Metalurgija: sadašnjost Metallurgy: Present Metalurgija ... - CARNet

METALURGIJA – ČASOPIS OSNOVAN 1962. 

OSNIVAČ – DRUŠTVO INŽENJERA I TEHNIČARA ŽELJEZARE SISAK 

METALURGIJA – JOURNAL FOUNDED IN 1962 

FOUNDER – SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS AND TECHNITIANS OF STEELWORKS SISAK 

UDK 669+621.7 + 51/54 (05) = 163.42 = 111 

Metalurgija: prošlost XVI. st. 

Metallurgy: Past - XVI. cent. 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52 (1) 1-144 (2013) 

1 

52 nd 

Metalurgija: sadašnjost 

Metallurgy: Present 

52 

year 

METALURGIJA, vol. 52, Br./No 1, Str./P 1-144 Zagreb, Siječanj-Ožujak / January-March 2013

UDK 669+621.7+51/54(05)=163.42=111 ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52 (1) 1-144 (2013) 

METALURGIJA, vol. 52, Br./No 1, Str./P 1-144 Zagreb, Sije~anj-O`ujak / January-March 2013 

Izdava~ / Publisher: Hrvatsko metalur{ko dru{tvo (HMD) - Croatian Metallurgical Society (CMS) 

Adresa / Address: Berislavi}eva 6, 10 000 Zagreb, Hrvatska / Croatia 

Phone/Fax: + 385 1 619 86 89 (service), Mob: + 385 98 317 173 

Internet / On line: http://public.carnet.hr/metalurg; http://hrcak.srce.hr; http://www.doaj.org; http://search.ebscohost.com; 

www.socolar.com / www.cepiec.com.cn; (On line) ISSN 1334-2576, (CD-ROM) ISSN 1334-2584 

Uredni~ki odbor / Editorial Board: 

F. VODOPIVEC - zamjenik glavnog i odgovornog urednika / Deputy of Editor-in-Chief, Ljubljana - Slovenia, I. JURAGA, 

Zagreb - Croatia, I. ALFIREVI], Zagreb - Croatia, S. DOBATKIN, Moscow - Russia, L. BLACHA, Katowice, Poland, 

H. HIEBLER, Leoben - Austria, M. HOLTZER, Krakow - Poland, I. SAMARD@I], Slavonski Brod - Croatia, R. KAWALLA, 

Freiberg - Germany, I. MAMUZI], Zagreb - Croatia, L. MIHOK, Ko{ice - Slovakia, J. KLIBER, Ostrava - Czech, A. VELI^KO, 

Dnipropetrovsk - Ukraine, B. KOSEC, Ljubljana - Slovenia 

Glavni i odgovorni urednik / Editor-in-chief: ILIJA MAMUZI], ilija.mamuzic@public.carnet.hr 

Lektori / Linguistic Advisers: B. ZELI], hrvatski jezik/Croatian language, V. MI[URA, engleski jezik / English language 

Urednik i Internet/ Editor and on line: B. MACAN, bmacan@irb.hr, 

UDK / UDC: LJ. VUKOVI] 

METALURGIJA izlazi u ~etiri broja godi{nje. Godi{nja pretplata 53 EUR (protuvrijednost u kunama). 

METALLURGY is published quarterly. Subscription rates per year 53 EUR. 

Komp. obrada / Comp. design; Tisak / Print: Denona d.o.o., Zagreb, e-mail:denona@denona.hr 

Naklada / Print: 400 primjeraka / pieces. Rukopise ne vra}amo. / Manuscript are not returned. 

^asopisu “Metalurgija” daje jedino nov~anu potporu (cca. 11 000 Eur/god.) 

Ministarstvo znanosti, obrazovanja i {porta Republike Hrvatske. 

Journal “Metallurgy” is only financially supported by (cca. 11 000 Eur/y) 

Ministry of Science, Education and Sports Republic of Croatia. 

Ukupni tro{kovi / The sum total – the cost 100 000 Eur/y 

^lanci objavljeni u ~asopisu “Metalurgija” referiraju se u me|unarodnim sekundarnim publikacijama i bazama podataka. 

Articles published in the journal “METALLURGY” are indexed in the international secundary periodicals and databases: 

- ISI web of Science 

- Science Citation Index (Expanded) 

- Materials Science Citation Index (MSCI) 

- EBSCOhost Academic Search Complete 

- Research Alert (ISI) 

- Metals Abstracts 

- EI Compendex Plus 

- CA Search (R) 

- PaperChem 

- Metadex 

- Geobase 

- Chemical Abstracts 

- Mechanical Engineering Abstracts 

- Aluminium Industry Abstracts 

- Dialog Sourceone (SM) Engineering 

Note: Authors themselves are liable for the content of the paper. 

- Energy Science Technology 

- Engineered Materials Abstracts 

- Analytical Abstracts Online 

- Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology Abstracts 

- Referativny Zhurnal 

- Fluidex 

- Embase 

- Elsevier Biobase 

- Elsevier Geo Abstracts 

- Corrosion Abstracts 

- World Texstiles 

- Scopus 

- EMBiology 

- TEME 

- etc.

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 1-3 

Content – Sadržaj 

I. Mamuzić 

FIRST CIRCULAR – CALL FOR PAPERS / SHMD ’2014 

11 th International Symposium of Croatian Metallurgical Society 

PRVO PRIOPĆENJE – POZIV ZA REFERATE 

11. međunarodni smpozij Hrvatskog metalurškog društva 5 

I. Mamuzić 

Zapisnik sa sastanka Uredničkog odbora časopisa Metalurgija 

Minutes of the meeting of the Editorial Board of the Journal Metalurgija 9 

Original Scientifi c Papers – Izvorni znanstveni radovi 

A. Nagode, G. Klančnik, M. Bizjak, D. Kovačević, B. Kosec, E. Dervarič, B. Zorc, L. Kosec 

Structural and thermodynamic analysis of whiskers on the surface of grey cast iron 11 

P. Malatyńska, J. Głownia 

Carbon content infl uence on the peritectic reaction path in stainless steels 15 

K. Kocúrová, M. Dománková, M. Hazlinger 

The infl uence of carbonitriding process on microstructure and mechanical properties 

of micro-alloyed steel 19 

A. Kawałek, J. Rapalska-Nowakowska, H. Dyja, B. Koczurkiewicz 

Physical and numerical modelling of heat treatment the precipitation-hardening 

complex-phase steel (CP) 23 

M. Burzić, M. Manjgo, D. Kozak, R. Prokić-Cvetković, O. Popović 

The effects of dynamic load on behaviour of welded joint A-387 Gr. 11 alloyed steel 27 

S. Wiewiórowska, Z. Muskalski 

Analysis the infl uence of drawing process parameters on the amount of retained 

austenite in trip steel wires 32 

H. Dyja, K. Sobczak, A. Kawałek, M. Knapiński 

The analysis of the infl uence of varying types of shape grooves on the behaviour 

of internal material discontinuities during rolling 35 

K. Laber, S. Mróz, P. Sygut, H. Dyja 

Analysis of the temperature change over the continuous ingot length on the parameters 

of round bar rolling process 39 

M. Suliga, R. Kruzel 

The mechanical properties of high carbon steel wires drawn in conventional 

and hydrodynamic dies 43 

Preliminary Notes – Prethodna priopćenja 

B. Grabowska, M. Holtzer, R. Dańko, M. Górny, A. Bobrowski, E. Olejnik 

New BioCo binders containing biopolymers for foundry industry 47 

A. Pribulová, P. Futaš, A. Rosová, P. Demeter, D. Baricová 

Infl uence of foundry dust on moulding mixtures quality 51 

J. Kolczyk, J. Zych 

Rheological properties of ceramic slurries with colloidal binders used in 

the investment casting technology 55 

1

J. Kamińska, J. Dańko 

Granulation process of foundry dusts originated from bentonite sand processing plants 59 

D. Kwaśniewska-Królikowska, M. Holtzer 

Selection criteria of lustrous carbon carriers in the aspect of properties of greensand system 62 

T. Bončina 

Shapes of the icosahedral quasicrystalline phase in melt-spun ribbons 65 

J. Łabaj, M. Słowikowski, W. Żymła, J. Lipart 

Possible ways of refi ning precious group metals (PGM) obtained from recycling 

of the used auto catalytic converters 68 

K. Janiszewski 

Industrial application of liquid steel fi ltration out of dispersed nonmetallic phase 

in the continuous casting machine 71 

B. Kalandyk, M. Starowicz, M. Kawalec, R. Zapała 

Infl uence of the cooling rate on the corrosion resistance of duplex cast steel 75 

T. Frączek, M. Olejnik 

A model for unconventional glow discharge nitriding of grade 2 titanium 79 

Gh. Amza, D. Dobrotă 

Ultrasound effect on the mechanical properties of parts loaded by welding 83 

D. Dobrotă, Gh. Amza 

Ultrasound infl uence on materials structure in parts reconditioned by 

welding with ultrasonic fi eld 87 

Gh. Amza, D. Dobrotă 

Researches concerning the ultasonic energy infl uence on the resistence 

to the abrasive wear of loaded welded parts 90 

R. Kruzel, M. Suliga 

The effect of multiple bending of wire on the residual stresses of high carbon steel wires 93 

Z. Muskalski, S. Wiewiórowska, M. Pełka 

The infl uence of drawing parameters on the properties high-manganese TWIP steel wires 96 

B. Grizelj, J. Cumin, D. Grizelj 

Effect of spring-back in v-tool bending of high-strength steel sheet metal plates 99 

Z. Pater, A. Tofi l, J. Tomczak 

Steel balls forming by cross rolling with upsetting 103 

B. Oleksiak, G. Siwiec, A. Blacha-Grzechnik 

Recovery of precious metals from waste materials by the method of fl otation process 107 

A. Čikić, A. Pintarić, I. Samardžić 

The infl uence of biomass quality on the purifi cation of fl ue gases and multicyclone 

assembly material 111 

D. Letić, B. Davidović, I. Berković, B. Radulović, J. Savičić 

Planning of designing and installation of mechanical elements at the gear speed reducer 

on the basis of the parameter technology 115 

J. Šebo, J. Buša, P. Demeč, J. Svetlík 

Optimal replacement time estimation for machines and equipment based on cost function 119 

2 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 1-3

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 1-3 

Review Papers – Pregledni radovi 

A. Wziątek-Staśko 

Diversity management – a tool to improve a metallurgic enterprise 123 

W. Sroka 

Coopetition in the steel industry − analysis of coopetition relations in the value net 127 

Professional Papers – Strukovni radovi 

B. Gajdzik 

World class manufacturing in metallurgical enterprise 131 

J. Kutáč, K. Janovská, A. Samolejová, P. Besta, Š. Vilamová I. Vozňáková 

The impact of production capacity utilization on metallurgical companies fi nancing 135 

B. Gajdzik 

Diagnosis of employee engagement in metallurgical enterprise 139 

Croatian Metallurgical Society 

Godišnja skupština Hrvatskog metalurškog društva (HMD) 

Annual Assambly of Croatian Metallurgical Society (CMS) 4 

I. Mamuzić 

Zahvala recenzentima 51(2012 god.) 

Acknowledgement to Reviewers 51(2012) 138 

I. Mamuzić 

Survey of 10th International Symposium of Croatian Metallurgical Society (CMS) 

SHMD `2012 143 

3

Godišnja skupština Hrvatskog metalurškog 

društva (HMD) 

Annual Assambly of Croatian Metallurgical 

Society (CMS) 

Šibenik, Solaris Beach Resort, 2012-06-19, Dvorana Prvić / Hall Prvić, 6-8 PM 

Usvaja se / Has adopted: 

1. Izvješće o djelatnosti Hrvatskog metalurškog društva (s osvrtom na međunarodne 

aktivnosti) za 2011. god. / The Report on the activities of the Croatian 

Metallurgical Society in 2011(including international activities) 

2. Račun Prihoda i Rashoda za 2011. god.; Bilanca na dan 31. prosinca 2011. 

god.; Bilješka uz fi nancijsko izvješće za 2011. god. / Income & expenditure 

account 2011; Balance Sheet as at 31 December 2011; Notes to the - Financial 

Report 2011 

3. Program djelatnosti Hrvatskog metalurškog društva u 2012. god. (posebice 

planirane međunarodne aktivnosti) / Action Programme of the Croatian Metallurgical 

Society for 2012 (with special reference to the planned international 

activities) 

4. Proračun za 2012. god. (posebice za međunarodne aktivnosti) / 2012 Budget 

(with special reference to the planned international activities) 

5. Iznos godišnje članarine u 2012. god. za pravne i pojedinačne osobe / Membership 

fees in 2012 for legal entities and individual persons 

6. U Upravni odbor uključen Bojan Macan, prof., kao pojedinačna osoba / Professor 

Bojan Macan co-opted into the Managing Board, at the individual 

person (bilo nepopunjeno / was vacancy) 

Zastupnici iz Hrvatske, Slovenije, Slovačke, 

Češke, Poljske, Crne Gore (gost) / Delegates 

from Croatia, Slovenia, Slovakia, Czech 

Republic, Poland, Montenegro (guest) 

4 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 4

I. Mamuzić / President 

ORGANIZINING COMMITTEE 

Ten International Symposium have been held so far: 

1 st: Zagreb – 1994 – February, 16 – 18 (88 lectures) 

2 nd: Split – 1996 – June, 20 – 22 (150 lectures) 

3 rd: Šibenik – 1998 – June, 25 – 27 (192 lectures) 

4 th: Opatija – 2000 – June, 25 – 29 (333 lectures) 

5 th Šibenik – 2002 – June, 23 – 27 (375 lectures) 

6 th: Šibenik – 2004 – June, 20 – 24 (368 lectures) 



9 th Šibenik – 2010 – June 20 – 24 (541 lectures) 

10 th Šibenuk: 2012 – June, 17- 21 (641 lectures) 

THE AIM OF SYMPOSIUM `2014 

The aim of this Symposium is to point out all the possibilities 

of the materials and achievements in metallurgy. 

TOPICS OF THE SYMPOSIUM ARE: 

Materials 

- New Materials 

- Refractory Materials 

- The Development 

- Applications 

- Physical Metallurgy 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 5-8 

FIRST CIRCULAR – CALL FOR PAPERS 

Prvo priopćenje – poziv za referate 


11. međunarodni simpozij Hrvatskog metalurškog društva 

»Materials and Metallurgy« 

»Materijali i metalurgija« 

http://public.carnet.hr/metalurg 

SHMD `2014 

Šibenik 2014, June 22 – 26, Solaris Beach Resort , Croatia 

(Based on the Agreement of Meeting of world Metallurgical Societies, Dusseldorf 2010) 


»Materials and Metallurgy« will be held as part of: 

95 th anniversary of the Foundation of the Technical Faculties University of Zagreb 

(1919 – 2014), Croatia 

95 th anniversary of the Foundation of Dnepropetrovsk National University 

(1919 – 2014), Ukraine 

75 th anniversary of Studies of Metallurgy University of Ljubljana 

(1939 – 2014), Slovenia 

60 th anniversary of the Establishment of Institute of Materials Research, 

Slovak Academie of Sciences (1950 – 2014) 

Metallurgy 

- Process Metallurgy and Foundry 

- Plastic Processing of Metals and Alloys 

- Technologies 

- Energetics 

- Ecology in Metallurgy 

- Quality Assurance and Quality Menagement 

Here are the most important details on the 10 th Symposium 

of Croatian Metallurgical Society 

ORGANIZER CROATIAN METALLURGICAL SOCIETY 

(CMS) 

PATRONS 

– European Steel Institute Confederation (ESIC) 

– European Steel Federation (ESF) 

– World Steel Association (WSA) 

– Ministry of Science, Education and Sport Republic of 

Croatia 

– Croatian Chamber of Economy 

– Sisak – Moslavina County 

– University of Osijek, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, 

Slavonski Brod, Croatia 

– Technical University of Košice, Košice, Slovakia 

5

I. MAMUZIĆ: SHMD `2014 

CO-ORGANIZERS 

– Academy of Engineering Science of Ukraine 

– University of Mining and Metallurgy, Faculty of 

Foundry Engineering, Krakow 

– University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Science 

and Engineering 

– Baikov Institute of Metallurgy and Materials Science 

Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 

– University of Zenica, Faculty for Metallurgy and Materials 

Science, Zenica 

– National Metallurgical Academy of Ukraine 

– Technical University of Košice, Faculty of Metallurgy 

– Technical University of Košice, Faculty of Mechanical 

Engineering 

– Technical University of Košice, Berg Faculty 

– University of Zagreb, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering 

and Naval Architecture 

– University of Osijek, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, 

Slavonski Brod 

– VŠB Technical University of Ostrava 

– Institute of Materials Research of the Slovak Academy 

of Sciences in Košice 

– Moscow State Steel and Alloys Institute 

– Physico-Technical Institute National Academie of 

Science, Minsk 

– Politehnica University of Bucharest 

– Institute of Metallurgy “Kemal Kapetanović”, Zenica 

– Pisarenko Institute of Problems of Strenght NASU, 

Kiev 

– Dnepropetrovsk National University 

– Czech Steel Federation 

– Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Faculty 

of Materials Science and Technology 

– Vatrostalna Sisak d.o.o. 

– High Technical School - Bjelovar 

– University of Applied Sciences, Slavonski Brod 

– University of Applied Sciences, Vukovar 

– University of Applied Sciences, Varaždin 

– Institute of Metals and Technology, Ljubljana 

– Czestochowa University of Technology 

– Silesian University of Technology, Katowice 

– Branch of Slovak Metallurgical Society, Seat in TU 

Košice 

CO-OPERATION WITH ORGANIZATIONS 

– Stahlinstitut VDEh, Germany 

– ATS - Association Technique de la Siderurgie Francaise 

– CENIM - Centro National de Investigaciones Metalurgicas 

Spain 

– ChSM - The Chinese Society for Metals China 

– CRM - Centre de Recherches Metallurgiques Belgium 

– ASMET - The Austrian Society for Metallurgy and 

Materials 

– American Iron and Steel Institute, USA 

– ISIJ - The Iron and Steel Institute of Japan 

– JERN - Jernkontoret, Sweden 

– SRM Romanian Society for Metallurgy 

– SITPH - Association of Polish Metallurgical Engineers 

– HOOGOVENS, The Netherlands 

– SHS - Slovak Metallurgical Society 

– Sociedade Portuguesa de Materiais 

– MVAE - Association of Hungarian Steel Industry 

– Steel Federation of the Czech Republic 

– Union of Bulgarian Metallurgists 

– IBS - Instituto Brasileiro de Siderugia 

– AIM - Associazione Italiana di Metallurgia 

– The Japan Institute of Metals 

– Egyptian Association for Industrial Development 

– Institute Argentino de Siderurgia 

– Associacao Brasileira de Metalurgia e Materiais 

– ILAFA - Instituto Latinoamericano del fi erroy el Acero, 

Chile 

– Société Francaise de Métallurgie et de Materiaux 

– The Institut of Materials, Minerals and Mining, England 

– P. T. Krakatau Steel, Indonesia 

– KOSA - Korea Iron and Steel Association 

– Amsteel Mills Sdn Bhd, Malaysia 

– Philippine Iron & Steel Institute 

– NatSteel Asia (S) Pte Ltd, Singapur 

– The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy 

– Iron and Steel Institute of Thailand 

– Vietnam Steel Corporation 

SCIENTIFIC COMMITEE 

I. Alfi rević, Croatia 

L. Blacha, Poland 

C.Kolmasiak, Poland 

H. Jäger, Austria 

I. Juraga, Croatia 

R. Kawalla, Germany 

O. Kochubey, Ukraine 

L. Kosec, Slovenia 

I. Mamuzić, Croatia – President 

S. Nikulin, Russia 

I. Samardžić, Croatia 

P. Ševc, Slovakia 

A. Veličko, Ukraine 

F. Vodopivec, Slovenia – Vice President 

G. Weiss, Slovakia 

HONOUR BOARD 

D. Aliev, Bulgaria 

A. Barcelo, Spain 

F. Bassani, Italy 

S. Bockus, Lithuania 

F.Bujang, Indonesia 

J. Butterfi ld, England 

I. Christmas, Belgium 

Z. Crnečki, Croatia 

B. Creton, France 

A. Čikić, Croatia 

A. Čižmar, Slovakia 

B. Daenulhay, Indonesia 

P. Dahlmann, Germany 

V. Dančenko, Ukraine 

F. Egerton, S. Africa 

P. Fajfar, Slovenia 

H. L. Filho, Brazil 

O. Gardella, Argentina 

M. Godec, Slovenia 

J. C. Herman, Benelux 

P. Hornak, Slovakia 

H. Hiebler, Austria 

L. Kavanagh, USA 

H. J. Kerkoff, Germany 

S. Kim, Korea 

A. Kojima, Japan 

D. Kozak, Croatia 

J. Labaj, Poland 

M. Lovrić Merzel, Croatia 

H. B. Lungen, Germany 

G. Merczis, Hungary 

6 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 5-8

S. Marwah, India 

A. Milković, Croatia 

G. Moreno, Chile 

TV. Narendran, Singapur 

R. Nascimento, Brasil 

J. Nel, South Africa 

W. Nicodemi, Italia 

M. Oruč, B and H 

L. H. Osterholm, Sweden 

G. Parvu, Romania 

J. Pindor, Czech Republic 

Ju. Projdak, Ukraine 

I. Pučko, Croatia 

J. Raab, Czech Republic 

E. Raczka, Poland 

P. Raus, Croatia 

M. Saariaha, Finland 

O. Santiago, Spain 

A. Sharkey, USA 

A. Stoić, Croatia 

D. H. Tam,Vietnam 

P. Tardy, Hungaria 

J. Tušek, Slovenia 

G. Uzelac, Croatia 

W. Vajarakupta, Thailand 

F. A. Zaghla, Egypt 

Z. Zhong, China 

T. Wellington, Philippines 

ORGANIZING COMMITTEE 

M. Buršak, Slovakia-Vice President 

V. Bukhanovski, Ukraine 

D. Constantinescu, Romania 

S. Dobatkin, Russia 

A. Gordienko, Belarus 

M. Holtzer, Poland 

I. Kladarić,Croatia 

J. Kliber, Czech Republic 

B. Kosec, Slovenia 

I. Mamuzić, Croatia-President 

M. Math, Croatia 

B. Oleksiak, Poland 

M. Rimac, B and H 

T. Vlasova, Ukraine 

M. Warzecha, Poland 

GENERAL INFORMATION 

Languages 

Criatian, English (no simultaneous translation) 

Summarye (Abstract) 

All participants who intend to present a lecture are required 

about a Summary of Paper lecture in the following 

from: 

Initial of Name, Surname, Institution, Stat, Title of 

Abstract, Content – max 120 words. 

The workshop of Symposium will be held in plenary 

session 

(invited lectures)and posters sections. 

Summaries of all accepted lectures will be published in 

Summaries of Lectures, after paid the Participation 

Fee, in the Journal Metalurgija 53 (2014) 3. Invited (plenary) 

Papers will be also published in the Journal Metalurgija 

53 (2014) 3, in order of acception after regular 

procedure. The selected Papers will be also published in 

the Journal Metallurgy after Symposium also with paid 

the Participation Fee, and accepted from the Reviewers. 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 5-8 


All correspondence and Papers send on CD to: 

Croatian Metallurgical Society (CMS) 

Berislavićeva 6, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia 

Phone / Fax: +385 1 619 86 89 (service) 

Mob: +385 98 317 173 

E-mail Summaries only to: 

denona@denona.hr or send them on CD to CMS. 

DEADLINES (please see WEB site for all information 

– http://public.carnet.hr/metalurg) 

Registration and Summary: 31 st January 2014 

Second Circular: 31 st March 2014 

Programme: 31 st May 2014 

Papers: at latest 31 st December 2014 

PARTICIPATION FEE 

a) Participation (each the Abstract), publication of Summaries 

in Metallurgy issue 53 (2014) 3, presentation 

in the poster section …. 150 Eur 

b) Publication of a whole paper in Journal Metallurgy 

(The papers not consistently prepared according to the 

»Instructions to Authors«, for Journal of Metalurgija 

will not be considered – see WEB site): 450 Eur (150 

Eur + 300 Eur) 

c) Other participants and co-authors….. 100 Eur 

All this prices generally included symposium attendance, 

welcome coctail and symposium materials. 

Please pay Participatin Fee by 31 st January, 

2014 to: 

Croatian Metallurgical Society, Zagreb 

Berislavićeva 6, Croatia, the bank account No: 

Privredna Banka Zagreb, Croatia 

703000-304713 

IBAN: HR 76 2340 0091 1100 4804 3 

SWIFT CODE (BIC): PBZGHR2X 

For the participants from Croatia (in Croatian Kuna): 

2340009-1110048043 

Without the payement we will not publish of Abstracts 

or Articles. 

The fee can also be paid at the symposium: price +10 

%, for Participants without lectures. 

Paper presentation 

– Plenary lectures of invited scientists will be held. 

– Authors are required to prepare posters (title, abstract, 

results, conclusion) on a 100x100 cm paper, to be paste 

on a board). 

Eventually let us point out: 

The reception of 11 th Symposium of Croatian Metallurgists 

by international associations has shown that the 

Symposium has become a traditional place for the gathering 

of the world`s experts and scientists of various profi 

les: metallurgists, physicists, chemists, mechanical engineers, 

and technicians who can and want to contribute so 

that metallurgy in Croatia receives the same attention a sit 

does in the world. 

7


REGISTRATION FROM SHMD`2014 

June 22 – 26, 2014 

Registration Form (see web site) 

should be sent not 

Later than 31 th January 2014 

Croatian Metallurgical Society, 

Berislavićeva 6, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia, 

or denona@denona.hr 

Name:_____________________________________ 

Titla and Profession: _________________________ 

University or Company: ______________________ 

Mailing Address: ____________________________ 

Zip Code: __________________________________ 

City: ______________________________________ 

Country: ___________________________________ 

Phone: ____________________________________ 

Fax: ______________________________________ 

E-mail: ____________________________________ 

Attendance: with a paper [ ] ; without a paper [ ], 

Title of the paper: ___________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

Author(s) __________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

Date: _____________________________________ 

Signature: _________________________________ 

ACCOMODATION 

Solaris Beach Resort, Šibenik, Croatia 

HOTEL ACCOMODATION FORM SHMD 2014 

(sent only directly to Solaris) 

Deadline of reservation: 20 th May 2014 to: 

Phone: + 385 22 361 008, fax: + 385 22 361 800 

Solaris Beach Resort, 22 000 Šibenik, Croatia 

prodaja@solaris.hr 

Name: __________________________________ 

Phone: __________________________________ 

Address: _________________________________ 

Arrival Date: ________06.2014 ; Time: _______ 

Departure Date: ______06.2014 ; Time: _______ 

Please indicate type of room required: 

(price are per person / day) 

double 1/2 single 1/1 

room + breakfast 55.00 Eur [ ] 79.00 Eur [ ] 

half board 60.00 Eur [ ] 84.00 Eur [ ] 

visitor`s tax - person / day 1.00 Eur 

The prices validly: June 20 – 29, 2014 (9 days) 

Date: ____________________________________ 

Signature: ________________________________ 

Information: Solaris Beach Resort 

Phone: + 385 22 361 004 

Fax: + 385 22 361 800 

The more details about the town Šibenik and Solaris 

Beach Resort, please see . www.solaris.hr 

8 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 5-8

Glavni i odgovorni urednik – Akad. Ilija Mamuzić Editor-in-chief – Acad. Ilija Mamuzić 

Urednički odbor časopisa Metalurgija Editorial Board of the Journal Metalurgija 

Sa sastanka Uredničkog odbora časopisa Metalurgija, održanog 

dana 18. lipnja 2012. god. u Hotelu Ivan – Solaris, Ši benik 

s početkom u 12,00 sati, dvorana Kornati 

Sastanak je otvorio glavni i odgovorni urednik Ilija Mamuzić, 

pozdravio nazočne, te predložio sljedeći: 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 9-10 

DNEVNI RED 

1. Promocija Monografi je »Metalurgija uvijek prosperitet za 

čovječanstvo« sa »Bibliografi ja časopisa Metalurgija 

1962. – 2012.« (u 12,00 sati) 

2. Očevid u časopisu Metalurgija i preporuke za budući rad 

3. Raznoliko 

Dnevni red je prihvaćen. 

Ad. 1. 

Glavni i odgovorni urednik je istakao, da sukladno Pravilniku 

časopisa Metalurgija članak 10., sastanci međunarodnog 

Uredničkog odbora održavaju se najmanje jedanput u dvije godine. 

Zadnji sastanak je održan u Šibeniku 21. lipnja 2010., a zapisnik 

sasastanka objavljen u Metalurgiji 49 (2010) 4, 291.-292. 

I. Mamuzić je također napomenuo, da na temelju Odluke 

Upravnog odbora Hrvatskog metalurškog društva (6. sjednica 

25.05.2012. god.) za promociju Monografi je »Metalurgija uvijek 

prosperitet za čovječanstvo« su uz autora Monografi je I. Mamuzića, 

predloženi: 

– Franc Vodopivec, kao recenzent Monografi je i član 

Uredničkog odbora časopisa Metalurgija od 1987. god. 

– Jiri Kliber član Uredničkog odbora časopisa Metalurgija 

od 1996. god. 

– Ivan Samardžić zamjenik glavnog i odgovornog urednika 

časopisa Metalurgije i zastupnik hrvatskih znanstvenika 

Autor Monografi je je prvo dao izvješće po poglavljima monografi 

je: 

– 50 godina »Bibliografi ja časopisa Metalurgija 

1962.-2012.« 

– 60 godina utemeljenja Hrvatskog metalurškog društva 

(HMD) 1952.-2012. 

– 9000 godina u svijetu, a 6000 metalurgije na ovim prostorima 

– 50 godina visokoškolske (sveučilišne) nastave u metalurgiji 

Hrvatske 

Istaknuti su ciljevi i zadaci Monografi je, te da je na jednom 

mjestu dat prikaz povijesti i događanja u Hrvatskoj metalurgiji 

tijekom 6000 godina, posebice propast 1990.-2012. god. 

F. Vodopivec kao recenzent dao je detaljni osvrt o značaju 

ove Monografi je i posebice čestitke povodom 50 godina tiska 

časopisa Metalurgija. 

J. Kliber se jednako osvrnuo na dugogodišnju suradnju i veliki 

doprinos ove Monografi je ne samo za Hrvatsku. 

I. Samardžić je istakao značaj i ulogu HMD-a, te doprinos 

časopisa Metalurgija, gdje objavljuju autori iz preko 30-ak 

država. Posebice u Bibliografi ji je očevid u Listu autora i Listu 

objavljenih radova tijekom 50 godina. 

Na kraju promocije autor je pročitao dva e-maila: 

ZAPISNIK / MINUTES 

Of the meeting of the Editorial Board of the Journal Metalurgija, 

held on 18 June, 2012 in the Hotel Ivan – Solaris, Šibenik 

with the beginning at 12 AM, Kornati Hall 

Nazočni / Present: I. Samardžić, S. Dobatkin, V. Balakin (zamjenik za / deputy for A. Veličko), M. Holtzer, I. Juraga, R. Kawalla, M. 

Buršak (zamjenik za / deputy for L.Mihok), J. Kliber, I. Mamuzić, M. Ikonić (gost / guest) 

Izočni / Absents: H. Hiebler, I. Alfi rević (excused), T. Mikac, Ž. Domazet (unexcused) 

Nazočno također / Present also: 200 osoba / Persons 

The Editor-in-chief, Ilija Mamuzić opened the meeting, 

greeting all the attendants and proposed the following: 

AGENDA 

1. Promotion of Monograph »Metallurgy, always prosperity 

for humanity« with »Bibliography of Journal Metalurgija 

1962 – 2012« (at 12 AM) 

2. Opinions on the Journal Metalurgija and recomendations for 

future work 

3. Other Business 

The Agenda was accepted. 

Ad. 1. 

The Editor-in-chief pointed out that pursuant to the Rule 

Book of the Journal Metalurgija, Article 10, the Meetings of the 

International Editorial Board shall be held at least once in two 

years. The last meeting was held in Šibenik, Solaris, 21 June 

2010 and the Minutes of the meeting were published in Metalurgija 

49 (2010) 4, 291-292. 

I. Mamuzić pointed out also, that on the basis of the Decision 

of Menagement Board of Croatian Metallurgical Society (6 th 

Meeting May 25, 2012) for promotion of Monograph« Metallurgy, 

always prosperity for humanity« are by the Author of 

Monograph proposed: 

– F. Vodopivec, as the reviewer of Monograph and Member 

of Editorial Board of Journal Metalurgija since 1987 y. 

– Jiri Kliber, Member of Editorial Board of Journal Metalurgija 

since 1996 y. 

– Ivan Samardžić, deputy of Editor-in-chief of Journal Metalurgija 

and the delegate of Croatian Scientifi sts. 

The Author of Monograph fi rst pointed out the report of 

Chapters Monograph: 

– Fifty years »Bibliography of Journal Metalurgija 1962- 

2012«. 

– Sixty years of the foundation of Croatian Metallurgical Society 

(CMS) 1952-2012. 

– 9000 years in the world and 6000 of the Metallurgy on the 

local territory. 

– Fifty years of high school (University level) the education 

in the Metallurgy of Croatia (1960-2010). 

The goals and tasks of the Monograph have been defi ned and 

then the 6,000-year history of metallurgy on the Croatian soil 

presented, especially including the last period of its decline 

(1990-2012). 

F. Vodopivec as a reviewer has given a detailed account of the 

importance of the Monograph and extended his congratulations on 

the occasion of the 50th anniversary of Metalurgija journal. 

J. Kilber has praised the longstanding cooperation and major 

contributions of the Monograph for Croatia and beyond. 

I. Samardžić has emphasised the importance and role of the 

Society, as well as that of Metalurgija journal where authors from 

9

I. MAMUZIĆ: ZAPISNIK / MINUTES 

a) od prvog glavnog i odgovornog urednika časopisa Metalurgija 

(1962 – 1963. god.) Branka Mayerholda: 

Poštovani gospodin Ilija Mamuzić, 

vrlo me je obradovala« Metalurgija« i priložena Bibliografi ja. 

Iskrene čestitke uz sjećanja na sve dobre i drage ljude u Željezari 

Sisak – njih više nema, ali oni žive u našim sjećanjima i u ovoj 

Monografi ji 1962.-2012. A Vama posebno stežem ruku prijateljstva 

kao zahvalu za Vaš trud i upornost da se održi u životu 

časopis »Metalurgija« i spomen na metaluršku proizvodnju kroz 

šest hiljada godina metalurgije na našim prostorima. 

Vaš Branko Mayerhold 

b) od umirovljenog profesora Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, Josipa 

Krajcara sudionika događanja u hrvatskoj metalurgiji 

preko 30 godina, autora više tekstova i članaka u časopisu 

Metalurgija ili dnevnom tisku: 

Poštovani profesore, lijep pozdrav. 

Hvala vam lijepa za Vašu novu knjigu koju sam prekjučer 

dobio. Prijatno ste me iznenadili i jako obradovali. Divim se 

Vašoj aktivnosti i čestitam vam na ovom velikom poduhvatu. 

Knji ga mi je došla kao prava terapija u dane kada se ne osjećam 

baš jako ornim. S velikim sam je zanimanjem prelistao, uvjerio se 

da ima mnogo zanimljivih podataka koji me podsjećaju na probleme 

i suradnike iz prošlih vremena. Nastavit ću sa čitanjem. 

Želim Vam sve najbolje i lijepo Vas pozdravljam. 

Josip Krajcar 

Promocija je završila rad u 13,30; nastavak sjednice Uredničkog 

odbora je bio u 6,30 sa točkama 2. i 3.; izočan I. Juraga – 

opravdano. 

Ad. 2. 

Članovi Uredničkog odbora pohvalno su se izrazili o dosadaš 

njoj djelatnosti časopisa: 

– uključenost u tercijalne i sekundarne publikacije i baze podataka, 

uz ISI izdanje i preko 30-ak baza podataka 

– redovitost tiskanja (svaki broj se tiska nekoliko mjeseci 

pred termin važenja) 

– opremljenost časopisa, itd. 

