A grammar of Yakkha, 2015

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2 The Yakkha language and its speakers Figure 2.1: Location of the Yakkha region within Nepal (OpenStreetMap: http: //www.openstreetmap.org, accessed on 28 March 2015) known as Kirant (‘Kiranti area’), the Yakkha region belongs to the Pallo Kirant ‘Far Kiranti area’, located on the east of the Arun river. The core Yakkha region contains the following Village Development Committees (vdcs): 2 Canuwa, Marek Katahare and Dandagaun in Dhankuta district, and Tamaphok (Tamfok in the map), Mamling, Ankhinbhuin, Madi Mulkharka, Madi Rambeni, Baneshwor, Chainpur, Kharang, Wana (Bana in the map), Siddhakali, Siddhapokhari and Syabun in Sankhuwa Sabha district. The Yakkha region is also known as the Tin Thum (‘The Three Regions’): the Das Majhiya in the south, the Panch Majhiya in the middle and the Panch Kapan in the north (Kongren 2007a: 86), a distinction originating in the tax system that was enforced under the Gorkha rule in the 18 th century. The language is only spoken by parts of the Yakkha population, being replaced by Nepali in almost half of the geographic area inhabited by Yakkha people. Curiously, the language proficiency decreases drastically towards the north of the Yakkha area (Magman Linkha, p.c.), contrary to the expectation that greater distance to the main roads and thus greater isolation should have had a positive effect on the preservation of a language. 2 Nepal is administratively divided into 5 development regions, 14 zones, 75 districts and 3,913 village development committees (vdcs). Each vdc contains several villages and is further divided into numbered wards. 18
2.1 Geographical context Khandbari (district capital) Sawa Khola Tumlingtar Hewa Khola Syabun Jaljala Wana Siddha Pokhari Siddhakali Cainpur Below 500 m. 500—1000 m. 1000—1500 m. 1500—2500 m. 2500—3500 m. Main road River District boundary Piluwa Khola Mawadin Kharang Baneshwor Madi Rambeni Maya Khola Waleng (Madi Mulkharka) BHOJPUR Arun Nadi Angbura (Omruwa) Ankinbhuin Hombong Mulgaun Canuwa Mamling Leguwa Khola Yaiten (Dandagaun) Marek Mudhe Saniscare DHANKUTA Tumok (Tamaphok) SANKHUWA SABHA TEHRATHUM Figure 2.2: Map of the Yakkha region, drawn by the author 19
Page 1 and 2: A grammar of Yakkha Diana Schackow
Page 3 and 4: A grammar of Yakkha Diana Schackow
Page 5 and 6: Contents Acknowledgments Abbreviati
Page 7 and 8: Contents 5.1.5 Inherent duality . .
Page 9 and 10: Contents 10.2 The functions of the
Page 11 and 12: Contents 14.2 The supine converb -s
Page 13 and 14: Acknowledgments This grammar is a r
Page 15: publish my work at Language Science
Page 18 and 19: Abbreviations pol politeness pl plu
Page 20 and 21: 1 Introduction 1.2 How to use the g
Page 22 and 23: 1 Introduction The category labels
Page 24 and 25: 1 Introduction realization markers
Page 26 and 27: 1 Introduction 1.3.2 The corpus The
Page 28 and 29: 1 Introduction of the dictionary (u
Page 30 and 31: 1 Introduction Nouns can be inflect
Page 32 and 33: 1 Introduction The argument structu
Page 34 and 35: 1 Introduction (10) a. uŋci=ŋa 3n
Page 38 and 39: 2 The Yakkha language and its speak
Page 59 and 60: 3 Phonology This chapter deals with
Page 61 and 62: 3.1 Phoneme inventory and allophoni
Page 69 and 70: 3.2 Syllable structure b. ca.mha.ci
Page 71 and 72: 3.2 Syllable structure Table 3.8: C
Page 73 and 74: 3.3 The phonological treatment of N
Page 75 and 76: 3.4 Stress assignment Another typic
Page 77 and 78: 3.4 Stress assignment b. luk.ta.ˈk
Page 79 and 80: 3.4 Stress assignment if they attac
Page 81 and 82: 3.5 Morphophonological processes C.
Page 83 and 84: 3.5 Morphophonological processes Af
Page 85 and 86: 3.5 Morphophonological processes Be
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3.5 Morphophonological processes b.
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3.5 Morphophonological processes Ta
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3.5 Morphophonological processes 3.
