A grammar of Yakkha, 2015

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1 Introduction 1.3.2 The corpus The structure and content of the current Yakkha corpus is displayed in Table 1.1. The corpus contains 3012 clauses and roughly 13.000 annotated words. The texts are transcribed and annotated audio-recordings of roughly 3 hours length. The audio recorder used is an Olympus Linear pcm Recorder LS-11. The texts of the genre legacy data are only available in written form, using Devanagari script. They are taken from school books (Jimi, Kongren & Jimi 2009; 2010) and from narratives that originated in a workshop organized in 2012 by the Mother Tongue Center Nepal (Yakkha 2012a; Yakkha 2012b; Linkha 2012). I have transliterated them into the orthographic representation used in this work, with slight adjustments where the orthographies used were rather impractical, for instance when they lumped together the voiceless and voiced consonants or /r/ and /l/ (which is the case in the above-mentioned school books). Researchers using the corpus should be aware of the fact that many neologisms are used in written Yakkha that are not (yet) established in the spoken language. The texts are labelled as follows: a unique identifier, followed by an underscore and a three-letter genre code, followed by an underscore and the number of the text from that particular genre. For example, a text coded ‘12_nrr_03.wav’ is the twelfth recording in total and the third text of the genre ‘narrative’; ‘12_nrr_- 03.txt’ is the corresponding text file. These labels (including the record number) are provided when the examples are from the corpus; when no such label is Table 1.1: Content of the annotated Yakkha corpus genre number of records recordings (roughly corr. to clauses) narratives 8 488 conversations 5 1336 pear stories 4 225 songs 3 40 legacy data (written) 5 595 texts on tradition 3 328 and material culture 28 3012 8
1.3 Data sources Table 1.2: Text genres and codes code nrr cvs sng mat tra pea par leg genre narrative conversation song description of material culture description of traditions pear story elicited paradigm legacy data (written) provided, the examples are from elicitations or from unrecorded spontaneous speech. The applications used for annotation and time alignment were Toolbox 5 and elan. 6 The genre codes are displayed in Table 1.2. The entire corpus is accessible online via the Endangered Languages Archive (elar). 7 1.3.3 The lexical database The lexical database 8 contains 2429 entries, all checked with at least two speakers. It contains grammatical, semantic, phonological and ethnographic notes as well as botanical terms (relying on the Nepali translations given in Manandhar (2002) and occasionally Turner 1931). One may also browse for parts of speech and for semantic categories, if one is interested in particular semantic domains like body parts, kinship, spatial orientation, colour terms etc. A digital community version 5 Toolbox is free software developed by sil, see http://www-01.sil.org/computIng/toolbox/index. htm. 6 elan is free software developed by the Language Archive of the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics in Nijmegen, see Wittenburg & Sloetjes (2008); URL: http://tla.mpi.nl/tools/tlatools/elan/ 7 http://www.hrelp.org/archive/. The annotations in this work may, in a few cases, deviate from the annotations in the archived corpus, as upon closer inspection during the analyses some minor adjustments were inevitable. The examples as they are analyzed and annotated in this work represent the most recent state of analysis. 8 Archived at the Endangered Languages Archive (elar) together with the corpus, see http://www.hrelp.org/archive/. 9
Page 1 and 2: A grammar of Yakkha Diana Schackow
Page 3 and 4: A grammar of Yakkha Diana Schackow
Page 5 and 6: Contents Acknowledgments Abbreviati
Page 7 and 8: Contents 5.1.5 Inherent duality . .
Page 9 and 10: Contents 10.2 The functions of the
Page 11 and 12: Contents 14.2 The supine converb -s
Page 13 and 14: Acknowledgments This grammar is a r
Page 15: publish my work at Language Science
Page 18 and 19: Abbreviations pol politeness pl plu
Page 20 and 21: 1 Introduction 1.2 How to use the g
Page 22 and 23: 1 Introduction The category labels
Page 24 and 25: 1 Introduction realization markers
Page 28 and 29: 1 Introduction of the dictionary (u
Page 30 and 31: 1 Introduction Nouns can be inflect
Page 32 and 33: 1 Introduction The argument structu
Page 34 and 35: 1 Introduction (10) a. uŋci=ŋa 3n
Page 36 and 37: 2 The Yakkha language and its speak
Page 59 and 60: 3 Phonology This chapter deals with
Page 61 and 62: 3.1 Phoneme inventory and allophoni
Page 69 and 70: 3.2 Syllable structure b. ca.mha.ci
Page 71 and 72: 3.2 Syllable structure Table 3.8: C
Page 73 and 74: 3.3 The phonological treatment of N
Page 75 and 76: 3.4 Stress assignment Another typic
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3.4 Stress assignment b. luk.ta.ˈk
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3.4 Stress assignment if they attac
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3.5 Morphophonological processes C.
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3.5 Morphophonological processes Af
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3.5 Morphophonological processes Be
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3.5 Morphophonological processes b.
