matrix is determined by the following four independent 

material constants: E11, E22, �12, G12. These constants are associated with the main orthotropic 

directions of a given layer. Frequently, in many composites, main layer directions do not 

coincide with the directions of the global system of coordinates. The Cartesian global system 

of coordinates typically depends on the shape of the considered element or load directions. 

Seeking forms combining strains and deformations in both Cartesian coordinate systems 

turned against each other round one axis by any � angle, transformation matrices are 

employed. The transformation matrix for strains or deformations from one system to the other 

adopts the following form: 

� mE11 

m� 

12E22 

0 � �Q11 

Q12 

0 � 

� 

m E mE 

� 

� 

� 

Q Q 

� 

� 

� 21 11 

22 0 

� � 21 22 0 

� 

� �Q� �� 

0 0 G �� 

�� 

Q � 

12 0 0 66 � 

(3) 

In the shortened form, a positive or negative transformation takes the following form: 

�� 

11 � �� 

xx � 

� � � � 

�� 

22 � � �T��, � �� 

yy � 

� � � � 

�� 

12 � �� 

xy � 

(4) 

z 3 

2 

y 

1 

�+ x 

Figure 1. A coordinate system of and applied load 

F 

Transformation dependence between components of a deformation of strain state for an 

orthotropic layer in any coordinate system determined by angle �, assumes the form: 

468 

b 

L 

y 

x 

F

* * * 

�� 

� 

� 

xx � Q11 

Q12 

Q16 

�� 

xx � 

� � � * * * �� 

� 

�� 

yy � � �Q12 

Q22 

Q26�� 

yy � 

� � � * * * �� 

� 

�� 

xy � �Q16 

Q26 

Q66�� 

xy � 

(5) 

Q * ij coefficients are determined by the following formulas: 

Q * 11=Q11c 4 +2(Q12+2Q66)s 2 c 2 +Q22s 4 ; Q * 12=Q12c 4 +(Q11+Q22-4Q66)s 2 c 2 +Q12s 4 , 

Q * 22=Q22c 4 +2(Q12+2Q66)s 2 c 2 +Q11s 4 , Q * 66=Q66c 4 +(Q11+Q22-2Q12-Q66)s 2 c 2 +Q66s 4 , 

Q * 16=(Q11-Q12-2Q12-2Q66)sc 3 +(Q12-Q22+2Q66)s 3 c, 

Q * 26=(Q12-Q22-2Q12+2Q66)sc 3 +(Q11-Q12-2Q66)s 3 c, where: s = sin�, c = cos� 

ANALYTICAL AND NUMERICAL CALCULATIONS 

The following data were adopted for theoretical and numerical analyses: wood-derived 

laminate with material properties corresponding to literature parameters of beech of 690kg/m 3 

density and 12% moisture content [1]. The remaining adopted data were as follows [2]: EL= 

E11 = 14000 MPa, ET= E22=1160 MPa, �12=0.52, �21=0.043, G12=1080 MPa; board 

dimensions: hxb = 40 mm x 200 mm and thickness tk=1 mm. The laminate consisted of eight 

layer distributed symmetrically in relation to the central board of [0/45/-45/90]s code loaded 

by the force F = 5 kN. The matrix stiffness in the material system calculated on the basis of 

the assumed material constants amounted to: 

* * * 

�� 

� 

� 

xx � Q11 

Q12 

Q16 

�� 

xx � 

� � � * * * �� 

� 

�� 

yy � � �Q12 

Q22 

Q26�� 

yy � 

� � � * * * �� 

� 

�� 

xy � �Q16 

Q26 

Q66�� 

xy � 

(6) 

Calculated elements of the stiffness matrix for individual layers of the laminate Q * ij are 

collated in Table 1. 

Table 1. Results of calculations of the laminate stiffness matrix. 

Q * 11 Q * 22 Q * 12 Q * 66 Q * 16 Q * Layers 

26 

1 0 o 

2 45 o 

3 -45 o 

4 90 o 

14,32 1,19 0,62 

[GPa] 

1,16 0 0 

5,35 5,35 3,02 3,57 3,28 3,28 

5,35 5,35 3,02 3,57 -3,28 -3,28 

1,19 14,32 0,62 1,16 0 0 

The stiffness matrix of the entire laminate [0/45/-45/90]s was calculated on the basis of 

summation of appropriate matrix elements according to the formula: k 

Aij Qij 

�tk 

�A11 

A12 

A16 

� �52, 

39 14, 

56 0 � 

Aij= 

� 

� 

� 

A12 

A22 

A26 

� 

= 

� 

� 

� 

14, 

56 52, 

39 0 

� 

[GPa mm] 

�� 

A 

� 

16 A26 

A66 

� �� 

0 0 18, 

91�� 

The compliance matrix can be calculated from the stiffness matrix Cij = [Aij] -1 which was as 

follows: 

� 2, 

068 � 0, 

576 0 � 

3 

Cij= 

� 

0, 

576 2, 

068 0 

� � 

� 

� 

� 

�10 

[mm/kN] 

�� 

0 0 5, 

28�� 

At under in-plane loading, it was assumed that deformations were identical in each layer 

and then strains in the laminate could be described as an averaged value of strains in cross 

469 

r 

� � 

i�1

section. A load calculated for a layer amounted to: Nx = F/h = 5 kN/40 mm= 0.125 kN/mm. 

Therefore, the value of relative deformation calculated on the basis of the compliance matrix 

in main laminate directions as well as its total elongation � amounted to: 

�� 

x � � 2, 

068 � 0, 

576 0 � �N 

� �x = +2.585 10 

x 

� � 

� � 

�� 

y � � 

� 

� �3 

� 

� 0, 

576 2, 

068 0 

� 

�10 

� 0 � 

� � 

�� 

� � 

xy � 

�� 

0 0 5, 

28�� 

� 0 � 

-3 , �y=-0.72 10 -3 , �xy= 0 

The elongation � is computed from �=L �x 

=0.517 mm, �MES= 0.54 mm. 

DISTRIBUTION OF STRAINS IN LAMINATES 

The stresses for each layer are determined from eq(6)and are presented in table 2. 

Table 2. The stresses for each layer 

Layers 

and 

orientation 

1 0 o 

2 45 o 

3 -45 o 

4 90 o 

5 90 o 

6 -45 o 

7 45 o 

8 0 o 

Analyti 

c 

�x �y �xy 

FEM 

Analyti 

c 

[MPa] 

FEM 

Analyti 

c 

FEM 

36,5 37,1 -073 -072 0 0 

10,0 13,9 5,8 1,7 6,1 3,6 

10,0 13,9 5,8 1,7 -6,1 -3,6 

7,2 2,62 -8,7 -9,0 0 0 

7,2 2,62 -8,7 -9,0 0 0 

10,0 13,9 5,8 1,7 -6,1 -3,6 

10,0 13,9 5,8 1,7 6,1 3,6 

36,5 37,1 -073 -072 0 0 

The distributions of the longitudinal, transverse and shear stresses for the laminate are 

presented in Figure 2 

o 

0 

o 

45 

o 

-45 

o 

90 

0 o 

-45 o 

45 o 

90 o 

7,2 

10,0 

36,3 

8,7 

0,72 

5,9 

6,12 

6,12 

6,12 

3,62 

3,62 

6,12 

�xx �yy �xy 

Figure 2. Stress distribution along the laminate thickness. Dashed line refers to values calculated with the 

assistance of the finite element method (FEM). 

470

Figure 3. Laminate deformations and stresses distribution in a selected composite layer (layer No. 4). 

CONCLUSIONS 

On the basis of the performed theoretical and numerical analyses from investigations 

on the behaviour of a multilayer wood-derived composite subjected to under in-plane loading, 

the following conclusions can be drawn: 

� At immediate load, sample elongation was similar, 

� In the case of both methods, results of strain distribution in individual layers were 

close and distribution – similar, 

� Small differences in some values resulted from the omission in the performed 

calculations of the so called Lechnicki’s coefficients – coefficients of mutual impact of 

I and II kinds, 

� Due to different configuration of individual laminate layers, apart from normal 

deformations, tangent deformations of layers: 2, 3, 6 and 7 also occurred, hence 

tangent feed-back took place in non-axial configuration of orthotropic layers, 

� The adopted solutions in modelling and in simulation computer studies were 

satisfactorily corroborated in theoretical analyses, 

� At the set loads, none of the strains exceeded limiting values for the adopted material. 

REFERENCES: 

1. German J., 1996: Podstawy mechaniki kompozytów w�óknistych. Kraków, Wyd. Pol. 

Krakowskiej. 

2. Keylwerth R.: Die anisotrope Elastizität das Holzes und der Lagerhölzer. VDI- 

Forschungesheft 430, Ausgabe 13,Band 17, 1951. 

3. Parczewski A., Sadowski M., Wierzbicki A., 1969: Technologia produkcji sklejek, 

PWRiL, Warszawa. 

4. Spyrakos C.C., 1994: Finite Element Analysis in Engineering Practice. Algor Inc. 

Publishing Division Pittsburgh. PA USA. 

471

Streszczenie: Analiza wytrzyma�o�ciowa kompozytu drewnopochodnego. W pracy omówiono 

analiz� teoretyczn� z weryfikacj� numeryczn� zagadnie� dotycz�cych obliczania parametrów 

wytrzyma�o�ciowych wielowarstwowego laminatu drewnopochodnego. Przedmiotem 

opracowania by� laminat poddany obci��eniu tarczowemu. Do oblicze� analitycznych 

wykorzystano metod� klasycznej teorii laminacji - za�o�e� typowych dla teorii p�yt cienkich. 

Wyznaczono dla indywidualnych warstw ortotropowych warto�ci transformowanych 

macierzy sztywno�ci i podatno�ci w konfiguracji osiowej i nieosiowej. Rezultaty 

przeprowadzonych bada� przedstawiono w formie tabel, wykresów i map bitowych 

przemieszcze� i napr��e�. 


Dr in�. Andrzej Makowski, 

Department of Engineering Mechanics and Thermal Techniques, 

Poznan University of Life Sciences, 

60-627 Poznan, 

ul. Wojska Polskiego38/42, 

Poland 

e-mail: makowski@au.poznan.pl




Strength and modulus of elasticity in bending of pine structural timber with 

square and round cross-section 

A. MAKOWSKI 1 , A. NOSKOWIAK 2 , G. PAJCHROWSKI 2 , G. SZUMI�SKI 2 

1 Poznan University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 28, 60-637 Poznan , Poland 

2 Wood Technology Institute, Winiarska 1, 60-654 Poznan, Poland 

Abstract: Strength and modulus of elasticity in bending of pine structural timber with square and round crosssection. 

Because of growing interest in the use of round wood in various structures research work was 

undertaken to identify issues of strength grading for such wood. Experimental verification of numerical models 

of pine structural timber with square and round cross-section was carried out. Strength and modulus of elasticity 

of each beam were tested. Experimental results indicate that load bearing capacity is higher for pine beams of 

round cross-section. A similar conclusion may be drawn from the numerical analysis carried out. However, in 

relation to the empirical analysis, the numerical results underestimate that difference. 

Keywords: Pine, Round wood, Bending strength, Structural timber, Numerical analysis. 

INTRODUCTION 

Before people mastered wood sawing they had built their homes, bridges and entire 

strongholds using round wood. With the development of mechanical treatments, timber 

constructions with rectangular timber were improved. Easiness of performing precise 

connections was undoubtedly one of the key factors of moving from the use of round wood to 

the use of sawn timber with rectangular cross-section. For several years, you may experience 

a renewed interest in the use of round wood in various structures, particularly in structures 

which can generally be described as recreational facilities. 

In 2003 the standard EN 14251 Structural round timber - Test methods was included to the 

European standards for structural timber. The CEN/TC 124 is still developing the standard 

EN 14544 Timber structures - Strength graded structural timber with round cross-section - 

Requirements. In this standard a set of attributes which should be taken into consideration 

when defining the rules for visual strength grading of round wood is given. As for the 

rectangular timber (according to the EN 14081-1), the characteristics to be considered in 

grading of round wood include: size and location of knots, slope of grain, density, width of 

annual rings, cracks, damage from insects and fungi, reaction wood and other characteristics 

that may adversely affect the strength and stiffness (bark pockets, resin pockets, included 

sapwood). A specific feature to be defined in the rules for round wood grading is sweep. 

Currently in Poland, the level of knowledge of the strength properties of structural timber 

with round cross-section is relatively low. Therefore, research work within the statutory 

measures of Wood Technology Institute was undertaken to identify issues of strength grading 

for such wood. Experimental verification of numerical models of structural timber with square 

and round cross-section of the same section modulus was carried out. 


Both, beams with square cross-section with dimensions of 100 mm ×100 mm and beams with 

round cross-section with diameter of 120 mm, were 4 m long. They were obtained from pine 

473

(Pinus sylvestris L.) wood of III and IV age class from Pniewy Forest District (Greater 

Poland-Pomeranian natural-forest region). 

Timber was visual graded first using appropriately modified rules specified in PN-D- 

94021:1982. Subsequently, tests in four-point bending scheme for strength and modulus of 

elasticity in bending were performed according to the standards EN-408 and EN 14251. 

Square beams were loaded with span 600-600-600 mm while round beams with span 720- 

720-720 mm (Fig. 1). 