– javna dostupnost – uz normalni pisani oblik izdaje se i na 

CD – romu, te cjelovito na pet web-stranica 

– IF (faktor odjeka) 0,37 

– veće smanjenje grešaka (u odnosu na prije / prijevoda i 

lekture engleskog jezika) 

– veliko poboljšanje kakvoće tiska časopisa izborom nove 

tiskare Denona, itd. 

Časopis Metalurgija pokriva tehnička i ostala područja pa je 

tako različite tekstove teško lektorirati, odnosno prevoditi (engleski, 

hrvatski jezik). 

Ad. 3. 

Nazočni članovi Uredničkog odbora časopisa Metalurgija su 

i aktivni sudionici na 10. simpoziju »Materijali i metalurgija«, 

Šibenik 17.-21.06.2012. Istakli su u raspravi, visoku kakvoću 

sim pozija gdje je prijavljeno 641 referat iz 48 država, dobru organizaciju 

te ugodan ambijent u hotelima Solaris. 

Sukladno i do sada terminima održavanja međunarodnog 

Ured ničkog odbora časopisa Metalurgija, te Pravilniku časopisa 

Metalurgija (članak 10.) slijedeći sastanak je zakazan za 23. lipnja 

2014. godine. 

Sastanak je završio u 21,00 sati. 

10 

more that 30 countries have published their works. The Bibliography 

of the journal (1962-2012) gives a List of authors and a 

List of works published over the past 50 years of the journal’s 

continuous publication. 

At the end of the promotion ceremony the author read two 

e-mails 

a) From B. Mayerhold fi rst Editor-in-chief of the Journal 

Metalurgija (1962 – 1963) 

Respected Mr. Ilija Mamuzić, 

I was very glad to receive the Monograph with the attached Bibliography 

My heartfelt congratulations with remembrances of all the good 

and dear people of Sisak Steelworks, many of whom are no longer 

with us but who live in our memories and this Monograph 

1962-2012. As for you in particular, I shake you hand cordially, 

thanking you for your dedication and endeavour to keep Metalurgija 

journal alive, in memory to the six millennia of metallurgic 

manufacture in our territories 

Yours Branko Meyerhold 

b) From J. Krajcar, a retired professor of University Zagreb, who 

for more than 30 years participated in all major events related 

to the Croatian metallurgy and contributed a number of articles 

and texts to the Journal Metalurgija and newspapers 

Dear Professor, extending my warm greetings and thanks for 

your new book I received the day before yesterday. It has been a 

very nice surprise. I admire your vitality and congratulate you on 

this major undertaking. The book has come to me as a real therapy 

at a time when I m not feeling rather low. I have looked 

through the book with great interest and taken note of a lot of 

interesting information that remind me of the problems we once 

faced and the colleagues we worked with. I’ll surely go on reading 

it. I wish you all the best. 

Regards Josip Krajcar 

Promotion fi nished in 1,30 PM; the prolongation of Meeting 

of Editorial Board was in 6,30 PM, number 2 and 3. Absent: I. 

Juraga (excused). 

Ad. 2. 

Members of the Members of the Editorial Board expressed 

their compliments on the activity of the Journal so far: 

– involvement in teriary and secondary publications and databases, 

with ISI issue and over 30 databases 

– printing regularity (every issue is printed several months in 

advance) 

– the journal is well equipped. Etc. 

– public availability – in addition to normal hardcopy it is 

issued on CD-ROM, and integrally on fi ve web-site 

– IF (impact factor) 0,37 

– Substantial reduction of errors (in relation to earlier issues 

/ in translations and proofreading in English) 

– Great improvement of the journal printingquality by choosing 

a new printing house, Denona, etc. 

Journal Metalurgija covers technical as well as other areas, 

consequently such a broad range of different texts is diffi cult to 

revise, i. e. translate (English – Croatian languages). 

Ad. 3. 

The present members of the International Editorial Board of 

the Journal Metalurgija have also taken an active part in 10 th 

Symposium »Materials and Metallurgy«, Šibenik 17 – 21 June 

2012. In discussion, they emphasized high quality of the Symposium 

with 641 reports from 48 countries, good organization and 

comfortable atmosphere in Solaris hotels. 

In compliance with the terms the International Editorial 

Board of the Journal Metalurgija has been held so far, and the 

Rule Book of the Journal Metalurgija (Article 10) the next meeting 

is scheduled to be held on 23 June 2014. 

The meeting ended at 9,00 PM 

Promocija Monografi je, (slijeva na desno): 

Promotion of Monograph (from left to right): 

I. Mamuzić, F. Vodopivec, J. Kliber, I. Samardžić 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 9-10

A. NAGODE, G. KLANČNIK, M. BIZJAK, D. KOVAČEVIĆ, B. KOSEC, 

E. DERVARIČ, B. ZORC, L. KOSEC 

STRUCTURAL AND THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF WHISKERS 

ON THE SURFACE OF GREY CAST IRON 

A. Nagode, G. Klančnik, M. Bizjak, B. Kosec, E. Dervarič, B. Zorc, L. 

Kosec., Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of Ljubljana, 

Slovenia D. Kovačević, Faculty of Technical Sciences, University 

of Novi Sad, Serbia 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 11-14 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 11-14 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 669.14.018.298:669.18=111 

Received – Prispjelo: 2012-04-18 

Accepted – Prihvaćeno: 2012-08-15 

Original scientifi c paper – originalni znanstveni rad 

The paper focuses, fi rst, on the characterization of the whiskers on the surface of grey cast iron and second, it gives 

an explanation of whiskers growth based on thermodynamic calculations. The whiskers were observed on the surface 

of hot plates for the electric stove after black-oxide-coating (blackening) performed the furnace at 650 °C in 

order to produce a protective layer mainly of magnetite (Fe O ). However, the whiskers caused brown spots on dark 

3 4 

grey surface and thus, the surface was aesthetically damaged. The investigations confi rmed that whiskers are of 

hematite (Fe O ); however, the thermodynamic calculations present that hematite may be formed as a result of the 

2 3 

oxidation of magnetite if the partial pressure of oxygen is increased during the blackening. 

Key words: whiskers, grey cast iron, magnetite (Fe O ), hematite (Fe O ) 

3 4 2 3 

INTRODUCTION 

A surface of a hot plate made of grey cast iron used 

for the electric stove exhibits many brown stains (Figure 

1) after black oxide coating (blackening). The blackening 

[1] is mainly used to produce a protective dark 

(grey) oxide layer [2,3] on the surface consisting predominantly 

of magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ); however, it also prevents 

against corrosion and abrasion, and since it has 

also decorative role the occurrence of brown stains on 

the surface is thus not acceptable [4]. Before blackening 

the grooves on the surface of the hot plate are made by 

turning [5-7] . 

The black oxide coating process of hot plate was 

held in the furnace at 650 °C. For the appropriate atmosphere 

for producing a thin oxide layer on the surface 

of grey cast iron the wood was burned [8]. The 

maximum temperature in the furnace of 650 °C is 

reached after four hours, while the whole process lasts 

eight hours. 

EXPERIMENTAL 

For the microstructural characterization of the brown 

stains on the surface of grey cast iron which have been 

observed after blackening a scanning electron microscope 

Jeol JSM 5610 equipped with energy dispersive 

x-ray spectrometer (EDXS) was used [9]. The accelerated 

voltage of electron beam was 20 keV. An x-ray diffraction 

analysis was also performed for phase identifi ca- 

Figure 1 Brown stains on the surface of grey cast iron after 

blackening 

tion. Thus, an x-ray diffractometer PANalytical X´Pert 

PRO (radiation wavelength CuKα 1 = 1,5406 Å) with Johansson 

monochromator for fl at samples has been used. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

A detailed observation of the surface of grey cast 

iron after blackening using scanning electron microscope 

revealed that the surface with brown stains (Figure 

1) is covered with whiskers [10-14] (Figure 2), 

while the surface where no brown stains have been observed 

shows typical oxide pattern (Figure 3) which refl 

ects grain orientation of the base material. 

Backscatter electron image (BEI) of the cross section 

of the sample covered with whiskers (Figure 4) 

shows, chemically, two different oxide layers on the 

base material (grey cast iron), i.e., the outer (light con- 

11

A. NAGODE et al.: STRUCTURAL AND THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF WHISKERS ON THE SURFACE... 

Figure 2 Surface of grey cast iron covered with whiskers; SEI 

Figure 3 Typical oxide pattern after black oxide coating; SEI 

trast) and the inner (dark contrast) oxide layers However, 

a detailed EDXS analysis (Table 1) shows that 

whiskers as well as the upper part of the outer oxide 

layer is composed of pure Fe-oxide, while in the lower 

oxide layer EDXS analysis indicates FeMn-oxides. The 

EDXS analysis of the inner oxide layer (dark contrast) 

confi rms the presence of Fe, Mn and Cr; however, the 

increased content of Si indicates that the inner layer is 

composed of Si-rich Fe(MnCr) oxide. 

In Figure 4 the internal oxidation of the matrix 

around the graphite fl akes near the surface can also be 

seen. The internal oxidation actually consists of iron 

oxidation (xFe + yO → Fe x O y ) as well as graphite oxidation 

(2C + O 2 → 2CO or C + O 2 → CO 2 ). The formation 

and growth of the Fe-oxide in the subsurface is 

promoted by oxygen penetration through the graphite 

boundaries with the metallic matrix [15, 16]. In order to 

show the element distribution on the cross section of the 

sample covered with whiskers an energy dispersive xray 

spectroscopy (EDXS) maps are presented. EDXS 

maps confi rm above mentioned results of EDXS quantitative 

analysis. Distribution of carbon shows graphite 

fl akes at the bottom of the image, however, at the top of 

the image the signal of C shows the signal C, Kα x-rays 

which come from the bakelite that the sample for metallographic 

preparation has been put in. The x-ray diffrac- 

Figure 4 Cross section of the sample covered with whiskers; 

BEI 

tion analysis was used for a phase identifi cation of the 

surface covered with whiskers as well as for the surface 

without them. The analysis showed that the only difference 

between two XRD patterns lies in the ratio of the 

peak intensities between the hematite (Fe 2 O 3 ) and the 

magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ). Namely, a detail from the XRD spectrum 

(2 theta = 32 ° - 2 theta = 36 °) of the surface covered 

with whiskers shows a higher peak-intensity ratio 

between the hematite (Fe 2 O 3 ) and the magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ) 

(Figure 6a) in comparison to the x-ray diffraction pattern 

of the surface without whiskers (Figure 6b). Since 

the surface with brown stains is covered with whiskers 

this result indicates that the whiskers are composed of 

hematite (Fe 2 O 3 ). 

THERMODYNAMIC CALCULATIONS 

For the calculation of particular phase diagram, Figure 

7, the data for pure elements were taken from Dinsdale 

[17], for the substances data from Ansara [18]. 

Thermodynamic assessments on the Fe-O phase dia- 

Fe, Kα Mn, Kα 

Cr, Kα Si, Kα 

O, Kα C, Kα 

Figure 5 EDXS maps of Fe, Mn, Cr, Si O and C 

12 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 11-14


Table 1 EDXS analysis of the sample covered with whiskers 

in cross section /wt. % 

Site of 

interest 

Fe O Mn Si Cr 

1 93,5 6,5 - - - 

2 95,9 4,1 - - - 

3 96,0 1,9 1,1 - - 

4 95,9 3,1 0,4 0,3 0,3 

5 95,8 0,6 0,7 2,2 0,6 

6 97,4 - 0,6 1,3 0,7 

Figure 6 A detail of XRD spectrum of the surface; a) covered 

with whisker; b) without whiskers 

gram were done by Sundman [19] and Selleby and Sundman 

[20]. The calculation of the phase diagram was 

done using Thermo-Calc software (TCW5). 

The calculations were performed using equation 1 

and equation 2. The activity of oxide was taken to be 1 

as in the case of pure metal. The standard state of the 

gas is 1 atm. The equation for oxidation of pure metal is 

given with equation 1: 

2u 

2 

Me( 

s) 

+ O2 

= MeuO 

(1) 

v( 

s) 

v 

v 

0 

−1 

0 

∆G 

= ∆G 

+ RT ln po2 

( eq.) 

= ∆G 

− RT ln po2 

( eq.) 

(2) 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 11-14 

2Fe(s) + O 2 = 2FeO(s) 

∆G 0 = −529 800 + 113,0T (3) 

1,5Fe(s) + O 2 = 0,5Fe 3 O 4 (s) 

∆G 0 = −553 400 + 148,0T (4) 

4Fe 3 O 4 (s) + O 2 = 6Fe 2 O 3 (s) 

∆G 0 = −498 900 + 281,3T (5) 

6FeO(s) + O 2 = 2Fe 3 O 4 (s) 

∆G 0 = −624 400 + 250,2T (6) 

where ∆G(J) and ∆G 0 (J) represents the Gibbs energy 

change of the reaction when all reactants and products 

are at their respective arbitrarily states and the standard 

Gibbs energy of formation (equations 3-6). R is the gas 

constant (8,3144 Jmol -1 K -1 ), T temperature (K) and po 2 

(eq.) (atm) is equilibrium (dissociation) pressure of iron 

oxide. The calculations were done for equilibrium con- 

Figure 7 Fe-O phase diagram, and partial pressure of oxygen 

at 400 °C, 600 °C, 800 °C and 1000 °C 

ditions, ∆G = 0 Constant isobars at specifi c temperatures 

revealed large variations of dissociation pressures 

of iron oxides existing between different oxide regions. 

So, proper heating and cooling conditions (with controlled 

partial pressure-oxygen content inside the gas 

reservoir) are needed for controlled growth of oxides, 

Figure 7. If the value po 2 for a given atmosphere under 

consideration lies under the dissociation pressure of 

iron oxide po 2 (eq.), this oxide will dissociate into the 

oxygen and metal (or another oxide). On the contrary, if 

the value po 2 lies above the dissociation pressure of iron 

oxide po 2 (eq.), then the iron oxide is stable. So, increased 

partial pressure of oxygen relative to dissociation 

pressure at temperature of interest the formation of 

the hematite on the pre-existing magnetite is possible. 

The content of particular oxide (Fe 2 O 3 on Fe 3 O 4 ) is a 

time-dependant function. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Whiskers growth on the surface of hot plates made 

of grey cast iron caused brown stains and thus, aesthetically 

damaged the surface. Scanning electron microscope 

(SEM) showed that whiskers were growing from 

the top oxide layer on the surface of grey cast iron. An 

EDXS analysis confi rmed that the oxide on the surface 

of the grey cast iron consists, chemically, of three different 

types of oxides, i.e., whiskers and the outer oxide 

layer are pure Fe-oxide, below it is a narrow layer of 

FeMn-oxide, while the inner layer consists of Si-rich 

Fe(MnCr) oxide. An X-ray diffraction pattern of the 

surface covered with whiskers shows a higher Fe 2 O 3 / 

Fe 3 O 4 peak-intensity ratio according to the x-ray diffraction 

pattern of the surface without them. This indicates 

that the whiskers are from hematite (Fe 2 O 3 ). 

13


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Chemical Research, 9 (2009), 13-23. 

[2] M. Gojić, J. Črnko, M. Kundak, L. Kosec, Kovové Materiály, 

41 (2003), 158-166. 

[3] M. Bizjak, A. Zalar, P. Panjan, B. Zorko, B. Praček, Applied 

Surface Science, 253 (2007), 3977-3981. 

[4] A. Nagode, G. Klančnik, H. Schwarczova, B. Kosec, M. 

Gojić, L. Kosec, Engineering Failure Analysis, 23 (2012) 

1, 82-89. 

[5] J. Tušek, D. Klobčar, Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 

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[6] I. Budak, M. Soković, M. Barišić, Measurement, 44 (2011) 

6, 1188-1200. 

[7] D. Klobčar, L. Kosec, B. Kosec, J. Tušek, Engineering Failure 

Analysis, 20 (2012) 1, 43 – 53. 

[8] M. Medved, V. Malenković, E. Dervarič, Technics Technologies 

Education Management, 6 (2011) 2, 247-255. 

[9] G. Kosec, A. Nagode, I. Budak, A. Antić, B. Kosec, Engineering 

Failure Analysis, 18 (2011) 1, 450-454. 

[10] F. Tholence, M. Norell, Oxididation of Metals, 69 (2008), 

13-36. 

[11] B. Schmid, N. Aas, R. Ødegård, Oxidation of Metals, 57 

(2002), 115-130. 

[12] R. L. Higginson, G. Green, Corrosion Science, 53 (2011), 

1690-1693. 

[13] J. W. Kim, J.W. Choi, D.B. Lee, Metals and Materials International, 

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[14] A. Ivanič, S. Lubej, R. Rudolf, I. Anžel, Science and Engineering 

of Composite Materials, 18 (2011) 3, 181-186. 

[15] J. Robertson, M.I. Manning, Materials Science and Technology, 

5 (1989), 741-753. 

[16] M. B. Lin, C. Jeng, A.A. Volinsky, Oxidation of Metals, 76 

(2011), 161-168. 

[17] A. T. Dinsdale, SGTE Data for Pure Elements, Calphad 15 

(4) (1991), 317-425. 

[18] I. Ansara, SGTE Substance Database (2000). 

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127-140. 

[20] M. Selleby, B. Sundman, Calphad 20 (1996), 381-392. 

Note: The responsible translator for English language is Urška Letonja, 

MOAR, Podgora, Slovenia. 

14 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 11-14

P. MALATYŃSKA, J. GŁOWNIA 

CARBON CONTENT INFLUENCE 

ON THE PERITECTIC REACTION PATH IN STAINLESS STEELS 

P. Malatyńska, J. Głownia, AGH University of Science and Technology, 

Kraków, Poland 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 15-18 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 15-18 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 669.146.536.42.669.141.25=111 



Original Scientifi c Paper – Izvorni znanstveni rad 

An important role for the peritectic reaction path in castings of stainless steel play small changes in a carbon content 

(e.g. from 0,02 to 0,06 % C), at maintaining constant chromium and nickel values. An infl uence of the carbon 

content on the peritectic reaction stages constitutes the subject of studies. The calculations of the steel solidifi cation 

pathways in the four-component system, of a constant chromium and nickel content of 18 % and 9 % – respectively 

and of various carbon content from 0,01 to 0,06 %, were performed. It was proved by means of the PANDAT 

program that the carbon concentration increases the Cr segregation and thereby changes the solidifi cation path 

under actual conditions. 

Key words: peritectic reaction, stainless steel, carbon content, segregation, simulation of solidifi cation. 

INTRODUCTION 

Investigations of the behaviour of the Fe-Cr18-Ni9 

system during the peritectic reaction occurrence were 

performed by means of the PANDAT program. Regardless 

of several studies concerning the peritectic reaction 

[1 – 8] it is still a not well known effect. In order to understand 

better the processes occurring during this reaction 

several calculations of the system, allowing the visualisation 

of this change, were performed. This reaction is 

of an essential meaning in modern casting, since it is considered 

to be the cause of surface defects such as cracks 

and deformations, especially in thin casting walls. An occurrence 

of longitudinal cracks on casting surfaces is related 

to volumetric changes and fractions of ferrite and 

austenite phases, while transverse cracks to the formation 

of austenite grains [1]. The peritectic reaction [1 – 4] described 

many times, divides the peritectic change into 

three stages: the main reaction, phase transformation and 

solidifi cation. Mechanisms of the reaction and transformation 

were characterised in detail by H. Kerr [4]. 

Investigations of the solidifi cation of austenitic Fe- 

Cr-Ni steels will allow differentiating four solidifi cation 

forms, which depend on the initial phase and on further 

transformations in the solid phase [5]. The total solidifi - 

cation of the regular face-centred cubic phase, fcc, is 

called the A type, while the AF type [6] starts the solidifi 

cation process of the primary fcc phase, up to the fi nal 

stage of the eutectic reaction (fcc + bcc). 

The solidifi cation period of the primary body-centred 

cubic phase, bcc, up to the end of the eutectic reaction 

(bcc + fcc) is called the FA type. The total solidifi - 

cation of the bcc phase is marked as the F type. The total 

solidifi cation of the regular face-centred cubic, fcc (A 

type), phase depends on nickel, which stabilises this 

phase, whereas in case of the regular body-centred cubic, 

bcc (F type), phase chromium is the stabilizing element. 

For the A and AF solidifi cation types, at the primary 

solid phase growing, chromium contained in the 

alloy enriches interdendritic liquid causing an occurrence 

of the eutectic reaction (fcc + bcc) in the fi nal solidifi 

cation stage. The bcc phase is contained in the interdendritic 

zones of the formed eutectic in the retained, 

different morphology. For the FA and A solidifi cation 

types the interdendritic liquid is enriched in nickel, 

which causes the eutectic reaction occurrence (bcc + 

fcc), and the formed microstructure consists of the bcc 

phase dendrites surrounded by the fcc phase [6]. 

EXPERIMENTAL PART 

Calculations of the Fe-Cr-Ni system were performed 

for the constant chromium (18 %) and nickel (9 %) content, 

at the variable carbon content (from 0,01 to 0,06 

%). The preformed examinations of the system were 

based on previous estimations made by Luoma [9], 

Hillert and Qiu [10] and Kundrad and Elliot [11]. The 

main aim of the investigations was the verifi cation in 

what way a small carbon content infl uences the fourcomponent 

system. The infl uence of chromium on the 

three-component Fe-Cr-Ni system in the peritectic reaction 

area is presented in Figure 1. This is the temperature 

range, specially considered in the paper. 

From among several calculated systems – solidifying 

within the peritectic reaction temperature – the following 

temperatures were selected for the analysis: 

1 515 ˚C, 1 500 ˚C, 1 490 ˚C, 1 480 ˚C and 1 4750˚C. In 

the fi rst of these temperatures: 1 515 ˚C, for lower carbon 

15

P. MALATYŃSKA et al.: CARBON CONTENT INFLUENCE ON THE PERITECTIC REACTION PATH IN STAINLESS STEELS 

Figure 1 Infl uence of chromium content on solidifi cation 

mode in Fe-Cr-Ni ternary system 

Figure 2 Solidifi cation course in temperature 

1 515 °C of Fe-Cr18-Ni9 system: A) 0,01 - 0,03 % C, 

B) 0,04 - 0,06 % C 

A) 

B) 

content (Figure 2 A), the visible, initial area of three 

phases (LIQUID + BCC_A2 + FCC_A1), i.e. the peritectic 

reaction, occurs at 6 % of chromium and 4 % of nickel, 

while for higher carbon content (Figure 2 B) – at approximately 

5 % of chromium and above 4 % of nickel. 

In a lower temperature: 1 500 ˚C and for 0,01 – 0,03 

% C (Figure 3 A), the peritectic reaction starts already at 

app. 11 % of chromium and 6% of nickel. However, lower 

carbon content the smaller BCC_A2 crystallisation 

area, which – in turn – decreases the peritectic reaction 

area (LIQUID + BCC_A2 + FCC_A1) and its further 

transformation. The three-phase area for 0,04 – 0,06 % C 

has a wider range, in a similar fashion as the transformation 

via the secondary FCC_A1 phase, while the hightemperature 

BCC_A2 range decreases (Figure 3 B). 

A successive shifting to higher chromium concentrations 

occurs during the solidifi cation at a temperature 

of 1 490˚C (Figure 4 A and B). The three-phase area 

decreases, in an analogous way, with the decreasing carbon 

content in the system and with increasing the hightemperature 

is also visible at a temperature of 1 480 °C 

(Figure 5 A and B). The larger this area BCC_A2 phase, 

16 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 15-18 

A) 

B) 

Figure 3 Solidifi cation course in temperature 

1 500 ˚C of Fe-Cr18-Ni9 system: A) 0,01 - 0,03 % C, B) 

0,04 - 0,06 % C


METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 15-18 

A) 

B) 

Figure 4 Solidifi cation course in temperature 1490 °C of Fe- 

Cr18-Ni9 system: A) 0,01 - 0,03 % C, B) 0,04 - 0,06 % C 

as a result of diffusion via the FCC_A1 phase. This decrease 

causes that the alloy has worse corrosion resistant 

and strength properties, especially in case of castings 

of diversifi ed wall thickness. It also leads to the 

increased segregation of carbon and chromium and to 

the formation of brittle phases, such as σ. 

The change of the peritectic transformation area the 

smaller the high-temperature BCC_A2 phase. The peritectic 

reaction area in Figure 5 A decreases and the 

FCC_A1 phase crystallising from the LIQUID surrounds 

the primary BCC_A2 phase. As a result of that, 

the LIQUID phase in the system disappears as a component 

of the peritectic reaction. Figure 5 B presents the 

area of two phases occurrence: LIQUID + BCC_A2 for 

higher carbon concentrations. During the peritectic reaction 

the increased FCC_A1 phase fraction causes the 

decrease of the high-temperature BCC_A2 phase. 

In a still lower temperature (1 475 °C), Figure 6 A, 

the LIQUID phase disappears and the areas of the LIQ- 

UID + BCC_A2 and LIQUID + FCC_A1 occurrence 

decrease. Thus, the slow disappearance of the threephase 

peritectic reaction takes place. However, the diffusion 

of carbon still occurs in the FCC_A1 phase and 

due to it, the three-phase peritectic area, but much 

smaller in size, still occurs in liquid containing from 

0,04 % to 0,06 % of carbon (Figure 6 B). It can be noticed, 

that at 0,06 % of the carbon content the BCC_A2 

area narrows to below 1 % of chromium and 1 % of 

nickel. This is the reason that after the fi nished crystallization 

this phase is – in the alloy microstructure – in 

the retained form only. The content of components stabilizing 

ferrite and austenite in the alloy decides on its 

size. 

CONCLUSIONS 

A) 

B) 

Figure 5 Solidifi cation course in temperature 1480 °C of Fe- 

Cr18-Ni9 system: A) 0,01 - 0,03 % C, B) 0,04 - 0,06 % C 

The peritectic reaction occurring in the Fe-Cr-Ni alloy 

is of a special meaning for the fi nal microstructure 

17


and properties of cast steels. Several strength and corrosion 

resistant properties depend on its pathway. This 

reaction mainly depends on the alloying elements content 

and also – as it was shown in the presented here 

study – on the carbon content. It is worth emphasizing 

that such strong infl uence, on the three-phase area of the 

peritectic reaction and its further transformation, is exerted 

by such small differences in the carbon content 

(calculations were performed every 0,01 % of C). It was 

noticed, that the higher carbon content the wider area of 

the peritectic reaction occurrence. However, the following 

transformation of the BCC_A2 phase into FCC_A1 

increases its range. Unfortunately the BCC_A2 phase 

amount after the alloy solidifi cation depends on the peritectic 

reaction range. The BCC_A2 phase is very important 

due to its infl uence on corrosion resistance 

properties and formation of brittle phases. 

Acknowledgements 

The research program was performed within the 

Project: NSC No. N N508 624440 (2011-2013) 

REFERENCES 

[1] McDonald N.J., Sridhar S.: Journal of Materials Science, 

40(2005) 241 ÷ 2416. 

[2] Hillert M., Höglund L.: Materials Transactions, 40(1999) 

564 ÷ 566. 

[3] Hillert M., Höglund L.: Materials Transactions, 40(1999) 

567 ÷ 570. 

[4] Kerr H.W., Cisse J., Bolling G.F.: Acta Metallurgica, 

22(1974) 677 ÷ 686. 

[5] Koseki T., Flemings M.C.: Metallurgical and Materials 

Transactions A, 27A(1996) 3226 ÷ 3240. 

[6] Kalandyk B.: Archives of Foundry Engineering, Katowice 

– Gliwice 2011, 138 pp. 

[7] Fredriksson H.: Metal Science, 10(1976) 77 ÷ 86. 

[8] Fredriksson H., Stjerndahl J.: Metal Science, 16(1982) 575 

÷ 585. 

[9] Luoma R.: Acta Polytechnica Scandinavica, Chemical 

Technology Series No. 292, Helsinki 2002, 91 pp. 

[10] Hillert M., Qiu C.: Metallurgical Transaction A, 22.A(1991) 

2187 ÷ 2198. 

[11] Kundrad D.H., Elliot J.F.: Metallurgical Transaction A, 

19(1988) 899 ÷ 908. 

Note: The responsible translator for English language: “ANGOS” 

Translation Offi ce, Kraków, Poland 

18 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 15-18 

A) 

B) 

Figure 6 Solidifi cation course in temperature 1 475 ˚C of Fe- 

Cr18-Ni9 system: A) 0,01 -0 ,03 % C, B) 0,04 - 0,06 % C

K. KOCÚROVÁ, M. DOMÁNKOVÁ, M. HAZLINGER 

THE INFLUENCE OF CARBONITRIDING 

PROCESS ON MICROSTRUCTURE AND 

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MICRO-ALLOYED STEEL 

K. Kocúrová, M. Dománková, M. Hazlinger Faculty of Materials Science 

and Technology Trnava, Slovak University of Technology Bratislava, 

Slovak Republic 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 19-22 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 19-22 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 669.146.536.42.669.141.25=111 




The article deals with the analysis of carbonitrided samples of S460MC microalloyed thermo-mechanically treated 

steel. The steel surface was saturated with carbon and nitrogen at the temperature of 860 °C. The nitrogen-methanole 

atmosphere with Amonnia addition was used for surface saturation in the process of carbonitriding. Oil hardening 

and tempering at 200 °C/1 hour followed after the diff usion saturation of experimental steel sample. The surface 

layer was composed of martensite, retained austenite and fi ne carbides of alloying elements. This was demonstrated 

with light microscopy and confi rmed by TEM (transmission electron microscope). The paper also presents 

the results of chemical composition and hardness measurement. 

Key words: micro-alloyed steel, carbonitriding, microstructure, TEM, precipitates 

INTRODUCTION 

Carbonitriding is one of the surface hardening process 

of the materials where carbon and nitrogen diffuse 

into the surface of components in the temperature range 

850 ÷ 880 °C. The fi rst step is the saturation of surface 

in carbon and nitrogen, then the hardening and tempering 

steps follow [1-3]. This process is favourable compared 

with carburizing process, because it results in direct 

hardening from the saturation temperature, shortening 

the production cycle, reducing production costs and 

achieving the favourable performance of the surface 

layers [4]. Thermo-chemical treatment (carbonitriding) 

is used to increase surface hardness, surface resistance 

to wear and maintaining tough core of parts. 

Microalloyed steel is a class of steels group 

desig ned to achieve specifi c properties by controlled 

thermo-mechanical processing [5]. Microalloyed steels 

gain their strength due to the use of reinforcing of the 

grain boundary and precipitation hardening, which is 

achieved by the controlled rolling of steels with required 

chemical composition [6]. The yield strength of strength 

levels of two steels refl ects added strength coming from 

intragranular carbides present in microalloyed steel [7]. 

EXPERIMENTAL 

METHODS AND USED MATERIAL 

The rolled strip of the microalloyed steel thickness 

of about 3 mm was used as a starting material. The 

S460MC steel is used for tools for cold forming, suita- 

ble for production of moldings, car chassis, etc. The aim 

of analysis was to obtain more detailed information of 

microalloyed steel after carbonitriding process. Experimental 

methods used in this investigation were: analysis 

of the chemical composition, hardness measurement 

and the microstructure analysis using light microscope 

and TEM. 

Analysis of chemical composition 

The chemical composition of the basic material 

S460MC in the core of the sample was measured with 

Spectrotest instrument. The measured chemical composition 

of the experimental steel satisfi es specifi cation in 

material list for used steel. The measured chemical 

composition of steel in this study is given in Table 1. 

Table 1 Chemical composition of S460MC steel / wt. % 

Chemical elements Material S460MC 

C 0,043 ± 0,030 

Si 0,052 ± 0,050 

Mn 1,510 ± 0,050 

P 0,015 ± 0,008 

S 0,005 ± 0,002 

Al 0,072 ± 0,060 

Ti 0,005 ± 0,002 

Nb 0,009 ± 0,001 

V 0,083 ± 0,075 

Fe base 

Microstructure analysis 

The microstructure of the steel sample S460MC was 

investigated using the light microscope, type NEO- 

PHOT 30 with attached CCD camera and software programme 

IMPOR PRO 32. 

19

K. KOCÚROVÁ ET AL.: THE INFLUENCE OF CARBONITRIDING PROCESS ON MICROSTRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL... 

The microstructure of the starting material of 

S460MC consisting from ferrite and a small amount of 

fi ne carbides is shown in Figure 1 [8, 9]. 

The microstructure of the surface diffusion layer 

consists from martensite and retained austenite, which 

can be seen in Figure 2. 

Carbide-ferritic type of the microstructure can be seen 

in the transitional area diffusion layer of S460MC steel. 

This type of the microstructure is shown in Figure 3. 

Figure 1 The microstructure of the initial state of microalloyed 

thermo-mechanically treated steel S460MC 

Figure 2 The microstructure of surface diff usion layer 

Figure 3 The microstructure of the steel in the transitional 

area 

Figure 4 The microstructure of the core of the steel 

The core of the steel sample has a ferrite-pearlitic 

microstructure which is ilustrated in Figure 4. 

Today TEMs are probably the most effi cient and 

versatile tools for the characterization of materials over 

spatial ranges from the atomic scale, through the evergrowing 

‘nano’regime (from < 1 nm to ~ 100 nm) up to 

the micrometer level and beyond. The resolution of a 

TEM is given in terms of the classic Rayleigh criterion 

for VLM (visible-light microscope), which states that 

the smallest distance that can be resolved, δ, is given 

approximately by: 

0,61⋅λ 

δ = (1) 

µ ⋅ sinβ 

λ is the wavelength of the radiation, μ the refractive 

index of the viewing medium, and β the semi-angle of 

collection of the magnifying lens [10]. In the case of 

TEM we can simplify this equation to: 

⋅ 

δ = 

β 

0,61 

(2) 

For more detailed experimental analysis of thermochemical 

treated S460MC steel (especially in terms of 

the microstructure of carbide particles) was used the 

transmission electron microscope JEOL 200CX with 

greater resolution ability. Carbon replicas were prepared 

from different areas of the sample (surface layer, transitional 

area of difussion layer and the materials core). 

The precipitates of carbide at the interface of the 

original martensitic needles can be seen in the microstructure 

of the surface layer of S460MC steel (Figure 

5). It can be also seen the retained austenite and lower 

bainite. The microstructure of the transitional area diffusion 

layer is composed of retained austenite and lower 

bainite, where the precipitates inside bainitic needles 

are presents (Figure 6). It can see the ferritic matrix at 

the core of the material in Figure 7. The grains of ferrite 

are polyedric in shape. The smaller pearlitic colonies, 

which are present on the grain boundaries and precipitated 

carbides can be observed in this area. 

20 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 19-22


Figure 5 The surface diff usion layer of S460MC steel treated 

by carbonitriding, diff raction pattern of particles 

identifi ed M3C – type precipitates TEM of carbon 

extraction replicas 

Figure 6 The transitional area diff usion layer of the 

carbonitrided S460MC steel, TEM of carbon 

extraction replicas 

Figure 7 The core of S460MC steel, diff raction pattern of the 

particles identifi ed MX – type precipitates, TEM of 

carbon extraction replicas 

Hardness measurement 

The hardness on the surface of the carbonitrided 

sample was measured on a fl at area by method Vickers 

with loading 9,81 N. In this experiment were performed 

5 measurements and their results are in Table 2. 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 19-22 

Figure 8 Graph of the hardness in the cross-section of the 

steel 

Table 2 Measured hardness on surface of S460MC steel 

Number of measurement Hardness 

HV1 

1 762 

2 757 

3 751 

4 772 

5 764 

In cross-section of sample, which was thermo-chemical 

treated, the course of hardness by Vickers method, 

with a micrometric shift of a table, loading 9,81 N was 

performed. From measured values of hardness was 

determined the depth of hardenability (or thickness of 

layer) in accordance with DIN EN ISO 2639 [11]. The 

depth corresponds to the value 0,4 mm (Figure 8). 