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3.5 Morphophonological processes Ta
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3.5 Morphophonological processes 3.
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3.5 Morphophonological processes of
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3.5 Morphophonological processes Th
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3.5 Morphophonological processes Ta
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3.5 Morphophonological processes An
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4 Pronouns, demonstratives, quantif
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5 The noun phrase The class of noun
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5.1 Noun formation and properties o
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5.2 Nominal inflectional morphology
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5.3 Relational nouns In all the pos
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5.4 The structure of the noun phras
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6 Adjectives and adverbs Adjectives
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6.1 Adjectives b. kha this cuwa bee
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6.1 Adjectives Table 6.1: Color ter
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6.2 Comparison, equation and degree
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6.2 Comparison, equation and degree
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6.3 Adverbs 6.3.1 Manner adverbs de
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6.3 Adverbs Table 6.4: Further temp
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6.3 Adverbs Table 6.6: Adverbs deri
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6.4 Reduplication, triplication and
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7 The geomorphic orientation system
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7.1 Introduction between the /u/-fo
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7.2 Demonstratives 7.2 Demonstrativ
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7.2 Demonstratives uphill downhill
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7.2 Demonstratives uphill downhill
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7.3 Adverbs rocks of a group of roc
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7.3 Adverbs b. ɖhakani=be basket=l
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7.3 Adverbs we=ppa=ʔlo! exist[3sg;
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7.3 Adverbs from these adverbial fo
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7.4 Postpositions Table 7.5: Geomor
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7.5 Motion verbs ‘Having met uphi
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8 Verbal inflection Table 8.1: Over
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8 Verbal inflection apparently havi
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8 Verbal inflection plays a role in
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8 Verbal inflection with augmented
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8 Verbal inflection Table 8.8: Chin
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8 Verbal inflection 8.2 Person, num
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8 Verbal inflection Table 8.11: Ind
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8 Verbal inflection sion, since it
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8 Verbal inflection Slot 5 is occup
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8 Verbal inflection The 1984 data a
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8 Verbal inflection The marker -ka
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8 Verbal inflection 1A 2A 3A 1P 2P
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8 Verbal inflection 8.4 Tense and a
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8 Verbal inflection features, and t
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8 Verbal inflection undergo elision
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8 Verbal inflection laʔlo? ctr.exc
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8 Verbal inflection agent in all sc
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8 Verbal inflection (34) a. haku fr
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8 Verbal inflection b. yapmi=ci per
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8 Verbal inflection Table 8.17: Non
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8 Verbal inflection Table 8.19: Sim
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8 Verbal inflection Table 8.21: Sim
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8 Verbal inflection 8.5.1 The subju
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8 Verbal inflection e. lem-nhaŋ-ne
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8 Verbal inflection 8.5.2 The Optat
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8 Verbal inflection imperatives, an
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8 Verbal inflection b. heʔnaŋ whe
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8 Verbal inflection Table 8.28: Per
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8 Verbal inflection (51) a. kaniŋ
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8 Verbal inflection haci, stating t
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8 Verbal inflection Table 8.30: Per
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8 Verbal inflection in =niŋ(a) (co
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9 Noun-verb predicates Table 9.1 pr
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9 Noun-verb predicates for instance
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9 Noun-verb predicates be intoxicat
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9 Noun-verb predicates 9.2.1 Subfra
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9 Noun-verb predicates In class (d)
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9 Noun-verb predicates (13) a. ka 1
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9 Noun-verb predicates Table 9.3: T
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9 Noun-verb predicates The experien
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9 Noun-verb predicates thakt-u-ci-g
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9 Noun-verb predicates b. uŋ 3sg l
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10 Complex predication variability,
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10 Complex predication Criterion (a
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10 Complex predication material is
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10 Complex predication V2s can also
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10 Complex predication Table 10.1:
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10 Complex predication (11) a. kind
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10 Complex predication b. am-di-me-
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10 Complex predication The verb so
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10 Complex predication Table 10.3:
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10 Complex predication (27) a. wand
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10 Complex predication b. a-ma 1sg.