F/2 F/2 

600 (720) 600 (720) 

500 (600) 

1800 (2160) 

Fig. 1. Loading scheme for square (round) beams 

For the numerical calculations a program based on finite element method was used. 

TEST RESULTS 

The results of strength and stiffness of pine wood beams with square and round crosssection 

are summarized in Tab. 1. 

Results shown in Tab. 1 indicate, among other things, that for similar values of section 

modulus: 

a) destructive load for beams with square cross-section is about 10% lower than 

destructive load for beams with round cross-section, 

b) bending strength for beams with square cross-section is about 23% lower than 

bending strength for beams with round cross-section, 

c) modulus of elasticity for beams with square cross-section is about 19% lower than 

modulus of elasticity for beams with round cross-section. 

Tab. 1. Experimental results 

Crosssection 

Section 

modulus 

mm 3 

Moment of 

inertia 

mm 4 

square 166,667 8,333,333 

round 169,646 10,178,760 

Comments: Sample size – 50 pieces 

Statistical 

parameter 

474 

Maximum 

load 

Static 

bending 

strength 

N N/mm 2 

Modulus of 

elasticity 

N/mm 2 

mean 18,881 34.0 8,621 

min 7,935 14.3 2,621 

max 36,564 65.8 14,290 

std. dev. 6,767 12.2 2,297 

COV % 36 36 27 

mean 20,840 44.2 10,674 

min 14,670 31.1 7,676 

max 30,141 64.0 14,036 

std. dev. 3,710 7.9 1,464 

COV % 18 18 14

RESULTS OF NUMERICAL ANALYSIS 

For the numerical calculations orthotropic spatial model (3-D) and elastic characteristics 

for pine wood similar to those of the strength class C24 according to 

EN 338 were assumed. Simulations were performed in the range of linear static stress. 

Material characteristics for both, square and round pine wood were: EL = 11,000 N/mm 2 , ER = 

1,000 N/mm 2 , ET = 500 N/mm 2 , GLT = 680 N/mm 2 , GRT = 70 N/mm 2 , �LR = 0.297, �LT = 

0.301 �RT = 0.540. Load causing deflection of l/300 (6 mm in 1800 mm span) were calculated 

for four-point bending scheme with span 600-600-600 mm. Results of numerical calculations, 

in the form of maps of deflections and stresses are presented in Tab. 2.1 and 2.2. 

Assuming the same material parameters and similar section modulus of the beams, the 

results of numerical analysis show that the load causing the comparable deflection (e.g. 6 

mm) for square beams is smaller of about 12% than in the case of round beams. 

SUMMARY 

For the four-point bending scheme the following formula can be written: 

48EIu 

F � 2 2 

a( 

3l 

� 4a 

) 

where: 

F – load, 

E – modulus of elasticity in bending, 

u – deflection, 

I – moment of inertia, 

a – distance between nearest load and support point, 

l – span. 

Assuming determined empirical values of elastic modules for beam span of 1,800 mm 

and deflection limit of l/300 (6 mm) load limit equals to 6.413 kN for round beam and 4.304 

kN for square beam (about 33% less). 

475

Tab. 2.1. Results of numerical analysis for the beam with square cross-section (100mm×100mm) 

Deflection u = 6.001 mm, Load F = 4.992 kN 

Normal stresses �xx [N/mm 2 ] 

Shear stresses �xz [N/mm 2 ] 

Experimental results indicate that load bearing capacity is higher for pine beams of 

round cross-section when round and square beams characterized by similar values of section 

modulus are taken into consideration. A similar conclusion may be drawn from the numerical 

analysis carried out. However, in relation to the empirical analysis, the numerical results 

underestimate that difference. 

476

Tab. 2.2. Results of numerical analysis for the beam with round cross-section (d=120mm) 

Deflection u = 6.02 mm, Load F = 5.653 kN 

Normal stresses �xx [N/mm 2 ] 

Shear stresses �xz [N/mm 2 ] 

REFERENCES 

1. H. NUEHAUS, Budownictwo drewniane, PWT Rzeszów, 2004. 

2. EN 14251 Structural round timber - Test methods” 

3. EN 14544 Timber structures - Strength graded structural timber with round crosssection 

- Requirements. 

477

Streszczenie: Wytrzyma�o�� i modu� spr��ysto�ci przy zginaniu sosnowego drewna 

konstrukcyjnego o przekroju kwadratowym i okr�g�ym. Z powodu wzrastaj�cego 

zainteresowania stosowaniem drewna o przekroju okr�g�ym w ró�nego rodzaju 

konstrukcjach, podj�te zosta�y badania maj�ce na celu rozpoznanie problematyki sortowania 

wytrzyma�o�ciowego takiego drewna. Zosta�a przeprowadzona empiryczna weryfikacja 

modeli numerycznych sosnowego drewna konstrukcyjnego o przekroju kwadratowym i 

okr�g�ym. Wyznaczono wytrzyma�o�� i modu� spr��ysto�ci badanych belek. Wyniki bada� 

eksperymentalnych wskazuj� na to, i� belki o przekroju okr�g�ym maj� wi�ksz� no�no��. 

Podobny wniosek wynika z przeprowadzonych analiz numerycznych. Jednak�e, w 

odniesieniu do eksperymentu, analizy numeryczne zani�aj� t� ró�nic�. 


Grzegorz Pajchrowski, Wood Technology Institute, Winiarska 1, 60-654 Poznan, Poland 

E-mail address: g_pajchrowski@itd.poznan.pl



(Ann. WULS - SGGW, For. and Wood Technol., 71, 2010) 

Use of pinene as component of special paints 

PAWE� MAKSIMOWSKI 1 , JANUSZ ZAWADZKI 2 , ANDRZEJ RADOMSKI 2 

1 Faculty of Chemistry, Technical University of Warsow 

2 Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Scieces – SGGW (WULS-SGGW) 

Abstract: Use of pinene as component of special paints. Bicyclic monoterpenes, mainly pinene isomers are 

used, among the others, in the manufacture of paints for the ceramics coating applied by oven burning. The 

composition of the paints can be based on pinene-derived mercaptides of gold. They may contain different 

amounts of pinene isomers. Differences in the composition of the paint can lower its usefulness, so technological 

control of composition and synthesis process using analytical techniques is necessary. Chromatographic 

methods, like GCMS and HPLC, or spectrophotometry FTIR are demonstrated to be efficient. Time and 

temperature of synthesis has a direct impact on the purity and composition of gold mercaptides obtained. 

Keywords: pinene isomers, paints, chromatography, spectrophotometry 

INTRODUCTION 

Low-molecular compounds present in wood belong to various groups of substances. 

They are generally described as the extractives (Fengel and Wegener 2003), which content 

can vary. In the stem pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) it amounts to about 1-4,5% (Gref et al. 2000; 

Strömvall and Petersson 2000). Important part of coniferous wood extractives is resin, 

consisting of resin acids and liquid fraction called turpentine, which are mainly terpenes. 

Terpenes are widely occurring group of natural compounds built from isoprene (2-methyl-1 

,3-butadiene) segments. There are over 4000 terpenes identified. Bicyclic monoterpenes of 

C10H16 formula are the most common: �-pinene, �-pinene and �-³ karen together constitute 

88% of turpentine. This is about 0.55% of the whole extractives quantity in the stem of Scots 

pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) (Strömvall and Petersson 2000). They are used as cosmetics 

components and as a raw material for other fragrances (�-terpinol, limonene, bergaptol) and 

in the manufacture of insecticides as well. Camphor is also obtained from �-pinene. Pinenes 

are used in the manufacture of paints and varnishes (Prosi�ski 1969). Pinene mercaptans are 

intermediates for paints and gold blends used in the decoration of glass and ceramics, and in 

electronics. One way of obtaining them is action of thiourea salts with hydrohalogene on 

pinene, or mixtures containing pinene, like gum turpentine. Thiourea salt joins pinene, then 

the complex formed is purified from residual terpenes by steam evaporation. Next the 

complex is decomposed with sodium hydroxide and liberated mercaptan is distilled off with 

steam. (Kiciak 1980) 

Properties of obtained pinene mercaptans and further synthesized pinene mercaptides 

of gold have a huge impact on the quality of the painted porcelain pottery. Poor quality paint 

can cause defects on the surface of the ceramics after firing, like blisters, crackings and popoff 

and therefore controlling of dye technology and product quality is very important. 

The aim of the study is attempt to the chemical analysis of the “golden” paint with 

instrumental methods. Moreover the causes of its various behaviour during the firing on 

ceramic are investigated. 

479


The paint made in Italy, designed for high temperature method of ceramic covering was 

chosen for investigation. 

The following methods were selected for chemical analysis: 

FTIR spectrophotometry – Bio-Rad FTS165 spectrum obtained as average of 32 scans with 

selectivity 4cm –1 . 

GCMS chromatography – HP5890 MS Engine, coupled with HP5989 mass spectrometer with 

electron impact ionization (EI) at 70V. 

HPLC chromatography – Shimadzu LC10-AD with SPD-10A UV spectrophotometer; 

Nucleosil 300-5C18 was used and the eluent was 68% methanol at pH adjusted to 4.5. 

Chloroauric acid (analytical grade) and pinene mercaptan (practical grade) were used in gold 

mercaptide synthesis. 


IR spectrophotometry 

At the beginning, FTIR spectrophotometric analysis of the paint tested was performed. 

Fig. 1 IR spectrum of gold mercaptide 

IR spectra obtained indicates that the test compound is aliphatic, as contains no 

unsaturated carbon atoms. The absence of aromatic carbon atoms, or rather hydrogen atoms 

bonded to them is confirmed by the absence of bands corresponding to the stretching 

vibrations of C–H bonds in the range above 3000cm –1 . There are only bands in the range 

2800-3000cm –1 , corresponding to the stretching vibrations of C–H in aliphatic compounds. 

Furthermore, no bands are observed in the ranges 1690-1620cm –1 and 2260-2100cm –1 , which 

excludes the presence of unsaturated carbon atoms. Characteristic signals occurring in the 

spectrum at 1480-1460cm –1 and 1370-1360cm –1 correspond to deforming vibrations of bonds 

S–CH, asymmetric and symmetric, respectively. This excludes in the molecule the presence 

of sulphur atoms bonded to secondary and tertiary carbon atoms. In the case of sulphur atom 

bonded to secondary carbon atom, the band should not be observed in these regions, and the 

band of symmetric vibrations should occur at about 1420cm –1 . In the case of sulphur atom 

bonded to tertiary carbon atom the only visible should be stretching vibrations band, which 

typically occurs at 2860cm –1 and in the spectrum described overlaps with the C–H vibrations 

bands. Other bands observed correspond to vibrations of carbon skeleton of the molecule and 

the C–H bonds. 

480

Mass spectrum 

Fig.2 Mass spectrum of gold mercaptide 

The obtained mass spectrum contains a main peak at 169 m/z. Molecular peak (M) is 

observed at 366 m/z. Above this value there are isotope peaks at 367 m/z (M +1) and 368 m/z 

(M +2). Due to lack of sufficient data on the detailed analysis of mass spectra of heavy metal 

compounds, its formula can not be determined from the isotope peaks ratio. 

The first signal from the fragmentation ion can be observed at 169 m/z. This corresponds 

exactly to the difference from the molecular peak equal to 197, which is mass number of gold. 

This means that it is a signal from the basic mercaptan, with one atom of hydrogen split. 

Signal occurring at 137 m/z arises as a result of further splitting of sulphur atom from the 

defragmenting ion. It follows that the ion of mass 137 is derived from the hydrocarbon chain 

of mercaptan. 

The IR analysis showed that the molecule does not contain unsaturated carbon atoms and, 

hence, it has to contain 10 carbon atoms. In the case of 9 carbon atoms with sp 3 hybridisation, 

the maximum number of hydrogen atoms would be equal to 19, which would give the mass of 

the 127. In the case of 11 carbon atoms there would be only five hydrogen atoms, which 

excludes saturated character of aliphatic compound. Chain molecule containing 10 carbon 

atoms should contain also 21 hydrogen atoms. The analysis of mass spectrum showed that the 

compound contains 17 hydrogen atoms, which means a deficiency of four atoms. This can be 

explained by double ring occurrence in the structure of the compound. High signal intensity at 

15 m/z indicates also a significant number of terminal methyl groups (–CH3). As the result, 

C10H17SAu formula can be concluded for the investigated mercaptide, and its base is bicyclic 

mercaptan of formula C10H18S. The only compounds matching to that description are pinene 

mercaptans, derived from the well-known �- or �-pinene (Fig. 3). 

481

�-pinene �-pinene 

Fig. 3 Molecular structures of �- and �-pinene 

The obtained results of instrumental analysis and identification of Italian paint allowed 

attempt to pigment synthesis of pinene mercaptide of gold. The reaction between chloroauric 

acid and pinene mercaptan was conducted and the product was obtained with the yield over 

83%. 

High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was chosen for the purity determination of 

investigated mercaptides. The results of instrumental analysis are shown in Fig. 4. 

Fig. 4 Chromatograms of pinene mercaptides of gold 

HPLC analysis of the Italian paint confirmed the purity >99%. 