RESULTS 

The analysis of thermo-chemical treated sample 

confi rmed that it can be achieved surface layer with 

high hardness by carbonitriding process. The average 

value of hardness measured on the surface of carbonitrided 

sample was 761 ± 8 HV1. Determined hardenability 

corresponds to the value 0,4 mm. The thickness of 

diffusion layer (approx. 0,3 mm) can be achieved in a 

shorter time of carbonitriding (compared with carburizing 

process). This is possible due to the presence of 

nitrogen in the furnace atmosphere, the nitrogen increases 

the rate of diffusion of carbon in the material. The 

sample of used steel S460MC had fi ne-grained microstructure. 

The carbonitriding process (860 °C) does not 

avoid the unwanted coarsening of the grain. By the process 

is therefore possible to obtain the diffusion layer on 

the surface of a material with favorable functional characteristics 

[12]. The sample structure was investigated 

using light microscopy and transmission electron microscope 

(TEM). The martensite, retained austenite and 

carbide precipitates were seen in the surface diffusion 

layer of the sample. The core of steel consisted of the 

ferritic matrix and the grain boundaries excluded pearli- 

21


te. In this study were identifi ed two types of the precipitates: 

M 3 C and MX. The M 3 C and MX precipitates were 

observed in carbonitriding layer and core of the S460MC 

steel. 

CONCLUSION 

The obtained results show that the surface modifi cation 

of carbonitriding in nitrogen-methanole atmosphere 

with the Amonnia addition has succeedded to improve 

the surface hardness of the micro-alloyed steels. The 

presence of alloying elements (Ti, Nb, V) in steel results 

in a positive effect of the microstructure (fi ne grains) 

and it improves the mechanical properties (hardness, 

strength). 

Acknowledgement 

This contribution/publication is the result of the 

project implementation: CE for the development and 

application of diagnostic methods in the processing of 

metallic and non-metallic materials, ITMS code 

26220120048, supported by the Research & Development 

Operational Programme funded by the ERDF. 

REFERENCES 

[1] K. H. Prabhudev, Handbook of heat treatment of steels, 

Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, New 

Delphi, 2008, pp. 386-387. 

[2] G. E. Totten, K. Funatani, L. Xie, Handbook of metallurgical 

process design, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 2004, 

pp. 507-509. 

[3] P. Skočovský, O. Bokůvka, R. Konečná, E. Tillová, Náuka 

o materiáli pre odbory strojnícke, EDIS, Žilina, 2001, pp. 

75-76. 

[4] M. Hazlinger, Proceedings, TRANSFER 2007. Využívanie 

nových poznatkov v strojárskej praxi: 9. medzinárodná 

vedecká konferencia, Digital Graphic, Trenčín, 2007, pp. 

187-190. 

[5] J. W. Martin, Concise encyclopedia of the mechanical properties 

of materials, Elsevier Science, UK Oxford, 2007, 

pp. 418. 

[6] P. Švec, Konštrukčné materiály, Nakladateľstvo STU, Bratislava, 

2010, pp. 45-46. 

[7] T. H. Courtney, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Waveland 

Press Inc., Illinois, 2005, pp. 225-227. 

[8] M. Durand-Charre,Microstructure of steels and cast irons, 

Springer, Paris, 2003, pp. 170-172. 

[9] H. K. D. H. Bhadeshia, R. W. K. Honeycombe, Steels microstructure 

and properties, Elsevier Ltd., UK Oxford, 

2006, pp. 100-109. 

[10] D. B. Williams, C. B. Carter, Transmission Electron Microscopy: 

A Textbook for Materials Science, Springer, 

2009, pp. 3-5. 

[11] DIN EN ISO 2639: Bestimmung und Prüfung der Einsatshärtungtiefe, 

Deutsche Fassung, 2002. 

[12] K. Kocúrová, M. Hazlinger, Proceedings, Materials Engineering, 

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University, 

Žilina, 2010, pp. 29-33. 

Note: The responsible for English language is Bibiana Gondeková the 

interpreter/translator from Banská Bystrica, Slovak Republic 

22 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 19-22

A. KAWAŁEK, J. RAPALSKA-NOWAKOWSKA, H. DYJA, B. KOCZURKIEWICZ 

PHYSICAL AND NUMERICAL MODELLING OF HEAT TREATMENT 

THE PRECIPITATION-HARDENING COMPLEX-PHASE STEEL (CP) 

A Kawałek, J. Rapalska-Nowakowska, H. Dyja, B. Koczurkiewicz, Faculty 

of materials Processing Technology and Applied Physics Częstochowa 

University of Technology, Częstochowa, Poland. 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 23-26 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 23-26 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 669.1:621.78:519.876.5=111 



Original Scientifi c paper – Izvorni znanstveni rad 

The article presents the results of physical and numerical modelling of the processes of thermo- plastic treatment of 

an experimental complex-phase (CP) steel. Numerical tests were carried out using a commercial software program, 

ThermoCalc. Based on the obtained test results, the austenitization temperature was established. Physical modelling 

was performed using a DIL 805A/D dilatometer and the Gleeble 3800 system. The characteristic temperatures 

of the steel and the primary austenite grain size were determined. The test pieces were also subjected to metallographic 

examinations and Vickers hardness tests. The obtained results served for building an actual CCT diagram for 

the steel tested. 

Key words: CP steels, microstructure evolution, physical modelling, CCT diagrams 

INTRODUCTION 

The development of the automotive industry urges 

designers to focus their activities on reducing the mass 

of cars to be manufactured, resulting in a signifi cant reduction 

of fuel consumption and emissions of harmful 

exhaust gas to the atmosphere. The consequence of this 

is searching for new constructional materials for the 

manufacture of sheet metal of high strength and engineering 

deformability, which will assure lightweight 

and tough car bodies to be obtained [1 - 2]. This direction 

is consistent with the general trend development of 

metallurgy in Poland [3]. Among modern car body 

steels, two group of steels can be distinguished. The 

fi rst group is made up of conventional High-Strength 

Steels (HSS). 

This includes: Interstitial-Free (IF) steels, Isotropic 

Steels (IS), Bake Hardened (BH) steels, C-Mn (carbonmanganese) 

steels, and High-Strength Low-Alloy (HSLA) 

steels. The second group consists of Advanced High- 

Strength Steels (AHSS): Dual Phase (DP) steels; Complex 

Phase (CP) steels; TRIP (Transformation Induced Plasticity) 

steels; and TMS (martensitic steels) [4 - 8]. 

CP steels are characterized by their tensile strength 

at a level of approx. 800 MPa, and quite often even 

more. The high strength of steel is achieved due to the 

contents of fi ne-grained ferrite and interstitial bainite in 

the microstructure and the dispersion hardening by precipitates 

of carbides and nitrides. To obtain fi ne-grained 

precipitates, additions of niobium, titanium or vanadium 

are used. Steels of this type are distinguished by 

good deformability and high capability to absorb energy 

during a collision. Thanks to these properties, CP steels 

fi nd application as a material for production of construction 

elements absorbing the energy of collisions, especially 

side crashes. 

TEST MATERIAL 

AND TESTING METHODOLOGY 

Tests were carried out on an experimental complex 

phase steel, whose chemical composition is given in Table 

1. 

Table 1 Chemical composition of the steel / wt % 

C Mn Si Cr Ni Ti Cu N 

0,08 1,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,10 0,2 0,003 

The melt was made under laboratory conditions in a 

VSG100S vacuum furnace with a crucible capacity of 

100 kg, and was cast in vacuum into a 100 x 100 mm 

inner cross-section ingot mould. The obtained ingot was 

forged into square and round bars and then softening 

heat treatment was carried out. 

Numerical studies were carried out using the Thermo-Calc 

program. The austenitizing temperature of the 

test steel, which assured the dissolution of alloy additions 

in the solution, was determined based on the 

chemical composition using this program. On this basis, 

the diagram of equilibrium of the test steel with the carbon 

content varying in the range of 0 - 0,12 % and variation 

in the contents of individual phases as a function 

of temperature was plotted. 

For carrying out physical simulations of heat treatment, 

a DIL 805A/D dilatometer was used. For the tests 

10 mm-long and 5 mm-diameter cylindrical samples 

23

A. KAWAŁEK et al.: PHYSICAL AND NUMERICAL MODELLING OF HEAT TREATMENT... 

were used. In the fi rst place, the effect of austenitizing 

temperature on the primary austenite grain size was examined. 

To this end, the samples were heated up to a 

temperature in the range of 900 – 1 250 °C with a step 

of 50 °C and at a rate of 5 °C/s, soaked at that temperature 

for 30 minutes, and then rapid cooling was applied 

to assure that the structure was frozen. The austenite 

grain size on samples was determined by a comparative 

method using the normalized standard scale conforming 

to standard PN-EN ISO643:2003. 

The values of the characteristic temperatures A c1 , 

A c3 , A r1 and A r3 during heating and cooling were determined. 

The samples were heated up and cooled down in 

a continuous manner at a constant rate of 3 °C/min. The 

analysis of dilatometric patterns recorded during heating 

and cooling was made following the procedure set 

out in standard PN-68/H-04500. The determined values 

of temperatures A c3 provided a basis for establishing the 

value of austenitizing temperature during conducting 

the dilatometric tests. 

To determine the CCT diagram, the samples were 

heated up to a temperature of 940 °C at a heating rate of 

3 °C/s, soaked at that temperature for 300 s and then 

cooled down to ambient temperature at varying cooling 

rates. The outcome of the tests is a series of dilatometric 

patterns illustrating the variation of sample length as a 

function of temperature. After the heat treatment physical 

simulations, the samples were subjected to metallographic 

examination to disclose the structure formed, 

and then Vickers hardness tests were performed. 

To determine the effect of temperature and strain rate 

on the yield stress of the steel, a high-temperature compression 

test was carried out. The tests were conducted 

using a simulator of metallurgical processes Gleeble. The 

σ-ε curves were determined for the actual strain of ε = 1. 

The samples were resistance heated in vacuum to a temperature 

of 1 150 °C at a heating rate of 5 °C/s, soaked at 

that temperature for 60 s, and then cooled down to a plastic 

strain temperature of 850 - 1 150 °C. The compression 

of the samples was conducted at a strain rate of ε = 0,1; 

1,0 and 10 s -1 , respectively. 

TEST RESULTS AND THE DISCUSSION 

Based on the chemical composition, the austenitizing 

temperature of the test steel was determined. For 

this purpose, the Thermo-Calc program was used. The 

program served for constructing the diagram of equilibrium 

of the steel with carbon content varying in the 

range 0 - 0,12 % (Figure 1). 

The data in Figure 1 shows that up to a temperature 

of approx. 880 °C, a multi-component structure exists 

in the steel. It is composed of ferrite, austenite, cementite, 

MC-type carbides and manganese sulphide. Above 

that temperature, only austenite and manganese sulphide 

occur in the structure. 

The austenite grain size in the initial state was determined 

by a comparative method using the normalized 

Figure 1 Equilibrium diagram for steel with carbon content 

varying in the range of 0 – 0,12 % 

Figure 2 Eff ect of austenitizing temperature on the primary 

austenite grain size 

scale of standards in accordance with standard PN-EN 

ISO 643:2003, and was found to be 9 μm. 

The results of tests for the effect of austenitizing 

temperature in the range of 900 – 1 250 °C on the γ 

phase grain growth are illustrated in Figure 2. 

Figure 3 shows the revealed primary austenite grain 

boundaries in the test steel, as quenched from a temperature 

of 1 200 °C and 950 °C, respectively. 

The performed tests found that samples austenitized 

in the temperature range of 900 - 1 050 °C were characterized 

by fi ne austenite grains from 11 to 22 µm in size. 

This indicates that for austenitizing temperatures below 

1 050 °C the steel maintains a fi ne-grained structure. 

For a sample austenitized at 1 100 °C, the austenite 

grain size was determined to be 117 µm, which defi - 

nitely deviates from the remaining determined sizes. As 

indicated by the data in Figure 3, the accelerated austen- 

Figure 3 Primary austenite grain boundaries in steel 

quenched from a temperature of: a) 1 200 °C, 

50 x, b) 950 °C, 100 x 

24 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 23-26

Figure 4 Structure of the test steel: a) ferritic-bainitic, 

obtained after cooling at a rate of 30 °C/s; b) 

bainitic-martensitic, with a slight amount of ferrite, 

obtained after cooling at a rate of 80 °C/s; 1000 x 

ite grain growth occurs only after the temperature of 

1 100 °C is exceeded. 

The characteristic temperatures obtained from the 

analysis of dilatometric patterns: A c1 = 740 °C, A c3 = 889 

°C, A r1 = 655 °C, A c1 = 811 °C. 

The austenitizing temperature for carrying out physical 

simulations for the test steel was assumed to be T A 

= 940 ºC (A c3 + 40 – 50 o C). 

The samples after physical simulations were subjected 

to metallographic examination to reveal the 

structure formed (Figure 4). 

Vickers hardness tests were also performed (Table 2). 

Table 2 Phase transformation temperatures and the 

hardness of the test steel as cooled from a 

temperature of 940 °C 

Cooling 

rates/ ºC/s 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 23-26 

Characteristic 

temperatures / ºC 

150 F = 715, F = B = 650, 

s f s 

B = 490, M = 411, M = 290 

f s f 

100 F = 712, F = B = 660, 

s f s 

B = 4 85, M = 410, M = 286 

f s f 

80 F =720, F = B = 670, 

s f s 

B = 505, M = 410, M = 330 

f s f 

50 F = 733, F = B = 680, 

s f s 

B = 479, M = 418, M = 348 

f s f 


Hardness 

HV 

321 

317 

257 

230 

30 F = 715, F = B = 650, B = 432 s f s f 188 

10 F = 800, F = P = 755, 

s f s 

P = B = 672, B = 550 

f s f 

156 

1 F = 800, F = P = 745, P = 625 s f s f 151 

0,1 F = 796, F = P = 750, P = 664 s f s f 140 

The data in Table 2 shows that bainite-containing 

structures are obtained by cooling at cooling rates of v 

= 10 – 150 ºC/s. A three-phase structure composed of 

ferrite, martensite and bainite is obtained by cooling at 

cooling rates higher than v = 30 °C/s. 

Based on the performed analysis and obtained results, 

a CCT diagram was plotted (Figure 5). 

The developed CCT diagram enables the temperatures 

of the beginnings and ends of phase transformations 

occurring during continuous cooling of complex-phase 

steel to be red out with a high accuracy. It provides also 

the capability to determine the cooling rates that assure 

the formation of the desirable three-phase structure. 

To determine the effect of deformation temperature 

and strain rate on the yield stress of the test steel, a hightemperature 

compression test was carried out using the 

Gleeble 3800 metallurgical process simulator. Figures 6 

Figure 5 CCT diagram for the test steel 

Figure 6 Eff ect of deformation temperature on the σ-ε curves 

for the test steel deformed at a rate of 0,1 s -1 

- 8 show diagrams illustrating the effect of deformation 

temperature on the shape of the σ-ε curves for a varying 

strain rate of ε = 0,1; 1,0 and 10 s-1 , respectively. 

The values of strain and yield stress were calculated 

from relationship (1) and (2), respectively. 

2 h 

= ln 

(1) 

3 h0 

where: 

h – height of the sample during plastic deformation, 

h – initial sample height. 

0 


for the test steel deformed at a rate of 1 s -1 

25



for the test steel deformed at a rate of 10 s -1 

3 F 

p = (2) 

2 wb 

where: F – force measured during the course of plastic 

deformation, w – anvil width, b – sample width 

From the data in Figures 6 - 8 it is found that, for the 

test steel, the dynamic recrystallization occurs only at a 

strain rate of 0,1 s-1 . It is also fund that, for the steel grade 

tested (Figures 7 and 8), the effect of strain rate, in the 

range of values of 1 s-1 and 10 s-1 and in the temperature 

range of 850 - 1150°C, on the yield stress is small. 

The obtained curves will provide a basis for the development 

of the technology of rolling sheet metal of 

the steel grade investigated. 

SUMMARY 

Based on the investigation carried out, the following 

fi ndings and conclusions have been made: 

- for the steel grade examined, the austenitization 

temperature equal to T A = 950 ºC should be assumed; 

- the most desirable structures for the steel investigated 

are the ones containing bainite. During cooling 

from the austenitization temperature of T A = 

950 ºC, a three-phase structure containing ferrite, 

martensite and bainite is obtained with cooling at 

cooling rates in the range of v = 30 – 150 ºC/s; 

- the numerical and physical simulations complexphase 

steel heat treatment, which were carried out 

within this study, have enabled the actual CCT diagram 

to be constructed. This constitutes one of the 

elements providing the basis for developing the 

technology of rolling sheet metal of the steel grade 

investigated. 

REFERENCES 

[1] A. Jambor, M. Beyer: New cars- New materials, Materials 

& Design 18 (1997) 4/6, 203 - 209. 

[2] E. Hadasik: Modelowanie procesu walcowania blach na 

gorąco z nowoczesnych gatunków stali karoseryjnej, Hutnik- 

Wiadomości Hutnicze 75 (2008) 12, 707 – 713. 

[3] Z. Skuza, R. Prusak, C. Kolmasiak: Restructuring of the 

metallurgical industry in the aspect of economics system 

changes and integration with the eurepean union, Metalurgija 

46 (2007) 3, 221 – 224. 

[4] F. Grosman: Nowoczesne blachy stalowe na elementy 

karoserii w świetle projektu ULSAB-AVC, Hutnik- 


[5] J. Senkara: Współczesne stale karoseryjne dla przemysłu 

motoryzacyjnego i wytyczne technologiczne ich zgrzewania, 

Przegląd Spawalnictwa 81 (2009) 11, 3 – 7. 

[6] J. Adamczyk, A. Grajcar: Blachy stalowe o strukturze wielofazowej 

dla przemysłu samochodowego, Hutnik- 


[7] St. Turczyn, M. Dziedzic: Walcowanie blach karoseryjnych 

z nowej generacji stali, Hutnik- Wiadomości Hutnicze 

69 (2002) 4, 126 – 132. 

[8] M. Dziedzic, St. Turczyn: Taśmy ze stali wielofazowych 

dla przemysłu samochodowego, Hutnik- Wiadomości Hutnicze 

70 (2003) 4, 153 – 158. 

Note: The responsible translator for English language is Czesław Grochowina, 

Poland. 

26 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 23-26

M. BURZIĆ, M. MANJGO, D. KOZAK, R. PROKIĆ-CVETKOVIĆ, O. POPOVIĆ 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 27-31 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 27-31 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 669.15:620.178.3=111 

THE EFFECTS OF DYNAMIC LOAD ON 

BEHAVIOUR OF WELDED JOINT A-387 Gr. 11 ALLOYED STEEL 




The in-service behaviour of alloyed steel A-387 Gr. 11 Class 1, for pressure vessels, used for high temperature applications, 

depends on the properties of its welded joint, with parent metal (BM), heat-aff ected-zone (HAZ) and weld 

metal (WM), as constituents. Charpy testing of BM, WM and HAZ, together with, determination of the parameters of 

fatigue-crack growth and fatigue threshold ΔK th was used, in order to understand, how heterogeneity of structure 

and diff erent mechanical properties of welded joint constituents aff ect on crack initiation and propagation. 

Key words: alloyed steel A-387 Gr. 11, fatigue, impact energy, Paris relationship 

INTRODUCTION 

Exploitation properties of A-387 Gr. 11 Class 1 alloyed 

steel, designed for manufacture of pressure vessels 

operating at elevated temperatures and pressures, 

largely depend on properties of the critical zones of a 

welded joint. Heat-affected zone (HAZ) and weld metal 

(WM) are latent locations of crack initiation, i.e. the locations 

where local brittle zones to whom crack initiation 

is attributed could be formed [1]. 

For better understanding of the causes and modes of 

crack initiation and crack growth in welded joints of 

steel designed for operation at elevated temperatures 

and under high pressure, it is necessary to establish how 

the heterogeneity of structure and mechanical properties 

of a welded joint affects crack initiation and growth, 

and to quantify the parameters controlling local-strain 

behaviour and crack growth. 

The aim of this investigation is to assess the effects 

of heterogeneity of structure and mechanical properties 

of base metal and components of the welded joint of 

A-387 Gr.11 Class 1 steel on crack initiation and growth, 

as well as on the parameters of fatigue-crack growth 

(da/dN and ΔK th ) at elevated temperature of 540 °C, 

based on the results obtained [1]. 

MATERIAL 

For testing, the sample of a welded joint of A-387 

Gr. 11 Class 1 steel, with weld metal in the middle (double 

U-shaped weld), was used, the dimensions of which 

M. Burzić, R. Prokić-Cvetković, O. Popović, University of Belgrade, 

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia 

M. Manjgo, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina 

D. Kozak, J. J. Strossmayer University of Osijek, Mechanical Engineering 

Faculty in Slavonski Brod, Croatia 

were 350 x 500 x 96 mm. Chemical composition of 

A-387 Gr. 11 Class 11 is presented in Table 1 [2]. The 

procedure for testing at elevated temperature of 540 °C 

is defi ned by the standard EN 10002-5 [3]. The results 

of tensile test of mechanical properties of A-387 Gr. 11 

Class 1 steel at operating tempera-ture are presented in 

Table 2 [2]. 

Table 1 Chemical composition of tested material [2] 

Chemical composition / mas. % 

C Si Mn P S Cr Mo 

0,15 0,29 0,54 0,022 0,011 0,93 0,47 

Table 2 Results of tensile test [2] 

R p0,2 / MPa R m / MPa A / % 

220 280 36 

Welding of sheets new and exploited BM was conducted 

in two phases, as follows: 

– root run – by manual arc procedure, using a plated 

electrode LINCOLN Sl 19G (AWS: E8018-B2), 

– fi lling – by arc welding using powder protection, 

where the wire designated as LINCOLN LNS 150 

and powder LINCOLN P230 were used as fi ller 

metals. 

Chemical composition of used electrode LINCOLN 

Sl 19G (FM A) and wire LINCOLN LNS 150 (FM B) 

according to attest documen-tation is presented in Table 

3. Main mechanical properties according to attest documentation 

are presented in Table 4. 

Table 3 Chemical composition of fi ller metal [4] 

Filler 

Metal 

Chemical Composition / mass % 

C Si Mn P S Cr Mo 

FM A 0,08 0,045 0,35 0,025 0,025 1,10 0,50 

FM B 0,11 0,18 0,37 0,020 0,020 1,04 0,47 

27

M. BURZIĆ et al.: THE EFFECTS OF DYNAMIC LOAD ON BEHAVIOUR OF WELDED JOINT A-387 Gr. 11 ALLOYED STEEL 

Table 4 Mechanical properties of fi ller metal [4] 

Filler Metal R p0,2 / MPa R m / MPa A / % KV / J 

FM A 505 640 23 > 95 

FM B 490 610 26 > 100 


Testing by bending induced by impact effect of force 

on notched specimen can provide an explanation of material 

behaviour for disrupted strain. Determination of 

operation leading to fracture under established test conditions 

most frequently is used for current control of 

quality and homogeneity of the material, as well as of 

its treatment. This test procedure provides the possibility 

to establish susceptibility to brittle fracture, i.e. susceptibility 

to the increase of brittleness during exploitation 

(aging) [5]. 

Impact testing of the notched specimens in base metal 

(BM), weld metal (WM) and heat-affected zone (HAZ) 

on the side of exploited BM in 540 °C, was conducted in 

order to dete-rmine total impact energy, as well as the 

components of the energy crack initiation and crack 

propagation. Test procedure and the shape and dimensions 

of the specimens, are defi ned by standard EN 

10045-1 [6]. Position of the notch relative to the welded 

joint is defi ned by the standard EN 875 [7]. The testing 

itself was conducted on instrumented Charpy pendulum. 

The results of testing are presented in Table 5. 

Table 5 The values of impact energy for tested BM and 

welded joint 

Spec. 

Design. 

Tot. Impact 

Energy, 

A uk / J 

Energy of Crack 

Initiat. A I / J 

Energy of 

Crack propag. 

A P / J 

BM-1 119 51 68 

BM-2 109 49 60 

BM-3 115 50 65 

WM-1 141 62 78 

WM-2 132 59 73 

WM-3 137 60 77 

HAZ-1 96 44 52 

HAZ -2 79 39 40 

HAZ -3 85 42 43 

Typical diagrams force-time and energy–time obtained 

by testing of the specimens designated by BM-1, 

WM-1 and HAZ-1 at operating temperature are given in 

Figures 1 through 3. 

Structural life is expressed through crack driving 

time. To determine exploitation life means to predict 

crack driving time. Thus it has been concluded that sharp 

stress concentrators under conditions of variable loading 

after certain number of cycles result in crack initiation 

and its propagation if the fatigue threshold, ΔK th , is exceeded. 

As the structure under certain loading conditions, 

as a rule, would not be jeopardized until the crack reaches 

critical dimensions, exploitation of a pre-cracked struc- 

ture can be allowed even during the period of crack 

growth, on condition that it had already been subjected to 

preliminary analysis. Knowledge on the crack -growth 

rate and its dependence on affecting loading is essential 

for the decision on further exploitation [8]. 

Considering the fact that the stress fi eld at the crack 

tip is characterized by singularity, it would be best to 

express the effect of the stress-rate through the stressintensity 

factor.; as this is the case of variable loading, 

varying from highest to lowest value it would be most 

appropriate to describe it by the range of the stress-intensity 

factors, ΔK. 

20 Specimen BM - 1 

0 

0 

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 

T i m e / ms 

28 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 27-31 

F o r c e / kN 

16 

12 

8 

4 

540 o C 

Figure 1 Diagrams obtained by impact testing of the 

specimen BM-1 [1] 


20 

Specimen WM - 1 

t = 540 

16 

o C 

12 

8 

4 

0 

0 

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 

T i m e / ms 


specimen WM-1 [1] 


20 

Specimen HAZ - 1 

t = 540 

16 

o C 

12 

8 

4 

0 

0 

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 

T i m e / ms 


specimen HAZ-1 [1] 

200 

160 

120 

80 

40 

200 

160 

120 

80 

40 

200 

160 

120 

80 

40 

Energy / J 

Energy / J 

Energy / J


This is the basis of the Paris’ dependence, which is 

the foundation of the standard for determination of the 

parameters of fatigue-crack growth Standard ASTM E 

647-00 [9] regulates the measurement of fatigue-crack 

growth rate, da/dN, propagating from a pre-crack, as 

well as calculation of the range of the stress-intensity 

factors, ΔK. 

Therefore, it is reasonable to compare the crackgrowth 

rate, da/dN, with ΔK, in a form defi ned by Paris 

[10]: 

( ) m 

da 

= C ⋅ ∆K 

dN 

For determination of the parameters of fatigue-crack 

growth and fatigue threshold ΔK at operating tempera- 

th 

ture of 540 °C, modifi ed CT-specimens were used. During 

the testing, the specimens were in a high-temperature 

chamber, placed on a high-frequency pulsator. The 

test itself was conducted in force control. 

In Table 6, the values obtained for the parameters of 

Paris’ equation, coeffi cient C and exponent m, as well 

as for fatigue threshold, ΔK , for all tested specimens 

th 

are presented. 

Table 6 Parameters of the Paris’ law 

Spec. Design. ∆K th , / MPa m 1/2 C m 

BM–1 5,7 3,11 ⋅ 10-13 4,08 

BM–2 5,9 2,79 ⋅ 10-13 4,13 

BM-3 5,9 2,97 ⋅ 10-13 4,07 

WM–1 6,3 3,27 ⋅ 10-13 4,14 

WM–2 6,2 3,41 ⋅ 10-13 4,06 

WM-3 6,3 3,36 ⋅ 10-13 4,03 

HAZ–1 6,1 3,38 ⋅ 10-12 3,17 

HAZ–2 6,0 3,31 ⋅ 10-12 3,28 

HAZ-3 6,0 3,55 ⋅ 10-12 3,35 

As one can see from the results presented, the location 

of the notch and crack initiation affect both the values 

of fatigue threshold, ΔK th , and parameters of fatiguecrack 

growth [11]. 

Typical diagrams fatigue-crack growth rate da/dN – 

variation of the range of the stress-intensity factor ΔK 

for the specimens with fatigue-crack tip in BM, WM 

and HAZ are shown in Figures 4 through 6. 

From the results obtained, one can see that the specimens 

with a crack in base metal have the lowest fatiguecrack 

growth rate, da/dN. For the same range of the 

stress-intensity factor, ∆K, fatigue-crack growth rate, da/ 

dN, increases in the specimens with a crack in weld metal, 

especially in the specimens with a crack in HAZ. 

Maximum growth rate of fatigue crack can be expected 

at the level of the range of the stress-intensity 

factors approximating fracture toughness at plane strain, 

as brittle fracture is attained at that level [11]. 

However, in spite of the differences, both the specimens 

with cracks in BM and the components of the 

welded joint of WM and HAZ had rather low growth 

rates of fatigue cracks in general, which favoured the 

assessment on good properties of this material and com- 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 27-31 

da/dN / µm/ciklus 

10 4 

10 3 

10 2 

10 1 

10 0 

10 -1 

10 -2 

10 -3 

10 0 

Specimen BM - 1 

t = 540 o C 

ponents of the welded joints in presence of the cracktype 

defects affected by variable loading [11]. 

Successful application of A-387 steel and its maximum 

creep resistance require guaranteed mechanical 

10 1 

∆K / MPa m 1/2 

Figure 4 Diagram da/dN - ∆K for specimen BM [1] 

da/dN / µm/cycle 

10 4 

10 3 

10 2 

10 1 

10 0 

10 -1 

10 -2 

10 -3 

10 0 

Specimen WM - 1 

t = 540 o C 

10 1 

∆K / MPa m 1/2 

Figure 5 Diagram da/dN - ∆K for specimen WM [1] 

da/dN / µm/cycle 

10 4 

10 3 

10 2 

10 1 

10 0 

10 -1 

10 -2 

10 -3 

10 0 

Specimen HAZ - 1 

t = 540 o C 

10 1 

∆K / MPa m 1/2 

Figure 6 Diagram da/dN - ∆K for specimen HAZ [1] 

10 2 

10 2 

10 2 

29


Figure 7 Microstructure of a) BM, b) HAZ and c) WM [1] 

properties at elevated temperatures (max. 550 °C) and 

creep resistance at operating temperature during the period 

of exploitation that can signifi cantly exceed 100 000 

hours. 

Microstructure of basic metal is ferrite and perlite, 

Figure 7a. In heat-affected zone micro-structure are consists 

of ferrite, beinite and perlite, Figure 7b. In heat-affected 

zone, beinite forms because of higher cooling rate 

of a part of base metal that was heated to austenitisation 

temperature during welding. Beinite content decreases 

with increase of the distance from the joint line. The 

structure of weld metal where the coarse dendrites formed 

because of the water-bath size, due to the dimensions of 

the welded plates, is shown in Figure 7c [1]. 

Figure 8 Microstructure of exploited BM [1] 

Technique of colour-metallography (by pre-cipitation 

of interferential fi lm) with BERAHA solution at 

larger magnifi cation (2000 x) has made it possible to 

detect structural modifi -cations. Namely, the period of 

exploitation exceeding 30 years at temperatures above 

500 °C in presence of stresses strongly affected separation 

of carbides at the boundaries and inside ferritic 

grain, Figure 8. 

CONCLUSION 

Based on the tests conducted, one could conclude 

the following: 

Total impact energy obtained by testing of the specimens 

sampled from the zone of exploited welded joint 

and tested at operating temperature depends on the spot 

of notch engraving. The highest value of total impact 

energy is that of the specimens with a notch in WM, 

slightly lower is that of the specimens with a notch in 

BM, and the lowest value of total impact energy is that 

of the specimens with a notch in HAZ. The values of 

total impact energy, the components, energy of crack 

initiation and energy of crack propagation are primarily 

affected by heterogeneity of structure, and this effect is 

most prominent on the specimens with V-notch in the 

heat-affected zone (HAZ), as here the heterogeneity of 

structure is highest. 

The values obtained for fatigue threshold, ΔK th , and 

fatigue-crack growth rate, da/dN, are directly related to 

the location of fatigue-crack tip. The specimens with 

fatigue-crack tip in BM are most resistant to pre-crack 

growth. It is obvious that ferritic-perlitic structure predominant 

in BM results in higher resistance to activation 

of present crack, too, which refl ects in lower value 

of fatigue-crack growth rate, da/dN. 

(Exploitation conditions (operating tempera-ture) 

additionally decrease resistance of a crack to propagation 

under variable loading, which can have decisive effect 

on assessment of integrity and remaining life of the 

reactor itself. This increase of fatigue-crack growth rate, 

da/dN, is directly related to the structural modifi cations 

occurring in exploited material. 

30 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 27-31


Acknowledgment 

This paper is part of the research included in the 

project TP 35024, TP 35002, supported by the Ministry 

of Science and Technological Development of the Republic 

of Serbia.The authors would like to thank the 

Ministry for the fi nancing of this project. 

REFERENCE 

[1] M. Burzić, Uticaj eksploatacionih uslova na integritet i 

preostali vek posuda pod pritiskom, Doktorska disertacija, 

Univerzitet Novi Sad, (2008). 

[2] ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code an International 

Code, MATERIALS Part-A Ferrous Material Specifi cation, 

(2001). 

[3] EN 10002-5, Tensile testing of metallic materials. Method 

of test at elevated temperatures, (1992). 

[4] Lincoln Electric, Welding Handbook, (2006). 

[5] M. Burzić, Analysis of Crack Parameters of Welded Joint 

of Heat Resistant Steel, Structural Integrity and Life, 

8(2008)1, 41-54. 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 27-31 

[6] EN 10045-1, Mechanical Testing of Metals; Charpy Pendulum 

Impact Test; Parts 1 and 2 Terms and Defi nitions, 

Test Method, (2004). 

[7] EN 875, Welded Joints in Metallic Materials - Specimen, 

Location and Notch Orientation for Impact Test, (1995). 

[8] M. Burzić, Z. Burzić, J. Kurai, Dž. Gačo, Fatigue behaviour 

of alloyed steel for high temperature, First Serbian 

Congress on Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Kopaonik, 

Serbia, (2007), 1085-1090. 

[9] ASTM E647-00, Standard Test Method for Measurement 

of Fatigue Crack Growth Rates, Annual Book of ASTM 

Standards, 03.01(2000). 

[10] P. C. Paris, and F. Erdogan, A Critical analysis of crack 

propagation laws, Journal of Basic Engineering, 85(1963), 

528-534. 

[11] M. Burzić, R. Prokić-Cvetković, B. Grujić, I. Atanasovska, 

Ž. Adamović, Safe Operation of Welded Structure with 

Cracks at Elevated Temperature, Strojniški vestnik - 

Journal of Mechanical Engineering 54(2008)11, 807-816 

Note: The responsible translator for English language is Anđa Zorica, 

Belgrade, Serbia 

31

S. WIEWIÓROWSKA, Z. MUSKALSKI 

ANALYSIS THE INFLUENCE OF DRAWING 

PROCESS PARAMETERS ON THE AMOUNT 

OF RETAINED AUSTENITE IN TRIP STEEL WIRES 

S.Wiewiórowska, Z.Muskalski, Czestochowa University of Technology, 

Czestochowa, Poland 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 32-34 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 621.778.001.5=111 




The paper presents a theoretical analysis of the process of drawing TRIP-eff ect steel wires involving simulation of the 

drawing process. The process was run following two variants, with small and large partial drafts for three drawing 

speeds: 1,11; 0,23 and 0,005 m/s. The investigations carried out allowed a relationship between the amount of retained 

austenite and strain intensity and strain rate to be established for TRIP steel wires drawn. 

Keywords: drawing, TRIP steel, wires, austenite 

INTRODUCTION 

The drawing process is a complex process, in which 

the selection of optimal parameters, i.e. drawing speed 

and the magnitudes of partial drafts and total draft, signifi 

cantly infl uences the properties of fi nished wire 

[1,2]. 

Published research on high-alloy austenitic TRIP 

steels has indicated an effect of strain intensity, strain 

rate, chemical composition and deformation temperature 

on the effectiveness of the martensitic transformation 

[3]. 

ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 

The investigation involved carrying out a theoretical 

analysis of the drawing process by means of process 

simulation using Drawing 2D, a fi nite elements methodrelying 

software program. 

The drawing process was conducted following two 

variants, with either small or large partial drafts (Table 

1), for three drawing speeds: 1,11; 0,23 and 0,005 m/s. 