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3.5 Morphophonological processes of
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3.5 Morphophonological processes Th
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3.5 Morphophonological processes Ta
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3.5 Morphophonological processes An
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4 Pronouns, demonstratives, quantif
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5 The noun phrase The class of noun
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5.1 Noun formation and properties o
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5.2 Nominal inflectional morphology
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5.3 Relational nouns In all the pos
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5.4 The structure of the noun phras
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6 Adjectives and adverbs Adjectives
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6.1 Adjectives b. kha this cuwa bee
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6.1 Adjectives Table 6.1: Color ter
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6.2 Comparison, equation and degree
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6.2 Comparison, equation and degree
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6.3 Adverbs 6.3.1 Manner adverbs de
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6.3 Adverbs Table 6.4: Further temp
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6.3 Adverbs Table 6.6: Adverbs deri
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6.4 Reduplication, triplication and
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7 The geomorphic orientation system
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7.1 Introduction between the /u/-fo
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7.2 Demonstratives 7.2 Demonstrativ
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7.2 Demonstratives uphill downhill
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7.2 Demonstratives uphill downhill
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7.3 Adverbs rocks of a group of roc
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7.3 Adverbs b. ɖhakani=be basket=l
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7.3 Adverbs we=ppa=ʔlo! exist[3sg;
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7.3 Adverbs from these adverbial fo
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7.4 Postpositions Table 7.5: Geomor
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7.5 Motion verbs ‘Having met uphi
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8 Verbal inflection Table 8.1: Over
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8 Verbal inflection apparently havi
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8 Verbal inflection plays a role in
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8 Verbal inflection with augmented
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8 Verbal inflection Table 8.8: Chin
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8 Verbal inflection 8.2 Person, num
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8 Verbal inflection Table 8.11: Ind
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8 Verbal inflection sion, since it
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8 Verbal inflection Slot 5 is occup
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8 Verbal inflection The 1984 data a
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8 Verbal inflection The marker -ka
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8 Verbal inflection 1A 2A 3A 1P 2P
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8 Verbal inflection 8.4 Tense and a
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8 Verbal inflection features, and t
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8 Verbal inflection undergo elision
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8 Verbal inflection laʔlo? ctr.exc
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8 Verbal inflection agent in all sc
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8 Verbal inflection (34) a. haku fr
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8 Verbal inflection b. yapmi=ci per
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8 Verbal inflection Table 8.17: Non
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8 Verbal inflection Table 8.19: Sim
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8 Verbal inflection Table 8.21: Sim
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8 Verbal inflection 8.5.1 The subju
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8 Verbal inflection e. lem-nhaŋ-ne
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8 Verbal inflection 8.5.2 The Optat
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8 Verbal inflection imperatives, an
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8 Verbal inflection b. heʔnaŋ whe
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8 Verbal inflection Table 8.28: Per
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8 Verbal inflection (51) a. kaniŋ
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8 Verbal inflection haci, stating t
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8 Verbal inflection Table 8.30: Per
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8 Verbal inflection in =niŋ(a) (co
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9 Noun-verb predicates Table 9.1 pr
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9 Noun-verb predicates for instance
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9 Noun-verb predicates be intoxicat
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9 Noun-verb predicates 9.2.1 Subfra
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9 Noun-verb predicates In class (d)
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9 Noun-verb predicates (13) a. ka 1
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9 Noun-verb predicates Table 9.3: T
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9 Noun-verb predicates The experien
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9 Noun-verb predicates thakt-u-ci-g
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9 Noun-verb predicates b. uŋ 3sg l
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10 Complex predication variability,
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10 Complex predication Criterion (a
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10 Complex predication material is
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10 Complex predication V2s can also
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10 Complex predication Table 10.1:
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10 Complex predication (11) a. kind
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10 Complex predication b. am-di-me-
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10 Complex predication The verb so
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10 Complex predication Table 10.3:
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10 Complex predication (27) a. wand
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10 Complex predication b. a-ma 1sg.