HPLC analysis of the synthesized pinene mecaptide of gold indicated lower purity. The 

difference in the results obtained is generally due to the conditions of the synthesis, reaction 

time and temperature. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Instrumental analysis of the investigated paint showed that it was made on the basis of 

bicyclic monoterpenes, or more precisely, mixture of pinene isomers. Mercaptans derived 

from it allow obtaining pinene mercaptides of gold, which show the best functional properties 

i.e. fired porcelain ceramics have the best appearance and color. 

482

Attempts to laboratory synthesis of pinene mercaptides of gold showed that the 

synthesis time and temperature significantly affect the composition of the isomers mixture. 

This composition influence the quality of obtained blend and improper conditions during the 

synthesis can decrease paint usefulness. 

REFERENCES 

1. Fengel, D., Wegener, G. (2003). Structure and Ultrastructure, In Wood Chemistry 

Ultrastructure Reactions, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, Germany. 

2. Gref, R., Håkansson, C., Henningssson, B., Hemming, J. (2000). Influence of Wood 

Extractives on Brown and White Rot Decay in Scots Pine Heart-, Light- and 

Sapwood, Mater. Organismen, 33, 119-128. 

3. Strömvall, A. M., Petersson, G. (2000). Volatile Terpenes Emitted to Air, In Pitch 

Control Wood Resin and Deresination, Eds. Back, E. L, Allen, L. H., Tappi Press, 77- 

99. 

4. Prosinski, S. (1969). Chemia drewna. PWRiL Warszawa 

5. Patent P.228504 16.12.1980. Sposób wytwarzania merkaptanów z Pininu lub 

uk�adów zawieraj�cych pinen O�rodek Badawczo-Rozwojowy Przerobu Metali 

Szlachetnych, Warszawa. Polska, Kiciak.K 

Streszczenie: Wykorzystanie pinenu jako sk�adnika farb specjalnych. Dwupier�cieniowe 

monoterpeny g�ownie izomery pinenu znajduj� zastosowanie mi�dzy innymi do produkcji 

farb wykorzystywanych do pokrywania ceramiki metod� wypalania. Sk�ad takich farb mo�e 

by� oparty na pinenowych merkaptydach z�ota. Mog� one posiada� ró�n� ilo�� izomerów 

pinenu. Ró�nice w sk�adzie farby powoduj� pogorszenie jej warto�ci u�ytkowych, dlatego 

potrzebna jest kontrola technologiczna sk�adu i procesu syntezy za pomoc� technik 

analitycznych. Wykazano, �e mog� to by� chromatografia GCMS i HPLC oraz 

spektrofotometria FTIR. Czas i temperatura syntezy ma bezpo�redni wp�yw na czysto�� i 

sk�ad uzyskanego pinenowego merkaptydu z�ota. 


Janusz Zawadzki, Andrzej Radomski, 



Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW (WULS-SGGW), 

ul.Nowoursynowska 159, 


e-mail: andrzej_radomski@sggw.pl 

e-mail: janusz_zawadzki@sggw.pl 

Pawe� Maksimowski 

Faculty of Chemistry, Technical University of Warsaw 

ul. Noakowskiego3 

00-664 Warszawa



(Ann. WULS - SGGW, For. and Wood Technol., 71, 2010) 

Thermal and photolytic ageing of Winacet RA 

MA�KOWSKI PIOTR, RADOMSKI ANDRZEJ 

Department of Wood Science and Wood Protection, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – WULS (SGGW) 

Abstract Thermal and Photolytic Ageing of Winacet RA. In this study aging of Winacet RA coatings were aged. 

Molar mass changes were studied during prolonged heating at 100°C and during the exposure to UV radiation. 

In the case of photolytic ageing, rapid formation of cross-linked insoluble fraction was found. In the case of 

thermal ageing, increase in molar mass was recorded at first, until the gelling point was reached after 4 weeks. 

Then insoluble fraction appeared and molar mass of the soluble fraction decreased. Due to the occurring process 

of deacetylation and further cross-linking, the use of poly(vinyl acetate) in wood conservation should be limited. 

The coating obtained after Winacet RA application cannot be later removed using solvents. 

Keywords Winacet RA, ageing, thermal, photolytic, size exclusion chromatography, molar mass distribution 

INTRODUCTION 

Winacet® is the trade name of a range of products manufactured on the basis of 

polyvinyl acetate (PVAc). Winacet R is a polyvinyl acetate solution obtained by a solventbased 

polymerisation process (Synthos 2009). There is a wide range of organic solvents used, 

while the most popular are methanol (Winacet RA), its mixture with methyl acetate (Winacet 

RB), anhydrous ethanol (Winacet RET) and ethyl acetate (Winacet RO). It is also soluble in 

aromatic hydrocarbons, like toluene. 

When wood treating, Winacet forms colourless, consolidating layer (Ciabach 2001). It 

causes relatively the lowest increase in mechanical strength among wood consolidants used 

and shows significant water absorptivity. It is used in wood conservation due to low price, 

good elasticity, dimensional stability and low toxicity of its solvents. Paciorek (1993) found 

that wood treated with 5% solution of Winacet show strength increase by 10%, while 30% 

solution treating causes 30% increase. Moreover, during investigation on wood swelling in 

tangential direction, samples treated with 20% solution of Winacet showed half of the 

swelling of untreated samples. 

Degradation of vinyl acetate and its copolymers were investigated. Giurginca et al. 

(2003) found that when the thermo-oxidative degradation of ethylene-vinyl acetate elastomers 

(EVA) at three temperatures (150, 175 and 200°C) occurs, a clear fading of the IR signals 

from acetyl groups follow, while signals corresponding to carbon-carbon double bonds 

appear. In addition, new signals can be observed, indicating the formation of hydroxyl or 

hydroperoxyl groups and carbonyl groups in anhydrides. Holland and Hay (2002) found that 

thermal deacetylation of poly(vinyl acetate) takes place, with transient formation of sixmembered 

ring, as shown in the Figure 1. Further reaction with released acetic acid is also 

possible, leading to the formation of hydroxyl groups (Figure 2). At temperatures above 

300°C rapid, autocatalytic elimination of acetic acid occurs, leaving a highly unsaturated 

polyene (Rimez et al. 2008a,b). Vaidergorina et al. (1987) studied photodegradation of 

poly(vinyl acetate) films with different molar masses. The IR spectra of all the samples 

suggest a steady loss of acetate side groups during irradiation. The UV spectra showed the 

occurrence of polyene sequences in the polymer chains. In the low molar mass samples there 

was negligible amount of insoluble fraction formed, while in the high polymer molar mass 

there was already a 50% insoluble fraction after 5h exposure. This indicates a high degree of 

crosslinking, although the average viscometric molar mass of the soluble fraction decreased to 

about one sixth of the initial value. 

484

O 

* 

O 

O 

* 

H 

O O O 

O 

* 

O 

O 

* 

+ 

O O 

Fig. 1 Deacetylation of poly(vinyl acetate) according to Holland and Hay (2002) 

+ 

O 

O 

* * 

O 

O 

O 

OH 

485 

+ 

* 

HO 

* 

O 

O 

Fig. 2 Hydroxyl group forming in PVAc chain according to Holland and Hay (2002) 


A sample of Winacet RA was obtained from Synthos Dwory Sp. z o.o. 

All solvents used were of analytically grade. 

The exposure of Winacet RA samples was realised on a filter paper base. Such 

conditions are more similar to the treated wood than the common transparent film testing. 

Prior to impregnation the filter paper discs of 70 mm diameter were extracted with diethyl 

ether in Soxhlet apparatus for 3 hours and dried. Winacet RA was diluted with toluene in 1:4 

ratio by volume, to obtain 10% solution of poly(vinyl acetate). Then the papers were coated 

with prepared solution of Winacet. The amount of resin was 4.0±0.1 mg per cm 2 of the paper. 

The coated papers were air-dried and conditioned for 7 days. 

The papers were exposed to UV radiation under the 400W Philips lamp of the 

following characteristics: exposure 250-600 nm, dominant bands: 250-260; 290-320 and 

above 360 nm. The distance form the lamp centre to the sample was about 15 cm, which 

corresponds to 560 W/m 2 . Total time of exposure was 40 hours. The first sample was 

collected before the exposure, while the next samples were collected every 5 hours. Sampling 

was realised by cutting 1×1 cm piece of coated paper. 

Thermal ageing was realised by placing parallel samples of coated papers in oven 

chamber (KC 100/200, Elkon company) at (100±2)°C. Total time of ageing was 42 days. The 

first sample was collected before the exposure, while the next samples were collected every 7 

days. Sampling was made as above. 

All the samples collected were placed in closed vessels and the resin was dissolved 

with 5 cm 3 of tetrahydrofuran (THF). The solutions were filtered through 0.45�m membrane 

before the molar mass distribution (MMD) analysis.� 

Chromatographic analyses in size exclusion mode were conducted using SHIMADZU 

LC-20AD two pump chromatograph equipped with Nucleogel M-10 (300×7.7mm) column 

(Macherey-Nagel), placed in CTO-20 oven. RID-10A differential refractometer was applied 

for eluate detection. Dissolved samples were introduces to chromatographic system using 

RHEODYNE 7751 manual injector valve with 20 �L loop. Eluent was THF, flow 2.0 cm 3 /min., 

temperature 35°C. LC Solution v.1.21 SP1 (Shimadzu) and WinGPC scientific 2.74 (Polymer 

Standards Service) software was used to elaborate chromatograms. The polystyrene standards 

(Polymer Laboatories) with molar mass between 580 g/mol and 6850 kg/mol were used for 

O 

O 

O 

O 

O 

O 

OH 

O

system calibration. The universal Mark-Houwink calibration was used to determine MMD of 

Winacet RA, using the following values:. 

KPS = 1.363×10 –2 cm 3 /g, �PS = 0.714, for polystyrene (software database), 

KPVAc = 1.62×10 –2 cm 3 /g, �PMMA = 0.698, for linear PVAc (Zhu et al. 1983). 


Molar mass changes of Winacet RA during aging are presented in the Figure 3. In the 

case of photolytic degradation, sharp decrease in molar mass is observed at the beginning of 

the process and then a further slow but steady decline throughout the exposure period. 

Accurate values of molar mass at this stage cannot be determined with the same reliability, as 

Mark-Howuink equation for poly(vinyl acetate) is applicable for molar masses >20kg/mol 

(Gruendling et al. 2010). It should be emphasized that size exclusion chromatography (SEC) 

allows analysis of the soluble fraction only. Further results clearly confirm the importance of 

this remark. Interesting behaviour can be observed in the case of thermal aging. For about 

four weeks a gradual increase in molar mass of Winacet was recorded, and then it was a fairly 

quick decrease. 

number average molar mass, 

Mn/(kg·mol –1 ) 

80 

60 

40 

20 

time of heating /days 

0 10 20 30 40 

0 10 20 30 40 

time of UV exposure /hours 

486 

90 

80 

70 

60 

number average molar mass, 

Mn /(kg·mol –1 ) 

Fig. 3 Changes of molar mass of Winacet during thermal (�) and photolytic (�) ageing 

Comparison of above results with changes in the polydispersity during photolytic 

degradation shows the greatest change at the beginning of the process as well (Figure 4). At 

the same time the content of soluble fraction decreases rapidly and after 5h amounts to 75% 

only. This demonstrates clearly the ongoing process of cross-linking of Winacet. Number of 

double bonds resulting from the elimination of acetic acid is sufficient to photooxidative 

polymerisation and insoluble macromolecular structure is formed. It may also be noted that 

the process will involve both large and small molecules of polymer, because the 

polydispersity does not decrease, and even increases. The process of cross-linking is 

overlapped by a process of chain scission, causing a gradual lowering of the molar mass of the 

soluble fraction.

Polydispersity, D 

6 

5 

4 

0 10 20 30 40 

time of UV exposure /hours 

Fig. 4 Changes of soluble fraction content and its polydyspersity during photolytic ageing 

Polydispersity, D 

5,0 

4,5 

4,0 

0 10 20 30 40 

time of heating /days 

Fig. 5 Changes of soluble fraction content and its polydyspersity during thermal ageing 

In the case of thermal degradation, in the first stage of the process the formation of 

insoluble fraction is practically not observed (Figure 5), although the molar mass shows a 

clear increase. This is accompanied by a decrease in polydispersity, as molar mass distribution 

narrows. The result indicates that the relatively smaller PVAc molecules take a larger part in 

the process of deacetylation. After 4 weeks there is a sudden change in the nature of the 

process, confirmed by all three analysed parameters. The content of soluble fraction begins to 

decrease rapidly, accompanied by the decrease in molar mass and increase in polydispersity. 

It can be said for sure that the system has reached the point of gelation, and all changes are a 

consequence of the elimination of the insoluble fraction from the analysis subject. 

487 

90 

80 

70 

60 

100 

90 

80 

soluble fraction content /% 

soluble fraction content /%

CONCLUSIONS 

Investigations on Winacet RA ageing indicate that deacetylation process occurs, 

leading to double bonds forming and then further cross-linking. The reactions can be 

efficiently initiated by UV light. Degradation also proceeds in elevated temperature without 

radiation, but the ratio is much lower. Insoluble fraction occurs during the ageing, which 

strongly influences the results of SEC determination of molar mass distribution. As the 

insoluble fraction is formed, the layers of Winacet RA made on wood cannot be easily 

removed with solvents. Only surface layer can be mechanically scraped. If the possibility of 

consolidant removal is a demand, Winacet RA should not be applied for wood conservation. 