A friction coeffi cient value of µ = 0,06 (the conventional 

drawing process) and the 2α drawing angle equal to 

12 ° were assumed. 

The investigation enabled the determination of the 

strain intensity distribution for TRIP steel wires in particular 

draws for different drawing speeds. Figure 1 represents 

example strain intensity distributions in wires 

drawn with large partial drafts, at a high drawing speed 

of 1,11 m/s. 

From the nodes of the fi nite element grid, the values 

of strain intensity of wire on exit from the drawing die 

sizing part were red out, while the strain rate was calcu- 

Table 1 A summary of partial drafts and the total draft 

used for wire drawn from φ 6,25 mm to φ 4,46 mm 

Wire diameter /mm 6,25 5,60 5,20 4,80 4,46 

Variant 1 G cz / % - 18,41 13,77 14,79 13,66 

Variant 2 G cz / % - - 29,65 - 26,43 

G c / % - 18,41 29,65 40,06 48,25 

lated from the formula for the mean strain rate in the die 

approach part, as represented by the formula below 

32 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 32-34 

(1): 

Draw 1 Draw 2 

Figure 1 Strain intensity distribution in wires drawn with large 

partial drafts and a drawing speed of 1,11 m/s 

. 

Hm 

6vc 

tg ln 

= 

⎛ 1 

dk 

⎜ − 

⎝ 

where: v c – drawing speed, λ - elongation factor, 

d k – fi nal wire diameter 

⎞ 

⎟ 

⎠ 

(1) 

Retained austenite volumetric fractions of the structure 

of wire rod and wires after the process of drawing 

with either small or large partial drafts and three drawing 

speeds, as determined in previous experimental tests

S. WIEWIÓROWSKA et al.: ANALYSIS THE INFLUENCE OF DRAWING PROCESS PARAMETERS ON THE AMOUNT... 

[4], were assigned to respective values of strain rate and 

strain intensity. 

Results illustrating the amount of retained austenite 

(v γ ) as a function of strain intensity on the surface and in 

the axis of drawn wires, for different strain rates, are 

given in Tables 2÷5. 

Table 2 The amount of retained austenite (v ) as a function 

γ 

of strain intensity and diff erent strain rates on the 

surface of wires drawn with small partial drafts 

ε ε⋅ /s-1 ν /% γ 

0 0 23,95 

0,24 78,57 10,31 

0,39 86,53 7,50 

0,55 93,02 6,15 

0,69 99,99 5,31 

0,19 16,28 13,32 

0,32 17,93 11,50 

0,44 19,27 9,10 

0,55 20,72 7,90 

0,17 0,35 15,37 

0,28 0,38 12,65 

0,39 0,41 10,02 

0,48 0,42 8,98 


γ 

of strain intensity and diff erent strain rates in the 

axis of wires drawn with small partial drafts 

ε ε⋅ /s-1 ν /% γ 

0 0 23,95 

0,21 78,57 12,82 

0,35 86,53 10,12 

0,51 93,02 8,14 

0,65 99,99 6,54 

0,16 16,28 15,21 

0,27 17,93 13,60 

0,39 19,27 11,20 

0,49 20,72 8,62 

0,14 0,35 17,26 

0,20 0,38 14,91 

0,31 0,41 12,06 

0,45 0,42 10,12 


γ 

of strain intensity and diff erent strain rates on the 

surface of wires drawn with large partial drafts 

ε ε⋅ /s-1 ν /% γ 

0 0 23,95 

0,39 80,64 6,65 

0,72 96,09 4,94 

0,36 16,71 10,98 

0,64 19,91 6,24 

0,30 0,36 11,95 

0,59 0,43 8,02 

Based on the results given in Table 2÷5 and after 

making the approximating with a function of two variables, 

relationships have been obtained, which defi ne 

the amount of retained austenite as a function of ε and ε ⋅ 

(Figures 2÷5). 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 32-34 

Table 5 The amount of retained austenite (ν γ ) as a function 

of strain intensity and diff erent strain rates in the 

axis of wires drawn with large partial drafts 

ε ε ⋅ /s -1 ν γ /% 

0 0 23,95 

0,35 80,64 9,14 

0,65 96,09 5,06 

0,30 16,71 12,04 

0,54 19,91 7,41 

0,24 0,36 13,06 

0,43 0,43 9,14 

Figure 2 The plane representing the relationship between the 

retained austenite percentage fraction of the 

structure and strain intensity and strain rate on the 

surface of TRIP steel wires drawn with small partial 

drafts 



structure and strain intensity and strain rate in the 

axis of TRIP steel wires drawn with small partial drafts 



structure and strain intensity and strain rate on the 

surface of TRIP steel wires drawn with large partial 

drafts 

33

S. WIEWIÓROWSKA et al.: ANALYSIS THE INFLUENCE OF DRAWING PROCESS PARAMETERS ON THE AMOUNT... 



structure and strain intensity and strain rate in the 

axis of TRIP steel wires drawn with large partial drafts 

CONCLUSIONS 

Figures 2÷5 show that, in the drawing process, strain 

intensity has a defi nite effect on the amount of transformed 

retained austenite in the wire structure. By examining 

the data in Figures 2 and 4, a small effect of 

strain rate on the decrease in the amount of transformed 

retained austenite in the wire sub-surface layer and its 

virtually insignifi cant effect in the wire axis can be 

found. This is probably caused not so much by the ac- 

tion of strain rate (whose difference between the wire 

surface and axis is small) as by the larger non-dilatational 

strain occurring at a higher strain rate. 

The acceleration of the transformation of retained 

austenite into martensite in the drawing process is predominantly 

infl uenced by the magnitude of partial 

drafts. 

REFERENCES 

[1] Łuksza J., Skołyszewski A., Witek F., Zachariasz W. – 

Druty ze stali i stopów specjalnych. Wydawnictwa Naukowo-Techniczne. 

Warszawa (2006). 

[2] Staub F., Steininger Z., Tkaczyk S.: Wpływ odkształcenia 

plastycznego na zimno realizowanego przez przeciąganie 

na strukturę i własności drutu ze stali OH17N4G8. Sympozjum 

ciągarskie, Włocławek, (1975), 24-26. 

[3] De Cooman B.C: Structure-properties relationship in TRIP 

steels containing carbide-free bainite, Current Opinion in 

Solid State&Materials Science 8 (2004), 285-303. 

[4] Wiewiórowska S. - Analiza teoretyczno-eksperymentalna 

procesów ciągnienia nowej generacji drutów ze stali TRIP. 

Series Monografi e. Częstochowa 18 (2011). 

Note: The professional translator for English language is Czesław 

Grochowina, Studio – Tekst, Poland 

34 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 32-34

H. DYJA, K. SOBCZAK, A. KAWAŁEK, M. KNAPIŃSKI 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 35-38 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 35-38 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 621.771:519.876.5=111 

THE ANALYSIS OF THE INFLUENCE OF VARYING TYPES OF 

SHAPE GROOVES ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF INTERNAL MATERIAL 

DISCONTINUITIES DURING ROLLING 




The article discusses problems related to the infl uence of rolling processes on the process of closing of internal discontinuities 

in continuous castings during rolling in two types of shape grooves. Numerical modelling of the process 

of rolling 160 x 160 mm continuous C45 steel billets using the Forge 2008® software program. Variations in deformed 

strip temperature, as well as in the shape of holes simulating material discontinuities were examined. 

Key words: hot plastic working, continuous casting, discontinuity, defects, numerical simulation 

INTRODUCTION 

The primary objective of plastic working is to impart 

the appropriate shape to fi nished products, but also 

to assure their proper internal quality. Often, mill feedstock 

in the form of continuous castings has internal 

discontinuities that impair the mechanical and plastic 

properties of fi nished products. The removal of such 

metal defects is very hard to accomplish in a Shape Mill 

and should be done at the time of deformation in initial 

passes during plastic working. By varying the strip deformation 

conditions during grooved rolling, the effect 

of partial or even complete closure of internal material 

discontinuities can be achieved [1]. The research results 

reported in studies [1,2] indicate that the rate at which 

rolled strip discontinuities are closed or welded is determined 

by the shape and order of the grooves used. The 

closing of discontinuities is substantially infl uenced by 

the following factors: the location of the discontinuity 

in the feedstock, the duration of compressive stress action 

on the surfaces around the discontinuity, and the 

temperature of the strip being deformed. At higher strip 

rolling temperatures, the magnitude of the deformed 

material yield stress is relatively low, and the rate of diffusion 

of steel constituent elements between the surfaces 

surrounding the discontinuities increases, which 

facilitates their bonding [3]. Research has been conducted 

at the Institute for the Automation of Plastic 

Working Processes on the improvement of internal material 

quality through rolling in grooves of varying 

shape and thereby closing any internal material discontinuities. 

For example, preliminary rolling in so called 

slitting grooves is proposed to replace box groove roll- 

K. Sobczak, H. Dyja, A. Kawalek, Faculty of Materials Processing Technology 

and Applied Physics, Czestochowa University of Technology, 


ing. Rolling of rectangular cross-section feedstock is 

effected in bent slitting grooves, and then in bending 

grooves. The shape of fi nished product of acceptance 

dimensions is imparted in the last pass. This process allows 

fi nished product to be obtained in smaller number 

of passes due to increased deformations applied in individual 

passes. 

PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY 

The feedstock for testing the bent slitting groove 

rolling process were 160 x 160 mm continuous cast billets 

of C45 steel, whose chemical composition conformed 

to the requirements of EN 10083 standard (Figure 

1). The arrangement of holes simulating feedstock 

discontinuities is shown in Figure 1. In order to obtain 

250 x 21 mm fl at bar from this feedstock, a four-pass 

rolling process was designed (Figure 2), which included 

rolling in two slitting grooves (Figure 2a, a’ and 2b, b’) 

in one bending groove (Figure 2c) and in a fi nishing 

pass, where the shape was imparted to the fi nished strip 

(Figure 2d). These grooves were arranged in four rolling 

stands of a continuous rolling train. The tests were 

conducted for two technological variants differing in 

groove type. These groves are illustrated in Figure 2 

(Variant I – Figure 2a,b,c,d and Variant II – Figure 

2a’,b’,c,d). The tests were aimed at determining the effect 

of groove shapes in the fi rst two passes on the closure 

of internal material discontinuities. For numerical 

computation, the Forge 2008® software program was 

employed. The selection of groove shapes was guided 

by their ability to close internal material discontinuities 

during rolling. 

For the computer simulation of rolling fl at bars on the 

continuous rolling mill, the following rolling conditions 

were assumed: feedstock temperature, 1 200 °C; roll tem- 

35

H. DYJA et al.: THE ANALYSIS OF THE INFLUENCE OF VARYING TYPES OF SHAPE GROOVES ON THE BEHAVIOUR... 

Figure 1 Arrangement of holes in the 160 x 160 mm sample 

examined 

perature, 60 °C; ambient temperature, 20 °C; last stand 

rolling speed, 1,31 m/s; friction coeffi cient, µ = 0,45; 

friction factor, m = 0,85; coeffi cient of heat transfer between 

the material and the tool, α = 3000 W/Km 2 ; coeffi 

cient of heat transfer between the material and the air, 

α air = 100 W/Km 2 . For the computation of the yield stress, 

the values of the coeffi cients were taken from the material 

database of the Forge2008® program. 


From the performed numerical simulations, distributions 

of stress intensities (Figure 3) and strain intensities 

on the strip cross-section in the deformation zone, 

as well as temperature distributions in the strip after 

rolling in individual grooves were obtained. 

The analysis of the strain intensity distribution in the 

strip in the roll gap was made in the study. The uneven 

stress distribution is caused primarily by geometrical 

factors (the shape of the feedstock and the groove), but 

also by the inhomogeneous chemical and structural 

composition of the rolled metal and the different external 

friction conditions [4,5]. 

Strip elements that fi rst contact the rolls undergo the 

greatest deformations. The highest strain intensity areas 

lie immediately at the surface of strip contact with the 

rolls and in the top strip part. The lowest strain intensity 

areas occur in the lateral strip edge regions, where the 

strip moves freely. The largest deformations for Variant I 

amount to approx. 1,5 for the strip in the fi rst groove; 

1,65 in the second groove; 2,7 in the third groove; and 3,0 

in the fourth groove. Whereas, for Variant II, they amount 

to approx. 2,7 for the strip in the fi rst stand; 1,8 in the 

second stand; 2,6 in the third stand; and 3,0 in the fourth 

stand. While the lowest intensity of strains in the strip 

occurs in regions subjected to tension in the central and 

bottom parts of the sample, where a relatively small deformation 

is preset. For Variant I, the least strain for the 

strip in the fi rst groove was approx. 0,06; in the second 

Variant I 

Variant II 

Figure 2 Grooves for rolling of 250 x 21 mm fl at bar: a,a’,b,b’ ) 

slitting grooves; c) bending grooves; d) shaping 

grooves 

36 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 35-38 

a) 

b) 

c) 

d) 

a’) 

b’) 

groove, 0,9; in the third groove, 2,0; in the fourth groove, 

2,6. For Variant II, on the other hand, the least strain for 

the strip in the fi rst stand was approx. 0,2; in the second


Figure 3 Distributions of stress intensities on the strip crosssections 

during rolling in: a,a’,b,b’) slitting grooves; 

c,c’) bending grooves; d,d’) shaping grooves 

stand, 1,3; in the third stand, 2,2; and in the fourth stand, 

2,6. The uneven strain intensity distribution in the rolled 

strip formed due to the varying rolling reduction occurring 

on the strip width, which was caused by the shape of 

the grooves used. In contrast to Variant II, smaller deformations 

were preset in the fi rst stands in Variant I, which 

resulted in a poorer closure of discontinuities. Strains decreased 

with increasing distance from the strip surface; 

the similar was true for the reduced stresses. As a result, 

in the zones deformed with a larger rolling reduction 

compressive stresses form, while in the strip parts deformed 

with a smaller rolling reduction, tensile stresses 

occur [4]. Consequently, the occurrence of larger compressive 

stresses resulted in better reuniting of discontinuities 

in the strip being deformed (Variant II). 

The distributions of reduced stress intensities in 

strips during rolling were also compared (Figure 3). 

The data in Figure 3 indicates that the highest stress 

intensity zones are located in the surface layers of strips 

being deformed and on their edges, whereas the lowest 

stress intensity zones, in the central strip part. In rolling 

according to Variant I, the highest stress intensity values 

in the strip being in the fi rst stand amounted to about 75 

MPa; in the second stand, 76 MPa; in the third stand, 93 

MPa; and in the fourth stand, 88 MPa. Whereas, when 

rolling was conducted following to Variant II, the highest 

stress intensity values in the strip being in the fi rst 

stand amounted to approx. 78 MPa; in the second stand, 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 35-38 

78 MPa; in the third stand, 93 MPa; and in the fourth 

stand, 91 MPa. It was observed that what deformed in 

the fi rst place was the metal layer being at some distance 

from the strip contact with the rolls, but also at a 

certain distance from the strip centre; therefore, discontinuities 

were found to close fastest in that particular 

location (Variant II). This deformed layer induces longitudinal 

and lateral tensile stresses in its neighbouring 

layers, which cause the deformation of the entire metal 

volume in the roll gap. Thus, discontinuities in the subsequent, 

i.e. middle and sub-surface, strip layers are reunited 

next [5,6]. 

Temperature distributions in the strip cross-section 

during rolling in individual grooves were also examined. 

It was found that the highest temperatures occurred 

in the middle part of the strip, as well as in the free strip 

areas that do not contact with the rolls. In contrast, the 

lower strip temperatures were observed in locations 

where the strip contacts with the rolls. Overcooling of 

the material layer on the external sample surfaces had 

the effect of accelerating the closing of discontinuities 

occurring in the axial zone [6]. For Variant I, the average 

temperature of strip in the fi rst grove is 1 155 °C; in 

the second groove, 1 130 °C; in the third groove, 1 124 

°C; and in the fourth groove, 1 056 °C. Whereas, for 

Variant II, the average temperature of strip in the fi rst 

groove is 1 165 °C; in the second groove, 1 135 °C; in 

the third groove, 1 030 °C; and in the fourth groove, 

1 080 °C. The higher average temperatures of strip 

rolled according to Variant II resulted in better closing 

of discontinuities. 

Figure 4 shows distributions of discontinuities on 

the strip cross-section during rolling in individual 

grooves. 

It follows from Figure 4 that in rolling according to 

Variant I discontinuities are transferred as far as to the 

last stand, in contrast to rolling according to Variant II, 

where there are no discontinuities already in the third 

stand. It can be stated that the groove shape used in Variant 

II is much better in terms of closing of internal material 

discontinuities. 

SUMMARY 

The theoretical examinations carried out within this 

study found the following: 

– The best closing reuniting of discontinuities occurred 

for holes situated in the side parts of the feedstock (in 

the both variants, already in the second pass). This 

was caused by relatively high stresses of approx. 78 

MPa that occurred there. In rolling following to Variant 

I, discontinuities located in the middle strip part 

closed slower, because of the lower stresses occurring 

there (approx. 75 MPa in the fi rst stand), compared to 

the strip rolled according to Variant II (approx. 78 

MPa). The determined strain intensity values were 

greater in strips deformed following Variant II (ap- 

37


Figure 4 Distributions of discontinuities on the strip crosssections 

after rolling in: a,a’,b,b’ ) slitting grooves; 

c,c’) bending grooves; d,d’) shaping grooves 

prox. 2,7 in the fi rst stand), as compared to strips 

rolled according to Variant I (approx. 1,5). The greater 

strains caused by the groove shape used resulted in an 

increase in the magnitudes of maximum stresses in 

the metal deformed following to Variant II, which 

contributed to the acceleration of the discontinuity 

closing process. 

– The process of discontinuity closing is largely affected 

by deformed metal temperature and strip cooling 

rate in the rolling process. The higher rolled strip temperature, 

the better internal discontinuities are welded. 

As a result of strip overcooling in surface regions, the 

yield stress value increases there (the surface becomes 

less plastic). This results in an increase in strains within 

the sample and, as a consequence, an accelerated 

process of closing of discontinuities is observed in 

those regions. 

– The groove shape used for rolling fl at bars following 

to Variant II caused better closing of internal material 

discontinuities compared to the shapes made according 

to Variant I. 

REFERENCES 

[1] Sobczak K., Dyja H.: The infl uence of rolling process parameters 

and lengthening grooves shape on closing internal 

material discontinuities. The 7th International Conference 

Mechatronic Systems And Materials MSM 2011. 

Kaunas University of technology. 7-9 July, Kaunas, Lithuania 

(2011), p. 192. 

[2] Woźniak D.: Wpływ kształtu wykroju na stany naprężenia 

i odkształcenia w kotlinie walcowniczej oraz na inten sywność 

zamykania osiowych nieciągłości materiałowych w 

układzie owal – kwadrat. The Institute for Ferrous Metallurgy 

in Gliwice, Rolling Engineering 2005, October 19- 

21, Ustroń (2005), p. 82-90. 

[3] Woźniak D., Tkocz M., Cyganek Z.: Zmiany stanów termomechanicznych 

w pobliżu pęknięć w strefach przypowierzchniowej 

i środkowej ciągłego wlewka płaskiego 

w procesie walcowania na gorąco blach. Hutnik- Wiadomości 

Hutnicze, No. 8 / 2009, p. 670/673. 

[4] Woźniak D., Grosman F., Tkocz M.: Analiza stanów mecha 

nicznych towarzyszących zamykaniu i spajaniu 

nieciągłości materiału w procesach przeróbki plastycznej. 

Prace IMŻ nr 1, Gliwice (2010), p. 68/72. 

[5] Radecki J., Łabuda E.: Symulacja zmian objętości nieciągłości 

materiałowych podczas wal cowania wyrobów 

płaskich w zmiennych warunkach odkształcenia, Materiały 

Konferencji Walcownictwo, Procesy – Narzędzia –Wyroby, 

Ustroń (1999), p. 126-129. 

[6] Wang A., Thompson P.F., Hodgson P.D.: A study of Pore 

Closure and Welding in Hot Rolling Process, In: Proc. 

Metal Forming’96, eds, Pietrzyk M., Kusiak J., Hartley P., 

Pilinger I., Mat. Proc. Techn., Kraków 60 (1996), p. 95- 

102. 


Poland 

38 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 35-38

K. LABER, S. MRÓZ, P. SYGUT, H. DYJA 

ANALYSIS OF THE TEMPERATURE 

CHANGE OVER THE CONTINUOUS INGOT LENGTH 

ON THE PARAMETERS OF ROUND BAR ROLLING PROCESS 

K. Laber, S. Mróz, P. Sygut, H. Dyja, Częstochowa University of Technology, 


METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 39-42 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 39-42 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 621.77:669.71:669.3=111 




The paper presents results of theoretical and experimental studies on the eff ect of feedstock end overcooling before 

the fi rst rolling stand on the plastic fl ow of metal and on the energy and force parameters during bar rolling 

process. From the obtained investigation results it has been found that the uniform heating of the feedstock in the 

stepped furnace does not insure the uniform plastic fl ow of metal over the rolled band length. Therefore, it is necessary 

to modify the method of feedstock heating in the stepper furnace in order to obtain a uniform temperature 

over the length of the feedstock before the fi rst rolling stand. 

Key words: groove rolling, heat exchange, metal plastic fl ow, energy and force parameters, thermovision investigation 

INTRODUCTION 

The accuracy of Shape Mill products is defi ned by 

their deviations of the actual cross-sectional dimensions 

of band from the nominal values. The principal dimensions 

of Shape Mill products is their height and width of 

fi nished product and the mass of one running metre. For 

round bars, their ovality is also determined as the difference 

between the horizontal and vertical diameters, 

while for square bars, the difference between the diagonals 

is determined. The manufacture of rolled products 

within negative deviations of dimensional tolerance 

arouses increasingly great interest among purchasers. 

Newly built Shape Mills [1] and existing Shape Mills 

that have been modernized in recent years [2] manufacture 

products with a dimensional accuracy tighter than 

the 1 / 4 of that of the DIN Standard. Introducing new solutions 

to the rolling technology and Rolling Mill machinery 

and equipment assures the manufacture of 

rolled products within a narrow range of dimensional 

tolerance, which results in considerable metal savings, 

as well as a reduction in the mass of structures, equipment 

and machine parts [3]. 

Contemporarily constructed heating furnaces allow 

the end of feedstock to be heated up to a temperature 

higher than that of its beginning. It must be determined, 

however, how much the feedstock end temperature will 

have to be higher relative to the feedstock beginning 

temperature so that a uniform temperature distribution 

over the feedstock length be obtained before the fi rst 

rolling stand. 

The main objective of the investigations carried out 

was to examine the effect of feedstock end overcooling 

before the fi rst rolling stand on the metal plastic fl ow 

and on the energy and force parameters during bar rolling 

process. 

EXPERIMENTAL 

CONDITIONS AND SIMULATIONS 

The studies were carried out for one of Poland’s 

continuous bar Rolling Mill. 

The study analyzed the effect of the change in the 

temperature of the heated feedstock beginning and end 

on the plastic fl ow of metal during rolling of 20 mmdiameter 

bars. Round bars were rolled in 17 stands (17 

rolling passes). The theoretical and experimental studies 

were carried out for the starting and end regions of 

the feedstock and the band and for the end region of the 

feedstock and the band heated to a temperature higher 

that the nominal temperature which was 1 150 °C for 

the entire volume of the continuous casting. The mill 

feedstock was a 14 000 mm-long 160×160 mm continuous 

casting. The use of that long feedstock caused the 

duration of cooling the feedstock end prior to the process 

of rolling in the fi rst rolling stand to be much longer 

than that of cooling the feedstock beginning. This resulted 

in an uneven temperature distribution over the 

length of the feedstock and then the rolled band (overcooling 

of the end the feedstock, compared to its beginning). 

The theoretical and experimental study was divided 

into two stages. In the fi rst stage of the study, a 

uniform temperature of 1 150°C within the entire continuous 

casting volume was assumed. Whereas, in the 

second stage of the study, to minimize the unevenness 

39

K. LABER et al.: ANALYSIS OF THE TEMPERATURE CHANGE OVER THE CONTINUOUS INGOT LENGTH... 

of temperature distribution over the casting length before 

the fi rst rolling stand, the casting end temperature 

during heating the casting in the heating furnace was 

increased by 50 °C relative to the nominal casting temperature 

(1 150 °C). 

The rolling speed ranged from 0,10 m/s in the fi rst 

stand to 7,0 m/s in stand no. 17; the roll temperature 

was 60 °C, and ambient temperature 20 °C. The coeffi - 

cient of heat exchange between the rolls and the band 

was α = 3 000 W/m 2 K, and the coeffi cient of heat exchange 

between the band and the air was α air = 100 W/ 

m 2 K. The friction coeffi cient and the friction factor were 

assumed to be variable, being dependent on the band 

temperature, and amounting to, respectively, µ = 

0,3÷0,42 and m = 0,6÷0,8. The test material was steel 

20MnB4 [4]. 

The following object’s parameters were assumed for 

thermovision tests: emissivity, 0,82; distance from the 

object, 3 m; ambient temperature, 20 °C; refl ected temperature, 

20 °C; relative humidity, 50 % [5]. 

RESULTS AND DISSCUSION 

Figure 1 shows example results of numerical computation 

of temperature distribution for the starting and 

end regions of the feedstock and for the end feedstock 

part heated up by 50 °C before the fi rst rolling stand. 

Unevenness of temperature occurring initially at the 

beginning and end of the feedstock decreased as the 

rolling process progressed in particular passes. The 

main cause of this phenomenon was the contact of the 

band with the rolls during the rolling process and the 

generation of heat due to plastic deformation. The temperature 

values computed numerically were compared 

with the actual values measured with a thermovision 

camera for all passes. For the feedstock upstream the 

fi rst rolling stand (Figure 2) they amounted to, respectively: 

15 °C (with a relative error of 1,4 %) for the 

feedstock beginning, 12 °C (with a relative error of 1,2 

%) for the feedstock end, and 11 °C (with a relative error 

of 1,1 %) for the heated-up feedstock end. 

From the obtained results it was found that the initial 

temperature difference for the beginning and end of the 

feedstock, being about 65 °C, decreased to about 30 °C 

after rolling stand no 17. Whereas, when examining the 

temperature change on the feedstock surface before the 

Figure 1 Distribution of temperature over the feedstock 

surface before stand no. 1, as computed numerically: 

a) feedstock beginning, b) feedstock end, c) heatedup 

feedstock end 

Figure 2 Thermogram before stand no. 1, a) feedstock 

beginning, b) feedstock end, c) heated-up feedstock 

end 

fi rst rolling stand for the heated-up feedstock end, as compared 

to the temperature of the feedstock beginning it was 

determined that the existing feedstock surface temperature 

difference, being about 47 °C, decreased to about 15 

°C after rolling stand no 17. Heating up the feed stock end 

by 50 °C resulted in a decrease in the band surface temperature 

difference after rolling stand no 17 by more than 

twofold, compared the rolling of the feedstock end heated 

up to the nominal temperature (1 150 °C). 

Figures 3 and 4 represent the variation of temperature 

in the core and on the surface of band after individual 

passes. 

By analyzing the change of temperature in the band 

core (Figure 3) is established that during rolling of the 

initial band region in rolling stands nos. 1÷3 a constant 

temperature existed, whereas for both the band end and 

the pre-heated band end, a drop in temperature occurred 

in these stands. This is due to the fact that during rolling 

the band end and the heated-up band end, very large temperature 

differences exist between the core temperature 

(Figure 3) and the lateral band surface temperature (Figure 

4) values. Downstream rolling stand no 1, the differences 

in temperature for the heated-up end of the band 

between its core and lateral surface were greater by as 

much as 50 % compared to the beginning of the band. 

Figure 3 Change of feedstock core temperature after each 

pass 

Figure 4 Change of feedstock surface temperature after each 

pass 

40 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 39-42


For the temperature change on the band surface 

(Figure 4) during the round rod rolling process, a temperature 

drop was found to occur after rolling stands no 

1 and 2. This is caused by the cooling of the lateral band 

surfaces as a result of the band contacting the rolls and 

the long duration of band air cooling between rolling 

stands 1 and 2. By contrast, from rolling stand 3 on, a 

gradual increase in band surface temperature follows, 

as the band cross-section decreases and the rolling speed 

increases. This causes a decrease in both the duration of 

contact between the band and the rolls and the time of 

band cooling between particular stands, and an increase 

in the heat gain on the band surface caused by the generation 

of heat during metal plastic deformation and the 

fl ow of heat from the core of the band to its surface regions. 

The next stage of the studies included comparison of 

the cross-sectional shape and dimensions of fi nished 

bars obtained in the rolling process (Figure 5). 

From the obtained results (Figure 5) it was found 

that during band rolling from the feedstock end at a 

temperature lower than that of the remaining feedstock 

part, an increase in friction forces occurred on the band 

and roll contact surface, which resulted in an increase in 

band width by about 0,10 mm, compared to the bar obtained 

from the initial feedstock region. As the numerical 

modelling of the 20 mm-diameter bar rolling process 

did not consider the continuous rolling process (the 

occurrence of band tension and piling up between individual 

rolling stands), the obtained results do not allow 

for the effect of the band tension and pile-up change in 

the inter-stand space, which appears when rolling feedstock 

with variable temperature along its length. The 

results reported in study [6] on the effect of the change 

in the temperature of feedstock along its length on the 

continuous rolling process have demonstrated that the 

obtained numerical study results for the continuous rolling 

process are more accurate, and the obtained differences 

in the band width change along the band length 

are up to four times greater than in the case when the 

continuous rolling process is modelled as single rolling 

passes. By analyzing the obtained results it has been 

found that during rolling band from the end feedstock 

region, a drop in temperature occurs, resulting in a 

change in the friction conditions, speed increment and 

Figure 5 Shape and dimensions of the 20mm in diameter 

round bar obtained from the: a) feedstock 

beginning, b) feedstock end, c) heated-up feedstock 

end 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 39-42 

band advance, which, with a continuous rolling process, 

may bring about a metal pile-up between rolling stands 

and a band widening. Introducing the feedstock end 

heat-up operation during feedstock heating in the heating 

furnace results in a reduction of the temperature difference 

between the heated-up end and the band beginning, 

thus enhancing the capability to obtain fi nished 

product of desired dimensions conforming to the acceptance 

standard. 

Figures 6÷8 shows the diagram of variations in energy 

and force parameters in individual rolling stands of 

the rolling line. 

As a result of the decrease of temperature along the 

rolled band length due to the cooling before the fi rst 

stand of the rolling line, an increase in the energy and 

force parameters was observed during the process of 

rolling the end section of the band, compared to the beginning 

of the band. 

In the case of the total roll separating force and rolling 

torque, greater differences in the obtained values of these 

parameters can be observed at the initial rolling stage. In 

Figure 6 Diagram of variations in the total roll separating 

force in individual rolling stands of the rolling line 

Figure 7 Diagram of variations in rolling torque in individual 

rolling stands of the rolling line 

Figure 8 Variations in rolling power in individual rolling 

stands of the rolling line 

41


Figure 9 Yield stress distribution on the cross-section of the 

examined steel after the fi rst rolling stand 

the subsequent stands of the rolling line, these differences 

decrease, which is caused by the higher band speed, 

shorter times of breaks between passes, and generation of 

heat due to plastic deformation. The analysis of the values 

of the total roll separating force and rolling torque for 

the heated-up band end found that the modifi cation of the 

feedstock heating process prior to rolling, developed by 

the authors of the present study, reduced the values of the 

total roll separating force and rolling torque. This results 

in more uniform loading of individual rolling stands during 

rolling the entire band length. 

Rolling power magnitudes increase with decreasing 

rolled band temperature. When analyzing the data in 

Figure 8 it can be seen that, in the rolling process under 

examination, rolling power initially increased to reach 

the highest values in rolling stand no 12, and then its 

level decreased. 

From the analysis of the rolling power magnitude 

for the heated-up band end it was found that in this case, 

too, the pre-rolling feedstock heating process modifi cation, 

as developed by the authors of this study, allowed 

a reduction in the rolling power magnitude necessary 

for the rolling process. 

Figure 9 presents yield stress distribution on the 

cross-section of the examined steel after the fi rst stand 

of the rolling line. 

Average yield stress value for the initial band part 

was about 40,8 MPa. The average yield stress value for 

the rolled band end was approx. 49,7 MPa, while the 

average yield stress value for heated up rolled band end 

was around 45,8 MPa. From the analysis of yield stress 

variations it was found that there was a direct relationship 

between rolled band temperature and yield stress. 

It was also found that, also for yields stress, the authors’ 

modifi cation of the feedstock heating process prior to 

rolling allowed a reduction in yield stress, which has an 

effect on metal fl ow during rolling and on the energy 

and force parameters of the rolling process. 

SUMMARY 

The uneven distribution of temperature over the 

continuous casting (rolled band) length, resulting from 

the duration of band cooling between the heating furnace 

and the fi rst rolling stand, affects the plastic metal 

fl ow in individual rolling passes. When rolling bars 

from a lengthy feedstock, heating up of the feedstock 

end to a temperature higher than that of the remaining 

feedstock part should be employed with the aim of reducing 

the unevenness of temperature distribution over 

the feedstock length prior to the rolling process. 

There is a direct relationship between rolled band 

temperature and the yield stress of the material being 

deformed and the energy and force parameters of the 

rolling process. 

REFERENCES 

[1] L. Giacomini, Go long - go strong, Metals and Mining, 2 

(2007), 34-35. 

[2] H. Mueller, Economic production on bar and wire rod 

mills, Iron and Steel Technology, 4 (2007), 50-57. 

[3] E. Łabuda, H. Dyja, L. Lesik, Efektywność i kierunki poprawy 

dokładności wyrobów walcowni bruzdowych, Hutnik 

– Wiadomości Hutnicze, 8 (1992), 265-270. 

[4] PN-EN 10263-4, Walcówka, pręty i drut do spęczania i 

wyciskania na zimno, cześć 4, ISBN 83-243-3779-2, PKN 

Warszawa (2004). 

[5] User’s manual, ThermaCAM TM QuickView, program version 

2.0 FLIR Systems, January 25 (2006), publication no. 

1558344. 

[6] P. Sygut, Wpływ rozkładu temperatury wlewka ciągłego 

na plastyczne płynięcie metalu w wykrojach. Ph.D. Thesis, 

Częstochowa (2011), unpublished. 


Grochowina, Studio-Tekst, Poland 

42 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 39-42

M. SULIGA, R. KRUZEL 

THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF HIGH CARBON STEEL 

WIRES DRAWN IN CONVENTIONAL AND HYDRODYNAMIC DIES 

M. Suliga, R. Kruzel, Czestochowa University of Technology, Czestochowa, 

Poland 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 43-46 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 43-46 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 620.17.669.784.15:621.778=111 




In the paper the infl uence of the hydrodynamic die on mechanical properties has been assessed. The drawing process 

of φ 5,5 mm wires to the fi nal wire of φ 2,5 mm was conducted in 7 passes, in industrial conditions, by means of 

a modern Koch multi-die drawing machine. The drawing speed in the last passes was 8,2 m/s. On the basis of numerical 

analyses wire drawing process, the redundant strain of wires has been determined. In the case of the wires 

drawn with hydrodynamic dies the increase of plasticity properties have been noted. It has been shown that the 

increase of strength properties in wires drawn with conventional die is related to the occurrence in their bigger redundant 

strain. 

Keywords: mechanical properties, high carbon steel, wires, conventional and hydrodynamic dies, redundant strain 

INTRODUCTION 

A dynamic development of the metal industry in the 

last years and also economical and technical considerations 

require to search for some new production technologies 

of drawn products. A permanently increase of 

the industry requirements in the range of amount, quality 

and properties of drawn products i.e. steel cord, rope 

wires, springs have caused a necessity of the modernization 

of the drawing mill and the drawing tools including 

dies. 

The modern multi-die drawing machine makes it 

possible to dry drawing of wire with drawing speed 

above 25 m/s. In practice in order to gain a certain industry 

standard, wire manufactures limit the drawing 

speed to 10-15 m/s in the last pass. The available literature 

on the subject indicate that high drawing speed can 

cause the change of the drawing conditions and properties 

of high carbon steel wires [1-3]. 