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10 Complex predication b. cuncula C
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10 Complex predication Such predica
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10 Complex predication (46) a. u-la
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10 Complex predication b. ʈebul=be
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10 Complex predication (55) ghak al
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10 Complex predication c. umaŋache
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10 Complex predication With telic v
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10 Complex predication (68) a. heʔ
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10 Complex predication (71) a. liŋ
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11 Transitivity predicate, 2 P stan
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11 Transitivity b. nda 2sg nu-ga=na
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11 Transitivity 11.1.5 The standard
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11 Transitivity b. a-laŋ=ci 1sg.po
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11 Transitivity the ditransitive ve
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11 Transitivity b. haku now nhaŋto
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11 Transitivity (20) a. ŋ=ga 2sg.p
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11 Transitivity waeʔ=na. be[3sg;np
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11 Transitivity 11.2 Valency altern
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11 Transitivity There are border ca
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11 Transitivity b. gagri=be pot=loc
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11 Transitivity c. ka 1sg[erg] picc
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11 Transitivity (39) a. uŋ=ŋa 3sg
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11 Transitivity ablative in my reco
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11 Transitivity b. (kaniŋ) 1pl[erg
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11 Transitivity (51) a. menuka=le M
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11 Transitivity not marked for plur
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11 Transitivity Table 11.1: Antipas
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11 Transitivity lut-a-by-a=na. tell
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11 Transitivity (63) a. uŋ=ŋa 3sg
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11 Transitivity something at anothe
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11 Transitivity If the beneficiary
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11 Transitivity action is performed
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11 Transitivity (80) a. *ka 1sg[erg
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11 Transitivity one noun phrase are
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11 Transitivity (88) a. ka 1sg[erg]
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11 Transitivity (92) m-ba=ŋa 2sg.p
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12 Simple clauses As pointed out in
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12.2 Constituent order 12.2 Constit
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12.3 Illocutionary functions 12.3 I
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12.3 Illocutionary functions (11) a
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12.3 Illocutionary functions Argume
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12.3 Illocutionary functions men=na
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12.4 Flexible agreement b. ka 1sg i
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13 Nominalization and relativizatio
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13.2 Participant nominalization (S/
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13.2 Participant nominalization (S/
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13.3 The nominalizers =na and =ha ~
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13.4 Correlative clauses If the obj
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13.4 Correlative clauses Correlativ
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14 Adverbial clause linkage Table 1
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14 Adverbial clause linkage In the
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14 Adverbial clause linkage b. maŋ
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14 Adverbial clause linkage Negatin
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14 Adverbial clause linkage 14.4 In
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14 Adverbial clause linkage cog-wa.
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14 Adverbial clause linkage (23) ch
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14 Adverbial clause linkage As for
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14 Adverbial clause linkage c. a-pu
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14 Adverbial clause linkage ŋ-uŋ-
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14 Adverbial clause linkage Since c
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14 Adverbial clause linkage Example
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14 Adverbial clause linkage Purpose
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14 Adverbial clause linkage marking
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14 Adverbial clause linkage paŋ=be
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14 Adverbial clause linkage lam-me-
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14 Adverbial clause linkage 14.12 C
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14 Adverbial clause linkage n-thakt
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15 Complementation Table 15.1 provi
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15 Complementation Infinitival comp
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15 Complementation Table 15.3: Argu
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15 Complementation c. na this mamu=
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15 Complementation (10) a. nda 2sg
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15 Complementation has the role of
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15 Complementation n-leŋ-me-n=n=em
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15 Complementation referred to as t
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15 Complementation b. nna that ceŋ
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15 Complementation As for the agree
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15 Complementation Table 15.8: Comp
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15 Complementation c. khaʔniŋgo,
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15 Complementation reference, e.g.,
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15 Complementation may embed propos
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15 Complementation Another use of b
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15 Complementation cok-ma-sy-a=na d
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15 Complementation as contrastive f
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15 Complementation c. jalangaja, Ja
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16 Connectives on the text level ce
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16 Connectives on the text level 16
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17 Discourse particles and interjec
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Appendix
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Appendix A: Texts (5) nna that lamd
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Appendix A: Texts waghui chicken_dr
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Appendix A: Texts (30) ka 1sg tu-ŋ
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Appendix A: Texts (41) maŋcwa=le w
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Appendix A: Texts (2) canuwa Canuwa
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Appendix A: Texts (14) manhoŋ othe
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Appendix A: Texts ŋ-ga-ya-by-a-ma.
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Appendix A: Texts As they had gone
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Appendix A: Texts (47) yapmi=ci per
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Appendix A: Texts (58) uŋci-niŋwa
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Appendix A: Texts om leks-a=niŋa,
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Appendix A: Texts Saying: ‘Please
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Appendix A: Texts (90) wasik rain t
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Appendix A: Texts (6) nhaŋ and_the
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Appendix A: Texts (18) hoŋkhaʔla
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Appendix B: Yakkha kinship terms Ow
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Appendix C: Index of Yakkha formati
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marker function section meN- negati
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References Aikhenvald, Alexandra J.
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References Bickel, Balthasar. 2008.
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References Butt, Miriam. 2010. The
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References van Driem, George. 1993b
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References Gaenszle, Martin. 2002.
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References Haspelmath, Martin. 2004
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References König, Ekkehard. 1993.
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References math & Bernard Comrie (e
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References Peterson, John. 2010. A
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References Schlemmer, Grégoire. 20
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References Witzlack-Makarevich, Ale
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Name index 309, 336, 354, 366, 382,
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Name index Thurgood, Graham, 488 To
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Subject index ablative, 12, 97, 126
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Subject index emphatic particle, 38
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Subject index 160, 171, 205, 216-21
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Subject index valency alternations,
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