REFERENCES 

1. CIABACH J. 2001: W�a�ciwo�ci �ywic sztucznych stosowanych w konserwacji 

zabytków, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Miko�aja Kopernika, Toru� 

2. GIURGINCA, M., POPA, L., ZaHarescu, T., 2003: “Thermo-oxidative degradation 

and radio-processing of ethylene vinyl acetate elastomers”, Polymer Degradation and 

Stability, 82, 463-466 

3. GRUENDLING, T., JUNKERS, T., GUILHAUS, M., BARNER-KOWOLLIK, Ch., 

2010: “Mark-Houwink Parameters for the Universal Calibration of Acrylate, 

Methacrylate and Vinyl Acetate Polymers Determined by Online Size-Exclusion 

Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry”, Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics, 211, 

520–528 

4. HOLLAND, B.J., HAY, J.N., 2002: “The thermal degradation of poly(vinyl acetate) 

measured by thermal analysis–Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy”, Polymer, 43, 

2207-2211 

5. PACIOREK M., 1993: “Studia i materia�y Wydzia�u Konserwacji i Restauracji Dzie� 

Sztuki Akademii Sztuk Pi�knych w Krakowie, t. III. Badania wybranych tworzyw 

termoplastycznych stosowanych do impregnacji drewna”, Wydawnictwo Literackie, 

Kraków 

6. RIMEZ, B., RAHIER, H., Van ASSCHE, G., ARTOOS, T., BIESEMANS, M., Van 

MELE, B., 2008a: “The thermal degradation of poly(vinyl acetate) and poly(ethyleneco-vinyl 

acetate), Part I: Experimental study of the degradation mechanism”, Polymer 

Degradation and Stability, 93, 800-810 

7. RIMEZ, B., RAHIER, H., Van ASSCHE, G., ARTOOS, T., Van MELE, B., 2008b: 

“The thermal degradation of poly(vinyl acetate) and poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate), 

Part II: Modelling the degradation kinetics”, Polymer Degradation and Stability, 93, 

1222-1230 

8. SYNTHOS DWORY Sp. z o.o., 2009: “Winacet® RA – Technical Data Sheet” 

(online: www.synthosgroup.com, available: August 10 th 2010) 

9. VAIDERGORINA, E.Y.L., MARCONDESA, M.E.R., TOSCANO, V.G., 1987: 

“Photodegradation of poly(vinyl acetate)”, Polymer Degradation and Stability, 18 (4), 

329-339 

10. ZHU, W., YING, Q., SHI, L., 1983: “Solution properties and long chain branching of 

polyvinyl acetate”, Acta Polymerica Sinica, 1, 47-55 

488

Streszczenie: Termiczne i fotolityczne starzenie polimeru Winacet RA. W pracy 

przeprowadzono starzenie pow�ok otrzymanych z polimeru Winacet RA. Badano zmiany 

masy molowej podczas d�ugotrwa�ego ogrzewania w temperaturze 100°C oraz podczas 

ekspozycji na promieniowanie UV. W przypadku starzenia fotolitycznego stwierdzono bardzo 

szybkie powstawanie usieciowanej frakcji nierozpuszczalnej. W przypadku starzenia 

termicznego pocz�tkowo rejestrowano wzrost masy molowej, a� do osi�gni�cia punktu 

�elowania po 4 tygodniach. Po tym pojawi�a si� frakcja nierozpuszczalna, a masa molowa 

frakcji rozpuszczalnej gwa�townie spad�a. Ze wzgl�du na zachodz�cy proces deacetylacji i 

dalszego sieciowania, stosowanie tego poli(octanu winylu) w konserwacji drewna powinno 

by� ograniczone. Pow�oka uzyskana po zastosowaniu polimeru Winacet RA nie b�dzie mog�a 

zosta� pó�niej usuni�ta za pomoc� rozpuszczalników. 






e-mail: piotr_mankowski@sggw.pl 

e-mail: andrzej_radomski@sggw.pl




Iron chloride solution penetration into oak wood 

PIOTR MA�KOWSKI, TOMASZ ZIELENKIEWICZ, PIOTR BORUSZEWSKI 

Department of Wood Science and Wood Protection, Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life 

Science – SGGW 

Abstract: Iron chloride solution penetration into oak wood. The result of the analysis of iron (III) chloride 

penetration into oak wood is presented in this paper. Wetting angle of oak wood by 2,5 % iron (III) chloride 

water solution was determined as well as the depth of iron salt penetration. X-ray spectrometry was applied to 

analyse concentration gradient of iron on the section of oak wood samples. 

Keywords: oak wood, iron III chloride 

INTRODUCTION 

Natural processes of wood colour change are long-lasting and their mechanism is not 

enough known. Reactions of tannins included in the wood structure with iron salts cause 

wood darkening. Oak is the species of high tannins content and high durability. Black oak 

derived in natural conditions is a very valuable and unique raw material. Numerous studies 

concerning oak wood artificial darkening were performed (Krzysik 1978). Black colouring of 

oak wood can be achieved by applying heat treatment (Grze�kiewicz 2008) or single- or twostage 

dyeing (Tyszka 1995), perfomed in the presence of water. Wood is the hydrophylic 

material, what arises from its chemical composition specificity. Superficial absorbing capacity 

of wood can be determined by wetting angle value (characterizing the ability to cover the 

material surface with used liquid). This value may indirectly be the measure of solutions 

penetration ability. 

X-ray fluorescence (XRF) is one of the techniques which may be applied to analyse 

the penetration process into wood structure. This is fast and non-destructible technique which 

is often used to determine different elements contents. Zielenkiewicz et al. (2009) used XRF 

to examine the chlorine content gradient in wood samples treated with Xylamit, preservative 

containing chlorine. This technique was also applied to analyse the penetration of copper 

based preservative into wood structure (Zawadzki et al. 2009). 

The aim of this paper is to specify the penetration of iron (III) chloride into the 

structure of oak wood (Quercus robur L.) using X-ray spectrometry and wetting angle 

measurements (goniometer). 


The studies of wetting angles (�) of oak wood (Quercus robur L.) by 2,5% solution of 

iron (III) chloride were performed. Measurements of contact angle (�) was conducted on 

Phoenix 300 goniometer (Surface Electro Optics), based on the sessile drop method. The 

analyser is equipped with a digital camera with microscopic lens and a computer-controlled 

stepper motor which allows for precise application of smal droplet size. The values of contact 

angle for all tested materials were determined in 1-second intervals for the first 40 seconds, 

and in 5-second intervals for the next 40 seconds after application of droplets of solution onto 

the surface. 

Measurement of contact angle allowed the assessment of iron chloride solution 

behaviour on the oak surface. Contact angle is a measure of interaction between the substrate 

and the wetting solution. The lower value indicates a better wetting of the material which may 

result in easier penetration. 

490

It was stated that a single drop wets the sample front and penetrate surface adjacent 

zone of wood. There was performed the trial of water solutions penetration depth testing in 

case of immersed oak wood (in the direction along fibres). 

Samples of oak wood (30x15x45 mm) were treated (long cold bath) with the 2,5% 

water solution of iron (III) chloride. Different durations were applied: sample 1 – 1 day, 

sample 2 – 5 days, sample 3 – 10 days, sample 4 – 20 days, sample 5 – 30 days. 

X-ray spectrometry was applied to analyse migration of iron (III) chloride into the 

structure of oak wood. Spectro Midex M X-ray spectrometer was used. Each sample ws half 

cut after treatment (along fibres), then the uncovered surface was studied using mapping 

option available in spectrometer. Maps of iron content (of qualitative character) on the studied 

surface are the results of these measurements. Each point of a map was exposed within 30 s 

using 0,6 mm collimator. 

RESULTS 

Fig. 1 presents the wetting angle of the oak wood cross-section. The change with 

passing time is observable. The angle equals 35 deg after 1 second, 15 deg after 50 seconds 

and 7 deg after 90 seconds. 

Fig. 1 Observations of cross-section surface wetting angle (from left: after 1 s, 50 s and 90 s). 

The dynamics of wetting angle changes on the oak wood cross-section is presented in 

the fig. 2. Uniform decrease of wetting angle with time is visible. Drop penetrates surface 

adjacent zone of wood. 

491

wetting angle/ deg 

40 

20 

0 

y = -0,2912x + 31,638 

R 2 = 0,9089 

0 60 120 

time/s 

Fig. 2 The wetting angle (on the cross-section) change with time. 

Fig. 3 presents the colour change of oak wood samples after bath in 2,5 % water 

solution of iron (III) chloride. Colour change increases with the bath duration what is visible 

in the fig. 3. 

Fig. 3 Colour change in oak wood samples treated with iron (III) chloride (from left: after 1, 5, 10, 20, 30 days). 

The gradient of iron content in oak wood samles treated with iron (III) chloride within 

1, 10 and 20 days (samples 1, 3 and 4) is presented in the fig. 4. Ranges of values corresponds 

to so called „impulse counts for iron. Volume of absorbed iron generally increases with time 

of treatment. In the sample 1 the range of absorbtion is very poor. Raised iron content is 

observable only along sample edges. Penetration is better from the sample front side, along 

fibres. Area with the lowest range of impulse counts covers majority of the sample surface. 

This area is much lesser in the sample 3. Penetration of iron (III) chloride is much better, 

especially along fibres. This tendency is kept in the sample 4 which seems to be the best 

penetrated one. Area with the lowest range of values covers the smallest part of the surface. 

492

Additionally, the highest content of iron in samples 3 and 4 is about twice higher than in the 

sample 1. Further increasing of treatment duration seems to deteriorate absorbtion degree. 

Area with the lowest values range in the sample 5 is more extensive and with the highest 

values – less extensive than in the sample 4. It may mean that efficiency of this kind of 

treatment posses maximum in the function of time. 

Fig. 4 Iron concentration gradient in samples 1, 3, 4 section. 

Frontiers of presented areas are generally quite regular. There are some exeptions 

which are probably caused by wood anisotropy. 

CONCLUSION 

Penetration depth of iron (III) chloride into wood structure increases with duration of 

treatment. Process proceeds mainly along oak fibres. 

Wetting angle decreases with time. Character of these changes is linear. 

Efficiency of penetration may by improved by applying vacuum method of treatment. 

It should cause treatment time shortening. 

REFERENCES 

1. GERARDIN P., PETRI M., PETRISSANS M., LAMBERT J., EHRHRARDT J., 

2007: Evolution of wood surface free energy after heat treatment. Polymer 

Degradation and Stability 92, 653-657. 

2. GRZE�KIEWICZ M., 2008: Termiczna modyfikacja drewna. Przemys� Drzewny 3, 

29-31. 

3. KRZYSIK F., 1978: Czarna d�bina-sposób powstawania i cechy charakterystyczne. 

Sylwan 6. 

4. TYSZKA J., 1995: Barwienie drewna WPLiS. 

5. WOLKENHAUER A., AVRAMIDIS G., HAUSWALD E., MILITZ H., VIÖL W., 

2009: Sanding vs. plasma treatment of aged wood: A comparison with respect to 

surface energy. International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 29, 18–22. 

6. ZAWADZKI J., ZIELENKIEWICZ T., RADOMSKI A., DRO�D�EK M., SA�EK A., 

2009: Badanie jako�ci impregnacji drewna preparatem wodnorozpuszczalnym w 

warunkach laboratoryjnych. Przemys� Drzewny, 3, 20-22. 

493

7. ZIELENKIEWICZ T., RADOMSKI A., ZAWADZKI J., NIES�OCHOWSKI A., 

2009: Migrations of chlorine compounds in pine wood samples (Pinus sylvestris L.). 

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences SGGW, For. And Wood Technol., 69, 

480-484. 

Streszczenie: Wnikanie roztworu chlorku �elaza (III) w drewno d�bowe. W pracy 

przedstawiono wynik oznaczania wnikania roztworu chlorku �elaza (III) w drewno d�bowe 

(Quercus robur L.). Okre�lono zale�no�� k�ta zwil�ania drewna d�bowego 2,5 % roztworem 

chlorku �elaza (III) od czasu a tak�e g��boko�� wnikania roztworu soli �elaza w drewno. 

Stosuj�c spektrofotometr XRF okre�lono gradient st��e� �elaza wnikaj�cego od czo�a próbek. 


Piotr Ma�kowski 

Tomasz Zielenkiewicz 

Piotr Boruszewski 






Poland 

e-mail: piotr_mankowski@sggw.pl 

e-mail: tomasz_zielenkiewicz@sggw.pl 

e-mail: piotr_boruszewski@sggw.pl




�� 

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Abstract: The useful model of line is developed for the production of radial saw-timbers from wood on the basis 

of the coupled band sawing machine-tools. The offered model is one of variants of making of especially radial 

saw-timbers from a whole log. A band sawing line can be used in the different spheres of national economy at 

making of radial saw-timbers and purveyances from wood. 

Keywords: radial saw-timbers, band sawing line, band sawing machine-tools, segment, sector, purveyance. 

�� 

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1. �� ., 2006: �� . �.: Derevo. Ru �2, �. 

34-39. 