One of the main factors which cause the limitation 

of drawing speed is friction which result in the increase 

of temperature. As a result of the application of high 

drawing speed, a temperature on the surface wire rises 

above several hundred degrees Celsius [1, 4]. 

One of the method of reduction of the friction coeffi 

cient is drawing process in hydrodynamic dies, where 

during drawing almost the complete separating of the 

wire surface and a die occur [5]. 

In the literature the information concerning to the 

infl uence of the wire drawing process in hydrodynamic 

dies on properties of drawn wires can be found [5, 6]. 

The data investigation presented in the works [6] shown 

that the application in the wire drawing process of the 

hydrodynamic dies have a favorable effect on the drawing 

parameters and properties i.e. temperature, effective 

strain and residual stresses. 

Therefore, the present work makes an attempt to assess 

the infl uence of the multipass drawing process in 

conventional and hydrodynamic dies on mechanical 

properties of high carbon steel wires. 

MATERIAL AND APPLIED 

DRAWING TECHNOLOGIES 

The material applied for the investigation was of 

C72 high carbon steel wire rod. Before drawing, the 

wire rod was patented, itched and boraxed. The drawing 

process of φ 5,5 mm wires in the fi nal wire of φ 2,5 mm 

was conducted in 7 passes, in industrial conditions, by 

means of a modern Koch multi-die drawing machine. 

The drawing speeds in the last pass was 8,2 m/s. 

Single drafts, Ds, total drafts, Dt, and drawing 

speeds, v, for wires from variants A-B are summarized 

in Table 1. In drafts 1-4 calcareous lubricant CONDAT 

Vicafi l SUMAC 2T was applied while in drafts 5-7 soda 

lubricant TRAXIT SL 202 BS was used. The wires from 

variant A were drawn in conventional dies while the 

wires from variant B in hydrodynamic dies. 

THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 

OF DRAWN WIRES 

In order to establish the effect of drawing speed on 

mechanical properties of wires, mechanical investigation 

was carried on by means of Zwick Z100 testing 

43

M. SULIGA et al.: THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF HIGH CARBON STEEL WIRES DRAWN IN CONVENTIONAL... 

Table 1 Distribution of single drafts, total drafts and 

drawing speed for wires from variant A and B 

Draft φ / mm Ds / % Dt / % V/ m/s 

0 5,50 - - - 

1 4,92 19,98 19,98 2,12 

2 4,38 20,75 36,58 2,67 

3 3,90 20,72 49,72 3,37 

4 3,50 19,46 59,50 4,18 

5 3,12 20,54 67,82 5,26 

6 2,80 19,46 74,08 6,53 

7 2,50 20,28 79,34 8,20 

machine, according to PN-EN ISO 6892-1:2009 standard. 

For wire rod and drawn wires, the following were 

determined: yield stress, Re; tensile strength, Rm; coeffi 

cient, Re/Rm; uniform elongation, Au; total elongation, 

At; reduction of area, Z. 

The changing of Re, Rm and Re/Rm in total draft 

function are presented in Figure 1-3. 

On the basis of Figures 1, 2 it can be observed that 

the hydrodynamic dies infl uences essentially the 

Figure 1 The changing of yield stress in total draft function 

for wires drawn according to variants A and B 

Figure 2 The changing of tensile strength in total draft function 


strength properties of high carbon steel wires. The application 

in drawing process of hydrodynamic dies 

(variant B) results in an decrease in their strength properties, 

i.e. the yield stress and the ultimate tensile 

strength. The fi nal wires from variant B, as compared to 

the wires from variants A, are distinguished by a yield 

point lower by 7,3 % and an ultimate tensile strength 

lower by 3,7 %, respectively. 

Additionally in the work, the analysis of coeffi cient 

YS/UTS has been carried out. This parameter allows to 

estimate susceptibility of wire on plastic strain (smaller 

coeffi cient proves better plasticity properties of material). 

Figure 3 proves the positive infl uence of hydrodynamic 

dies on plasticity of wires. The wires from variant 

B have lower coeffi cient Re/Rm, approximately 3,8 

%. The parameters which can also prove the positive 

infl uence of hydrodynamic dies on plasticity properties 

of wires were presented in Figures 4-6. 

It can be observed from Figures 4-6 that the hydrodynamic 

dies improves essentially the plasticity properties 

of high carbon steel wires. The fi nal wires from 

variant B (hydrodynamic dies), as compared to the 

wires from variants A (conventional dies), are distinguished 

by an uniform elongation higher by 13,7 %, a 

total elongation higher by 27,5 % and a contraction 

higher by 8 %, respectively. The worse plasticity properties 

for wires from variant A are related to their bigger 

work hardening (Figures 1, 2). 

THE THEORETICAL ANALYSIS 

OF WIREDRAWING PROCESS 

The experimental determination of the distribution 

of redundant strain on the cross-section of wire being 

drawn is diffi cult to accomplish, therefore the present 

work proposes a theoretical analysis of this problem 

based on the software Drawing 2D [7]. 

The simulation of the multi-pass drawing process 

was performed for a wire with plastic properties corresponding 

to those of the pearlitic-ferritic steel C72 (~ 

44 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 43-46 

Re / Rm 

1 

0,9 

0,8 

0,7 

0,6 

0,5 

0,4 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 

Dt / % 

Figure 3 The changing of coeffi cient Re/Rm in total draft function 


A 

B

Au / % 


9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

0 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 

0,72 % C). It was assumed that the drawing process 

took place with the identical distribution of single and 

total drafts to that of the experimental tests (Table 1), 

with the friction coeffi cient of µ=0,008 for variant A 

and µ=0,075 for variant B. 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 43-46 

Dt / % 

Figure 4 The changing of uniform elongation in total draft 

fun c tion for wires drawn according to variants A and 

B 

At / % 

13 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

0 

A 

B 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 

Dt / % 

Figure 5 The changing of total elongation in total draft 

function for wires drawn according to variants A and B 

Z / % 

60 

58 

56 

54 

52 

50 

48 

46 

44 

42 

40 

A 

B 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 

Dt / % 

Figure 6 The changing of reduction of area in total draft function 


A 

B 

Figure 7 Redundant strain distributions on the cross-section 

of φ 2,5 mm wires drawn according to variant A 

ε xy 

0,5 

0,45 

0,4 

0,35 

0,3 

0,25 

0,2 

0,15 

0,1 

0,05 

0 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 

Dt / % 

A B 

Figure 8 The change of redundant strain ε xy of wire surface in 

total draft function for variant A and B 

Figure 7 shows the redundant strain distributions on 

the cross-section of φ 2,5 mm wires drawn according to 

variant A. 

As the Drawing 2D software, with the visualization 

of distribution of a particular parameter, provides the 

possibility of reading out the numerical value of that 

parameter for each of the triangular grid nodes, the redundant 

strain on the wire surface was determined in 

the work. 

In Figure 8 the change of redundant strain ε xy of wire 

surface in total draft function for variant A and B has 

been shown while in Figure 9 redundant strain distributions 

on the cross-section of φ 2,5 mm wires drawn according 

to Variants A and B has been presented. 

On the basis of Figures 8, 9 it can be observed that 

the application of hydrodynamic dies reduce the redundant 

of strain. The wires from variant B, as compared to 

the wires from variants A, exhibit lower redundant of 

strain by 22 %. The biggest differences were found in 

the sub-layers of drawn wires. The increase of redundant 

strain in wires drawn in conventional dies cause 

45


ε xy 

0,5 

0,4 

0,3 

0,2 

0,1 

0 

0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 

the increase of additional work hardening. And it is the 

reason why for wires from variant A the higher strength 

properties was found. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The position from the distance of wire axis / mm 

Figure 9 The distributions of the redundant strain ε xy on the 

cross-section of φ 2,5 mm wires drawn according to 

Variants A and B 

From the theoretical studies and experimental tests 

carried out, the following fi ndings and conclusions have 

been drawn: 

The application in the multipass drawing process of 

the hydrodynamic dies infl uences essentially on the mechanical 

properties of high carbon steel wires. 

The wires from variant B (hydrodynamic dies), as 

compared to the wires from variants A (conventional 

dies), are distinguished by a yield stress lower by 7,3 % 

and an ultimate tensile strength lower by 3,7 %, respectively. 

The decrease of strength properties of wires from 

A 

B 

variant B caused their improvement of plasticity properties, 

an total elongation by 27,5 % and a reduction of 

area higher by 8 %, respectively. 

The increase of strength properties in wires drawn in 

conventional dies is related to the occurrence of their 

bigger redundant strain which caused the increase of 

additional work hardening. 

The obtained data of investigations can be applied in 

wire industry while implementing the new technologies 

of manufactures of high carbon steel wires. 

REFERENCES 

[1] M. Suliga, The infl uence of the high drawing speed on 

mechanical-technological properties of high carbon steel 

wires, Archieves of Metallurgy and Materials, 3 (2011), 

823-828. 

[2] I. Nemec, B. Golis, J.W. Pilarczyk, R. Budzik, W. Waszkielewicz, 

Effect of high-speed drawing on properties of 

high-carbon steel wires, Wire Journal International, 12 

(2007), 63-68. 

[3] R.N. Wright, Physical conditions in the lubricant layer, 

Wire Journal International, 7 (1997), 88-92. 

[4] S.K. Lee, D.C. Ko, B.M. Kim, Pass schedule of wire drawing 

process to prevent delamination for high strength steel 

cord wire, Materials and Design, 30 (2009), 2919-2927. 

[5] J. Łuksza, Elementy ciągarstwa, Wydawnictwo AGH, Kraków 

(2001). 

[6] M. Suliga, The infl uence of the multipass drawing process 

in classical and hydrodynamic dies on residual stresses of 

high carbon steel wires, Archieves of Metallurgy and Materials, 

4 (2011), 939-944. 

[7] A. Milenin, Software Drawing2D - general tool for analysis 

of technological processes of multi-pass drawing, Metallurgist-Metallurgical 

News, 2 (2005), 100-103. 

Note: The professional translator for English language is Krzysztof 

Skorupa, studio tłumaczeń, Myszków, Poland 

46 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 43-46

B. GRABOWSKA, M. HOLTZER, R. DAŃKO, M. GÓRNY, A. BOBROWSKI, E. OLEJNIK 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 47-50 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 621.746:621.74.04:678.7=111 

NEW BioCo BINDERS CONTAINING 

BIOPOLYMERS FOR FOUNDRY INDUSTRY 

B. Grabowska, M. Holtzer, R. Dańko, M. Górny, A. Bobrowski, E. Olejnik; 

AGH - University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Foundry 

Engineering, Krakow, Poland 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 47-50 



Preliminary Note – Prethodno priopćenje 

Possibilities of cross-linking of new polymer binders from the BioCo group, their hardening in moulding sands at the 

application of cross-linking agents both physical and chemical are presented. Their thermal stability was determined. 

It was proved, that moulding sands bound by the BioCo binders are characterised by the compression 

strength (Ru) of an order of 2 MPa, and the bending strength (Ru) 

of 1 MPa, after 1 hour of a sample curing. The 

c g 

worked out BioCo binders are biodegradable and renewable in the part which was not completely burned. The investigated 

moulding sands with the BioCo binders are easily knocked out and have a good susceptibility for mechanical 

reclamation processes. 

Key words: foundry, moulding sands, polymer binders, spheroidal cast iron, biodegradation 

INTRODUCTION 

Polymer binders applied in foundry practice contain 

synthetic or natural polymers dissolved in appropriately 

selected solvents [1, 2]. Among synthetic polymers are 

polysiloxanes, sodium polyacrylan and polyacrylic acid 

[3]. Papers dealing with the development of binding 

agents and processes using biopolymers and their derivatives 

can be also found [4-7]. 

Within the engineering of foundry processes increasing 

demands concerning technical, ecological and economic 

parameters of binding materials are presently 

observed. This fact supports the development of new 

technologies and utilising new binding agents as well as 

the explanation of accompanying cross-linking and 

degradation processes. This knowledge facilitates designing 

and control of the technological process and 

obtaining – at the fi nal technological state – the sound 

castings of the required dimensions [1, 2]. 

The research concerning the application of new polymer 

binders for moulding sands are carried out in the 

Laboratory of Environment Protection, the Faculty of 

Foundry Engineering, AGH. Within these investigations 

the new, water soluble, binders containing biopolymers 

were worked out. These binders are polymer 

compositions in a form of water solutions of natural 

(polysaccharides) and synthetic (polyacrylanes) polymers. 

They are characterised by several desired physical, 

chemical and technological properties, due to which 

they can become a serious alternative of organic binders 

for moulding and core sands [8, 9]. Experimental tests 

performed in the foundry plant confi rmed the laboratory 

results in the range of utilising the polymer composi- 

tions as moulding sands binders and the produced iron 

castings fulfi lled all qualitative requirements [9]. 

COMPOSITION OF THE BioCo BINDERS 

The composition of the BioCo binders as a water 

polymer mixture was worked out with taking into consideration 

physical and chemical properties of initial 

polymer components, synthetic and natural (molecular 

mass, viscosity, pH, concentration) and their solubility 

in water (hydrophility) [10, 11]. The synthetic polymer 

belongs to polyacrylic group (formula I), while the biopolymer 

to polysaccharides (formula II). 

H 

CH 2 C 

C O 

X 

Formula I Formula II 

CH2OH O 

OH 

OH 

CROSS-LINKING OF THE BioCo BINDERS 

The appropriate selection of the cross-linking agent 

has a decisive infl uence on the bonding power of moulding 

sand matrix grains by a binder. For the BioCo binders 

the chemical cross-linking agents (glutaric aldehyde 

OHC-(CH 2 ) 3 -CHO, Ca(OH) 2 + CO 2 ) as well as physical 

(temperature, microwave and UV radiation) were selected 

[8]. 

The structural FTIR examinations (spectrometer 

Digilab Excalibur FTS 3000 Mx with DTGS detector) 

proved, that the kind of the cross-linking agent applied 

is essential for the course of the cross-linking reaction 

of the polymer composition (Figure 1). 

O 

47

B. GRABOWSKA et al.: NEW BioCo BINDERS CONTAINING BIOPOLYMERS FOR FOUNDRY INDUSTRY 

Figure 1 Examples of the FTIR spectra for the BioCo1 (1) 

binder cross-linked by various agents: (2) microwave, 

(3) UV, (4) aldehyde, (5) Ca(OH) 2 + CO 2 

Glutaric aldehyde as a two-functional compound 

has a possibility of cross-linking polymer chains of 

neighbouring carboxylic and hydroxylic groups. In the 

cross-linking process performed by means of Ca(OH) 2 

+ CO 2 , two-positive Ca 2+ cations are built into polymer 

chains. This is a ionic reaction and no signifi cant changes 

in the absorption bands positions in the IR and Raman 

spectra - before and after the cross-linking – are 

observed. Only intensity changes of individual bands 

can be noticed. The cross-linking process of composition 

samples: poly(acrylic acid)/carboxymethylstarch 

by microwaves and UV radiation occurs with new bonds 

formation with the participation of carbonyl group 

–C=O. During the microwaves operation probably also 

occurs the dehydration reaction in between two carboxylic 

groups either within one polymer chain or between 

groups belonging to the neighbouring chains. Hydrogen 

bonds are essential in the cross-linking process being 

done by microwaves. In the case of the cross-linking 

process performed by the UV radiation the radical 

course of reaction is probable. Such reaction occurs 

with the formation of active radicals in polymer particles. 

These radicals can react with each other and in 

consequence the reaction leads to forming the crosslinked 

product of a highly branched structure. 

THERMAL STABILITY OF THE BioCo BINDERS 

The thermal analysis methods (NETZSCH model 

STA 449 F3 Jupiter ® ) were applied in order to determine 

the thermal stability of the BioCo binders by 

means of establishing their destruction temperatures 

and thermal effects occurring during heating. 

On the basis of the obtained results (DSC-TG) and 

their analysis it can be stated (Figure 2), that the thermal 

degradation of the BioCo binders occurs in two stages, in 

accordance with the general mechanism of the radical 

disintegration [12, 13]. The degradation is preceded by 

the dehydration process, which occurs at a temperature of 

app. 130 o C and consists of the loss of the solving water 

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 

Temperature /°C 

followed by the loss of the constitutional water. The dehydration 

process can be accompanied by the formation 

of intramolecular anhydride rings. The real thermal degradation 

process starts at the initiation stage, during which 

free macroradicals are formed due to cracking the interatomic 

bond in the main chain of the macromolecule. 

Above a temperature of 300 o C an intensive cracking of 

chemical bonds occurs in macromolecules. This process 

grows rapidly with a monomer emission followed by 

gaseous products of the organic substances decomposition, 

which fi nally leads to the sample destruction. In addition, 

on the basis of the analysis of these volatile decomposition 

products, carried out by means of the thermo-gravimetric 

(TG) method coupled on-line with the 

mass spectrometry (MS), it was found that quite considerable 

amount of small-molecule decomposition products 

evolve: carbon dioxide (IV), water and methane. 

MOULDING SANDS 

BOUND BY THE BioCo BINDER 

DSC /(mW/mg) 

Moulding sands with the BioCo binders, containing 

biopolymers, hardened by microwaves are characterised 

by the compression strength (Ru) of an order of 2 

c 

MPa and the bending strength (Ru) of an order of 1 MPa, 

g 

after 1 hour of a sample maturing. The weight ratio of 

the binder and sand grains in moulding sands is usually 

maintained in proportion: 3 to 100 [6-8]. 

The prepared moulds made of a moulding sand with 

the BioCo2 binder thermally hardened was poured with 

liquid cast iron. A temperature of pouring was app. 1 

400 °C. The obtained cast iron had the following chemical 

composition: 

C – 3,71 %; Si – 2,69 %; Mn – 0,44 %; P – 0,05 %; 

S – 0,010 %; Cr – 0,04 %; Mg – 0,042 %; Cu – 0,02 %. 

The microstructure of the spheroidal cast iron in the 

boundary: casting/mould - is shown in Figure 3. Metallographic 

investigations were performed by the optical 

microscope Leica MEF-4M. The microstructure was 

estimated at magnifi cations of 25 and 100 x. 

48 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 47-50 

TG /% 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

Mass Change: -68,31 % 

Complex Peak: 

Area: -1 145 J/g 

Peak: 124,5 °C 

Onset: 79,4 °C 

Complex Peak: 

Area: 388,5 J/g 

Peak: 429,2 °C 

Onset: 412,9 °C 

TG 

DSC 

Complex Peak: 

Area: 1 326 J/g 

Peak: 530,9 °C 

Onset: 451,8 °C 

↑ exo 

Residual Mass: 5,87 % (888,7 °C) 

Figure 2 Examples of the mass change (TG) and the DSC 

curves dependence on the temperature for the 

BioCo1 binder 

[1] 

[1] 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

-2 

-4

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 47-50 


a) b) 

Figure 3 Microstructure of castings obtained in moulds 

containing the new generation of polymer BioCo2 binders: 

a) Polished section not etched, b) Etched polished sections 

The metallographic tests (Figure 3 a), b) indicate, 

that graphite nodules are uniformly distributed within 

the whole casting cross-section. 

Defects related to the moulding sand infl uencing the 

casting surface and the microstructure were not seen in 

the castings. Castings were without such defects as: pittings, 

surface deformations, gaseous porosities or graphite 

deformation in the near surface layer. 

RECLAIMABILITY OF SPENT 

SANDS WITH THE BioCo BINDER 

Investigations of the reclamation process were carried 

out by means of the device operating on the basis of 

the rotor reclaimer. On the grounds of the obtained reclaimability 

results of the investigated spent sand with 

the BioCo binder, it can be stated that it is characterised 

by a good susceptibility for the mechanical reclamation 

processes. The obtained indices of the degree of liberating 

sand grains from binding materials after 15 minutes 

of the reclamation process were from 12,95 % to 49,95 

% (this is a very high level – much higher than obtainable 

for sands with furfuryl resin) respectively, for the 

process performed with the slowest and highest rotational 

speed of the testing device rotor. 

The reclamation process performed even at a very 

intensive reclamation infl uence (rotational speed of 1 

760 rpm) does not cause unfavourable crushing of a matrix, 

which enables obtaining so high degree of cleaning 

the spent sands. 

The morphology of the spent sand with the BioCo2 

binder and the reclaim is presented in Figure 4 a), b). 

RENEWABILITY AND 

BIODEGRADATION OF THE BioCo BINDERS 

The BioCo binders in moulding sands are renewable 

in this part, which was not totally burned and the spent 

sand was easily knocked out, enabling its recycling. The 

possibility of the reclaimability of the BioCo binders in 

sands constituted a point of departure for the trials of 

rebounding the spent moulding sand bound by the Bio- 

Co binders. It was found, that the composition of the 

reclaimed sand depends on the burning degree of the 

spent sand bound with the BioCo2 binder. Therefore, 

a) b) 

Figure 4 Surface morphology: a) Spent sand, b) Reclaim 

from the economic point of view. a relatively fast casting 

knocking out from the mould – after pouring it with 

liquid metal – is essential to prevent the binder carbonization 

in a signifi cant mould volume. A separation of 

the burned part from the spent part is also important, 

since the part without the binder decreases the overall 

sand resistance. 

Investigations of the biodegradation of the BioCo 

binders allow to state, that there is a possibility of using 

the static test (Zahn Wellens) as a method testing the 

biodegradability of water soluble foundry binders. After 

28 days of the test duration the biodegradation degree 

exceeds 60 %, which means that the BioCo binders can 

be considered as fully biodegradable in the water-solution. 

In addition, the biodegradation investigations (the 

results of structural and microscopic investigations and 

thermal analysis) of the tested polymer composition 

performed in the soil indicated that this material undergoes 

a gradual biodegradation under an infl uence of 

moisture and substances contained in the soil. This 

means that the BioCo binders are suitable for the biodestruction 

under conditions being close to the ones 

usually existing in dumping grounds. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The development direction of the moulding sands 

production and at the same time the possibility of using 

synthetic resins is related to several technological as 

well as economic and ecological aspects. Widely applied 

– in the foundry industry - synthetic resins as 

binding agents of moulding sands must meet several requirements 

demanded by the foundry plants and by the 

clients for whom the fi nal castings are intended. Quite 

often these fi nal products are harmful for the environment 

and of high production costs resulting from prices 

of the applied resins and additions. 

New polymer compositions containing biopolimers 

characterised by several desired physical and chemical 

as well as technological properties can constitute a serious 

alternative of moulding and core sands binding 

agents. The presented hereby investigations related to 

working out the new BioCo binders seems promising in 

respect of technology (suitable sands properties), ecology 

(non-toxicity, biodegradability, renewability) and 

economy (relatively low price of a binder). A modifi ed 

49


starch from polysaccharides group deserves the special 

attention, since this is easily obtainable, biodegradable 

and the cheapest biopolymer. At a current low price of 

this polymer, as well as possibilities of using agricultural 

wastes for its production, the problem of the starch 

application in the foundry industry can become really 

signifi cant. 

Acknowledgement: 

Scientifi c paper fi nanced by AGH Research Project 

No 11.11.170.318 

REFERENCES 

[1] Chanda M., Roy Salil K., CRC Press, Taylor&Francis 

Group (2008). 

[2] Ru-Min Wang, Shui-Rong Zheng, Ya-Ping Zheng, Woodhead 

Publishing in Materials, Science Press, Beijng 

(2011). 

[3] Grabowska B., Holtzer M., Polimery 52 (2007), 11/12, 

841-847. 

[4] Xia Zhou, Jinzong Yang, Guohui Qu., Journal of Materials 

Processing Technology, 183 (2007), 183, 407-412. 

[5] Patterson M., Thiel J., Foundry Management & Technology, 

6 (2010), 14-17. 

[6] Laichman L., Brandštetr J., Rusin K. Slévárenství 57 

(2009), 1–2, 12–14. 

[7] Eastman J., Modern Casting, October (2000), 32-34 . 

[8] Grabowska B., Polimery 54 (2009), No 7/8, 507–513. 

[9] Grabowska B., Holtzer M., Górny M., Dańko R., Grabowski 

G., Archives of Foundry Engineering 11 (2011), 47– 

50. 

[10] Belgacem M. N., Gandini A., Elsevier (2008). 

[11] Mohanty A. K., Misra M., Drzal L. T.: Natural fi bers, biopolimers 

and biocomposites, Taylor & Francis Group, 

USA, (2005). 

[12] Kader A., Bhowmick A. K.: Polymer Degradation and Stability, 

79 (2003), 283-295. 

[13] Grabowska B. , Holtzer M., Eichholz S., Hodor K., Bobrowski 

A., 56 Polimery (2011), 2 62–66. 


Translation Offi ce, Kraków, Poland 

50 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 47-50

A. PRIBULOVÁ, P. FUTAŠ, A. ROSOVÁ, P. DEMETER, D. BARICOVÁ 

INFLUENCE OF FOUNDRY DUST 

ON MOULDING MIXTURES QUALITY 

A. Pribulová, P. Futaš, P. Demeter, D. Baricová, Faculty of Metallurgy, 

Technical university in Kosice, Slovakia 

A. Rosova, Faculty of Mining, Ecology, Process Control and Geotechnology, 

Technical university in Kosice, Slovakia 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 51-54 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 51-54 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 669.005.71:621.658.5:005.4 =111 




The objective of this paper was to observe the eff ect of the addition of the dust from the moulding plant on the 

quality parameters of the moulding mixtures and determine tolerable content in the moulding mixture. Three types 

of moulding mixtures were used in experiments: mixture prepared from new quartz sand and bentonite, mixture 

which is recycled in the experimental foundry and mixture came from the small foundry. To tthese moulding mixture 

was added the dust from moulding plant in the range 0 – 10%. Infl uence of dust addition on the compression 

strength, splitting strength and permeability was observed in all three kinds of mixtures. 

Key words: moulding mixture, foundry dust, compression strength, splitting strength. 

INTRODUCTION 

Processing of wastes of any kind and their reuse becomes 

still more urgent global problem because of the 

ecological conditions improvement [1-2]. However, the 

assuming of the most complex recycling calls for the 

laborious preparation and construction of the costly facilities. 

Foundry waste represents the economical burden for 

the foundries on one hand and on the other hand the 

ecological burden for environment. The costs related to 

the foundry waste disposal are becoming still higher 

and at the same time increased are also the fees for the 

waste transport and a landfi ll operation. The most ideal 

solution is to fi nd the way of their recycling within the 

reproduction process free of costly processing and in 

such a way to save on inputs as well as on energy. 

DUSTS FORMED IN MOULDS PRODUCTION, 

PREPARATION AND PROCESSING OF THE 

SAND MIXTURES 

In process of the moulds production, including the 

preparation of the moulding mixtures and the forming 

process alone produced are large quantities of dusts 

trapped in the separating devices as fi lters or dust separators. 

Dusts are formed in all stages of the moulding 

mixtures preparation, when handling the raw materials, 

in course of mixing and forming mixture preparation in 

mixers, in the forming process alone, so in manual as 

machines forming and in reclamation process of used 

sand [3]. The reason of the rather signifi cant amount of 

dust formation in course of all operations related to the 

moulds production is the moulding mixture alone, the 

base of which is an opening material – sand, either 

quartz and or of other chemical composition. 

When evaluating the opportunities of the utilization 

of the wastes from the dust separators (from the preparation 

of the moulding mixtures and moulds manufacture) 

as the additive to the bentonite sand mixtures, it is necessary 

to consider the condition that the dust shall come 

from the moulding system only (preparation of the 

moulding mixture, moulding plant) [4-7]. Dust from the 

wet and dry fi lters then contains the components of the 

moulding mixture – bentonite, carboneous additives, dust 

from the quartz sand and further additives. These components, 

which have so far handled as the waste, are able of 

the reuse in the sand mixtures preparation. 

The quartz sand, bentonite, quartz – coal like raw materials 

as well as the further additives purchased from the 

manufacturers possess the guaranteed quality. Material 

from dust separators is the refuse product from the foundry 

and it is necessary to design the system for its occurrence 

and quality assessment. Considered should be also 

the variability of the properties in case of the alternation 

of the manufacturing program of the foundry. 

Experiments with the application of the dust in the 

moulding mixtures are described in the literature [8]. 

Authors state that the exploitation of the bentonite from 

dust provided not only technological but also economical 

benefi t. The authors consider the optimum composition 

of the moulding mixture as follows: SiO 2 sand – 87 

%, bentonite – 6 %, dust – 4 %, carbon – 3 % and water 

– 4,5 %. They also claim that replacement of the bentonite 

by dust did not cause the change of the properties 

of the castings, mainly as the quality of the castings surface 

is considered. 

Similarly, the authors [4,5,7,9] state that the dust 

from the preparation of the bentonite moulding mix- 

51

A. PRIBULOVÁ et al.: INFLUENCE OF FOUNDRY DUST ON MOULDING MIXTURES QUALITY 

tures contains large amount of the valuable components. 

Besides the active bentonite there is also the bright carbon, 

which loses its value when deposited on landfi ll. 

According to the authors, the addition of dust from the 

moulding plant should not exceed 1 % in the mixture 

for the given cycle of the sand mixture revitalisation. 

The implementation of the sand mixture revitalisation 

by the addition of the dust from the dry dedusting process 

from the moulding mixture preparation section has 

made it possible to use the dust that had been piled until 

that time, as well as reduction of the amount of bentonite 

and bright carbon carrier by 20 %. 

The objective of this paper was to observe the effect 

of the addition of the dust from the moulding plant 

(from the manufacture of the cast iron castings) on the 

quality parameters of the sand mixture and determine 

tolerable content in the moulding mixture. 

USED EXPERIMENTAL MATERIALS 

The dust exhausted and trapped in the sleeve fi lters 

from the moulding mixture preparation plant and mould 

preparation was used in experiments. Chemical composition 

of this dust is provided in Table 1. Dust from the 

moulding plant contained almost 40 % SiO 2 and relatively 

high proportion of carbon. This was very fi ne 

grain material, the biggest proportion represented the 

granulometry fraction 0,125 mm (34 %), grain size 

classes 0,09 mm, 0,125 mm and 0,18 mm represented 

70 % of the overall dust weight. 

Table 1 Chemical composition of dust / weight % 

Fe FeO Al 2 O 3 SiO 2 CaO MgO MnO C 

5,03 3,02 4,82 39,29 2,38 2,17 0,07 17,50 

Three types of the moulding mixtures were used in 

experiments: mixture N – new sand mixture prepared 

from new quartz sand and bentonite. The content of 

quartz sand in the mixtures was 89,6 % and bentonite 

7,8 %. The quartz sand was gradually replaced by the 

dust from the moulding plant and in the amount of 2, 4, 

6, 8 and 10 % out of the weight of the quartz sand 

weight. The moisture content in the quartz sand was 

0,14 %, the moisture content in the bentonite was 10,72 

% and moisture content in the dust from the moulding 

plant was 13,11 %. The amount of the added water was 

adjusted to the required moisture content in the moulding 

mixture of 3,5 %. The second applied was the 

moulding mixture – R, which is recycled in the experimental 

foundry at the Department of Iron Metallurgy 

and Foundry. Number of the cycles of this sand mixture 

is not known, its moisture content was 4,01 %, and so 

neither water nor other additives were added. The dust 

from the moulding plant was added to this moulding 

mixture and its content in the fi nal moulding mixture 

was in the range from 0 to 10 %. The third sand mixture 

- F came from the foundry where small and medium 

size castings are cast. It was common moulding mixture 

with the moisture content of 7,58 %. This moulding 

mixture is revitalised in each cycle by the addition of 

bentonite and dextrin. The amount of added bentonite is 

1 200 g and dextrin 260 g per 150 kg of the moulding 

mixture. The pre-dried dust from the moulding plant 

was added to this moulding mixture, with the moisture 

content of 6 %. Similarly, also to this moulding mixture 

added was the dust from the moulding plant in the range 

of 0 – 10 % out from the moulding mixture weight. 

THE EXPERIMENT DESCRIPTION 

The individual moulding mixture was prepared in 

the wheel mixer, where they were mixed for 7 minutes. 

The quality of the moulding mixtures was determined 

based on three tests: test of compression strength, splitting 

test and test of moulding mixture permeability. The 

compression strength and splitting strength is determined 

on the cylindrical specimen with diameter of 50 

± 0,2 mm and a height of 50 ± 0,8 mm. 

Measurement of compression and splitting strength 

was carried out on the instrument determined for the 

estimation of the strength properties of moulding mixtures 

LRu-2e. The splitting strength expresses the mixture 

plasticity and is used for the bentonite green sand 

mixtures exclusively. The permeability of the moulding 

mixture means its ability to pass the gasses and the vapours 

and is expressed by the amount of air (15 – 20 

°C), which passes the area of 1 m 2 and the length of 1 m 

of the tested mixture under the overpressure of 1Pa per 

1 second. In the foundry practice as the unit of permeability 

used is SI unit = n.j.p x 1,67. 

ACHIEVED RESULTS AND THEIR DISCUSSION 

The effect of the content of dust from the moulding 

plant on the compression strength of the newly prepared 

moulding mixture (N), recycled moulding mixture from 

the Department of Iron Metallurgy and Foundry (R) and 

the moulding mixture from the foundry plant (F) is given 

in Figure 1. 

Figure 2 illustrates the effect of this dust on the splitting 

strength in case of three above-mentioned moulding 

mixtures. The effect of the dust content in these 

moulding mixtures on the permeability is given in Figure 

3. The highest compression strength prior the addition 

of the dust from the moulding plant had the newly 

prepared moulding mixture, what is obvious as this 

mixture was prepared from the pure raw materials (new 

quartz sand and new bentonite). 

The lowest compression strength had the moulding 

mixture coming from the foundry. In all three cases the 

dust addition (in the fi rst case to the opening material, in 

the second and third to the moulding mixture) caused 

the signifi cant rise in the compression strength. In case 

of the newly prepared moulding mixture 2 and 4 % of 

dust in the opening material caused the rise in strength, 

which is higher comparing to the moulding mixture 

52 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 51-54

2 N sand mixture (R = 0.9982) 

N 

y = -0,1185x N 4 + 2,7353x3 - 22,821x2 + 72,937x + 116,17 

2 R sand mixture (R = 0,9881) 

R 

y = -0,1523x N 4 + 3,2054x3 - 22,707x2 + 57,798x + 140,34 

2 F sand mixture (R = 0,9466) 

N 

y = 0,2731x N 3 - 4,6508x2 + 17,447x + 99,016 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 51-54 


Figure 1 Infl uence of dust addition on compression strength 

2 N sand mixture (R = 0,9706) 

N 

y = - 0,0162x N 3 - 0,2569x2 + 2,9835x + 29,532 

2 R sand mixture (R = 0,9703) 

R 

y = -0,0326x N 4 + 0,6823x3 - 4,526x2 + 8,7619x + 31,107 

2 F sand mixture (R = 0,9505) 

N 

y = 0,0182x N 4 + 0,4086x3 + 2,9618x2 + 6,6773x + 23,087 

Figure 2 Infl uence of dust addition on splitting strength 

without dust. However 6 % of the dust in the moulding 

mixture caused the more signifi cant drop in the compression 

strength, this holds also in the case of the 

moulding mixture from foundry. In case of the recycled 

moulding mixture from the Department, the addition of 

the dust (2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 %) caused higher compression 

strength comparing to the moulding mixture without 

dust. The similar situation occurred also in case of the 

splitting strength. This was highest in case of newly 

prepared mixture and lowest in case of the mixture from 

the foundry. Though the dust addition to the moulding 

mixture affected the splitting strength in all three moulding 

mixtures only slightly, however after addition of 2 

% of dust, in all three cases occurred slight increase in 

the splitting strength. 

