Fertigation: Optimizing the Utilization of Water and Nutrients - SSWM

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and livestock products as income levels rise. These trends follow the same general pattern, regardless of culture, religion, or geographical location (Delgado et al., 2002). Because 2-‐4 kg of grain are required to produce 1 kg of meat or fish, grain demand will rise faster than the rate of population increase. Food supply can be predicted from trends in crop yields and in the arable land area available for crop production, and econometric models have been developed to predict global food demand and supply. One of the most influential and comprehensive food supply-‐demand models is the IMPACT model developed by Mark Rosegrant et al. (2002) at the International Food Policy Research Institute in Washington, DC. According to the IMPACT model, demand for the three major cereals is projected to increase at a compound annual rate of 1.29% from 1995 to 2025 (Table 1). This increase is predicted to come from increases in cereal yields (0.98%/yr) and an expansion of the crop growing area by 50 Mha. Table 1. Prediction of global aggregate demand, supply, and yield of the three major cereals (maize, rice, and wheat) from 1995 to 2025, by the IFPRI-‐ IMPACT model‡, and a modified prediction based on updated trends in land use. Population (109) Demand (million mt) Production area (million ha) Mean grain yield† (kg/ha) ‡ 1995 2025 Annual rate of change 5.66 1,657 506 3.27 7.90 2,436 556 4.38 % 1.12 1.29 0.31 0.98 Modified 2025 prediction Same 2,558 491 5.21 Rosegrantet al., 2002, International Food Policy Research Institute. While the IFPRI-‐IMPACT prediction accounts for grain demand for human food and livestock feed, it does not consider grain used for biofuel or bio-‐based industrial feedstock production; the modified prediction assumes that 5% of global grain supply in 2025 is used for production of biofuel and bio-‐based industrial feedstocks. †Weighted average for the three major cereals. Modified annual rate change % 1.12 1.46 -‐0.10 1.56 25
However, small changes in the assumptions that go into such econometric models can have large impacts on the resulting prognosis for meeting future food demand. In contrast to the IMPACT model’s projection of increased land area for cereal crop production, actual land-‐use trends indicate that there has been no increase in area devoted to the three major cereal crops since 1980, while the area devoted to all cereal crops (including maize, rice, wheat, sorghum, millet, oats, and other minor grain crops) has been decreasing by 2.1 Mha per year since 1981 (Fig. 1). Given the rapid increase in economic development, it is plausible that the land area available for the major cereals will decline somewhat in the coming decades, in response to demands for better housing, roads, recreation, and expansion of industrial facilities. Fig. 1. Global trends in production area of all cereal crops (data at top) and to the three major cereal crops maize, rice, and wheat (data at bottom). Source: http://faostat.fao.org. Most of this development will occur in the peri-‐urban areas surrounding cities – areas that are typically located in regions with highly productive agricultural soils. In contrast, there are few remaining uncultivated areas with good-‐quality soils, so that replacement of cereal-‐growing areas lost to development will be with land characterized by ever more marginal soils, in harsher climates not suited to intensive cropping systems. In addition, the IMPACT model primarily considers grain use for human food and livestock feed, and does not take into account the increasing use of grain as an industrial raw material for biofuels such as ethanol, or as a source of industrial feedstocks such as starches or plastic precursors. In the USA, in 2004, about 11% of the maize crop was used for ethanol production, and this will double over the next 7 years, under the new Energy Bill recently passed by the US Congress. Concern about high energy prices has motivated a number of other countries to increase production of ethanol and industrial feedstocks from 26
Page 1 and 2: Fertigation Proceedings: Selected P
Page 3 and 4: © All rights held by: Internationa
Page 5: Yield and Fruit Quality of Tomato a
Page 8 and 9: Preface Irrigation is a crucial com
Page 10 and 11: Global Aspects of Fertigation Usage
Page 12 and 13: 5. 6. 7. Prevents salt injuries to
Page 14 and 15: Fertigation reduces the amount of h
Page 16 and 17: Fertilizer delivery There are two m
Page 18 and 19: concentration can result in ammonia
Page 20 and 21: Scheduling fertigation Nutrient ele
Page 22: soil temperatures are high, i.e., u
Page 25: Kafkafi, U. 1994. Combined irrigati
Page 29: Introduction The rapid economic dev
Page 34 and 35: and industrial feedstocks (Table 1)
Page 36: Environmentally sound nutrient mana
Page 39 and 40: fertilizers also show promise for i
Page 41: Matson, P., P. Loiseau, and S.J. Ha
Page 45: minimizing detrimental effects of e
Page 48 and 49: Fig. 2. Schematic representation of
Page 50: Deficiencies of K and/or Mg cause m
Page 53: nutritional status of the plants. T
Page 56 and 57: Conclusions The existing data indic
Page 59: Close, D.C., C.L. Beadle, and M.J.