2. �� .�., �� .�., 2000: �� 

�� . �.: �� 

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3. �� , �� , 2008: �� 

�� . Warsaw: Annals of Warsaw University of Life 

Sciences Forestry and Wood Technology � 64, �. 47 - 51. 

4. �� (RU), �� 2310555 (�� 2007.11.20): �� 

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5. �� (RU); �� (RU); �� 

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(RU); �� (RU), �� 2310556 (�� 2007.11.20): �� 

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6. �� .�., �� .�., �� .�., �� .�. 2005: �� 

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7. �� . �. 2009: �� 

�� . �: �� 135, �.364-370. 

8. �� .�., �� .�., �� .�. 1993: �� 

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Streszczenie: Metoda przetarcia tarcicy promieniowej z drewna okr�g�ego. Zaprezentowano 

model linii produkcyjnej tarcicy promieniowej na bazie sprz��onych pi� ta�mowych. 

Prezentowanie rozwi�zanie jest jednym z wielu metod produkcji tarcicy promieniowej. 


Natalia Marchenko, Zinoviy Sirko 

Department of Wood Processing, 


Kyiv, 

Str. Geroiv Oborony 15, 

03041 Ukraine 

E-mail: mattrom@ukr.net




Collagen modified hardener for melamine-formaldehyde adhesive for 

increasing water-resistance of plywood 

JÁN MATYAŠOVSKÝ – PETER JURKOVI� – PETER DUCHOVI� 

VIPO, a.s., Partizánske, Slovakia 

Abstract: Collagen modified hardener for melamine-formaldehyde adhesive for increasing water-resistance of 

plywood. One of the very important technological operations in woodworking industry is gluing. The aim of this 

work was preparation of hardener for melamine-formaldehyde (MEF) adhesives suitable for gluing of plywood. 

Commercial hardener was modified by biopolymers (waste animal polymers). Glued joints were expected to be 

classified as resistant to water in class 3. 

In the experiments, two types of leather collagen hydrolysates (VIPOTAR I and VIPOTAR II) were 

applied into MEF adhesive. Leather collagen hydrolysates were obtained from waste produced by leather 

industry. Glued plywood specimens were preliminary conditioned by two different ways. Plywood glued with 

MEF adhesive with the modified hardener showed good strength properties when evaluated according to the 

standard STN EN 314-1, 2. Glued joints can be graded in class 3. 

Keywords: biopolymer, hardener, gluing, melamine adhesive, plywood, water-resistance 

INTRODUCTION 

Great attention is paid to improvement of technology of gluing and development of 

new types of adhesives. The important effort is exploitation of available products that could 

improve effectiveness of adhesive mixtures and reduce cost in production of adhesives. For 

the improvement of product quality (from the point of view of hygienic criteria), searching 

and using of raw materials reducing release of formaldehyde from glued joints is very 

important. Biopolymers could be such materials (e.g. waste from leather or food industry). 

Melamine-formaldehyde (MEF) adhesives are thermo-reactive adhesives curing at 

neutral or acidic pH at higher temperatures (130-140 °C) usually at presence of hardeners. 

Laser scanning microscopy was used to investigate the distribution of adhesive in wood 

fibers. Cyr et al. (2007) researched penetration of melamine-urea-formaldehyde (MUF) 

adhesive at fiberboard (MDF) production. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) enabled to 

recreate the finest detail of fiber surface. Adhesive can penetrate into any layers of wood cell 

walls, uses its affinity to both water and wood polymers to penetrate through pores from 

surface to lumen. 

Improvement the water resistance for challenge expositions, or modification of certain 

properties of joints can be achieved by a mixture of adhesives e.g. urea-formaldehyde (UF) 

with resorcinol, melamine or polyvinylacetate (PVAC). Problems of influence of melamine 

content in MUF adhesives on formaldehyde emission and cured resine structure was 

investigated by Tohmura et al. (2001). They used 6 MUF adhesives synthesized with different 

F/(M+U) and M/U molar ratios. The 13 C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy of 

cured MUF resins revealed that more methylol groups, dimethylene-ether, and branched 

methylene structures were present in the MUF resins with a higher F/(M+U) molar ratio, 

leading to increased bond strength and formaldehyde emmission. The lower formaldehyde 

emission from cured MUF adhesives with a higher M/U molar ratio may be ascribed to the 

stronger linkages between triazine carbons of melamine than those of urea carbons. 

Dukarska and Lecka (2008) researched in preparation of adhesive mixture based on 

melamine adhesive for production of exterior plywood. Melamine-urea-phenol-formaldehyde 

499

(MUPF) and phenol-formaldehyde (PF) resins were filled by the waste from polyurethane 

(PUR) foam. Usage of adhesive mixtures based on MUF adhesive was searched by Jozwiak 

(2007). Fillers used were potato starch and rye flour. Obtained results showed that glued 

plywood met the standard for bond quality grade 3 and the mixture could be used for wood 

gluing at various levels of wood moisture content (6 – 21 %). 

Cellulose and lignin, as the basic wood component, are able to interact with proteins. 

Experiments were carried out on the interaction with dried animal blood plasma and egg 

albumin (Polus-Ratajzak et al. 2003). Infrared FTIR spectroscopy was used to analyze 

chemical changes in cellulose and lignin during the reaction. Obtained spectra indicated on 

possible chemical reaction between the peptide chain and reactive groups associated with 

cellulose. 

Shitij Chaba and Anil N. Netravali (2005) presented the research in modification of 

soy protein concentrate using glutaraldehyde and polyvinyl alcohol. The modified resin allow 

to process soy protein polymer without any plasticizer. The modified resin also showed 

increased tensile properties, improved thermal stability and reduced moisture resistance as 

compared to soy protein concentrate resin. 

At present, the market has got an excess protein, especially protein hydrolysates from 

leather waste. Collagen belongs to the most important technical proteins, which enables more 

effective preparation of adhesive mixtures for plywood and other board types preparation, 

Sedlia�ik (2008, 2009), Sedlia�iková (2007). Collagen is possible to use also for increasing of 

water-resistance of polyurethane adhesives, Šmidriaková (2010). 

The aim of our research was to develop a hardener for MEF adhesive mixtures. The 

mixtures could be used for woof gluing in bond quality grade 3, according to the standard EN 

314-1, 2. The adhesive joint of grade 3 is applicable at outdoor conditions – at unlimited 

climatic influences. Non modified commercial MEF adhesives provide glued joint in grade 2. 

The MEF hardener was modified by biopolymers of animal origin. Various waste 

biopolymers (leather waste) could be secondary used. 

EXPERIMENTAL PART 

The experiments were carried out with the adhesive (KRONOCOL SM 10) and the 

particular hardener (hardener - product of Duslo Šala). Required hardener addition is 3 %. 

To prepare a modified hardener, biopolymers in the form of collagen substrates were 

used. Substrates were prepared by dechromation of chrome leather waste at two different 

temperatures and were specified as activator VIPOTAR I (prepared at 20 °C) and activator 

VIPOTAR II (at 30 °C). Substrates pH value was adapted to the value of 4,0. Solubility and 

hydrophobic improvement was assured by addition of lyotropic agent and hydrophobic agent 

(methylester of tannery fat MEKT). Commercial hardener was activated by addition of 

activators VIPOTAR I or VIPOTAR II in ratios 3,5 %. Adhesive mixtures were tested in 3layer 

beech plywood. Pressing temperature was 130 °C, adhesive consumption 150 g.m -2 . 

Shear strength was measured and evaluated using a tensile testing machine LaborTech 

4.050 with 5 kN head. Glued joint quality was tested according to the standard STN EN 314- 

1. Bond quality was expressed as grade 1, 2 or 3. Requirements for joint quality at plywood 

are determined by the standard STN EN 314-2. 


To test the effectiveness of activator VIPOTAR I, influence of various concentrations 

of the activator on shear strength of prepared plywood was tested. If activator was added in 

hardener (in adhesive mixture), shear strength of the joint was increased. The improvement 

500

was observed only under specific activator concentration. The optimal addition was 

determined as 3,5 %. At higher ratio (5 %), the shear strength was lower when compared to 

ratios 3,5 % or 2,5 %. 

In table 1, mean values of shear strength evaluated according the method for grade 3, 

together with individual measured minimal and maximal values, are shown. Above mentioned 

tendency of shear strength is also evident in this detailed evaluation. Based on the 

experiments, further experiments were carried with addition of 3,5 %. 

Table 1. The shear strength of plywood specimens glued with the adhesive mixture with various amount of 

activator VIPOTAR I 

sample Activator 

addition in 

hardener 

[%] 

Required 

standard value of 

shear strength 

[MPa] 

501 

Average shear 

strength 

[MPa] 

Minimal 

measured shear 

strength 

[MPa] 

Maximal 

measured shear 

strength 

[MPa] 

reference – 1,0 1,1 0,82 1,26 

1 2,5 1,0 1,6 1,33 2,31 

2 3,5 1,0 1,9 1,66 2,59 

3 5,0 1,0 1,3 0,92 1,46 

When preparing adhesive mixture for the experiments of water resistance, both 

activators VIPOTAR I and VIPOTAR II were used. Activators were added in the amount of 3,5 

%. Resulting shear strength values for plywood conditioned for grade 2 are listed in table 2. 

Table 2. The shear strength of preliminary conditioned plywood specimens (gluing in grade 2) 

Sample 

/modifier/ 

Required 

standard 

value 

[MPa] 

Average 

shear 

strength 

[MPa] 

Standard 

deviation 

[MPa] 

Coefficient 


variation 

[%] 

Minimal 

measured 

shear 

strength 

[MPa] 

Maximal 

measured 

shear 

strength 

[MPa] 

1- VIPOTAR I 1,0 2,8 0,20 7,3 2,4 3,2 12 

2 – VIPOTAR I 1,0 2,5 0,23 9,2 2,2 2,9 12 

3 –VIPOTAR II 1,0 2,5 0,28 11,1 2,0 3,0 12 

4 –VIPOTAR II 1,0 2,4 0,26 10,9 2,1 3,0 12 

Number 


samples 

All mean values of shear strength for grade 2 markedly exceeded required standard 

value of 1,0 [MPa]; even all individual measured values were double than standard required 

value. The shear strength in comparison with the shear strength of the joint glued without the 

modifiers was significantly higher, more than doubled. Final shear strength values for 

plywood conditioned for grade 3 are listed in table 3. 

Table 3. The shear strength of preliminary conditioned plywood specimens (gluing in grade 3) 

Sample 

/modifier/ 

Required 

standard 

value 

[MPa] 

Average 

shear 

strength 

[MPa] 

Standard 

deviation 

[MPa] 

Coefficient 


variation 

[%] 

Minimal 

measured 

shear 

strength 

[MPa] 

Maximal 

measured 

shear 

strength 

[MPa] 

1 – VIPOTAR I 1,0 2,4 0,29 11,7 1,7 2,9 15 

2 – VIPOTAR I 1,0 2,3 0,37 16,1 1,6 2,8 13 

3 – VIPOTAR II 1,0 2,3 0,22 9,7 1,8 2,8 15 

4– VIPOTAR II 1,0 1,9 0,35 18,9 1,4 2,4 15 

Number 


samples 

[ks] 

Similarly as for grade 2, all mean shear strength values of grade 3 exceeded required 

standard value of 1,0 [MPa]. Moreover, all individual measured values were above the 

standard required value. Similarly as in the experiments for grade 2, the shear strength at 

grade 3 compared with the shear strength of the joint glued without the modifiers, was higher.

If we compare individual measured minimal and maximal values of shear strength for 

two various ways of conditioning of tested material, we can see that strength for grade 3 

reached lower values when compared with grade 2. The same tendency was observed at mean 

values of shear strength. Such results can be expected, as preliminary conditioning for grading 

3 is significantly more aggressive (longer total time of boiling interrupted with drying at 

higher temperature). 

All tested adhesive mixtures and glued joints met the standard for grade 2 and grade 3, 

as well, and significantly exceeded the shear strength values of the reference sample. 

Our findings confirmed the expected presumption; the strength and water resistance of 

adhesive bond is markedly influenced by the addition of a small amount of biopolymer (skin 

collagen). Commercial hardener was modified by activators VIPOTAR I and VIPOTAR II in 

the ratio 3,5 %. If we consider the ratio of activators in all volume of adhesive mixture, the 

concentration of them is very low; nevertheless, their impact on the resulting strength and 

water resistance of adhesive joints is so marked. 

CONCLUSION 

Our assumption that the addition of biopolymers in form of hydrolysates containing 

skin collagen can result in increased shear strength and increased water resistance, was 

confirmed. Collagen macromolecules dispersed in solution or in adhesive mixture have good 

adhesion to glued surface. In line with the results of other authors, we assume the right 

chemical reaction between the functional groups of protein and functional groups of the 

adhesive. 

From the above results, it is visible that researched additives can become modifiers for 

adhesive mixtures based on MEF adhesives. MEF adhesives used in praxis are graded as 

adhesives class 2. Glued joints graded as class 2 are suitable in the environments with higher 

moisture (e. g. sheltered exterior, outdoor conditions – short-time climatic influences, indoor 

conditions with higher moisture when compared with grade 1). Both of the tested collagen 

substrates significantly increased the shear strength of glued joint, and enabled to grade the 

bond as 3. Adhesive bonds graded as 3 are applicable at outdoor conditions – at unlimited 

climatic influences. 