Further increase in the dust content lead to the drop 

in the splitting strength, though this drop was relatively 

not signifi cant. The dust addition has most signifi cantly 

affected the permeability of the moulding mixture. The 

Figure 3 Infl uence of dust addition on permeability 

permeability was measured only on the samples of the 

newly prepared moulding mixture (N) and the recycled 

moulding mixture from the Department (R). This drop 

in the permeability is rather signifi cant in both cases and 

has the signifi cantly linear character, which may be described 

by the equations: 

Y N = -25,843x + 417,38 (1) 

Y R = -12,714 x + 199,9 (2) 

The improvement of the compression strength after 

the dust addition may be explained by the content of 

much fi ner fractions comparing to the new quartz sand 

or recycled moulding mixture. These fi ner fractions fi ll 

up the space among the grain the quartz sand, regardless 

this would the case of new one (i.e. pure SiO 2 ) or containing 

the layer of bentonite after multiplied use and in 

such way increased would be the compression strength 

of such moulding mixture. Another explanation may be 

the increased content of Al 2 O 3 in the dust, which is the 

integral part of the bentonite. It means that the dust from 

the moulding plant fulfi ls the role of the binder. On the 

other hand, the fi lling up such spaces leads to the drop 

in the permeability of the moulding mixture. Therefore 

when adding the dust fraction to the moulding mixture, 

it is necessary to take into the consideration both these 

facts and its amount should be so selected that that no 

signifi cant drop in permeability occurs and at the same 

time expressed was its positive effect on the strength. 

With the objective to disclose whether the addition 

of the dust to the moulding mixture causes the deterioration 

of the surface quality of the castings, the experiments 

were carried out in which for the moulds production 

used were the moulding mixtures made up from the 

new quartz sand and bentonite and the dust was added 

in the amount of 2, 5 and 8 % from the weight of the 

opening material as the opening material replacement. 

Evaluated were 4 moulds. To melt the charge used was 

the electrical medium level frequencies induction furnace 

ISTOL 40. The charge was the cast iron. The quality 

of the surface of the cast samples was evaluated 

visually only; and no change of surface quality was noticed 

on the individual samples. Similar experiment was 

realised also in the foundry plant, where after the mould- 

53


ing mixture revitalisation added to it was the dust from 

the moulding plant in the amount of 2, 4 and 6 % from 

the weight of the moulding mixture. From in such way 

prepared moulding mixtures formed were the casts of 

the sheet, which were afterwards casting. The surface 

quality of the castings was evaluated visually only and 

it was obvious that no negative effect on the castings 

surface occurred. Castings have been sold and no claims 

had been placed until the present day. 

RESULTS 

The dust exhausted from the preparation of the 

moulding mixtures and mould manufacture is still piled 

on landfi lls in Slovakia. The objective of this paper was 

to determine how its application in the moulding mixture 

affects the properties of the moulding mixture. Examined 

were 3 types of the moulding mixtures, the 

moulding mixture prepared from the new quartz sand 

and bentonite, moulding mixture recycling from the experimental 

foundry and the moulding mixture from the 

Slovak foundry. The dust from the moulding plant was 

added to these moulding mixtures in the different proportions. 

The following conclusion followed out from 

the obtained results: 

The addition of the dust to each type of the moulding 

mixture resulted in the increased compression strength; 

however the higher contents of dust in the moulding 

mixture caused the slight drop in the strength. 

The dust in the moulding mixture did not affect signifi 

cantly the splitting strength, the higher content of 

dust resulted in the slighter drop of this property. 

The highest effect of the dust addition was on the 

mixture permeability. This effect could be observed in 

the case of newly prepared moulding mixture as well as 

in the mixture recycling in the experimental foundry. 

Right this property will play the decisive role for the 

estimation of the permissible amount of dust in the 

moulding mixture. 

Based on the above conclusions it can be recommended 

that the content of dust in the moulding mixture 

should not exceed 2 %. This content of dust should neither 

cause the worsening of the properties of the moulding 

mixtures nor the worsening of the surface quality of 

the casts. 


This work was supported by the Scientifi c Grant 

Agency of the Ministry of Education of the Slovak Republic 

No.VEGA 1/0836/12 and by the Slovak Research 

and Development Agency under the contract No. APVV- 

0180-07. 

REFERENCES 

[1] V. Roubíček, P. Pustějovská, J. Bilík, I. Janík, Metalurgija, 

46 (2007) 1, 53-59. 

[2] J. Brezinová, Transfer inovácií, (2004) 7, 116 - 118. 

[3] R. Danko, Metalurgija, 50 (2011)3, 93 – 96. 

[4] M. Holtzer, A. Bobrowski, D. Drozynski, A. Bigaj, D. 

Kirchner, R. Zuchlinski, Giesserei Praxis. (2008) 12, 417 

– 422. 

[5] V. Bednařova, F. Miksovsky, Archives of Foundry, 

4(2004)13, 13 – 18. 

[6] R. Danko, M. Holtzer, Archives of Metallurgy and Materials, 

55 (2010) 3, 787-794. 

[7] M. Holtzer, A. Bobrowski, D. Drozynski, Zagospodarowanie 

pylow z odpylania staciji przerob mas s bentonitem, In: 

Mat. Konferencji Odlewniczej Technical 2007 “Odlewnictwo 

XXI wieku – technologie, maszyn i urzadzenia odlewnicze: 

24. – 26.5.2007, Nowa Sol, Poland, 29 – 35. 

[8] A. Hadji, L. Labed, A. Lemmoui, Archives of Foundry, 4 

(2004) 13, 91 – 98. 

[9] A. Pribulová, P. Gengeľ, M. Bartošová, Odpady z výroby 

oceľových a liatinových odliatkov, Košice 2010, HFTU 

Košice, 153 - 160 

Note: The responsible for English Language is Assoc. Prof. I. Repasova, 

PhD. – offi cial translator. 

54 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 51-54

J. KOLCZYK, J. ZYCH 

RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMIC SLURRIES WITH 

COLLOIDAL BINDERS USED IN THE INVESTMENT CASTING 

TECHNOLOGY 

J. Kolczyk, J. Zych, AGH University of Science and Technology, Faculty 

of Foundry Engineering, Kraków, Poland. 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 55-58 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 55-58 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 669.55:71.018.9=111 




The article presents results of analyses of ceramic slurries made using materials currently tested in this technology, 

i.e.: colloidal silica (Ludox AM and Ludox SK) as a binder and Al O as the ceramic matrix material. To characterise the 

2 3 

binder, the size of colloidal binder particles, the Zeta potential and the binder pH were determined. Rheological 

properties were studied for slurries whose proportion of the (technologically justifi ed) solid phase amounted to: 73; 

74; 75 %. The impact of the solid phase proportion on the thickness of subsequent coats applied to the wax model, 

the dynamic viscosity and the density was determined. Research also included the impact of the size of matrix 

grains and the temperature on the above properties. 

Key words: investment casting method, rheological properties, colloid silicate, dynamic viscosity 

INTRODUCTION 

The investment casting technology is one of the oldest 

methods, utilised in the machine, transportation 

(railway, aviation, motorisation) and armaments industries. 

Presently multilayer moulds forming a certain 

shell kind are applied in this method. The binder being 

a component of liquid ceramic moulding sands decides, 

to a signifi cant degree, on the quality of the produced 

casting moulds and on the casting quality. 

In the previous technology, and partially also currently, 

ethyl silicate has been applied as a binder. Due to 

its alcoholic character, this binder relatively easily 

transfers from the sol state into the gel one, providing 

the proper technological strength of the layer. Alcohols, 

having a low evaporation temperature and nearly three 

times smaller than water heat of vaporisation, are fast 

removed from the layers of the mould being formed. 

Presently, new regulations of the environment protection 

were introduced, which are forcing to withdraw 

ethyl silicate from the technological process and substituting 

it by the new (water) binder of the new generation 

– colloidal silica [1, 2]. 

Changing of the binder, forces also changes in the 

ceramic materials applied in the new technology. Ceramic 

moulding sands with a binder in a form of colloidal 

silica have several different properties than the 

ones applied up to day. This concerns the properties, 

which are very important in the moulds production 

process. These important properties are as follows reo- 

logical properties including the dynamic and kinematic 

viscosity, tendency for sedimentation, wettability of 

wax patterns. All these properties depend on the ceramic 

mixture composition, kind of colloidal silicate, 

amount of solids in the mixture, temperature, etc. [3, 4] 

METHODOLOGY AND PERFORMING OF 

MEASUREMENTS 

As the fi rst step of investigations the particle size in 

a binder was determined by means of the device: Nanosizer-ZS 

of the Malvern Instruments Company. This device 

allows to determine three basic parameters describing 

particles in a suspension, it means: size, Zeta potential 

and molecular mass. The particle size measurement 

is based on the Brownian movement effect and the dynamic 

light diffusion technique. 

The successive stage of investigations constituted 

viscosity measurements of a binder and ceramic moulding 

sand, which were based on the fl ow curve determination 

at the increasing and then decreasing shear rate 

value. Stress values obtained at the decreasing shear 

rate were accepted for the results analysis. 

The rotary viscometer RHEOTEST 2 was used in 

measurements. This device is applied for investigating 

rheological characteristics of fl uids in a wide ranges of 

shear rate, shearing stress and dynamic viscosity. The 

tested ceramic moulding sand (Ludox AM) and the 

binder (Ludox AM and SK) was placed in the ring-shape 

crevice in between two coaxial cylinders of the measuring 

system. The outer cylinder was not moving when 

the inner one (called a spindle), which rotated with a 

constant angular velocity, was connected with the meas- 

55

J. KOLCZYK et al.: RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMIC SLURRIES WITH COLLOIDAL BINDERS USED... 

uring shaft by means of the calibrated spring. The measuring 

cylinder was fi lled with the proper amount of fl uid 

(binders: Ludox AM and SK of 25 cm 3 , and ceramic 

sand on the basis of Ludox AM in an amount of 

30 cm 3 ) and then connected with the viscometer measuring 

mechanism [5, 6]. Tests were perfor-med at an 

ambient temperature (app. 22 o C). 

The micrometric tests of the thickness of the ceramic 

moulding sand layer deposited on the wax pattern 

were aimed at the determination of the mixture composition 

infl uence on the formed layers thickness. Measurements 

were carried out for three different fractions 

of the solid phase, being respectively: 73; 74; 75 %. 

Three layers of the ceramic mixture were placed on the 

wax pattern of dimensions: 60 x 60 x 5 mm. After each 

layer deposition its thickness was measured. 

BINDING AGENTS PROPERTIES 

The simplest classifi cation divides fl uids into the 

Newtonian and non-Newtonian fl uids. Ceramic fl uidal 

sands due to their rheological behaviour can be classifi 

ed into non-Newtonian, pseudoplastic fl uids, where 

viscosity (apparent) decreases when the shear rate increases 

[6, 7]. 

Several factors infl uence dynamic viscosity, among 

others: mixture and binder temperature, particle size, 

percentage fraction of a solid phase, etc. [8, 9]. It can be 

noticed in Figures 1 and 2 that Ludox SK (pH = 4-5) is 

characterised by larger particles in the binder as compared 

with Ludox AM (pH = 9). Particle sizes have a 

signi-fi cant infl uence on the binder viscosity, which is 

confi rmed by the results presented in Figures 3 and 4. 

Flow curves of the Ludox AM and SK binders are 

shown in Figure 3. These binders behave as the Bing- 

Figure 1 Particle size in the Ludox AM binder 

Figure 2 Particle size in the Ludox SK binder 

Figure 3 Binders fl ow curves Ludox: AM and SK 

Figure 4 Binders viscosity curves Ludox: AM and SK 

ham plastic, otherwise it is non-Neutonian rheostable 

fl uid, which starts fl owing only when shearing stresses 

exceed a certain critical value. 

Tests indicated the Ludox SK binder has a higher 

dynamic viscosity, being equal 0,007 [Pa·s]. The viscosity 

curves of binders are presented in Figure 4. The 

viscosity correlates with the particles size in a binder. 

Thus, on this basis it is possible to infer that occurrence 

of larger particles in a binder or in a moulding sand matrix 

will cause an increase of its viscosity. 

RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF MIXTURES 

The comparison of viscosities of suspensions containing 

the same solid phase fractions but of different 

Al 2 O 3 grain size, allows to notice that the ceramic 

moulding sand with addition of aluminium oxide of the 

grain size: d L = 29 µm is characterised by a higher viscosity 

than the sand containing Al 2 O 3 of the grain size: 

d L = 16,5 µm (Figure 5). The dynamic viscosity was increasing 

along with the solids content increase due to 

strong particles interactions. 

Introduction of a higher amount of the solid phase 

into the moulding sand causes its viscosity increase 

(Figures 6 and 7). For sands containing 73 % of the 

solid phase η = 0,110, for 74 % η = 0,254, and for 75 % 

η = 0,651 [Pa·s]. 

At the moulds production, the selection of the mixture 

components proportions should enable obtaining 

the high fi nal strength of the mould. 

56 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 55-58

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 55-58 


Figure 5 Infl uence of Al 2 O 3 grain size on the ceramic 

moulding sand viscosity, Al 2 O 3 fraction = 74 % 

Figure 6 Ceramic moulding sand (on the Ludox AM basis) 

fl ow curves; infl uence of the solid phase fraction 

Figure 7 Ceramic moulding sand (on the Ludox AM basis) 

viscosity curves; infl uence of the solid phase fraction 

CERAMIC LAYERS THICKNESS 

Introducing into ceramic mixture too small as well 

as too large solid phase fraction infl uences unfavourably 

the quality of produced ceramic moulds, which is seen 

in Figure 8. The infl uence of the solid phase content on 

the thickness of the layer formed on the wax patterns is 

presented in Figure 9. 

When too small fraction of the solid phase is introduced 

into the mixture the wax pattern surface is not 

equally covered. After three times immersion of the 

wax pattern in the ceramic moulding sand some wax 

gaps can be seen (Figure 8 a). The layer is very thin and 

its average thickness is 0,16 mm. However, when too 

large fraction of the solid phase is introduced the dy- 

Figure 8 Wax patterns after placing 3 layers of the ceramic 

moulding sand of various solid phase contents 

Figure 9 Infl uence of solid phase fraction in the mixture on 

the thickness of layers formed on wax patterns 

namic viscosity increases which leads to uneven covering 

of wax patterns by the ceramic moulding sand. In 

addition, it causes pellets formation on the surface (Figure 

8 b, c). The layer thickness is then 0,35 mm. Layers 

deposited on wax patterns become more and more thick 

which can lead to a mould weakening and decreasing its 

structural strength. 

The obtained results are the preliminary ones leading 

to the development of new optimal compositions of 

ceramic moulding sands applied in the technology, in 

order to obtain moulds fully suitable for the production 

process. The basic properties such as: viscosity, solid 

phase content and pH value were determined for the Ludox 

AM binder. The performed tests allowed to state 

that the ceramic mixture containing 74 % of the solid 

phase is optimal in respect of rheological properties and 

the layer thickness equals: 0,29 mm. The wax pattern is 

equally covered. 

CONCLUSIONS 

An important feature of the colloidal silica based 

binder is its long working time, and none self-gelating 

tendency (contrary to the ethyl silicate based binders), 

however this binder can change its viscosity. On the basis 

of the obtained results, it can be stated that the larger 

matrix grain size the higher moulding sand viscosity. 

The second essential factor infl uencing rheological 

properties of the suspension is the solid phase fraction. 

The analysis of the measurements indicates that along 

with the solid phase content increase the investigated 

moulding sand viscosity also increases. This is not fa- 

57


vourable for the ceramic moulds production. The proper 

selection of the sand components is important to obtain 

the high mould strength. 

When the dynamic velocity of the mixture increases 

the deposited layers become thicker and thicker. This 

makes diffi cult their drying and can cause moulds cracking 

during that process. Since the ceramic moulding 

sands dynamic viscosity is one of the most important 

features deciding on the ceramic moulds quality, it is 

constantly controlled in the technological process. 

The study was performed as the “Dean Project 

2011”, No. 15.11.170.420 

REFERENCES 

[1] A. Karwiński, G. Para, Prace Instytutu Odlewnictwa XL- 

VIII 1-2 (1998), 145-169. 

[2] S. Jones, K. Harris, R.J. Brown, Investment Casting Institute. 

52 nd Technical Conference & Equipment Expo 2004. 

[3] M. Dziubiński, T. Kiljański, J. Sęk, Podstawy reologii i 

reometrii płynów, WPŁ 2009. 

[4] B. Hutera, The effect of solvent content in binder on the 

nature of surface phenomena taking place in a sand grains– 

binding material system, WN Akapit 2008. 

[5] G. Scharam, Ośrodek Wydawnictw Naukowych PAN, 

Poznań 1998. 

[6] A. Karwiński, P. Wieliczko, W. Leśniewski, Inżynieria i 

Aparatura Chemiczna 5 (2006),58-60. 

[7] H. Sonntag, Koloidy, PWN 1982. 

[8] P.K. Senapati, D. Panda, Journal of Minerals & Materials 

Characterization & Engineering 8/3 (2009), 203-221. 

[9] J. Firouzi, A.A. Yousefi , A.E. Langroudi, Iranian Polymer 

Journal 2/15 (2006), 127-134. 

Note: The responsible translator for English language: “ANGOS” Translation 

Offi ce, Kraków, Poland. 

58 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 55-58

J. KAMIŃSKA, J. DAŃKO 

GRANULATION PROCESS OF FOUNDRY DUSTS 

ORIGINATED FROM BENTONITE SAND PROCESSING PLANTS 

J. Kamińska, J. Dańko, AGH - University of Science and Technology, 

Faculty of Foundry Engineering, Kraków, Poland 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 59-61 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 59-61 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 621.746:621.742=111 




The results of the investigation results of the granulation process of foundry dusts generated during the mechanical 

reclamation of spent sands with bentonite and also dusts from the sand processing plants are presented in the paper. 

The following parameters of the fi nal product were determined: moisture content (W) and granules shatter test (W ) z 

performed directly after the granulation process and after 1, 3, 5, 10 and 30 days and nights of seasoning, waterresistant 

ability of granules after 24 h of immersing in water, surface porosity e and volumetric porosity e . In addi- 

p v 

tion the shatter test and water-resistant ability of granulated products dried at a temperature of 105 oC was estimated. 

Key words: mechanical reclamation, foundry dusts, environment protection, granulation. 

INTRODUCTION 

Analysis of a structure and amount of wastes generated 

in foundry plants brings information concerning 

waste management efforts by their recycling or a reclamation 

of some components. Used foundry and core 

sands constitute the largest part of wastes, however their 

reclamation allows only to recover sands grains. Dusts 

from a furnace dedusting and slag from metal melting 

processes can be reused either in a foundry practice or 

in other industrial branches [1, 2]. 

In the dry reclamation systems of spent sands, apart 

from the reclaim, even up to 10 wt % after reclamation 

dusts are formed, in which signifi cant amounts of binders 

and clays removed from sand grains and products 

originated from sand abrasion are cumulated [3]. 

Storage of this type of wastes (dusts) requires the 

preparation of the properly protected dumping grounds, 

which is connected with signifi cant costs [4]. Certain 

properties and the form transformation of dusts decide 

on the management possibility of the after reclamation 

dusts. The most often chemical, grain and phase compositions 

as well as a volatile part and silica content, pH 

value and infl uence on the surrounding environment are 

taken into account [5]. 

Dusts from the bentonite sand processing plant are 

very diffi cult for loading and transporting to dumping 

grounds, due to their high degree of dusting. Therefore 

one of the management direction of such dusts can be 

their previous granulation [3]. 

PROGRAM OF INVESTIGATIONS 

Dusts originated from the bentonite sand processing 

plant were subjected to the granulation process in the 

prototype disk granulator [6]. The chemical composition 

of the tested dusts is given in Table 1. 

A foundry dust in an amount of 10 kg, was partially 

fed into the granulating disk and water sprinkled in an 

amount of app. 17 mass % in relation to dusts. The granulating 

disk was rotating successively with the given 

speeds (5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 rpm), at the angle of inclination 

being 40 and 45 degrees for each speed. The wetted 

material was agglomerating in the disk and granules 

of diameters from 3 to 40 mm were formed. 

Table 1 Chemical composition of dusts from the bentonite 

sand processing plant (dry dusting) 

Element Concentration / % 

Al 5,64 

C 16,80 

Ca 0,82 

Fe 1,07 

K 0,69 

Mg 1,17 

Na 1,26 

S 0,24 

Si 24,74 

Concentration / ppm 

Bi < 6,00 

O 42,15 

Pb 37,00 

Sb < 1,00 

The obtained results of the physical, chemical and 

strength properties of dusts from the bentonite sand 

processing plant and from the reclamation system of the 

analogous spent sand were presented in [7]. 

59

J. KAMIŃSKA et al.: GRANULATION PROCESS OF FOUNDRY DUSTS ORIGINATED FROM BENTONITE SAND... 

THE OBTAINED RESULTS 

The most favourable granulation results for two angles 

of inclination of the granulator disk: 45 and 50 degrees, 

are presented in the paper. 

An example of sizes of the obtained granules is given 

in Figure 1. 

Figure 1 Fractions of the granulated product from dusts 

originated from the moulding sand processing plant, 

rotational speed of the granulator disk – 25 rpm, 

angle of inclination – 40 o , scale under the 

description in cm 

Shatter test W z / % 

100 

95 

90 

85 

80 

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 

Seasoning time / day 

1 sha�er 

3 sha�er 

Figure 2 Dependence of the shatter test on the granules 

seasoning time; rotational speed of the granulator 

disk: 25 rpm, angle of inclination of the disk: 40 o 

Figure 2 presents the dependence of the shatter test 

on the seasoning time, for the rotational speed of the 

granulator disk being 25 rpm and the angle of inclination 

of the disk: 40 o . The raw granulated product obtains 

100 % strength after the fi rst shatter. Granules after 

being shattered on the steel plate are not breaking. The 

lowest strength is obtained after 30 days of seasoning. 

After 3 shatters the strength decrease is observed when 

the seasoning time is prolonged. 

The shatter test dependence on the seasoning time, 

for the rotational speed of 20 rpm and the angle of inclination 

of the disk: 45 o - is presented in Figure 3. The 

raw granulated product is characterized by the highest 

shatter test after the fi rst shatter. This strength decreases 

when the seasoning time is prolonged. The strength 

curve after 3 shatters is of a similar pathway, while the 

highest strength is obtained after 1 day of seasoning. 

Figure 4 presents the infl uence of the seasoning time 

on the water content in granules. Both curves are of an 

analogous pathway. A prolongation of the granules seasoning 

time causes decreasing of their water content. 

The dependence of the shatter test after the fi rst shatter 

for granules dried at a temperature of 105 °C - is 

presented in Figure 5. When the angle of inclination 

equals 40 °, the initial increase of the rotational speed 

80 

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 

60 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 59-61 



100 

95 

90 

85 

100 

95 

90 

85 

Seasoning time / day 

1 sha�er 

3 sha�er 

Figure 3 Dependence of the shatter test on the granules 

seasoning time; rotational speed of the granulator 

disk: 20 rpm, angle of inclination of the disk: 45 o 

Figure 4 Infl uence of the seasoning time on the water content 

in granules 

Granules after drying at a temperature 105 o C 

40 1/min 

45 1/min 

80 

0 5 10 15 20 25 

Rotational speed of the granulator disk / 1/min 

Figure 5 Dependence of the shatter test after the fi rst shatter 

on the rotational speed of the granulator disk for 

granules dried at a temperature of 105°C 

from 5 to 10 rpm causes the strength increase, while the 

successive speed increase to 15 rpm - its small decrease. 

When the angle of inclination equals 135 ° an initial 

increase of the speed from 5 to 15 rpm causes the 

strength decrease. After exceeding the rotational speed 

of 15 rpm for both angles: 40 ° and 45 ° an increased 

strength is observed. 

The number of the formed granules - of the size 

above 3 mm - is presented in Figure 6. When the angle 

of inclination of the granulator disk is 40° the largest 

number of granules above 3 mm is formed at the rotational 

speeds 5 and 20 rpm (above 50 %), while the 

smallest at 15 rpm (app. 38 %). In the case of the angle 

of 45 ° the rotational speed increase from 5 to 25 rpm

Amount of grains > 5 mm / % 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

J. KAMIŃSKA et al.: GRANULATION PROCESS OF FOUNDRY DUSTS ORIGINATED FROM BENTONITE SAND... 

does not cause any quantitative changes in the formation 

of granules of the size above 3 mm. The speed increase 

to 25 rpm causes an insignifi cant decrease of 

such granules number. 

The surface measuring means counting the number 

of granules occupying the constant area. The area of 66 

cm 2 was assumed in this study. 

The results of the granules surface measurement are 

presented in Figure 7. For both angles, 40 ° and 45 °, the 

rotational speed increase from 5 to 10 rpm causes a 

slight increase of the granules size. However, a further 

increase of the rotational speed causes gradual decreasing 

of their size. Granules formed at the angle of inclination 

being 40 ° are characterised by smaller sizes than 

granules formed at the angle of inclination being 45 °. 

The volumetric measurement is aimed at the determination 

of the approximate granulation density. The 

constant volume of the beaker - being 279 cm 3 - was assumed 

in these examinations. 

The results of the volumetric measurements are presented 

in Figure 8. The rotational speed increase of the 

granulator disk does not cause any signifi cant changes 

in the density of the obtained granules, for both angles 

of inclination: 40 ° and 45 °. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The obtained results indicate that the granulator allows 

to obtain granules from dusts originated from the 

bentonite moulding sand processing plants. The charac- 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 59-61 

Angle 40 

Angle 45 

0 5 10 15 20 25 


Figure 6 Number of granules of the size φ > 3 mm, in 

dependence on the rotational speed of the 

granulator disk, granulation time – 5 minutes 

Surface measurement p / % 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Angle 40 

Angle 45 

0 5 10 15 20 25 


Figure 7 Surface measurement of granules in dependence on 

the rotational speed of the granulator disk 

Volumetric measurement v / % 

1,0 

0,9 

0,8 

0,7 

0,6 

0,5 

0,4 

0,3 

0,2 

0,1 

0,0 

0 5 10 15 20 25 


teristics of the work parameters of the granulator and 

their infl uence on the granulation process allows to state 


The optimal rotational speed of the disk for the angle 

of inclination of the granulator being 40 o - should 

be 25 rpm. For this speed the strength decrease is observed 

when the seasoning time is prolonged. 

The optimal rotational speed of the disk for the angle 

of inclination of the granulator being 45 ° - should 

be 20 rpm. At this speed granules are characterised by 

the highest shatter test. 

Comparison of the obtained results for the optimal 

rotational speeds for the given angles of inclination of 

the granulator disk, allows to state that the best granulation 

results for the dusts from the bentonite sand processing 

plants are obtained at the angle of inclination of the 

disk being 40 o at the rotational speed of 25 rpm. 

An increase of the angle of inclination of the granulator 

disk from 40 to 45 o , causes the size increase of the obtained 

granulated product. This feature is the most visible 

for the lower rotational speeds of the disk (5, 10, 15 rpm). 

For the angle of 40 ° the largest number of granules 

of size > 3mm is formed at speeds being 5 and 25 rpm, 

while for the angle of 130 ° at speeds being within the 

range: 5 – 20 rpm. 


The study was performed within the ‘Dean’s Grant’ 

2011 No.15.11.170.417 

REFERENCES 

Angle 40 

Angle 45 

Figure 8 Volumetric measurement of granules in dependence 

of the rotational speed of the granulator disk 

[1] D. Barciowá, A. Pribulowá, P. Demeter, Archives of 

Foundry Eingineering, 10(2010)2, 15-18. 

[2] A. Pribulowá, D. Barciowá, P. Futaš, P. Gengel’, Archives 

of Foundry Eingineering, 10(2010) sp. issue, 123-126. 

[3] R. Dańko, International Journal of Cast Metals Research, 

23(2010)/2, 92-96. 

[4] Praca zbiorowa pod red. J. Dańko, M. Holtzer, Wydawnictwo 

Naukowe Akapit, Kraków 2009. 

[5] J. Dańko, M. Holzer, R. Dańko, B. Grabowska, Archives 

of Foundry Eingineering, 8(2008) sp. issue, 5-9. 

[6] J. Kamińska, Dean’s Grand’ 2011, nr 15.11.170.417. 

[7] J. Kamińska, M. Skrzyński, Metallurgy and Foundry Engineering, 

37(2011)/2, 189-195. 

Note: “ANGOS” Translation Offi ce responsible for English for language, 

Krakow, Poland 

61

D. KWAŚNIEWSKA-KRÓLIKOWSKA, M. HOLTZER 

SELECTION CRITERIA OF LUSTROUS CARBON CARRIERS 

IN THE ASPECT OF PROPERTIES OF GREENSAND SYSTEM 

D. Kwaśniewska-Królikowska, M. Holtzer, AGH University of Science 

and Technology, Faculty of Foundry Engineering, Kraków, Poland 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 62-64 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 621.746:621.742=111 




Carbonaceous additives have often been regarded as problem ones to solve and improve the surface fi nish of iron 

castings, but at the same time they cause other issues such as increased loss on ignition, total fi nes and moisture in 

greensand systems. With the correct selection of carbonaceous additive, the combination of low ash, high volatile 

and lustrous carbon content coupled with the key element grading size, ensures that produced castings are free 

from metal penetration and surface related problems. 

Key words: lustrous carbon, bentonite, green sand system, carbonaceous additive. 

INTRODUCTION 

Most of castings produced in the European Union 

are made with use of classic moulding sands, bentonitebased 

sands containing lustrous carbon carrier (Figure 

1). The most popular carbonaceous additive is still coal 

dust. A search for substitutes of coal dust with increased 

ability to form lustrous carbon is underway. 

Bentonite-based sands used for producing moulds 

are regarded as ecological. Nevertheless, after adding to 

them coal dust and LC carriers they become harmful to 

natural environment. After pouring liquid metal into 

moulds, during high-temperature pyrolysis of organic 

additives leading to the formation of lustrous carbon, 

released are volatile organic compounds (VOC) and 

polycyclic compounds of aromatic hydrocarbons 

(PAHs) and benzol hydrocarbons (BTEX), which were 

not involved in thermal reactions of polycondensation 

and polymerization. They are particularly harmful due 

to their carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic effect. 

Other possible harmful compounds emitted from moulds 

are dioxins and furans [2]. 

Greensand 

system 

76 % 

Chemical 

binder 

moulding 

sand 

9 % 

Centifuga 

l casting 

11 % 

Permanent 

mould 4 

% 

Lost wax 

moulding 

0,4 % 

Figure 1 Share of greensand system moulding [1] 

Generally, for refreshing of system sand, fresh sand 

100 - 200 kg/t metal, bentonite 40 -60 kg/t and lustrous 

carbon carriers 15-25 kg/t are used. The main reasons 

for which additives containing carbon having the properties 

of forming lustrous carbon are added to classic 

bentonite-based sands are: 

– improvement of casting surface quality, 

– decreased labour consumption for casting cleaning, 

– decrease of sand adhesion to casting, 

– limitation of casting defects caused by adsorption of 

N, 

– improvement of knockout properties. 

PROPERTIES OF LUSTROUS CARBON 

CARRIERS, THEIR ROLE IN MOULDING SAND 

When selecting hard coal and carbonaceous additives 

one must take into consideration chemical properties 

such as: volatiles content, moisture content, sulphur content, 

chlorides content and physical properties such as: 

ability to create lustrous carbon, degree of fi neness. Requirements 

for coal dust are specifi ed in PN-91/H-11008. 

Volatiles content, one of the main parameters for 

evaluation of coal dust and lustrous carbon carriers. The 

norm for coal dust specifi es a range 30 ÷ 40 %. Volatiles 

content in carbonaceous materials often reaches as 

much as 99 %, nevertheless they show much increased 

ability to form lustrous carbon. Due to this, it is possible 

to minimize their addition to moulding sand, which 

eliminates defects resulting from too high gas excretion 

ability of the sand. 

Ash content maximal ash content specifi ed by the 

norm is 4 %, due to the increase of ash quantity during 

recycling of bentonite-based moulding sand. If ash is 

very fi ne, it is necessary to use extra quantity of water and 

binder and decrease moulding sand permeability. In view 

of these adverse for the moulding sand phenomena, it is 

required to use materials with the lowest ash content. 

62 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 62-64

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 62-64 

D. KWAŚNIEWSKA-KRÓLIKOWSKA et al.: SELECTION CRITERIA OF LUSTROUS CARBON CARRIERS... 

Moisture content in coal dust is present in two forms: 

as surface moisture and chemically combined moisture. 

In good quality coals, chemically bounded water should 

amount to 2 – 4 %. Moisture content for coal dust. This 

parameter is particularly important for reasons of work 

safety, dust self-ignition properties and explosiveness. 

Transport of coal dust is subject to ADR regulations. 

Only a mixture of bentonite, coal dust and lustrous carbon 

carrier with 75 % bentonite content ensures safe 

handling and transport. 

Sulphur content specifi ed in the norm for coal dust 

amounts to max.0,8 %. In case of castings made of spheroid 

cast iron, it is necessary to maintain low sulphur content 

in bentonite-based moulding sand in order to facilitate 

effective formation of globular graphite. In case of 

too much sulphur in the surface layer there can occur 

fl ake graphite in place of globular graphite and defects in 

form of pinholes. It is recommended to maintain a 0,12 % 

level of sulphur content in the moulding sand. Particular 

attention must be paid to the choice of grade of coal. Coal 

dust used for bentonite-based moulding sands should 

come from the processing of high quality coal. 

Too high chlorides content adversely affects bentonite 

swelling process and deactivation in moulding 

sand, which results in a decrease of wet tensile strength. 

It is recommended to use materials with low chlorides 

content. There is also a danger of creating organic halogen 

derivatives during pyrolysis. 

The ability to form lustrous carbon is the main parameter 

determining the effi ciency of coal dust or its substitute. 

Lustrous carbon is the main factor deciding about 

the quality of casting surface. Lustrous carbon – pyrographite 

is a microcrystal form of coal, its formation process 

takes place in the temperature range of 650 – 1200 

°C. The ability of coal dust to form lustrous carbon is set 

at minimum 9 %, coal dust substitutes show the ability to 

form lustrous carbon of about 60 %, it allows the quantity 

of carrier used in moulding sand to be limited [3]. 

Proper fulfi lment of the role of coal dust and lustrous 

carbon carriers in moulding sand depends also on 

its grain composition. A general principle is that a coal 

dust grain was not greater than a medium size grain of 

matrix used for making the moulding sand. Selection of 

the degree of grind depends on the required casting surface 

and forming technology. When particularly good 

surface is required in case of small castings one must 

use fi ne sand together with fi ne coal dust. In high-pressure 

forming it is recommended to use dust with increased 

granularity in view of the improvement of 

moulding sand permeability and decrease of the rate of 

volatiles release. 

The main reasons for using in classic moulding 

sands materials having properties of forming lustrous 

carbon and coal dust: 

– Lustrous carbon is deposited on moulding sand grain 

surface forming a compact and non-wettable by liquid 

metal protective layer on the metal/moulding interface, 

– The layer adheres best to moulding sand grains if its 

thickness does not exceed 0,1 µm. This protective 

layer prevents mechanical penetration of liquid alloy 

into the moulding sand interior and improves the casting 

surface roughness. It also separates the moulding 

material from alloy, preventing reactions between oxides 

of casting alloy and moulding sand components( 

Figure 2), 

– Coal dust during decomposition process turns to semicoke 

which reduces wall movements. In this way less 

probable are defects caused by surface enlargement of 

moulding sand resulting from large expansion of 

quartz [4]. 

From contemporary literature we know about the 

existence of pyrolytic carbon fractions containing fractions 

of: 

lustrous and amorphic carbon formed during the 

process of high-temperature pyrolysis. Pyrolysis process 

takes place in two stages: 

1 st stage: coal+ C-additives 900°C 

coke+ tar+ water + gas (1) (1) 

2nd 1100°C 

sage: tar+ water +gas (1) (1) 

PC+ water gas (2)+ (2) 

where: 

PC- Pyrolysis carbon 

PC=LC+AC 

LC- lustrous carbon 

AC- amorphous carbon 

Gas is a mixture of aromatic and aliphatic hydrocar- 

(1) 

bons; gas represents simple gases diffi cult to decom- 

(2) 

pose (CO2, CO, H2, CH4…). 

Semi-coke represents the third form of coal emerging 

from the pyrolysis reaction of lustrous carbon carrier 

[5]. 

Coal dust contributes to the formation of reducing 

atmosphere in bentonite-based moulding sands during 

the casting process by removing oxygen contained in 

pores of the moulding sand [6,7]. 