Page 63: Wang, Y.J., M. Wisniewski, R. Melia
Page 66 and 67: strongly for potable water, but whi
Page 68 and 69: In Asia, 84% of the water is used f
Page 71 and 72: Discussion Value of nutrients in TW
Page 73 and 74: sources are presented in Table 3. T
Page 75 and 76: Fig. 4. P concentration in soil pro
Page 77: Cornel, P. ,and B. Weber. 2004. Wat
Page 80 and 81:
Introduction “Fertigation” is a
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Young bearing trees Thompson et al.
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Fig.3. Effects of fertilizer source
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(TSS) yield was 16% greater with fe
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surficial aquifer underneath citrus
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Fig. 8. Comparison of the effects o
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Fig. 10. Fruit yield responses (6-
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Fertigation of Deciduous Fruit Tree
Page 98 and 99:
demand more precisely than in syste
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In sandy soils, it is also possible
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supplied N at about 63 kg/ha, indic
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Phosphorus Fertigation is known to
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Conclusions Fertigation offers the
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Neilsen, D., P. Millard, L.C. Herbe
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consumed as table grapes, 16% are d
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Table 1. Estimates of approximate p
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affected by rootstock (Treeby et al
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The table grape fertigation decisio
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References Alexander, D. McE. 1957.
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Henschke, P.A., and V. Jiranek. 199
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Zerihun, A., and M.T. Treeby. 2002.
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integration of this knowledge into
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Table 1: Concentrations of macro-
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y moderate application rates (maxim
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Fig. 7. Outgrowth but not the numbe
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scarcity, micro-‐irrigation sys
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Conclusions The presented case stud
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Fertigation in Greenhouse Productio
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Table 2. Target values for nutrient
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Table 4. Water and nitrogen efficie
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quantity and quality is therefore s
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To control the model, the moisture
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(1) (2) Table 6. Results of a 3-
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References Adams, P. 1991. Effects
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Effects of Fertigation Regime on Bl
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incidence of BER in pepper fruits (
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eported an increase in the incidenc
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oth the fruits and the young leaves
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The use of the ECS reduced the inci
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Fig. 5. The effects of Mn on the Na
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Bar-‐Tal, A., and E. Pressman.
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Maynard, D.N., W.S. Barham, and C.L
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Fertigation in Micro-‐irrigated
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other irrigation systems. These hig
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secondary elements, and micro-‐
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supplied by applying part of the fe
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Locascio, S.J., and J.M. Myers. 197
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Yield and Fruit Quality of Tomato a
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Table 1. Effects of K:Ca ratios on
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Munson, R.D. 1985. Potassium in Agr
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nutrients, and certain species are
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via drip lines with a dripper for e
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Prior to the start of the greenhous
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Both Chlamydomonas spp. and Scenede
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Ravina, I., E. Paz, Z. Sofer, A. Ma
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common methods of irrigation includ
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then be used to describe crop water
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In aiming to optimize fertigation e
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Interactive Effects of Nutrients an
Page 230 and 231:
nutrient levels, especially when th
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supply will not improve plant growt
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