REFERENCES: 

1. CYR, P.L., RIEDL, B., WANG, X. M., 2008: Investigation of Urea-Melamine- 

Formaldehyde (UMF) resin penetration in Medium-Density Fibreboard (MDF) by High 

Resolution Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy. In: Holz als Roh-und Werkstoff, 66: 

129–134. 

2. DUKARSKA, D., LECKA, J., 2008: Polyurethane foam scraps as MUPF and PF filler in 

the manufacture of exterior plywood. In: Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences - 

SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology, Warszawa, No. 65: 14–19. 

3. JOZWIAK, M., 2007: Possibility of gluing veneers with high moisture content with the 

use modified MUF adhesives resin. In: Annals of Warsaw Agricultural University – 

SGGW. Forestry and Wood Technology, Warszawa, No. 61. 

4. POLUS-RATAJCZAK, I., MAZELA, B., GOLINSKI P., 2003: The chemical interaction 

of animal origin proteins with cellulose and lignin in wood preservation. In: Annals of 

Warsaw Agricultural University - SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology, Warszawa, 

No. 53: 296–299. 

5. SEDLIA�IK, J., SEDLIA�IKOVÁ, M., 2009: Innovation tendencies at application of 

adhesives in wood working industry. In: Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – 

SGGW. Forestry and Wood Technology, Warszawa, No 69, s. 262-266. ISSN 1898-5912. 

502

6. SEDLIA�IK, J., ŠMIDRIAKOVÁ, M., JABLO�SKI, M., 2008: Obniženie 

energetycznych wymaga� wytwarzania sklejek. Przemysl drzewny No.4, s. 24–26, ISSN 

0373-9856. 

7. SEDLIA�IKOVÁ, M., KMEC, S., KOPNÝ, J., 2007: Racionalizácia výroby preglejok. 

In: Pokroky vo výrobe a použití lepidiel v drevopriemysle. Technická univerzita vo 

Zvolene, ISBN 80-228-1697-3. p. 30-33. 

8. SHITIJ CHABA, NETRAVALI, A. N., 2005: „Green“ composites. Part 2: 

Characterization of flax yarn and glutaraldehyde/poly (vinyl alcohol) modified soy protein 

concentrate composites. In: Journal of materials science 40: 6275-6282. 

9. STN EN 314-1: 2005. Preglejované dosky. Kvalita lepenia. �as� 1: Skúšobné metódy. 

10. STN EN 314-2: 2005. Preglejované dosky. Kvalita lepenia. �as� 2: Požiadavky. 

11. ŠMIDRIAKOVÁ, M., KOLLÁR, M., 2010: Modifikácia polyuretánových lepidiel 

biopolymérmi na lepenie dreva s vyšším obsahom vlhkosti. Acta Facultatis Xylologiae, 

52 (1), TU Zvolen, 2010, s. 75 – 83. 

12. TOHMURA, S., INOUE, A., SAHARI, S. H., 2001: Influence of the melamine content in 

melamine-urea-formaldehyde resins on formaldehyde emission and cured resin structure. 

In: J. Wood Sci. 47: 451- 457. 

Acknowledgement 

This paper was processed in the frame of the APVV projects No. APVV-0521-07, 

APVV-0773-07, VMSP-0044-07 and VMSP-P0062-09 as the result of author’s research at 

significant help of APVV agency Slovakia. 

Streszczenie: Zastosowanie utwardzacza modyfikowanego kolagenem do kleju melaminowoformaldehydowego 

w celu zwi�kszenia odporno�ci na wod� sklejek. Jednym z najbardziej 

odpowiedzialnych zada� w przemy�le drzewnym jest klejenie. Niniejsza praca dotyczy 

utwardzacza �ywic melaminowo-formaldehydowych odpowiedniego do produkcji sklejki. 

Utwardzacz by� modyfikowany biopolimerami (odpady produkcji zwierz�cej). Spodziewano 

si� osi�gni�cia klacy 3 odporno�ci na wod�. Testowano dwa hydrolizaty kolagenu skórnego 

(VIPOTAR I oraz VIPOTAR II) w zastosowaniu do �ywic melaminowo-formaldehydowych. 

Sklejone próbki by�y sezonowane wdwiema ró�nymi metodami. Sklejki klejone �ywic� 

melaminowo-formaldehydow� utwardzan� modyfikowanym utwardzaczem wykazuj� dobre 

w�a�ciwo�ci mechaniczne (wg. STN EN 314-1, 2) i mog� by� zakwalifikowane do klasy 3 

odporno�ci na wod�. 


Ing. Ján Matyašovský, PhD. 

Ing. Peter Jurkovi�, PhD. 

Ing. Peter Duchovi� 

VIPO, a.s. Partizánske 

ul. gen. Svobodu 1069/4 

958 01 Partizánske, Slovakia 

e-mails: jmatyasovsky@vipo.sk 

pjurkovic@vipo.sk




Enhancing the fungal performance of wood coatings by pre-treatment with 

Na2O-SiO2 solution 

BART�OMIEJ MAZELA 1 , PATRYCJA HOCHMA�SKA 1 , IZABELA RATAJCZAK 2 , 

KINGA SZENTNER 2 

1 

Institute of Chemical Wood Technology, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 38/42, 60-637 

Poznan, Poland, 

2 

Department of Chemistry, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 75, 60-625 Poznan, Poland 

Abstract: Enhancing the fungal performance of wood coatings by pre-treatment with Na2O-SiO2 solution. The 

influence of pre-treatment with Na2O-SiO2 solution on efficacy of solvent-borne wood coatings against decay 

fungi and moulds was tested. Pre-treatment with biocide was used as reference. Primers were applied by vacuum 

impregnation, while topcoats by dipping. The test material (pine and beech samples) was visually inspected 

several times during 3 weeks of exposure to moulds. After 8 weeks a mass loss of samples subjected to decay 

fungi was evaluated. The results showed, that pre-treatment with Na2O-SiO2 solution significantly improved 

fungal performance of solvent-borne coatings. 

Keywords: Na2O-SiO2, pre-treatment, wood coatings, fungal performance 

INTRODUCTION 

Restrictions on the use of biocides in paints, changes in the product formulation, air pollution 

and reduced wood quality together with the theory on global climatic change, have been put 

forward as hypothesis for an evident increase of discolouring fungi (moulds and blue-stain 

fungi) on the surface of painted wood in outdoor applications [Gobbaken and Jenssen 2007]. 

As home improvement has led to increased interest in DIY wood coatings, this problem was 

consider as urgent. Many alternative agents to biocides were tested. Silicon compounds are 

one of them. Such additive should be capable to protect both dry film and wood substrate 

from various types of growth and biodegradation. [Mazela et.al. 2009] decreased water 

absorption of wood by adding silicon compounds to different wood coatings. However 

biological resistance couldn’t be achieved. Therefore, in the present study silicon compounds 

are performed as composites with sodium acetate (Na2O-SiO2). Previous research have shown 

that impregnation with SiO2 composites, without fungicide addition, can significantly enhance 

fire-resistance [Miyafuji and Saka 2001], antimicrobial properties [Tanno et.al. 1997] and 

water-repellency [Miyafuji and Saka 1999] of wood. Thus, the influence of pre-treatment with 

Na2O-SiO2 composite on efficacy of solvent-borne wood coatings against decay fungi and 

moulds was tested. 


Coating systems composition 

Pine and beech sapwood samples and nine solvent-borne impregnating systems were used as 

substrate material. Wood samples were divided into two sets: leached (L) and non-leached 

(NL) after impregnation. Pre-treatment with Na2O-SiO2 (M+) and biocide containing 

solutions (B) were applied by vacuum impregnation method while coatings based on alkyd 

resin (A) and mixture of oils (O) were applied by dipping. Combination of primer and topcoat 

504

were marked as MA, MO, BA, BO. Samples impregnated with methanol solution (M) and 

non-impregnated (controls) were also included. Detailed description is presented in table 1. 

Table 1. Characteristic of the different solvent-borne formulations 

Nr Primer 

Impregnation 

method 

Topcoat 

Impregnation 

method 

Mark 

1 MTMOS:Methanol 0,03:1,00 

MTMOS:Methanol:Acetic acid 

Vacuum - - M 

2 0,03:1,00:0,01+ 

Sodium acetate /0,06 

Vacuum - - M+ 


Alkyd resin (55%) 30% 

3 0,03:1,00:0,01+ 

Vacuum Siccative 0,2% Dipping MA 


White spirit 

4 


0,03:1,00:0,01+ 



Vacuum 

Linseed and rape oil 30% 

Alkyd resin 1% 

Siccative 3% 

White spirit 

Dipping MO 

5 Polyphase 912 4% 

White spirit 

Vacuum - - B 



6 Polyphase 912 4% 

Vacuum Siccative 0,2% Dipping BA 

White spirit 

White spirit 

7 


Polyphase 912 4% 

White spirit 

Vacuum 



Siccative 3% 

White spirit 


Dipping BO 

8 - - Siccative 0,2% 

White spirit 


Dipping A 

9 - - 


Siccative 3% 

White spirit 

Dipping O 

Fungal performance: 

Impregnated samples and controls were subjected to biological tests to determine 

impregnating systems efficacy using decay fungi and moulds. Prior to fungal exposure, 

samples were exposed to leaching procedure according to EN 84. 

Decay resistance 

Laboratory testing of decay resistance of samples with a size of 7,5 x 25 x 50 mm (the last 

dimension along the grain), was evaluated using method based on ENV 839. The assessment 

of effectiveness of a solvent-borne formulations was performed against brown rot and whiterot 

fungus: Coniophora puteana and Coriolous versicolor, respectively. Samples were 

removed from decay assessment after 8 weeks. After exposure time, average mass loss of 6 

samples per each treatment was calculated. 

Microfungal growth 

The mycological test was performed for the mixture of following microfungi: Aspergillus 

niger, Penicillium funiculosum, Paeciliomyces varioti and Trichoderma viride. 

The investigation was performed for samples of dimensions of 4 × 40 × 40 mm (the last 

dimension along the grain). Each variant of treatment consisted of 6 repetitions. Samples 

505

inoculated with spore suspension of microfungi were incubated for 3 weeks. The assessment 

of fungal growth on the samples surface was carried out visually several times during the test 

(3, 7, 10, 14, 21 day). The growth was classified between 0 and 4: 

0H – no growth of fungi on the specimen, inhibition zone on the nutrient 

0 – no growth of fungi on the specimen 

1 – less than 10% of the specimen area covered by fungi 

2 – less than 30% 

3 – less than 60% 

4 – specimen totally overgrown by fungi. 

RESULTS 

The highest effectiveness of preservatives against both decay and microfungi was found for 

biocidal solutions (B, BA, BO). Among non-biocidal treatments combination of primer and 

topcoats (MA, MO) revealed very good results. In the decay resistance (Fig.1), leaching 

(tab.2) increased mass loss of the samples. Mass loss of non-leached samples pre-treated with 

Na2O-SiO2 (MA, MO) did not exceed 10%, while samples without pre-treatment (A, O) 

ranged between 23 and 32%. The combination of primer and topcoat applied on beech 

samples showed higher decay resistance than on pine samples (5 to 6% of mass loss). 

Table 2. Mass loss (%) of samples due to the leaching. 

Treatment Pine Beech Treatment Pine Beech 

M 1,56 1,32 M+ 11,47 8,98 

A 0,92 0,57 MA 12,19 8,99 

O 0,91 0,56 MO 12,61 8,64 

B 1,48 0,66 BA 2,75 0,74 

Control 1,22 0,75 BO 1,69 0,53 

Fig.1. (a) Mass loss of pine samples ater 8 weeks of exposing to Coniophora puteana 

(b) Mass loss of beech samples ater 8 weeks of exposing to Coriolous versicolor 

In case of microfungi test pre-treament with Na2O-SiO2 inhibited growth of microfungi on the 

samples, which was already observed after 3 days of exposure (Fig.2). Growth index of 

samples without pre-treatment increased rapidly reaching a rating of 3 after 7 days. Then 

growth index slowed down and after 21 days obtained almost a rating of 4. The mould growth 

of pre-treated samples increased evenly. 

506

Fig.2. Microfungal growth of pine and beech samples 

CONCLUSIONS 

� Na2O-SiO2 solution is an effective preservative but it is susceptible to leaching; 

� Pre-treatment with Na2O-SiO2 solution showed substantial improvement in the fungal 

performance of solvent-borne coatings; 

� Among non-biocidal treatments combination of primer and topcoats (MA, MO) were 

the most effective. 

REFERENCES 

1. L.R. GOBAKKEN, K.M. JENSSEN, Growth and succession of mould on 

commercial paint systems in two field sites, (2007): IRG/WP 07-30421. 

2. B.MAZELA, P. HOCHMA�SKA, I. RATAJCZAK, K. WICH�ACZ- 

SZENTNER, Silicon compounds as hydrophobic agents (additives) improving 

coatings performance: water absorption, Ann. WULS-SGGW, For and Wood 

Technol., (2009) 69:61-64. 

3. H. MIYAFUJI, S. SAKA, Na2O-SiO2 wood-inorganic composites prepared by the 

sol-gel process and their fire-resistance properties, J Wood Sci (2001) 47:483-489. 