The ability to create a surrounding layer on the grain 

surface is attributed to carbonaceous additives. Layer 

surrounding improves moulding sand fl uidity and decreases 

casting surface roughness. 

Figure 2 Defects associated with too high LC content in 

moulding sand 

63

D. KWAŚNIEWSKA-KRÓLIKOWSKA et al.: SELECTION CRITERIA OF LUSTROUS CARBON CARRIERS... 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 

The object of the study were different types of coal 

dust and lustrous carbon carriers that may constitute repla 

cements of coal dust in the greensand system. The tests 

were made on materials containing carbon (Table 1): 

– coal dust of hard coal from different coalmines 

– coal dust of brown coal 

– cyclic hydrocarbon resins, coumarone-indene resins, 

– plastics, ready-to-use carrier concentrate containing 

coal dust, plastics. 

Table1 List of carrier parameters 

Item 

no. 

Sample Volatiles 

content 

/ % 

Ash 

content 

/ % 

Lustrous 

carbon 

content /% 

1 Coal dust sample 1 33,97 2,2 9,5 

2 Coall dust sample 2 35,9 3,6 9,5 

3 Coal dust sample 3 32,98 3,8 10 

4 Coal dust sample 4 30,66 5,6 9,0 

5 Brown coal dust sample1 47,20 3,10 15,50 

6 Brown coal dust sample 2 44,80 5,70 14,00 

7 Product PET 88,2 0,25 24,0 

8 Polypropylen 96,0 1,10 38,0 

9 Ready to use carrier concentrate, 

sample 1 

63,4 9,00 27,7 

10 Ready to use carrier concentrate 

sample 2 

70,9 3,30 33 

11 Hydrocarbon resin 95,4 0,50 55 

12 Coumarone-indene resin 95,0 0,40 53,9 

In these materials the following parameters were determined: 

– The content of volatiles standard by PN-81/G04516 [8]. 

– The content of Ash standard by PN-ISO 1171 [9]. 

– The content of Lustrous carbon standard by BN- 

88/4024-09 [10]. 

Coal dust contains about 30 – 35 % volatile matter 

and the ability to create lustrous carbon at 10 %. The 

amount of ash was between 2,2 % to ,6 %. Dusts from 

brown coal had a higher volatile matter content of 45 %. 

Also the ability to create a lustrous carbon was greater 

than the dust from coal (15 %). Plastic materials and 

synthetic resins exhibited a very high content of volatile 

matter at a level even above 96 %. 

Plastic materials and synthetic resins exhibited a 

very high content of volatile. The same time their ability 

to create a lustrous carbon was very high (over 50 

%). For each type of substance showed only minimal 

ash content, which resulted from the fact that almost all 

of the material underwent transformation in gas phase. 

Ready to use carrier concentrate showed values in between 

coal dust, as well as plastics and resins, both in 

the amount of volatiles generated and the ability to form 

a lustrous of carbon or ash formed. 

CONCLUSION 

Foundries seek to reduce costs, produce good quality 

castings and maintain safe working conditions. Mixtures 

containing bentonite, coal dust substitute, and 

some part of coal dust enable the following. Due to the 

large harmfulness coal dust, in addition to the moulding 

sand of bentonite. 

The companies producing mixtures for the foundry 

industry are performing intensive investigations attempting 

to develop coal-contenting additions, with 

could substitute traditional coal dust in terms of casting 

quality, and also would be better for the environment 

and the workers [11-13]. These works are also carried 

out in the Zakładach Górniczo- Metalowych Zębiec 

S.A. (Poland). 

In the selection alternatives of coal dust import duties 

include the following parameters: volatile matter 

content, the ability to create a lustrous carbon and ash 

content.The results showed that the plastics and synthetic 

resins generate a much higher amount of volatile 

and lustrous carbon content than coal dust or brown 

coal dust. But to assess their usefulness and impact of 

technology on the quality of the castings obtained it is 

necessary to conduct trial heats and measurement gas 

emissions. Dust the tested brown coals have better test 

parameters (volatile matter content and the ability to 

create lustrous carbon) than the dust from the coal. Taking 

into account the lower price of brown coal relative 

to coal, it would be economically reasonable use of this 

alternative. However, this requires a process of trial and 

measurement of emissions from gas. 

The study was performed within the Project No. 07- 

0016-10/2010 from NCBiR. 

REFERENCES 

[1] LaFay V.S, .Crandell G. Three methods of reducing seacoal 

by adding graphite into greensand molds. AFS Transactions 

117 (2009), 789-806 

[2] P. Johansson, Alternative materials for civil engineering 

foundations and road construction, Foundry Trade Journal 

6 (2004), 180-181 

[3] V.S. LaFay, S. Neltner, D. Carroll, D. J. Couture, Modern 

Casting 10 (2010), 27-29. 

[4] C. Grefhorst, Współczesne masy z bentonitem, Przegląd 

Odlewnictwa 1-2/2007 

[5] P. Jelínek*, J. Beňo, Morphological forms of carbon and 

their utilizations at formation of iron casting surfaces, AFE 

8 (2008) 2, 67 – 70 

[6] V.S. LaFay, S.L. Neltner, C. Grefhorst, AFS Transactions 

117 (2009), 807-823. 

[7] W. Solarski, J. Zawada, J.L. Lewandowski, Przegląd Odlewnictwa 

47 (1997) 7-8, 234-239. 

[8] The determination of content of volatiles. Polish standard 

no. PN-81/G04516 

[9] The content of ash. Polish standard no. PN-ISO 1171 

[10] The content of Lustrous carbon. Polish standard no. BN- 

88/4024-09 

[11] M. Holtzer, B. Grabowska, S. Żymankowska-Kumon, D. 

Kwaśniewska-Królikowska, R. Dańko, W. Solarski, A. Bobro 

wski: Harmfulness Of Moulding Sands With Bentonite And 

Lustrous Carbon Carriers Metallurgija 51 (2012) 4, 437-440. 

[12] C. Grefhorst, W. Senden, R. Ilman, O. Podobed, V. Latoya, 

W. Tilch, Proceedings, 69 th World Foundry Congress, 

Hangzhou China, 2010, Part II Technical Session, 703-709. 

[13] M. Holtzer Czy można wyeliminować pył węglowy z mas 

klasycznych? Przegląd odlewnictwa 12/2005, 794-799. 

Note: The responsible translator for English language: Tadeusz Lipski, 

Krakow, Poland 

64 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 62-64

T. BONČINA 

SHAPES OF THE ICOSAHEDRAL 

QUASICRYSTALLINE PHASE IN MELT-SPUN RIBBONS 

T. Bončina, University of Maribor, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, 

Maribor, Slovenia 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 65-67 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 65-67 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 669.715:620.18:621.41=111 




The shapes of icosahedral quasicrystalline (IQC) particles were determined in melt-spun ribbons of alloys based on 

the Al-Mn-Be alloy system. The sizes of the quasicrystalline particles ranged from a few tenths of nanometres up to 

1 µm. Therefore, diff erent methods were employed for characterizing their shapes: projection of quasicrystalline 

particles using transmission electron microscopy (TEM), cross-sections of IQCs on metallographically polished surfaces, 

and observation of deep-etched samples and extracted particles using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). 

It was discovered that icosahedral quasicrystalline particles preferentially grow in three-fold directions and have a 

tendency for faceting and adopting the shape of a pentagonal dodecahedron. The evolution of quasicrystalline 

shapes is systematically presented. 

Key words: Al-alloy, metallography, ribbon, icosahedral quasicrystalline phase, shape, melt-spinning 

INTRODUCTION 

The point-group symmetry of a crystal dictates its 

morphology [1]. Quasicrystals possess non-crystallographic 

point-group symmetries. Thus different morphologies 

from those of periodic crystals may appear. 

The normal crystal should be bounded by fl at surfaces 

at 0 K, satisfying the condition of the minimum total 

surface energy. 

The temperature increases the disorder of the surface, 

and the sharp edges and corners of the crystal at 0 

K start rounding. The transition from a facetted plane to 

a smoothly curved one takes place at the roughening 

transition temperature. The roughening transition temperature 

generally scales with the lattice parameter for a 

crystalline lattice. Thus, a crystal with a larger lattice 

parameter shows more faceting tendencies. The quasicrystal 

can be considered as a periodic crystal with infi - 

nite periodicity, therefore the roughening transition 

temperature should be infi nite too. This means that it 

should be faceted up to the melting temperature. The 

experimental evidence ruled out this expectation [2], 

since the quasicrystals in the Al-Mn system often possessed 

the form of well-rounded dendrites. It could be 

inferred that the non-faceted growth of quasicrystals is 

due to dynamic roughening at high-melt undercooling. 

This leads to a continuous growth and yields a rounded 

growth form. 

The morphology of quasicrystals was initially carried 

out for Al-Mn and Al-Mn-Si icosahedral quasicrystals. 

In most cases a dendritic structure was present with 

branches extending in the preferred threefold directions 

[2], Chattopadhyay et al. [3] found a well-facetted morphology 

for quasicrystals. Thangaraj et al. [4] discovered 

that the pentagonal dodecahedron was the shape 

for the Al-Mn type of quasicrystal. Pentagonal dodecahedron 

was found to be the equilibrium shape for most 

stable quasicrystals [5]. In some cases, also quasicrystals 

with the icosidodecahedral morphology were also 

observed. A triacontahedral growth morphology of 

icosahedral quasicrystals was observed in several alloy 

system, such as: Sc 12 Zn 88 [6], Al-Li-Cu [7], Al-Mg-Zn 

[8] and Zn-Mg-Y face-centred icosahedral alloys [9]. 

The preferred growth direction was mainly along the 

threefold axes and occasionally also along the fi vefold 

axes [2, 10]. 

The aim of this work was to determine the shape of 

quasicrystals within melt-spun Al-Mn-Be alloys with 

the addition of B. 

EXPERIMENTAL 

The chemical compositions of melt-spun ribbons are 

given in Table 1. 

Table 1 Chemical compositions of the investigated alloys 

(ICP-AES) / wt.% 

alloy Al Mn Be B 

Al-Mn-Be 90,6 5,4 4,0 - 

Al-Mn-Be-B 92,33 3,93 0,77 2,97 

The samples were melt-spun using a melt spinner 

(30M, Marko Inc). The wheel speed of the melt spinner 

varied between 19,6 m/s and 25,2 m/s. 

Preparation of the samples for light-optical microscopy 

(LOM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 

65

T. BONČINA: SHAPES OF THE ICOSAHEDRAL QUASICRYSTALLINE PHASE IN MELT-SPUN RIBBONS 

followed the standard mechanical metallographic procedures. 

In addition, considerable attention was given 

to the deep etching and particles’ extraction techniques. 

The samples were observed under a Nikon Epiphot 300 

light microscope and a FEI, Sirion 400 NC, scanning 

electron microscope, equipped with an INCA 350, Oxford 

Instruments EDS-analyser. 

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was carried 

out in a FEI TITAN 80−300. The TEM specimens 

for the TITAN were cut out at specifi c sites using the 

focussed ion beam (FIB) in a FEI Nova 200 Nanolab. 


Melt spinning enables the study of equilibrium shape 

and the roughening behaviour of the quasicrystals. The 

rapid solidifi cation of dilute Al-Mn-Be and Al-Mn-Be- 

B alloys makes possible substantial undercooling, thus 

promoting nucleation of the quasicrystal in the melt 

[11]. Later the Al nucleates and its very fast growth enables 

the trapping of small quasicrystallites. 

Figure 1 shows a microstructure typical for 30–90 

µm thick ribbons. These ribbons possessed a rather uniform 

distribution of tiny spherical quasicrystalline particles 

with sizes between 50 nm and 500 nm in diameter, 

in an α–Al matrix. Backscattered electron images indicated 

that some particles had spherical shapes, whilst 

some of them showed a tendency for faceting, however 

the resolution was normally too low to enable clear determination 

of shape. 

Closer examination was possible using transmission 

electron microscopy. Typical transmission electron micrographs 

with the corresponding diffraction patterns 

are shown in Figure 2. The extracted particles from the 

Al-Mn melt-spun ribbons had rounded edges with sizes 

up to 100 nm (Figure 2a). On the other hand, particles 

can often exhibit equiaxed form (Figure 2b). Some of 

them had almost ideal spherical morphologies, whereas 

bumps could be seen on others. On the other hand, a 

particle in Figure 2.c possessed faceted morphology. In 

a TEM micrograph taken along a twofold axis the particle 

had a hexagonal shape. The angles between the edges 

were approximately 58 ° and 64 °. 

Figure 1 Backscattered electron images of quasicrystalline 

particles in Al-Mn-Be alloy 

Figure 2 I-phase in melt-spun ribbons. a) Extracted particles 

of i-phase in the alloy Al-Mn, the image was taken 

along twofold axis, b) bright-fi eld micrograph of the 

alloy Al-Mn-Be and c) bright-fi eld electron 

micrographs of the alloy Al-Mn-Be-B, the image was 

taken along a twofold axis. 

The triacontahedron, icosahedron and pentagonal 

dodecahedron can only be distinguished when a TEMmicrograph 

is taken along a twofold direction (Figure 

3). The angles of 58° and 64° are typical for the pentagonal 

dodecahedron [4]. Thus the addition of other 

elements (Be and B) did not change the shapes of the 

faceted particles. The results of the TEM study were 

confi rmed by deep etching. This procedure revealed the 

3D-shapes of the quasicrystalline particles. The pentagonal 

shape of the indicated particle’s facet in Figure 

4 can be clearly seen. It could be inferred that the particle 

had the shape of the pentagonal dodecahedron. 

The results can be related to undercooling. Dynamic 

roughening is more pronounced at large undercooling, 

therefore almost spherical particles form. 

Figure 3 Shapes of icosahedral quasi-crystalline particles can 

be clearly distinguished in those projections along 

the twofold axis [4]. Projection of the a) triacontahedron, 

b) icosahedron and c) pentagonal dodecahe 

dron along the twofold axis. 

Figure 4 Quasicrystalline particles with the shape of 

pentagonal dodecahedron in deep etched Al-Mn- 

Be-B alloy. 

66 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 65-67

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 65-67 

T. BONČINA: SHAPES OF THE ICOSAHEDRAL QUASICRYSTALLINE PHASE IN MELT-SPUN RIBBONS 

Figure 5 Morphologies of IQC observed in melt-spun ribbons. 

a) sphere, b) particle with rounded edges, c) particle 

with bumps, d) pentagonal dodecahedron 

With the decreasing cooling rate, the particles posses 

some fl at faces with rounded corners. In some cases, 

constitutional undercooling can lead to morphological 

instability of the solid-liquid interface, resulting in the 

formation of bumps. Such development can lead to the 

formation of large dendrites with rounded arms [2]. At 

smaller undercooling, the effect of dynamic roughening 

diminishes, resulting in the formation of almost ideal 

pentagonal dodecahedrons. The schematic presentation 

of IQC-shapes found in melt-spun ribbons, is shown in 

Figure 5. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The shapes of icosahedral quasicrystalline (IQC) 

particles were determined in melt-spun Al-Mn-Be-(B) 

alloys. 

During melt spinning, the following shapes of IQC 

were observed: spheres, particles with rounded edges, 

particles with bumps and particles with the shape of 

pentagonal dodecahedron. The sizes of these particles 

were up to 500 nm. 


This work was partly fi nanced by the research programme 

P2-0120 (ARRS Slovenia). 

REFERENCES 

[1] K. Chattopadhyay, N. Ravishankar, R. Goswami, Progress 

in Crystal Growth and Characterization of Materials 34 

(1997) 237-249. 

[2] K. F. Kelton, International Materials Reviews 38 (1993) 

105-137. 

[3] K. Chattopadhyay, S. Ranganathan, G. N. Subbanna, N. 

Thangaraj, Scripta Metallurgica 19 (1985) 767-771. 

[4] N. Thangaraj, G. N. Subbanna, S. Ranganathan, K. Chattopadhyay, 

J. Microsc.-Oxf. 146 (1987) 287-302. 

[5] T. Boncina, B. Markoli, I. Anzel, F. Zupanic, Mater. Tehnol. 

41 (2007) 271-277. 

[6] P. C. Canfi eld, M. L. Caudle, C. S. Ho, A. Kreyssig, S. 

Nandi, M. G. Kim, X. Lin, A. Kracher, K. W. Dennis, R. 

W. McCallum, A. I. Goldman, Phys. Rev. B 81 (2010) 4. 

[7] B. Dubost, J. M. Lang, M. Tanaka, P. Sainfort, M. Audier, 

Nature 324 (1986) 48-50. 

[8] K. Sato, H. Uchiyama, Y. Takahashi, I. Kanazawa, R. Suzuki, 

T. Ohdaira, T. Takeuchi, T. Mizuno, U. Mizutani, 

Phys. Rev. B 64 (2001) 8. 

[9] N. Tamura, M. Beyss, K. Urban, Philos. Mag. Lett. 74 

(1996) 89-97. 

[10] E. Puckermann (ed.), Quasicrystals: types, systems, and 

techniques, Nova Science Publishers, New York, 2010, 

195-217. 

[11] F. Zupanic, T. Boncina, A. Krizman, W. Grogger, C. Gspan, 

B. Markoli, S. Spaic, Quasicrystalline phase in melt-spun 

Al-Mn-Be ribbons, J. Alloy. Compd. 452 (2008), 343- 

347. 

Note: Responsible for English language is Mr. George Yeoman, Maribor, 

Slovenia 

67

J. ŁABAJ, M. SŁOWIKOWSKI, W. ŻYMŁA, J. LIPART 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 68-70 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 66.067:66.094.1:546.26=111 

POSSIBLE WAYS OF REFINING PRECIOUS GROUP METALS 

(PGM) OBTAINED FROM RECYCLING OF THE USED AUTO 

CATALYTIC CONVERTERS 

J. Łabaj, J. Lipart, M. Słowikowski, Department of Metallurgy, Silesian 

University of Technology, Katowice, Poland 

W. Żymała, Ecole Centrale Paris, France. 




The research involved measuring of the speed of zinc oxide with carbon reducers. Samples weighing between 60 

and 100 mg were tested with the use of thermogravimetric analysis within the range of temperatures up to 1 100 °C 

in nitrogen atmosphere. The speed of heating was 20 deg min-1 . The research involved also reducers normally used 

in reduction processes. The results obtained prove that some of the alternative reducers may be used for industrial 

purposes. 

Keywords: carbon reducers, previous metals, secondary raw materials, recovery metals. 

INTRODUCTION 

Pyrometallurgical technologies for obtaing zinc and 

lead both from raw and recycled materials are based on 

reduction processes [1-3]. Quick coke and anthracite 

are the most frequently used reducers. In recent years 

there has been a marked increase in the price of coke on 

world markets, which may generate interest in partial or 

total replacement of this traditional reducer. While retaining 

the adequate technological parameters, it will 

allow for lowering of the cost of production of these 

metals [4-7]. 

Among many types of waste products generated in 

Polish extractive, chemical and metallurgical industry 

plants there are also products containing a considerable 

amount of carbon. Therefore, it is expedient to explore 

the possibility of using such carboniferous waste products 

in industrial non-ferrous metal production processes. 

Apart from delivering the appropriate amount of 

heat to the reactor, pyrometallurgical technologies of 

obtaining metals require auxiliary substances, which 

ensure the appropriate course of the process. 

Among these substances there are: a reducer, fl uxing 

agents and slug-forming substances. [1] What is important 

from the point of view of production costs is the 

quantity of the additives used up in the process. Most 

pyrometallurgical processes connected with the production 

of metals, whether from raw or recycyled material, 

require the use of carbon in order to ensure suitable reduction 

conditions. [8-10]. Coke is the reducer most 

frequently used in pyrometallurgical processes. 

RESEARCH MATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY 

Analytically pure zinc oxide (ZnO) was used in the 

tests, which was mixed in the 2:3 weight proportion 

with chosen carbon materials which had been degassed 

at the temperature of 1 100 °C. Three alternative reducers 

were used in the tests (soot, anthracite dust and fl otation 

concentrate derived from enriching fi ne coal), as 

well as three other materials: blast furnace and petroleum 

coke and charcoal. 

The measurements of the speed of zinc oxide reduction 

with carbon reducers was conducted using a 

Netzsch calorimeter. The reaction mixture in the amount 

of 60 to 100 mg was poured into an aluminum oxide 

crucible and heated to the temperature of 1 100 °C with 

the speed of 20 deg/min in nitrogen atmosphere. 

RESULTS 

Figure 1 presents mass decrement curves for the six 

samples of zinc oxide mixtures with particular carbon 

materials. Total (fi nal) mass decrement amounts to 

about 50 %, which means total zinc reduction and evaporation 

of zinc taking place as a result of the following 

reaction 

ZnO + C = Zn(g) + CO (1) 

The theoretical mass decrement - assuming that as a 

result of the reaction pure carbon oxide is formed and 

that the initial composition of the mixture mass is 40 % 

ZnO and 60 % carbon material - amounts to: 

68 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 68-70 

(2) 

This value (45,6 %) corresponds to the intentional 

mass decrement, which falls within the range of 43 to 

49 %.

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 68-70 

J. ŁABAJ et al.: POSSIBLE WAYS OF REFINING PRECIOUS GROUP METALS (PGM) OBTAINED… 

Figure 1 Mass decrement in the samples of carbon material 

with zinc oxide in nitrogen atmosphere during 

heating. 

Figure 2 presents the change in the mass decrement 

in function of temperature, which increases with the 

speed of 20 deg/min to 1 100 °C. From the presented 

data it follows that the two most reactive materials (soot 

and charcoal) reduced the zinc oxide completely before 

reaching the temperature of 1 100 °C. In the case of the 

two least reactive materials (petroleum coke and blast 

furnace coke) the mass decrement in the non-isothermal 

part allowed for the reduction of about a half of the zinc 

oxide content. 

Figure 2 Mass decrement in the samples of carbon materials 

with zinc oxide in nitrogen atmosphere in function 

of temperature 

Figure 2 presents the change in the mass decrement 

in function of temperature, which increases with the 

speed of 20 deg/min to 1 100 °C. From the presented 

data it follows that the two most reactive materials (soot 

and charcoal) reduced the zinc oxide completely before 

reaching the temperature of 1 100 °C. In the case of the 

two least reactive materials (petroleum coke and blast 

furnace coke) the mass decrement in the non-isothermal 

part allowed for the reduction of about a half of the zinc 

oxide content. 

Figure 3 demonstrates kinetic curves of zinc oxide 

reduction reaction for the fi rst 20 % of mass decrement 

in order to determine the temperature at which the mass 

decrement reached the initial value of 5 % in each of the 

samples (Table 1). Figure 4 presents also the curve of 

zinc vapour pressure. 

Initial gasifi cation temperature may be considered 

as a criterion of carbon material reactivity, similarly to 

the speed of gasifi cation at a given temperature (Figure 

4). The apparent activation energy gives the idea of the 

kinetic control of the process 

Figure 3 Determining the initial carbon material gasifi cation 

(ZnO reduction) temperature 

Table 1 Temperature at which the sample mass decrement 

reached 5 % 

Reducer 

T °C 

(for x= 

5 %) 

Soot 

Charcoal 

Anthracite 

Coal 

Blast furnace 

coke 

Figure 4 Correlation between the initial gasifi cation 

temperature and the temperature at which the 

observed mass decrement reached 5 %. 

CONCLUSION 

Petroleum 

coke 

935 946 1 020 1 032 1 062 1 089 

The laboratory research conducted on the speed of 

zinc oxide reduction using carbon reducers showed that 

all the carbon materials used allow for zinc oxide reduction 

in the analyzed range of temperatures. Soot and 

charcoal yielded 

the best results in this respect. The results obtained 

require conducting research on semi-technical scale in 

69

J. ŁABAJ et al.: POSSIBLE WAYS OF REFINING PRECIOUS GROUP METALS (PGM) OBTAINED… 

order to fully confi rm the usefulness of alternative raw 

materials for industrial scale purposes. The quality of 

the product received, as well as the level of environmental 

impact, is a signifi cant criterion for the choice of 

components for the metallurgic charge. In the light of 

ever more rigorous environmental norms and regulations 

the benefi ts of using cheaper raw materials may 

not consist a suffi cient economic stimulus. 

REFERENCES 

[1] Sz. Chodkowski: Metalurgia metali nieżelaznych. Wyd. 

Górniczo-Hutnicze, Katowice (1962). 

[2] J. Botor: Podstawy metalurgicznej inżynierii procesowej. 

Silesian University of Technology Press, Gliwice (1999). 

[3] A. Chmielarz: Najlepsze dostępne techniki (BAT) wytyczne 

dla produkcji przetwórstwa metali nieżelaznych, 

(www.mos.gov.pl/2materialy_informacyjne/raporty_opracowania/bat/, 

(20-05-2012). 

[4] A. Konstanciak: Prace Instytutu Metalurgii Żelaza, 58 

(2006) 4, 22-23. 

[5] U. Ozga-Blaschke, T. Olkuski, S. Blaschke: Research Bulletins 

of Construction and Environmental Engineering 

at Koszalin University of Technology, Koszalin (2007), 

321-337. 

[6] J. Łabaj:. Rudy i Metale, 53 (2008) 6, 350-354. 

[7] K. Pałucha: Metalurgija 51 (2012) 3, 357-360. 

[8] P. Ostrowaska, K. Mierzwa: Hutnik – Wiadomości Hutnicze, 

7 (2007), 369-373. 

[9] J. Czernecki i inni.: Prace IMŻ, 1 (2002), 17 -23. 

[10] J. Mróz: Recykling i utylizacja materiałów odpadowych w 

agregatach metalurgicznych, Wyd. Pol. Śl., Częstochowa, 

(2006). 

Note: The responsible person for English language is: P. Nowak, Poland. 

70 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 68-70

K. JANISZEWSKI 

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF LIQUID STEEL 

FILTRATION OUT OF DISPERSED NONMETALLIC 

PHASE IN THE CONTINUOUS CASTING MACHINE 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 71-74 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 71-74 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 669.18-66.067:669.186:666.3/7:658.281=111 




Hitherto existing investigations concerning the ceramic fi lter use in the steel making processes (both of laboratory 

and industrial scale) have given good results. The obtained results of fi ltration (in the laboratory) have proved that 

this method may be used as an eff ective and cheap way of steel fi ltration from non-metallic inclusions. Placing fi lters 

in the tundish is the best location in consideration of limiting the possibility of secondary pollution of steel. Yet, the 

results presented in this paper, of an experiment prepared and carried out in the industrial environment, are the 

only positive results obtained, which are connected with so much quantities of liquid steel processed with use of 

the multi-hole ceramic fi lters. 

Key words: steel, refi ning, tundish, ceramic fi lter, continuous casting (CC). 

INTRODUCTION 

It is evident from the hitherto existing experience [1, 

2] that the conventional out-of-furnace steel treatment 

(especially that which is deoxidized by depositing, e.g. 

with use of aluminium) does not ensure high levels of 

the metallurgical purity. Furthermore, the presence in 

liquid steel of non-metallic inclusions of Al 2 O 3 type 

throws into confusion the process of continuous casting 

due to the phenomenon of covering the ladle discharge 

nozzles by a layer of such inclusions. According to 

judgements presented by many research centres [3– 

6]the steel fi ltration with use of multi-hole ceramic fi lters 

can be the effi cient and cost-effective method of 

removing the non-metallic inclusions from liquid steel. 

The experimental results obtained hitherto in the laboratory 

and fi eld indicate the substantial reduction in 

content of non-metallic inclusions and damaging impurities 

in liquid steel [6–9]. Differences, however, exist 

in levels of effi ciency of this steel refi ning method, depending 

on local fi ltration conditions. The reason for 

such differences can be found in the phenomenon of 

secondary oxidation of liquid steel by the atmospheric 

oxygen [9]. The positive results obtained in the laboratory-scale 

research have bcecome the base to undertake 

the trials to fi ltrate liquid steel in industrial conditions. 

A series of model investigations has been carried out, 

and then, after obtaining the positive results, a series of 

industrial-scale melts of steel has been produced [10– 

13]. The goal of the research carried out, the results of 

which are presented here, has been to prove the possible 

K. Janiszewski, Silesian University of Technology, Department of Metallurgy, 

Katowice, Poland. 

extent of the solid non-metallic inclusion removal from 

liquid steel through the steel fi ltration by means of multiple-orifi 

ce ceramic fi lters. The aim of the research carried 

out has been to prove that the liquid steel fi ltration 

is a cheap and effi cient additional processing stage, separating 

the non-metallic inclusions, which in case of the 

conventional casting technology could remain in the 

cast steel. 

INDUSTRIAL INVESTIGATIONS 

OF STEEL FILTRATION 

The hitherto obtained results of the laboratory researches 

of liquid steel fi ltration by means of ceramic 

fi lters [10-13] have become the base for preparation and 

Figure 1 Tundish of the CC machine provided with the 

ceramic fi lter 

71

D. DOBROTĂ et al.: RESEARCHES REGARDING STRUCTURAL MODIFICATIONS THAT APPEARS IN THE MATERIAL... 

implementation of the industrial application of the steel 

fi ltration process in the processing line of the continuous 

casting machine. Figure 1 presents the trough-type 

tundish prepared, in which a ceramic fi lter has been 

mounted. 

The fi lter used, in form of a barrier, has been made 

with 26 orifi ces of 60 mm diameter and fi ltrating surface 

of 808 236 mm 2 . The fi ltrating orifi ces have been of 

165 mm in length. The fi lter has been manufactured by 

Alcor S.A. company of Krzeszowice, Poland, and has 

been made of mullite-based body. According to the term 

of the multiple-orifi ce ceramic fi lter slenderness ratio, 

proposed and brought into use by the author of this paper, 

calculated as a quotient of the fi ltrating orifi ce 

(channel) height (length) by the orifi ce (channel) width 

(λ = h/d), the fi lter used in the experiment has been of 

slenderness ratio λ = 3,10 [14]. Ten (10) melts of A700 

steel (rail steel), about 330 Mg each, have been in a sequential 

manner casted during the fi rst trial of industrial 

steel fi ltration. After termination of the steel casting sequence 

the „wash-out” effect has been discovered in the 

fi lter central part. The initial assessment of the macroscopic 

structure of the continuous castings of the fi ltrated 

steel (not including the investigation of steel contamination 

with non-metallic inclusions) has proved 

good product quality. The fi rst carried out industrial 

trial of steel fi ltration in the tundish of CC machine has 

not thrown the continuous casting process into any confusion 

and not proved the earlier apprehension of emergency 

risk. The second trial of industrial steel fi ltration, 

in the tundish of CC machine, comprise a sequence of 

three melts of 34 GJ steel (chemical composition steel: 

C- 0,340, Mn- 0,840, Si- 0,250, P- 0,025, S- 0,020, Al- 

0,045), about 330 Mg in weight each. During the fi ltration 

process the samples of fi ltrated steel have been collected 

from one half of the ladle, while from the second, 

non-fi ltrated one the samples have been collected for 

analysis of total oxygen content. Results of the investigations 

carried out are presented in graphical form in 

Figure 2. The oxygen content analysis has been carried 

out with use of the Leco company’s method. Effective- 

Total oxygen content (O) Σ / ppm 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Melt 1 Melt 2 Melt 3 

Melt No 

Non-filtered steel 

Filtered steel 

Figure 2 (O) T total oxygen content variation in each of the 

melt sequence - 34GJ steel 

ness of steel fi ltration has been evaluated as variation in 

the surface share of the non-metallic inclusions in fi ltrated 

steel versus the non-fi ltrated one according to the 

formula (1): 

x p − xk 

NMI = ⋅100 

% 

(1) 

x p 

where: x – inclusion surface share (or inclusion 

p 

number) before fi ltration, 

x – inclusion surface share (or inclusion 

k 

number) after fi ltration, 

with use of the following intervals of inclusion diameters 

according to Ferret: 0,5-2,5 µm, 2,6-6,5 µm, 

6,6-15 µm, 15,6-30 µm, what is shown in Figure 3. Figures 

4–6 show the surface shares of the non-metallic 

inclusions in fi ltrated and non-fi ltrated steel for the experimental 

melts, correspondingly for each of the Fx Feret’s diameter intervals. The border of phase division 

between fi lter ceramics and solidifi ed steel together 

with adjoining areas (after polishing the sample surface 

and deposition of thin fi lm of gold) has been examined 

with the X-ray microanalyses method by means of 

Noran Instrument’s Hitachi S-3500N scanning microscope. 

The highest level of the effectiveness of liquid 

steel fi ltration has been observed for inclusions in the 

2,6 – 30,0 µm interval, what has been confi rmed by the 

previously obtained experimental results [10, 13, 15]. 

The observed inclusions differ in shape and size. In 

the aluminium deoxidized melts (the second trial and 

the third trial) the single inclusions as well as irregular 

in shape the inclusions clusters of different confi guration 

have been observed. They are built from non-metallic 

phase (Al O ) produced during the deoxidizing 

2 3 

process. 

They consist of Al O non-metallic phase, being the 

2 3 

product of the deoxidizing process. In every experimental 

melt (excluding inclusions in M-3 melt - the third 

trial) the decrease of the inclusion surface-share in the 

fi ltrated steel in comparison with the non-fi ltrated steel 

was observed. 

The highest degree in the surface-share decrease in 

relation to all inclusions was observed in M-1, M-2, and 

72 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 71-74 

Average surface-share of all non-metallic inclusions 

ηΝMI / % 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

25,23 

26,67 

Melt 1 Melt 2 Melt 3 

Melt No 

32,89 

Figure 3 The eff ectiveness of removing non-metallic 

inclusions as measured with the average rate of nonmetallic 

inclusion superfi cial share η NMI - 34GJ steel

The inclusion surface share for 

each size interval / % 


0,05 

0,04 

0,03 

0,02 

0,01 

0 

0,020 

0,010 

0,039 

0,035 

M-3 melts with parameters η NMI equal to 25,23 %, 26,67 

% and 32,89 % respectively (the second trial). Figure 3 

illustrate this dependence for average η NMI value calculated 

for every experimental melt. Increase of the nonmetallic 

inclusions size (measured with diameter F x ) 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 71-74 

0,039 

0,027 

0,009 0,011 

0,5 - 2,5 2,6 - 6,5 6,6 - 15,5 15,6 - 30,0 

Fx inclusion size / µm 

Melt No 1 


filtered steel 



inclusion superfi cial share η NMI , with division 

into inclusion size intervals according to F x Feret 

diameters melt no 1 - 34GJ steel 



0,07 

0,06 

0,05 

0,04 

0,03 

0,02 

0,01 

0 

0,069 

0,014 0,016 

0,044 

0,045 

0,049 

0,021 

0,004 

0,5 - 2,5 2,6 - 6,5 6,6 - 15,5 15,6 - 30,0 

Fx inclusion size / µm 

Melt No 2 



Figure 5 The eff ectiveness of removing non metallic 







0,06 

0,05 

0,04 

0,03 

0,02 

0,01 

0 

0,015 0,016 

0,051 

0,046 

0,048 

0,031 

0,5-2,5 2,6-6,5 6,6-15,5 15,6-30,0 

Fx inclusion size, µm 

Melt No 3 



0,036 

0,005 






Figure 7 Scaning pictures of interface partition fi lters ceramic- 

fi ltration steel of head - 34GJ steel 

Figure 8 X-ray photograph of non metallic inclusions 

chemical composition identifi ed on the surface of a 

ceramic fi lter and in steel volume from melt - 34GJ 

steel 

causes increase in the number of inclusions removed 

during fi ltration, measured with η NMI . Figure 7 show in 

a form of scanning pictures the results of investigation 

of the division border of the solidifi ed steel – fi lter ceramic 

and the areas adjoining the border after fi ltration 

tests of steel (aluminium deoxidized) taken from the 

melt M-3 (the second trial) as an example. The solidifi 

ed product of steel deoxidation in a form of Al 2 O 3 have 

been identifi ed on the ceramic fi lter surface and in the 

adjoining areas. 