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10 Complex predication b. cuncula C
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10 Complex predication Such predica
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10 Complex predication (46) a. u-la
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10 Complex predication b. ʈebul=be
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10 Complex predication (55) ghak al
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10 Complex predication c. umaŋache
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10 Complex predication With telic v
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10 Complex predication (68) a. heʔ
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10 Complex predication (71) a. liŋ
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11 Transitivity predicate, 2 P stan
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11 Transitivity b. nda 2sg nu-ga=na
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11 Transitivity 11.1.5 The standard
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11 Transitivity b. a-laŋ=ci 1sg.po
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11 Transitivity the ditransitive ve
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11 Transitivity b. haku now nhaŋto
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11 Transitivity (20) a. ŋ=ga 2sg.p
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11 Transitivity waeʔ=na. be[3sg;np
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11 Transitivity 11.2 Valency altern
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11 Transitivity There are border ca
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11 Transitivity b. gagri=be pot=loc
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11 Transitivity c. ka 1sg[erg] picc
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11 Transitivity (39) a. uŋ=ŋa 3sg
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11 Transitivity ablative in my reco
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11 Transitivity b. (kaniŋ) 1pl[erg
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11 Transitivity (51) a. menuka=le M
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11 Transitivity not marked for plur
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11 Transitivity Table 11.1: Antipas
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11 Transitivity lut-a-by-a=na. tell
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11 Transitivity (63) a. uŋ=ŋa 3sg
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11 Transitivity something at anothe
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11 Transitivity If the beneficiary
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11 Transitivity action is performed
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11 Transitivity (80) a. *ka 1sg[erg
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11 Transitivity one noun phrase are
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11 Transitivity (88) a. ka 1sg[erg]
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11 Transitivity (92) m-ba=ŋa 2sg.p
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12 Simple clauses As pointed out in
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12.2 Constituent order 12.2 Constit
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12.3 Illocutionary functions 12.3 I
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12.3 Illocutionary functions (11) a
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12.3 Illocutionary functions Argume
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12.3 Illocutionary functions men=na
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12.4 Flexible agreement b. ka 1sg i
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13 Nominalization and relativizatio
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13.2 Participant nominalization (S/
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13.2 Participant nominalization (S/
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13.3 The nominalizers =na and =ha ~
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13.4 Correlative clauses If the obj
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13.4 Correlative clauses Correlativ
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14 Adverbial clause linkage Table 1
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14 Adverbial clause linkage In the
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14 Adverbial clause linkage b. maŋ
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14 Adverbial clause linkage Negatin
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14 Adverbial clause linkage 14.4 In
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14 Adverbial clause linkage cog-wa.
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14 Adverbial clause linkage (23) ch
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14 Adverbial clause linkage As for
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14 Adverbial clause linkage c. a-pu
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14 Adverbial clause linkage ŋ-uŋ-
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14 Adverbial clause linkage Since c
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14 Adverbial clause linkage Example
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14 Adverbial clause linkage Purpose
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14 Adverbial clause linkage marking
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14 Adverbial clause linkage paŋ=be
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14 Adverbial clause linkage lam-me-
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14 Adverbial clause linkage 14.12 C
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14 Adverbial clause linkage n-thakt
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15 Complementation Table 15.1 provi
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15 Complementation Infinitival comp
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15 Complementation Table 15.3: Argu
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15 Complementation c. na this mamu=
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15 Complementation (10) a. nda 2sg
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15 Complementation has the role of
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15 Complementation n-leŋ-me-n=n=em
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15 Complementation referred to as t
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15 Complementation b. nna that ceŋ
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15 Complementation As for the agree
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15 Complementation Table 15.8: Comp
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15 Complementation c. khaʔniŋgo,
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15 Complementation reference, e.g.,
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15 Complementation may embed propos
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15 Complementation Another use of b
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15 Complementation cok-ma-sy-a=na d
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15 Complementation as contrastive f
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15 Complementation c. jalangaja, Ja
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16 Connectives on the text level ce
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16 Connectives on the text level 16
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17 Discourse particles and interjec
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Appendix
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Appendix A: Texts (5) nna that lamd
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Appendix A: Texts waghui chicken_dr
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Appendix A: Texts (30) ka 1sg tu-ŋ
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Appendix A: Texts (41) maŋcwa=le w
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Appendix A: Texts (2) canuwa Canuwa
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Appendix A: Texts (14) manhoŋ othe
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Appendix A: Texts ŋ-ga-ya-by-a-ma.
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Appendix A: Texts As they had gone
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Appendix A: Texts (47) yapmi=ci per
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Appendix A: Texts (58) uŋci-niŋwa
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Appendix A: Texts om leks-a=niŋa,
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Appendix A: Texts Saying: ‘Please
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Appendix A: Texts (90) wasik rain t
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Appendix A: Texts (6) nhaŋ and_the
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Appendix A: Texts (18) hoŋkhaʔla
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Appendix B: Yakkha kinship terms Ow
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Appendix C: Index of Yakkha formati
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marker function section meN- negati
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References Aikhenvald, Alexandra J.
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References Bickel, Balthasar. 2008.
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References Butt, Miriam. 2010. The
Page 593 and 594:
References van Driem, George. 1993b
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References Gaenszle, Martin. 2002.
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References Haspelmath, Martin. 2004
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References König, Ekkehard. 1993.
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References math & Bernard Comrie (e
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References Peterson, John. 2010. A
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References Schlemmer, Grégoire. 20
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References Witzlack-Makarevich, Ale
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Name index 309, 336, 354, 366, 382,
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Name index Thurgood, Graham, 488 To
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Subject index ablative, 12, 97, 126
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Subject index emphatic particle, 38
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Subject index 160, 171, 205, 216-21
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Subject index valency alternations,
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A grammar of Yakkha This grammar pr
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A grammar of Yakkha, 2015

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