4. F. TANNO, S. SAKA, K. TAKABE, Antimicrobial TMSAC-added Woodinorganic 

composites prepared by sol-gel process. Mater. Sci. Res. Int. (1997) 

3:137-142. 

507

5. H. MIYAFUJI, S. SAKA, Topochemistry of SiO2 wood-inorganic composites for 

enhancing water-repellency, Wood Sci Technol (1999) 4:270-275. 

Streszczenie: Poprawa w�a�ciwo�ci grzybobójczych �rodków ochronno-impregnacyjnych 

poprzez zastosowanie impregnacji wst�pnej roztworem Na2O-SiO2. Podstawowym celem 

bada� by�o okreslenie odporno�ci na dzia�anie czynników biologicznych drewna 

impregnowanego powierzchniowo bezbiocydowymi �rodkami ochronno-impregnacyjnymi. 

Dokonano przede wszystkim oceny wp�ywu zastosowania impregnacji wst�pnej przy pomocy 

roztworu Na2O-SiO2 na skuteczno�� zabezpieczenia przed rozwojem grzybów rozk�adaj�cych 

i mikrogrzybów. Do bada� mykologicznych zastosowano próbki drewna sosny i buka. 

Przedstawione wyniki bada� wskazuj� na popraw� w�a�ciwo�ci grzybobójczych �rodków 

ochronno-impregnacyjnych w wyniku zastosowania tzw. podk�adu zawieraj�cego zwi�zek 

krzemoorganiczny. 


B. Mazela · P. Hochma�ska 

Institute of Chemical Wood Technology, 

University of Life Sciences in Poznan, Wojska Polskiego 38/42, 60637 Poznan, Poland 

e-mail: bartsimp@owl.au.poznan.pl (B. Mazela)


Forestry and Wood Technology No 71, 2010; 509-514 


Biomass as a source of renewable energy in Poland 

EL�BIETA MIKO�AJCZAK 

Department of Economic and Wood Industry Management, Pozna� University of Life Sciences 

Abstract: Biomass as a source of renewable energy in Poland. Both the accessibility of biomass as potential 

energy source, as well as the level of its current usage suffice to claim that it constitutes one of the most 

important resources of renewable energy in Poland. It’s acquisition as well as utilization is economically so 

attractive that biomass became a serious competition for fossil fuels. Biomass is being used mainly for heat 

production in small and medium size power units in dispersed generation as well as large combined heat and 

power stations specializing in deriving energy via incineration in condensation coal boilers. In comparison with 

other fuels biomass is highly ecological. The article includes analysis of the level of biomass usage for 

generating energy in Poland. 

Keywords: renewable energy, biomass, heat and power energy, usage, production 

INTRODUCTION 

Chemical energy accumulated in biomass is called ”pure carbon”, therefore just like in 

case of classical coal its parameters are being described. The usefulness of coal is classified 

using three variables: A/B/C, where A characterizes fuel heating potential [MJ/kg], B 

describes percentage content of ash and, a C – percentage content of sulphur. In Poland 

combustion of coal of the following parameters is permissible: 21/15/0,64. At the same time 

biomass average variables are: 14/1/0,1, which means that this source of energy has lower 

calorific value however it is more environment friendly. 

BIOMASS ENERGY USAGE IN INDUSTRY AND HOUSEHOLDS 

Picture 1. Using biomass for deriving energy divided into peat and wood, solid residue fuels, bio-fuels and 

biogas [TJ] 

509

Source: Own research on the basis of [Fuel and energy sector 2009] 

Energy production from biomass of calorific value between 9 and 18 MJ/kg May be 

carried out using various technologies 

� Direct incineration in specially designed power boilers (straw, wood and pellet) 

� Combustion with traditional energy sources (coal, oil and gas), 

� Burning of the matter created during biomass fermentation or thermal 

decomposition - pyrolysis (methanol, ethanol, biogas, biodiesel). 

In accordance with the data provided by Central Statistical Office biomass utilization 

to derive energy is steadily growing in almost every group analyzed on picture 1. The only 

decreasing trend in 2008, in comparison with two preceding years, was showed in the usage 

of solid waste fuels. The highest growth dynamic in 2008 embraced biomass liquid fuels 

where the increase reached 318%. 

In table 1 the volume of usage of energy converted from solid biomass by various 

recipients was presented, taking into account indirect usage as well as own consumption in 

transformation process by power sector. The majority of this type of renewable energy for 

transformations input is used by professional energy sector. In 2008 it amounted to over 

30 000TJ. The level of own consumption by energy sector, due to its low size may be omitted. 

In end-usage households had represented the biggest share of 64% in 2008. On the other had 

solid biomass utilization for production was rather small. Within the period under analysis it 

ranged from 20% in 2004 and 2005 up to 26 % in 2007. In the following year, 2008, fall to 

21% of this energy source usage for production was noted. Almost 60% of biomass energy 

used for production was utilized in 2008 by paper and printing industry while 34% was used 

by wood industry, both sectors in possession of their own post-production wood residue. 

Table 1. Usage of energy derived from solid biomass by various groups of recipients, taking 

into account the usage for transformations input as well as own consumption by energy sector 

between 2004 and 2008 [TJ] 

Detailed list 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 

Acquisition 170 056 174 431 192 097 197 150 198 401 

Change of supply - - -73 -924 +500 

Total domestic usage 170 056 174 431 192 024 196 226 198 902 

Usage for transformations input 

8 905 17 500 21 180 25 434 38 251 

including: 

power plants/professional heat plants 3 837 9 641 13 430 17 471 30 428 

professional thermal power stations 1 244 1 412 1 601 1 529 1 897 

Industrial power and heat plants 3 598 6 194 5 954 6 266 5 726 

Industrial thermal power stations 226 253 195 168 200 

Own consumption in transformation process 

including: 

4 2 11 57 20 

Power plants, heat plants, thermal power 

stations 

4 2 10 56 20 

Oil and gas extracting - - 1 1 - 

Final usage 161 147 156 029 170 833 170 735 160 631 

Production 

31 864 30 990 41 752 44 172 34088 

including: 

iron and steel industry 4 2 1 1 1 

mineral 153 102 140 116 223 

means of transport 6 1 7 5 5 

machine 52 54 29 25 37 

foods and tobacco 373 214 239 164 336 

510

paper and printing 18 957 18 611 30 368 30 877 19 729 

wood 9 327 9 641 7 952 9 925 11 532 

other sectors of industry 2 768 2 190 3 016 3 059 2 196 

Construction 17 30 24 21 6 

Remaining recipients 

129 266 125 909 129 057 126542 126 537 

including: 

trade and services 6 028 6 171 4 580 5 482 5 013 

households 103 360 100 700 104 500 102 000 102 500 

agriculture and forestry 19 878 19 038 19 977 19 060 19 024 

Source: [ from renewable sources in 2008] 

ENERGY PRODUCTION FROM BIOMASS 

In 2008 in biomass utilizing installations 3,2 TW h of energy was generated. As 

indicated by the data presented in table 2, it has been a fourfold increase on the amount of 

energy derived from this source in 2004 (growth by 2,432 TW h). It has to be said that the 

highest growth level was observed in the year following Poland accession to the EU. The 

amount of solid biomass allocated for energy production in 2005, in comparison with 2004, 

increased by 82%. In the upcoming years further growth in the production of energy from this 

source is foreseen which is mainly the result of the development of dispersed generation 

based on combined heat and power production. Using biomass in cofiring, which in 

corresponding period under analysis, grew almost 4,8 times should gradually embrace residue 

biomass and the one coming from plants grown specifically to possess energy. It’s the result 

of implementing mechanisms forcing using in this technology biomass other than that coming 

from wood waste [Directive 2008], as this type of biomass should be primarily used by wood, 

pulp, paper and wood board industries. 

Picture 2. Power production in solid biomass utilizing installations accounting for cofiring between 2004 and 

2008 [GWh] 

Source: own research on the basis of [Energy from renewable sources in 2008] 

In the period between 2005 and 2008 capacity of installations harvesting power from 

biomass grew by 22% while the overall capacity from all renewable energy sources noted 

45% increase. Data presented in table 2 does not account for cofiring which share in biomass 

based energy production, as seen in picture 2, is significant (over 92% in 2008). Decreasing, 

in the analyzed period, overall share of power capacity in biomass utilizing units in 

511

comparison with the total capacity of all renewable energy sources utilizing installations 

proofs the strategy of more balanced development of the whole renewable energy sector 

confirming the fact that the possibility of increasing biomass energy potential when energy 

generating farming is almost non-existent is very limited indeed. 

Table 2 Capacity of biomass converting power plants between 2005 and 2008 [MW]. 

Type of plant 2005 2006 2007 2008 

Generating power from forestry, agricultural and garden 

residues 

0,790 0,790 5,210 

Generating power from mixed biomass 189,790 0,000 0,000 3,580 

Generating power from industrial residue, wood, pulp and 

paper 

238,000 254,600 223,200 

Generating power from total biomass 189,790 238,790 255,390 231,990 

Capacity from all renewable energy sources 1 157,537 1 362,141 1 523,777 1 678,271 

Share of capacity of biomass power plants in the overall 

capacity of all renewable energy sources converting power 

plants [%] 

Source: own research on the basis of [Report 2009] 

16,4 17,5 16,8 13,8 

HEAT PRODUCTION FROM BIOMASS 

Also the amount of solid biomass used for heat production increased in the analyzed 

period even though its growth was not so dynamic. In 2008 two and a half more times of heat 

was produced from solid biomass than in 2004 and 41% more than in the previous year 

(Picture 3). 

Picture 3. Heat production from solid biomass between 2004 and 2008 [TJ] 

Source: own research on the basis of [Energy generated from renewable sources in 2008] 

DEVELOPMENT PROSPECTS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SECTOR IN POLAND 

The need to fulfill the EU requirements regarding the share of renewable energy in the 

overall national energy balance is the main reason for which the utilization of biomass as the 

most easily obtainable source of energy is rapidly growing. In accordance with experts’ 

forecast [http://www.proekologia.pl/news.php?extend.678, 26.05.2010] Such situation should 

it last for five years will lead to the fivefold increase in the plants demand for biomass in 2020 

(reaching 20 m tons). 

512

It is estimated that fulfilling the EU target of 15% share of biomass in energy 

production from renewable sources in the final energy balance in 2020 entails annual 

investment of 4 billon PLN. The largest investment not just in Poland but also worldwide will 

be located in Po�aniec. 240 million euro worth power plant will open at the end of 2012. It 

will be converting only biomass and not like the other largest power plants of that type in the 

world using biomass combined with coal, which is the result of current regulations concerning 

eliminating biomass cofiring. Problems with obtaining adequate quantity of biomass that is 

1mln ton annually will be eliminated due to already signed contacts with biomass producers 

from Lubelskie Region. It is estimated that the capacity of new power plant namely 190MW– 

will meet energy needs of over 400 thousand 

households[http://www.gramwzielone.pl/index.php/zielone/artykul/W-Polancu-powstanieogromna-elektrownia-na-biomase, 

16.06.2010]. 

CONCLUSIONS 

1. All types of biomass utilization to generate energy is constantly growing. The highest 

dynamics in 2008 embraced liquid fuels from biomass, increase by 318%. 

2. The majority of energy possessed from solid biomass for transformations input was 

used by professional energy sector reaching over 30 000 TJ. In the final usage 

households had the biggest share of 64%. Using biomass in production was 

insignificant and in the analyzed period amounted to 20% in 2004 and 2005 and 26% 

in 2007. 

3. Almost 60% of energy harvester from biomass used for production in 2008 was 

utilized by paper and printing industry and 34% by wood industry both sectors mainly 

based on their own post-production wood residue. 

4. In installations using biomass in 2008, 3,2 TW h of power was created which means 

that in comparison with 2004 there has been a fourfold increase of energy production 

from this source (growth by 2,432 TW h), 

5. Using biomass in cofiring, which in the analyzed period grew 4.8 times, should to an 

ever lager extend embrace residue biomass as well as that from biomass farming, as in 

accordance with directive of Minister of Economic Affairs from 2008 at first it should 

be used by wood industry, as well as pulp, paper and wood board sector. 

6. Between 2005 and 2008 biomass using power plants’ capacity grew by 22%, while 

capacity of power plants using all renewable energy sources grew by 45%. 

7. The amount of solid biomass assigned for heat production increased in 2008, 2,5 times 

in comparison with 2004 and by 41% in relation to the previous year. 

REFERENCES 

1. Energia ze �róde� odnawialnych w 2008 r. GUS Warszawa 2009. 

2. Gospodarka paliwowo-energetyczna w latach 2007, 2008. GUS Warszawa 2009. 

3. Raport zawieraj�cy analiz� realizacji celów ilo�ciowych i osi�gni�tych wyników w 

zakresie wytwarzania energii elektrycznej w odnawialnych �ród�ach energii. 

Warszawa, listopad 2009. MP rok 2010, nr 7, poz. 64. 

4. http://www.gramwzielone.pl/index.php/zielone/artykul/W-Polancu-powstanieogromna-elektrownia-na-biomase, 

ods�ona 16.06.2010. 

5. http://www.proekologia.pl/news.php?extend.678, ods�ona 26.05.2010. 

513

Streszczenie: Biomasa jako �ród�o energii odnawialnej w Polsce. Pozyskiwanie i 

wykorzystywanie biomasy jest na tyle atrakcyjne ekonomicznie, �e sta�a si� ona powa�nym 

konkurentem paliw kopalnych. Biomasa znajduje zastosowanie g�ównie do produkcji energii 

cieplnej w obiektach ma�ej i �redniej mocy w generacji rozproszonej oraz w 

elektrociep�owniach du�ej mocy do produkcji energii elektrycznej uzyskiwanej w procesie 

wspó�spalania w kondensacyjnych kot�ach w�glowych W porównaniu z innymi paliwami jest 

wysoce ekologiczna. W opracowaniu, obejmuj�cym lata 2004 – 2008, przeprowadzono 

analiz� stanu wykorzystania biomasy na cele energetyczne w Polsce, w podziale na torf i 

drewno, paliwa odpadowe sta�e, biopaliwa oraz biogaz. Przedstawiono zu�ycie energii 

pozyskanej z biomasy sta�ej przez ró�ne grupy odbiorców, z uwzgl�dnieniem zu�ycia na wsad 

przemian oraz zu�ycia w�asnego sektora energii. Dokonano porównania wielko�ci produkcji 

energii elektrycznej w instalacjach wykorzystuj�cych biomas� sta��, z uwzgl�dnieniem 

wspó�spalania oraz produkcji ciep�a z biomasy sta�ej. Zaprezentowano aktualn� moc 

zainstalowana w elektrowniach wytwarzaj�cych z biomasy oraz nakre�lono perspektywy 

rozwoju energetyki odnawialnej w Polsce. 


Pozna� University of Life Sciences, Department of Economic and Wood Industry Management 


tel.: + 48 61 848 73 69 

fax.: + 48 61 848 74 26 

dr in�. El�bieta Miko�ajczak 

e-mail: emikolaj@up.poznan.pl


Forestry and Wood Technology No. 71, 2010: 515-518 


Bending strength of OSB subjected to boiling test 

RADOS�AW MIRSKI, ADAM DERKOWSKI 


Abstract: Bending strength of OSB subjected to boiling test. The aim of this study was to determine bending 

strength of OSB subjected to the boiling test. Tests were conducted on OSB/3 and OSB/4 of 12, 15 and 22 mm 

in thickness, produced in the years 2002 and 2009. All boards subjected to testing were resinated in the core 

layers with PMDI and in the face layers with MUPF. Analyses showed that despite a decrease in strength caused 

by this test, on average by 50%, recorded values were still much higher than the requirements for boards 

subjected to the accelerated ageing test (the so-called cyclical test). Thus it seems that the determination of 

bending strength after the boiling test may under certain conditions replace the V313 test. 

Keywords: OSB, mechanical properties, ageing tests 

INTRODUCTION 

Oriented strandboards (OSB), thanks to their very good physical and mechanical 

properties, are successfully replacing plywood or solid wood in case of these applications, in 

which to date these materials have seemed to be irreplaceable. This pertains particularly to the 

broadly understood building construction industry, in which they prove to be excellent as 

elements of shuttering, sheathing or structures. 

A major trend in research concerning OSB, due to the specific character of their applications, 

comprises problems connected with their dimensional stability and performance under 

changeable environmental conditions (Wu and Lee 2002, Papadopoulos and Traboulay 2002, 

Wang et al. 2004, Hartley 2007, Mirski et al. 2007). These investigations concern mainly 

boards manufactured under commercial scale production conditions, although some studies 

have been published, in which it was attempted to model this phenomenon (Xu and Suchsland 

1996). 

It is also essential to ensure high strength of manufactured boards throughout the entire life 

cycle of products made from these boards, particularly in case of their use under humid 

conditions. For this reason numerous studies have been undertaken aiming at the 

determination of properties of these boards over a long period of their utilisation, most 

frequently conducted using various types of ageing tests (Pritchard et al. 2001, Czarnecki et 

al. 2003, Mirski et al. 2005). In these methods boards are subjected most frequently to the 

cyclically alternating action of air at high and low temperatures and/or high and low humidity 

levels. In turn, to determine water resistance of these boards, in accordance with the standard 

PN-EN 300, two tests are applied: 

- variant 1 – subjecting boards to an accelerated ageing test, the so-called cyclical test 

according to PN-EN 321, 

- variant 2 - subjecting boards to the boiling test according to PN-EN 1087-1. 

If for the first option there are two variants of requirements specified either using the internal 

bond test, or by measuring bending strength after the cyclical test, then for the other option 

requirements are specified only using the internal bond measurement after the boiling test. 

Thus in this study it was decided to investigate bending strength of OSB subjected to the 

boiling test. 

515


Analyses were conducted on commercial OSB of three nominal thicknesses and two 

types, i.e.: 

- OSB/3 of 12, 15 and 22 mm in thickness – manufactured in 2009 – denoted as N, 

- OSB/3 and OSB/4 of 15 mm in thickness – manufactured in 2002 – denoted as S. 

Boards produced in 2002 were stored in a warehouse which was heated in winter. Moreover, 

all tested boards were resinated in the core layer using an isocyanate adhesive (PMDI), while 

in the face layers melamine-urea-phenol-formaldehyde resin (MUPF) was applied. 

In order to determine bending strength after the boiling test from each board a total of 16 

samples were collected both for the longer and the shorter axes. Such prepared experimental 

material was conditioned for 4 weeks in a conditioning chamber at a temperature of 20�C and 

65RH. After the conditioning process, in accordance with the assumptions of the standard 

PN-EN 1087-1, samples were subjected to the boiling process for 2 h, next cooling in cold 

water (20�C) for 1 h and drying at a temperature of 70�C for 16 h. After the completion of the 

test samples were again placed in the conditioning chamber for 4 weeks. 


Bending strength of tested OSB is presented in Table 1. It results from these data that 

properties of tested boards considerably exceed values specified by the standard PN-EN 300, 

particularly in terms of strength determined along the shorter axis. In this respect the most 

advantageous results were recorded for OSB3/15S. If in this case values determined for the 

longer axis are by almost 70% higher than the requirements of the standard, then for the 

shorter axis they are by as much as 130% higher. In turn, OSB/3 with a thickness of 12 mm, 

produced in 2009, exhibited values of bending strength most similar to those required by the 

standard. Moreover, it needs to be stressed here that values of bending strength recorded for 

OSB produced in the years 2000 - 2002 frequently exceeded the requirements of the standard 

even by as much as over 2-fold, which was presented in our previous studies (Derkowski et 

al. 2002 and Czarnecki et al. 2003). 

Results of bending strength testing for OSB subjected to the boiling test are presented in 

Table 2. As it could have been expected, the highest bending strength determined for the 

longer axis was found for OSB/4, although the strength of OSB/3 with an analogous thickness 

was only slightly lower. As it results from data presented in Table 2, all tested boards 

exhibited bending strength after the boiling test being higher, and for OSB/3 of 15 mm in 

thickness - even over 2-fold, than that specified by the standard for the testing method in PN- 

EN 321+ PN-EN 310. On the basis of the requirements for boards in terms of their internal 

bond after the cyclical test (V313) and after the boiling test it may be assumed that the boiling 

test more intensively affects the boards, since the imposed requirements after that test are by 

0.02 N/mm 2 lower. Thus if a given board after the boiling test exhibits bending strength for 

the longer axis being higher than it is specified by the standard after the cyclical tests, then the 

tested boards should also meet these requirements if they are subjected to the cyclical test. 

516

Bending strength of OSB 


board 

According to 

PN-EN 300 

Numerical value of MOR 

Longer axis Shorter axis 

Mean value 

Standard 

deviation 

According to 

PN-EN 300 

Mean value 

[N/mm 2 ] [N/mm 2 ] 

517 

Table 1 

Standard 

deviation 

OSB/3 12N 20 22.0 2.06 10 14.7 2.00 

OSB/3 15N 20 27.4 3.48 10 15.0 1.22 

OSB/3 15S 20 33.3 4.65 10 23.0 2.33 

OSB/4 15S 28 35.1 5.44 15 23.1 1.98 

OSB/3 22N 18 26.6 2.51 9 19.5 1.51 

Bending strength of OSB after the boiling test 


board 

According 

to PN-EN 

300 * 

Mean 

value 

Numerical value of MOR 

Longer axis Shorter axis 

Standard 

deviation 

Coefficient 

of variation 

Mean 

value 

Standard 

deviation 

Table 2 

Coefficient 

of variation 

[N/mm 2 ] [%] [N/mm 2 ] [%] 

OSB/3 12N 8 8.00 0.60 7.5 5.30 0.79 14.9 

OSB/3 15N 8 16.7 1.86 11.1 9.04 1.66 18.4 

OSB/3 15S 8 18.7 2.60 13.9 12.4 1.11 10.7 

OSB/4 15S 14 19.0 2.82 14.8 12.0 1.66 13.8 

OSB/3 22N 7 10.9 1.28 11.8 7.82 0.60 7.70 

* - requirements for testing methods of PN-EN 321+ PN-EN 310 

CONCLUSION REMARKS 

It results from the conducted analyses that all boards used in the experiment are 

characterised by a relatively high bending strength after the boiling test. Despite the decrease 

in strength caused by this test, amounting on average to 50%, irrespective of the board type, 

thickness and the year of manufacture, recorded values were still much higher than the 

requirements for boards subjected to the accelerated ageing test (the so-called cyclical test). 

Thus it seems that the determination of bending strength after the boiling test may under 

certain conditions replace the V313 test, which due to the necessity of sample freezing at a 

temperature below –15�C and the relatively long duration of the test itself (21 days) is more 

difficult to perform. 

REFERENCES 

1. CZARNECKI R., DERKOWSKI A., MIRSKI R., 2003: Comparison of properties of 

OSB/3 and OSB/4 boards subjected to action of humid conditions. Ann. Warsaw 

Agricult. Univ. For. and Wood Technol. Special issue I: 28-31.

2. DERKOWSKI A., ��CKA J., MIRSKI R., 2002: Properties of OSB/3 boards in 

dependence upon the environment humidity. Ann. Warsaw Agricult. Univ. For. and 

Wood Technol. Special issue I: 91-94. 

3. HARTLEY I. D., WANG S., ZHANG Y., 2007: Water vapor sorption isotherm 

modeling of commercial oriented strand panel based on species groups and resin type. 

Building and Environment 42: 3655–3659. 

4. MIRSKI R., DERKOWSKI A., CZARNECKI R., 2005: Properties of OSB/3 and 

OSB/4 boards depending on cyclic changes in humidity and air temperature. Ann. 

Warsaw Agricult. Univ.-SGGW, For. and Wood Technol. 57: 60-65. 

5. MIRSKI R., DERKOWSKI A., ��CKA J., 2007: The effect of ambient conditions on 

dimensional stability of OSB/3. Ann. Warsaw Agricult. Univ.-SGGW, For. and Wood 

Technol. 62: 40-48. 

6. PAPADOPOULOS A. N., TRABOULAY E., 2002: Dimensional stability of OSB 

made from acetylated Fir strands. Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 60, 84-87. 

7. PRITCHARD J., ANSELL M.P., THOMPSON J.H., BONFIELD P.W., 2001: Effect 

of two relative humidity environments on the performance properties of MDF, OSB 

and chipboard. Part 1. MOR, MOE and fatigue life performance. Wood Sci. Technol. 

35(5): 395-403. 

8. WANG S., GU H., NEIMSUWAN T., WANG S.G., 2004: Comparison study of 

thickness swell performance of commercial oriented strandboard flooring products. 

Forest Prod. J. 55(12): 239-245. 

9. WU Q., LEE J. N., 2002: Thickness swelling of oriented strandboard under long-term 

cyclic humidity exposure conditions. Wood Fiber Sci. 34(1): 125-139. 

10. XU W., SUCHSLAND O., 1996: Linear expansion of wood composites: A Model. 

Wood Fiber Sci 29(3): 272-281. 

Streszczenie: Wytrzyma�o�� na zginanie p�yt OSB poddanych próbie gotowania. W pracy 

zbadano wytrzyma�o�� na zginanie statyczne p�yt OSB poddanych próbie gotowania. W 

badaniach u�yto p�yty OSB/3 i OSB/4 o grubo�ciach 12, 15 i 22 mm, wyprodukowane w 

latach 2002 i 2009. Wszystkie poddane badaniom p�yty zaklejane by�y w warstwie 

wewn�trznej PMDI, a w warstwach zewn�trznych MUPF. Przeprowadzone badania 

wykaza�y, i� pomimo spadku wytrzyma�o�ci wywo�anego t� prób�, �rednio o 50%, uzyskane 

warto�ci w dalszym ci�gu by�y znacznie wy�sze ni� wymagania stawiane p�ytom 

poddawanym próbie przyspieszonego starzenia (tzw. „badaniu cyklicznemu). Wydaje si� 

zatem, i� okre�lenie wytrzyma�o�ci na zginanie statyczne po próbie gotowania mo�e w 

pewnych warunkach zast�pi� test V313. 


Rados�aw Mirski, Adam Derkowski 




60-627 Pozna� 

Poland 

e-mail: rmirski@up.poznan.pl 

e-mail: ader@up.poznan.pl

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW

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