Character of a contact of Al 2 O 3 inclusion particle 

(and clusters of this inclusions) with the fi lter ceramic 

surface excludes the chemical bounding and sintering 

of the contacting phases. Chemical composition of the 

identifi ed products of steel deoxidation with aluminium 

is confi rmed with the X-ray photo in Figure 8. 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

Based on the research carried out hitherto and the 

published results, a judgement should be made that liquid 

steel fi ltration with the ceramic fi lters can become in 

the nearest future the effective and cheap method of additional 

steel refi ning, in order to separate the non-metallic 

inclusions, as well as the permanent processing 

procedure in the continuous casting technology (for 

some types of steel). The model research has proved 

73


good liquid steel fl ow dynamics and steel mixing in the 

tundish provided with multiple-orifi ce fi lters in case of 

fi lter installation in the place of conventional overfl ow 

partitions. Placing the multiple-orifi ce fi lters in the position 

of conventional overfl ow partitions is the most 

benefi cial fi lter location within the way of steel making 

process. The fi ltration trials carried out have not proved 

the earlier apprehension of emergency risk, have not 

thrown into confusion the continuous casting process 

and even have improved the liquid steel mixing dynamics 

in the tundish, as it has become evident after the 

model research. The fi lter washout effect discovered in 

its lower part (the fi rst trial) should not be considered a 

surprise due to the fact that the quantity of liquid steel 

processed in each melt is about 330 Mg. The η WN effectiveness 

of non-metallic inclusions removal, as measured 

by the average extent of variation in the inclusion 

surface share in fi ltrated and non-fi ltrated steel, has 

amounted 28,26 % for the second trial with the fi lter 

slenderness ratio λ = 3,10. There is a one more positive 

effect of use of the multiple-orifi ce ceramic fi lters, 

which is the increased time of the ladle nozzle service 

life. If part of the non-metallic inclusions is stopped at 

the level of the tundish then the nozzle service life is 

decidedly increased (the process of decrease in the nozzle 

cross section runs more slowly). 

REFERENCES 

[1] W. I. Jawojski i inni: Wkljuczienia i gazy w staliach. Wyd. 

Mietałłurgia, Moskwa. 1979, 

[2] J Happ, M.G. Fröhberg: Giessereiforschung, 1971, Heft 1, 

s. 1-9, 

[3] S. Ali, R. Mutharasan, D. Apellian: Physical refi ning of 

steel melts by fi ltration, Metallurgical Transaction, 16 

(1985) 4, 725 - 742, 

[4] L. Socha, J. Bažan, L. Martínek, P. Fila, M. Balcar, P. Lev: 

Laboratory Verifi cation of Resistance of Refractory Materials 

for Ceramic Filters, METAL 2010, Rožnov p. 

Radhoštěm, Czech Republic, 2010, p. 90-95., 

[5] J. Mancini, J. Stel: Tundish metallurgy: a combined Irsid 

und Hoogovens research, Revue de Métallurgie-CIT, 89 

(1992) 3, 269-277, 

[6] Z. Kudliński, J. Pieprzyca, K. Janiszewski: Doświadczenia 

i perspektywy rafi nacji ciekłej stali z wtrąceń niemetalicznych 

za pomocą fi ltrów ceramicznymi, Hutnik- 

Wiadomości Hutnicze, 72 (2005) 5, 254-259, 

[7] K. Janiszewski, Z. Kudliński: The infl uence of non metallic 

inclusions physical state on effectiveness of the steel 

fi ltration process, Steel Research International, 77 (2006) 

3, 169-176, 

[8] K. Janiszewski: Infl uence of slenderness ratios of a multihole 

ceramic fi lters at the effectiveness of process of fi ltration 

of non-metallic inclusions from liquid steel, Archives 

of metallurgy and materials, 57 (2012) 1, 135-143, 

[9] K. Janiszewski: Refi ning of liquid steel multi-hole ceramic 

fi lters in protective atmosphere, Prace Instytutu Metalurgii 

Żelaza, 61 (2009) 5, 78-82, 

[10] K. Michalek, K. Gryc, J. Morávka: Physical modellign of 

bath homogenisation in argon stirred ladle. Metalurgija, 48 

(2009) 4, 215-218 

[11] K. Michalek, Z. Hudzieczek, K. Gryc, Mathematical identifi 

cation of homogenisation processes in argon stirred ladle, 

Metalurgija, 48 (2009) 4, 219-222 

[12] T. Merder, J. Pieprzyca: Numerical modeling of the infl 

uence subfl ux controller of turbulence on steel fl ow in the 

tundish, Metalurgija, 50 (2011) 4, 223-226, 

[13] T. Merder, J. Pieprzyca, M. Warzecha: Numerical modeling 

of steel fl ow in the six-strand tundish with different 

fl ow control devices, Metalurgija, 48 (2009) 3, 143-146. 

Note: The responsible translator for English language is Z. Kozyra, 

Katowice, Poland. 

74 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 71-74

B. KALANDYK, M. STAROWICZ, M. KAWALEC, R. ZAPAŁA 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 75-78 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 75-78 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 620.193:621.747:620.18=111 

INFLUENCE OF THE COOLING RATE 

ON THE CORROSION RESISTANCE OF DUPLEX CAST STEEL 




The results of the infl uence of the cooling rate of the casting made of the acid-resistant ferritic - austenitic cast steel 

on the microstructure and corrosion resistance are presented in the paper. Samples cut out from the walls of the 

casting being cooled at the cooling rate of 3,2 - 0,5 ºC/s were used in the study. Diff erent cooling rates create favorable 

conditions for the segregation processes lowering properties of castings. It was found, that diff erences in the 

polarization curves occur only in the more aggressive corrosive environment. The reason of such behaviour of cast 

steel is the segregation of elements dissolved in austenite and the diff erence in the volume fraction of ferrite and 

austenite in the walls of the diff erent thickness. 

Key words: electrochemical corrosion, casting, stainless steel, microstructures 

INTRODUCTION 

The characteristic feature of castings is their diversifi 

ed thickness and complexity of shapes. In the case of 

castings made of acid resistant Cr-Ni cast steel, various 

cooling rates lead to the segregation of alloy components 

and differences in the precipitation processes rates within 

the temperature range: 300 - 1 000 ºC [1,2]. As the result 

of these processes phases of different structure and chemical 

composition (e.g. carbides, nitrides, σ, α’) can nucleate 

in the casting walls [3-5]. Their occurrence in the microstructure 

worsens the corrosive resistance and passivation 

ability of castings made of Cr-Ni cast steel, especially 

in the environment containing Cl ¯ ions [6]. Performing 

the proper heat treatment of castings eliminates, 

in the majority of cases, a precipitation of those phases, 

however in the case of cast steel containing ferrite and 

austenite in its structure the volume fraction of those 

phases can vary in dependence of the hyper quenching 

temperature and casting wall thickness [7-9]. 

Operating conditions of castings require that the basic 

properties be retained in all thickness of its walls. This 

means that in thin-wall castings (e.g. rotors, steering 

gears), as well as in castings of a wall thickness of 50 - 70 

mm (valve footings and housings, large industrial pumps), 

material structure should not reveal essential differences. 

Otherwise castings will not satisfy the requirements both 

at the surface and inside the casting wall. 

Therefore an attempt to present the infl uence of 

cooling rates of the F-A cast steel castings on their corrosion 

resistance – in two different corrosive environments 

was undertaken in this paper. 

B. Kalandyk, M. Starowicz, M. Kawalec, R. Zapała AGH University of 

Science and Technology, Krakow, Poland 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 

The infl uence of the cooling rate of the F-A cast steel 

casting containing 0,06 % C, 24,0 % Cr, 5,2 % Ni, 2,5 

% Mo, 2,7 % Cu and 0,2 % Nb on its microstructure and 

corrosive resistance was investigated. 

The casting of different wall thickness: 12, 24 and 

45 mm was made under laboratory conditions. After 

pouring the mould with liquid metal the temperature 

change was recorded by means of thermoelements Pt- 

PtRh10, and on this basis the cooling rate of each wall 

was determined. Samples for metallographic and corrosive 

tests were cut off from the walls of a thickness 12 

and 45 mm, cooling with rates of 3,2 - 3,4 ºC/s and 0,4- 

0,5 ºC /s – respectively. 

Electrochemical measurements were performed for 

samples after the heat treatment (solution annealing) at 

1 060 °C for 1 hour for each 25 mm. Samples polarization 

was performed with the application of the cyclic voltammetry 

in 3 % NaCl solution and 0,1M H 2 SO 4 . In both 

cases solutions were deaerated with argon. The polarisation 

curves were performed in a potential range from -1,5 

to 1,0 V at the polarisation rate: 1 V/min. The chronopotentiostatic 

curve was performed for a potential of 0,5 V 

in 3 % NaCl solution. The reference electrode in 3 % 

NaCl solution was the calomel electrode, while in 0,1M 

H 2 SO 4 the silver-silver chloride electrode. 

The observations of the cast steel surface after the 

corrosion tests were carried out by the optical microscope 

Neophot 32 and the scanning electron microscope. 

The chemical composition analysis of ferrite, 

austenite and corrosion products was performed by 

means of the scanning microscope equipped with the 

EDX system of the IXRF Company for the X-ray microanalysis. 

75

B. KALANDYK et al.: INFLUENCE OF THE COOLING RATE ON THE CORROSION RESISTANCE OF DUPLEX CAST STEEL 

DISCUSSION AND RESULTS 

The microstructure of the investigated F-A cast steel 

consists of the ferritic matrix and austenite ‘islands’ 

(Figures 1 and 2) [8,10]. On the grounds of the investigations 

of the relative volume fraction of austenite in 

F-A cast steel cooling with a rate of 3,2 - 3,4 ºC/s and 

of 0,4 - 0,5 ºC/s, the difference of 1,6 % in the volume 

fraction was found. A lower cooling rate results in increasing 

the austenite volume fraction at the expense of 

ferrite. On the bases of the X-ray EDX microanalysis 

the differences in the chemical composition of the ferritic 

and austenitic phase, being the result of the alloying 

elements segregation, were found. The average content 

of the main elements not exceeding 1 %, excluding 

Si and Mn, are shown in Table 1. On the bases of the 

obtained results of the ferrite chemical composition the 

difference in the Ni content in walls of a thickness of 12 

and 45 mm was found. In the case of austenite occurring 

in the wall of a thickness of 45 mm, an increased Cr and 

Mo content and a decreased Ni content was noticed as 

compared to austenite occurring in the wall of a thickness 

of 12 mm – Table 1. 

Figure 1 Microstructure of the investigated cast steel in the 

wall of a thickness: a) 12 mm, b) 45 mm; optical 

microscope, etchant - Beraha II 

a 

b 

Figure 2 Microstructure of the investigated cast steel in the 

wall of a thickness: a) 12 mm, b) 45 mm; SEM 

Table 1 Chemical compositions of the ferrite and austenite 

in the investigated cast steel / mas.% 

Phase Wall thickness 

/ mm 

Cr Mo Ni Cu Fe 

/ mas. % 

Ferrite 12 24,9 5,1 3,6 2,8 61,2 

45 25,1 4,7 4,3 2,9 61,0 

Austenite 12 20,1 1,4 7,4 3,2 66,6 

45 21,7 2,1 6,5 2,7 66,9 

Corrosion investigations 

The performed corrosion investigations indicated 

very good corrosion resistance of the investigated cast 

steel in 0,1M H 2 SO 4 solution as compared with 3 % 

NaCl solution (Figure 3a). The breakdown potential in 

0,1M H 2 SO 4 for the tested cooling rates was 1 V. The 

passive zone range was from –0,5 to 1,0 V (Figure 3b). 

On the other hand, the difference in breakdown potentials 

for the tested cooling rates of castings in 3 % 

NaCl solution was noticed. The breakdown potential 

value for the casting cooling faster (wall: 12 mm) was 

app. –0,8 V, while for the casting cooling slower (wall: 

45 mm) this potential shifted into positive values. Additional 

corrosion tests were performed at a constant 

76 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 75-78 

a 

b


Figure 3 Infl uence of the casting cooling rate on the 

polarisation curves of F-A cast steel in 3 % NaCl 

solution -a) and 0,1M H 2 SO 4 -b) 

potential value, being 0,5 V, during 120 minutes (Figure 

4). On the basis of the chronopotentiostatic curve, obtained 

for the sample cut off from the 12 mm thick wall, 

it was found that the corrosion process is the multistage 

one with a high velocity at the process beginning (up to 

∼5 minutes) and slowing down further on. Violent current 

oscillations recorded at the beginning of the curve, 

indicate an intensive sample etching accompanied by an 

intensive emissivity of hydrogen (the most probably) on 

the sample surface [11]. Further mild pathway of the 

chronopotentiostatic curve, at a constant potential of 0,5 

V indicates pitting formation on the surface of tested 

materials. In turn, for the sample cut off from the 45 mm 

thick wall none increasing of the anodic reaction was 

found in the very fi rst minutes of the measurement. At 

the fi nal stage of the measurement the current density in 

both walls (12 and 45 mm thick) was similar. 

Microstructural investigations performed after corrosion 

tests in 3 % NaCl solution indicated an intensive 

etching of austenite on the sample cut off from the 12 

mm wall (Figure 5). The reason of such behaviour was 

the most probably a decreased Cr, Ni and Mo content in 

austenite (Table 1). Layers of corrosion products formed 

on the cast steel surface are heterogeneous and display 

corrosion damages in forms of clusters, dark spots, 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 75-78 

a 

b 

Figure 4 Chronopotentiostatic curves for the tested F-A cast 

steel at a potential of 0,5 V in 3 % NaCl solution 

Figure 5 Surface of the investigated cast steel after corrosion 

tests in 3 % NaCl solution at a potential of 0,5 V 

pores and pitting. The selective system of corrosive 

zones corresponds to the austenite arrangement. The 

SEM-EDX analysis of these zones indicated that they 

are strongly oxidised (20 - 34 % of oxygen) and enriched 

with Cr (17 - 19 %) and Fe (40 - 50 %). 

The wall of the casting, which cooled more slowly 

(thickness of 45 mm), had only deep, fi ne spherical pitting 

without an intensive austenite etching as it was in 

the case of sample cut off from the 12 mm wall. 

CONCLUSIONS 

None essential infl uence of the cooling rate of the 

investigated F-A cast steel on the polarization curves 

pathway in 0,1M H 2 SO 4 solution was seen. The breakdown 

potential in both cases was 1 V. 

The investigated cast steel cooled with the cooling 

rate of 3,2 - 3,4 ºC/s (12 mm wall) retains its corrosion 

resistance - in 3 % NaCl solution - up to a value of –0,8 

V, while the one cooled with the rate of 0,4 - 0,5 ºC/s (45 

mm wall) up to a value of 0,01 V. The chronopotentiostatic 

curves recorded at a potential of 0,5 V during 120 

minutes indicate the infl uence of the cooling rate in the 

initial period of curve pathways. For the cooling rate of 

3,2 - 4,3 ºC/s the intensive corrosion processes were ob- 

77


served in the fi rst minutes of investigations. The curves 

obtained at the fi nal stage of investigations were similar 

for both samples. 

The research part of the study has been partially executed 

under a Statutory Work no 11.11.170.318 Task 

no.5 (2011). 

REFERENCES 

[1] M. Pohl, O. Storz, T. Glogowski, Materials Characterization 

vol.58 (2007) 65-71. 

[2] J.A. Jimenez, M. Carsi, A. Ruano, F. Penabla, Journal of 

Materials Science vol. 35 (2000) 907-915. 

[3] A.J. Sedriks, Corrosion of Stainless Steel. Edited by A 

Wiley-Interscience Publ., (1996), 437 p. 

[4] Stainless steel castings. ASTM STP 756, (1982), 444 p. 

[5] R.N. Gunn, Duplex stainless steels. Edited by Abington 

Publ., (1999), 204 p. 

[6] E. Otero, A. Pardo, M. Utrilla, E. Saenez, F. Perez, Materials 

Characterization vol.35 (1995) 145-153. 

[7] J. Głownia, D. Szczypkowski, B. Kalandyk, J. Górniok, S. 

Sobula, Foundry Journal of the Polish Foundrymen’s Association, 

12 (2008), 616-621. 

[8] J. Głownia, B. Kalandyk, K. Hübner, Materials Characterization, 

47 (2001), 149-155. 

[9] M.T. Leger, Stainless Steel Castings, American Society for 

Testing and Materials, (1982), 105-125. 

[10] P. Malatyńska, J. Głownia, The infl uence of carbon content 

on change peritectic transformation temperature in chromium-nickel 

stainless steel, Foundry of Archives Engineering, 

SFEROID Scientifi c Student, 11, Especial Volume, 

(2011), 121-126. 

[11] D. Landolt, Corrosion and surface chemistry of metals. 

Lausanne: EPFL Press, (2007). 


Translation Offi ce, Krakow, Poland 

78 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 75-78

T. FRĄCZEK, M. OLEJNIK 

A MODEL FOR UNCONVENTIONAL GLOW DISCHARGE 

NITRIDING OF GRADE 2 TITANIUM 

T. Frączek, M. Olejnik, Częstochowa University of Technology, 

Częstochowa Poland 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 79-82 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 79-82 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 669.2:621.795 = 111 




An analysis of the infl uence of diff erent parameters of the ion nitriding process conducted in a H + N atmosphere 

2 2 

on the properties of the surface layer of Grade 2 titanium was carried out in the study. This allowed a model for ion 

nitriding of technical titanium to be developed. The equipment used in the experimental work included a JON-600 

current glow-discharge furnace. It was found that the process of cathode nitriding with the use of the active screen 

led to an increase in the concentration of nitrogen in the surface layer and in the relative volume of nitrides. A factor 

which determines the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of phenomena that occur in the presence of the 

active screen is the high concentration and high energy level of nitrogen ions which interact with base material during 

nitriding. 

Key words: technical titanium, glow discharge nitriding, active screen 

INTRODUCTION 

Various surface engineering methods are used for 

forming the mechanical and service properties of the 

surface layer of metallic materials. Currently, the fastest 

developing surface engineering methods include: nitriding, 

vacuum and low-temperature plasma heat treatment 

and thermochemical treatment and plasma an laser 

methods [1]. 

The modifi cation of the surface layer of titanium and 

its alloys in the gas nitriding process considerably inhibits 

their tendency to passivation. Compact TiO 2 oxide 

layers form, which hamper the diffusion of the atoms 

of other elements into the layer. Therefore, a costly 

operation of oxide fi lm removal is used in the process of 

gas nitriding of these materials to preliminarily activate 

the surface [2]. The glow-discharge nitriding process allows 

layers to be produced, which are of superior quality 

compared to gas nitriding [3]. Moreover, glow discharge 

nitriding enables the nitrogen diffusion hampering 

oxide fi lms to be removed already at the initial stage 

of the process, while eliminating the need for preliminary 

surface activation [4]. Surface activation by cathode 

sputtering involves the bombardment of the surface 

with low-energy ions. The energy level of these ions 

must be higher than the threshold energy value of surface 

atom sputtering [5]. 

The present study concerns the effect of an unconventional 

Grade 2 titanium nitriding method using an 

active screen in different glow discharge regions. The 

analysis of the investigation results has enabled the development 

of a model for the process of glow discharge 

nitriding of the metallic material under study. 

TEST MATERIAL AND 

THE SCOPE OF TESTS CARRIED OUT 

Titanium, Grade 2, was subjected to glow discharge 

nitriding processes in a temperature range of 803 ÷ 863 K 

for a duration from t = 18 ks to t = 61,2 ks, in a reactive 

atmosphere composed of 25 % H 2 + 75 % N 2 , at an atmosphere 

pressure of 150 Pa. 

Four variants of positioning the elements to be nitrided 

in the glow-discharge chamber were assumed, 

either: 

– directly on the cathode, 

– in the plasma potential – on the surface isolated from 

the anode and the cathode, 

– on the cathode using an active screen, or 

– in the plasma potential using an active screen. 

The auxiliary screens used had the purpose of intensifying 

the surface phenomena due to the local temperature 

increase and the increase in the energy of active 

plasma components. 

The X-ray phase analysis was performed on a 

DRON-2 X-ray diffractometer using fi ltered cobalt anode 

tube radiation. 

The element distribution analysis was made on a 

GDS GD PROFILER HR glow-discharge optical emission 

spectrometer. 

The observation of the obtained structures was performed 

on crosscut metallographic specimens, either 

etched or not etched, using a Carl-Zeiss Jena Axiovert 

25 metallographic microscope. 

The obtained examination results are more extensively 

discussed in study [6]. The analysis of these results 

made it possible to propose a model for glow discharge 

nitriding of Grade 2 titanium in different direct 

current glow-discharge regions with reference to the 

iron glow discharge nitriding model. 

79

T. FRĄCZEK et al.: A MODEL FOR UNCONVENTIONAL GLOW DISCHARGE NITRIDING OF GRADE 2 TITANIUM 

INVESTIGATION RESULTS 

AND THEIR DISCUSSION 

The analysis of the investigation results has shown 

that the previously established and adopted conventional 

glow discharge nitriding process models might not be 

appropriate for nitriding with the use of the active 

screen. The earliest model developed by Kölbel [7] assumes 

that the transfer of nitrogen requires iron atoms 

to be sprayed from the cathode surface and then passed 

to the plasma. In that case, the iron atoms react with the 

nitrogen to form FeN nitrides that are sprayed onto the 

substrate surface. The FeN nitrides are metastable and 

are transformed to Fe 2÷3 N and then Fe 4 N nitrides on the 

steel substrate surface. At the same time, forming free 

nitrogen atoms diffuse into the substrate material. Figure 

1 illustrates the model of iron nitriding in direct current 

glow-discharge plasma in gas under a reduced pressure 

according to Keller [8] (Figure 1a) and Michalski 

[3] (Figure 1b). 

Study [9] has found that the active screen changes to 

a considerable extent the course of phenomena occurring 

under glow discharge conditions. The Kölbel model 

does not fully allow for the characteristics of the 

physical phenomena occurring in this process. It only 

considers the sputtering and redeposition phenomena. 

Therefore, a different model of nitriding under an active 

screen has been proposed, especially for the initial process 

stage, which takes into account the following phenomena: 

cathode sputtering, physical desorption (releasing 

atoms, ions or molecules), diffusion and spraying. 

In addition, study [10] has assumed that the cathode 

sputtering and then re-spraying play the most important 

role in nitriding using the active screen. The remaining 

phenomena need also to be taken into account. 

The analysis of literature data shows that the conventional 

glow discharge nitriding process is adequately 

characterized in many studies. However, this is only 

Figure 1 The model of iron nitriding in direct current glowdischarge 

plasma in gas under a reduced pressure: a) 

by Keller [1]; b) by Michalski [2] 

true for individual phenomena and their effect on the 

process kinetics, but there is no comprehensive analysis 

of the process. 

The results of our investigation into active screen 

glow discharge nitriding of titanium and its alloys enable 

us to claim that: 

– the use of the active screen intensifi es the nitriding 

process and increases its temperature; 

– the active screen changes primarily the voltage characteristics, 

both quantitative and qualitative ones 

(Figure 2). Additional voltage pulses form under the 

active screen. The values of those voltages are greater 

by several times than the voltage values occurring 

during cathode nitriding. The time of these voltage 

pulses causes the ions and other active plasma components 

to gain a high velocity. This velocity corresponds 

to a high kinetic energy of the order of several 

hundred electron volts. The active plasma components 

are implanted into the substrate material. They form a 

disequilibrium nitrogen-supersaturated zone in the 

surface layer. The high nitrogen concentration facilitates 

the nitrogen diffusion into the substrate; 

– increasing the temperature of titanium and titaniumalloy 

substrates in the active screen cathode nitriding 

process causes the nitrided layer to form both on the 

surface in the plasma environment and on the surface 

adjacent to the cathode. This indicates the presence of 

molecular nitrogen, despite the low-temperature nature 

of this nitriding process; 

– the ion bombardment and cathode sputtering phenomena 

have a great effect on the nitriding process kinetics, 

the phase composition and the morphology of the 

microstructure phase constituents of the layers forming; 

hence, in the nitriding process as effected either 

on the cathode and using the active screen, nitride 

zones form in the surface layer, which have a high 

nitrogen concentration compared to the plasma potential 

nitriding process resulting in the formation of a 

layer composed solely of a diffusion layer; 

– the process of nitriding in the nitrogen and hydrogen 

mixture atmosphere proceeds involving NH radicals 

capable of bonding hydrogen to form active NH 2 radicals. 

Reducing the nitrogen concentration in the mix- 

Figure 2 Oscilloscopic potential curves as recorded for 

diff erent glow discharge regions 

80 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 79-82


Figure 3 The model of Grade 2 technical titanium ion 

nitriding in diff erent glow discharge regions 

ture reduces the quantity of NH radicals. Therefore, 

with a low nitrogen content, no cathode nitriding effect 

is found, but the cathode sputtering intensity increases. 

The presented investigation results provide a basis 

for developing a new model for glow discharge nitriding 

of Grade 2 titanium, depending on the position in 

the direct current glow discharge region, while allowing 

for the active screen effect (Figure 3). 

It has been found that the TiN nitride, formed at the 

initial stage of the Grade 2 titanium nitriding process under 

glow discharge conditions, undergoes transformation 

to the Ti 2 N nitride and a free nitrogen atom diffusing into 

the substrate material. At the further stage of the process, 

the nitride decomposes following the reaction: 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 79-82 

2TiN → Ti 2 N + N↓ (1) 

Ti 2 N → 2Ti + N↓ (2) 

The nitrided layer on the substrate of titanium and 

its alloys, in the following glow discharge plasma regions: 

I – the cathode, II – the plasma potential + the 

active screen, III – the cathode + the active screen, has 

a zonal structure (Figure 4a). The following zones are 

distinguished: the TiN nitride zone; the Ti 2 N nitride 

zone; and the deepest positioned zone of grains of the 

solid solution of nitrogen in α titanium, Tiα(N). 

In contrast, in the case of the substrate isolated from 

the cathode and the anode – nitriding in the plasma potential 

– no presence of nitrides was found. In that case, 

grains of the solid solution of nitrogen in titanium, 

Figure 4 Structure of the surface layer after glow discharge 

nitriding with the use of the active screen. The 

sample: a) top; b) bottom 

Tiα(N), occur in the microstructure. The reason for this 

is the low energy of ions for the given process conditions. 

Moreover, these ions are characterized by a negative 

polarization relative to the plasma – approx. 20 V 

(Figure 2 – plasma). Hence the small effect of the sputtering 

phenomenon [3]. The low ion energy is also insuffi 

cient for driving metal atoms out from the base, 

which would then react with nitrogen atoms to form nitrides. 

For these conditions, only the nitrogen ion desorption 

phenomenon occurs, whereby the nitrogen ions 

diffuse to the iron crystal lattice to form grains of the 

solid solution of nitrogen in titanium, Tiα(N). 

Noteworthy is the fact that the process of nitriding 

on the cathode with the use of the active screen, even 

for such a low temperature as the one used in the experiment, 

results in the formation of a nitrided layer on 

the surface screened from the glow discharge on the 

surface adjacent to the cathode - the bottom of the element 

being nitrided (Figure 4b). Literature data suggests 

that it is possible to produce a nitrided layer on 

such a surface at a temperature much higher than the 

temperature used in the experiment under consideration. 

In that case, titanium nitrides form as a result of 

reaction between the base titanium and the molecular 

nitrogen [11]. 

The zonal structure, as mentioned above, was confi 

rmed by the performed X-ray phase analysis examination 

(Figure 5). 

Figure 5 X-ray diff ractograms of the surface layer after 

diff erent variants of glow discharge nitriding 

81


SUMMARY 

– Achieving a higher ion energy due to the introduction of 

the active screen is a decisive factor intensifying the 

glow discharge plasma interaction in Grade 2 titanium 

nitriding processes. 

– Introducing the active screen results in changes to the 

quantitative and qualitative voltage characteristics. The 

voltage value increases thus increasing the density and 

velocity of ions that gain a kinetic energy of approx. 

300 eV. The high-energy ions are implanted into the 

substrate material to form a strongly disequilibrium nitrogen-supersaturated 

zone in the surface layer, which 

in turn favours the diffusion of nitrogen into the titanium 

being nitrided. 

– The use of the active screen leads to an increase in plasma 

temperature, which simultaneously results in a reduction 

in the plasma density and an increase in the 

mean free path of electrons, thus increasing the energy 

of ions bombarding the surface being nitrided. 


This research has been fi nanced from the resources 

allocated for scientifi c development in the years 

2010 ÷ 2013, as Research Project No. N N507 296239. 

REFERENCES 

[1] T. Burakowski, T. Wierzchoń, Inżynieria Powierzchni, 

WNT, Warszawa, 1995. 

[2] T. Christiansen, M.A.J. Somers, Struers Journal of Metallography, 

9/2006, 1-17. 

[3] J. Michalski, Journal of Materials Science Letters, 19 

(2000) 16, 1411-1414. 

[4] T. Frączek, J. Michalski, Inżynieria Materiałowa, 5/2002, 

299-301. 

[5] M. Tsujikawa, N. Yamauchi, U. Ueda, T. Sone, Y. Hirose, 

Surface & Coatings Technology, 193 (2005) 1-2, 309- 

313. 

[6] T. Frączek. Niekonwencjonalne niskotemperatu-rowe azotowanie 

jarzeniowe materiałów metalicznych, Wyd. WIP- 

MiFS, Częstochowa 2011. 

[7] J. Kölbel, Die Nitridschichtbildung bei der Glimmentladung 

Forschungsbericht des Landes NRW, Nr. 155, Köln, 

Opladen, Westdeutscher Verlag, 1965. 

[8] K. Keller, Härterei-Technische-Mitteilung (HTM) 2 (1971) 

26, 120-130. 

[9] C. Zhao, C.X. Li, H. Dong, T. Bell: Surface & Coatings 

Technology, 201 (2006) 6, 2320-2325. 

[10] S.C. Gallo, H. Dong, Vacuum, 84 (2010) 2, 2321-2325. 

[11] E. Roliński: Azotowanie jonowe tytanu i jego stopów, Prace 

Naukowe Politechniki Warszawskiej, Mechanika, z.118, 

Warszawa 1988. 


Częstochowa, Poland 

82 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 79-82

Gh. AMZA, D. DOBROTĂ 

ULTRASOUND EFFECT ON THE 

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF PARTS LOADED BY WELDING 

Gh. Amza, Engineering and Tehnological Systems Management Faculty, 

Polytehnic University of Bucharest, Romania, D. Dobrota, Engineering 

Faculty, University “Constantin Brâncuşi” of Târgu-Jiu, Romania 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 83-86 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 83-86 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 669.11:620.178:620.193=111 




The reconditioning problem by loading parts through welding is a special one because with this operation is desired 

in addition to a recovery of the initial size of the piece and also an increasement of resistance to fatigue and 

wear by erosion and/or corrosion. The paper presents research results on the mechanical properties of parts reconditioned 

by manual coated arc welding directly respectively by introducing ultrasounds in the welding bath. Application 

of ultrasounds in the welding process showed an increase in hardness, shock tensile and bending resistence 

for the parts material. 

Key words: mechanical properties, loading by welding, ultrasonic energy, manual arc welding with coated electrode 

INTRODUCTION 

Loading by welding involves lodging of a fi ller material 

over a substrate in order to obtain desired characteristics 

and dimensions (high resistance to fatigue and 

wear of erosion and/or corrosion) [1]. 

The effi ciency of the technological process of reconstruction 

depends primarily on the behavior of the base 

layer - fi ller layer torque and how it connects marginal 

homogeneity between atoms of the two materials in the 

contact area and near the contact area [3]. 

Homogeneous bond formation is the result of technological 

steps for the submission of the fi ller material 

over support material [4,5]. 

The most important technological steps in the process 

of reconditioning by welding are: suitable processing 

of the surface over which the fi ller material is put, 

cleaning, pickling, degreasing to create better conditions 

of accession of material added to the base material, 

preheating base material to reduce the temperature gradient; 

the deposit itself, providing conditions to prevent 

solidifi cation cracks, application of appropriate heat 

treatment with the desired operating characteristics and 

processing at the size of operation [6-8]. 

Researchers have shown that the propagation of ultrasounds 

in the liquid metal bath has signifi cant infl uence 

on the process of transfer of the fi ller material by 

the arc and the crystallization process. All these infl uences 

are attributed to two basic phenomena due to the 

propagation of ultrasounds in liquid media, namely the 

ultraacoustic cavitation and the acceleration of the diffusion 

process [9]. 

In the paper it was used directly introducing ultrasonics 

in the welding bath (Figure 1); 

MATERIALS 

To optimize the parameters of the reconstruction 

process by ultrasonic fi eld welding have produced several 

samples loaded by welding in certain technological 

conditions, namely: 

Figure 1 Diagram of direct ultrasonic introducing in the 

welding bath: 1 - basic material, 2 - fi ller material, 

3 - arc, 4 - drops of liquid metal, 5 - welding bath, 

6 - coating 7 - The outer protective layer melted , 

8 - ultrasonic transducer; 9 - acoustic insulation, 10 - 

ultrasonic energy concentrator, 11 - the active part of 

ultrasonic concentrator (sonotroda), 12 - deposited 

layer, 13 - wear layer, 14 - ultrasonic generator, 15 

- fl ange nodal , 16 - diagram of variation of particle 

velocity amplitude along the ultraacoustic system 

83

Gh. AMZA et al.: ULTRASOUND EFFECT ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF PARTS LOADED BY WELDING 

SAMPLE 1 – made in the following technological 

conditions: 

– base material: OL 42; 

– sheet thickness: 10 mm; 

– fi ller material: alloy steel in an electrode shape diameter 

ø 4 mm and chemical composition provided 

by the manufacturer listed in Table 1; 

– hardness of the fi ller material: 64÷65 HRC; 

– welding procedure: manual arc welding and coated 

electrode; 

– welding intensity: Is = 160 A; 

– frequency ultrasound: 24 KHz; 

– amplitude of vibration: 43÷85 µm; 

– ultrasonic energy concentrator sole type; 

– activation time of the weld: 5 min 

– welding voltage: Us = 25 V; 

– theoretical deposition coeffi cient (kg weld metal/ 

kg electrodes): 0,58; 

– coeffi cient of deposition measured (kg weld metal 

welded/kg electrodes consumed): 0,45. 

Table 1 Chemical composition of fi ller material / wt / % 

C Mn Si Cr Mo V W 

0,9 1,3 1,5 4,5 7,5 1,5 1,8 

SAMPLE 2 - achieved in the following technological 

conditions: 

– basic material: OL 42; 


– material containing: welding wire with self production 

type LINCORE 60-G as an electrode with 

the diameter ø 2 mm and chemical composition 

provided by the manufacturer given in Table 2. 

– welding procedure used to loading, manual arc 

welding and coated electrode; 

– welding intensity: Is= 180 A; 


– hardness of the fi ller material: 58÷60 HRC; 

– frequency ultrasound: 20 KHz; 

– amplitude of vibration: 55÷32 µm; 

– ultrasonic energy concentrator: sole type; 

– ultrasonic activation time: 5 min; 

– theoretical deposition coeffi cient: 0,6; 

– deposit ratio measured 0,4. 


No. Loading: C Mn Si Cr 

1 1 layer 4,6 1,2 0,5 13,8 

2 2 layers 5,5 1,3 0,6 17,3 

SAMPLE 3 – achieved in the following technological 

conditions: 



– fi ller material: semi hard loading wire with electrode 

form diameter of ø 4 mm and chemical composition 

provided by the manufacturer, given in 

Table 3; 

– welding procedure used to load classic manual arc 

welding and coated electrode ultrasonic activated; 



– frequency ultrasonic waves: 22 KHz; 

– amplitude of oscillation: 45÷22 µm; 

– ultrasonic energy concentrator: type sole 

– hardness of the fi ller material: 200÷230 HB; 

– the theoretical coeffi cient of deposit: 0,87; 

– coeffi cient measured application; 0,81. 


C Mn Si Cr Mo V 

0,2 0,8 1,0 1,5 0,5 0,1 

Sample 1 was made in three variants: sample 1-1 

(with a classical welding layer), sample 1-2 (with three 

layers of classical welding) sample 1-3 (with two layers 

and ultrasonic activation) 


(classic deposited layer) sample 2-2 (a layer deposited 

in the ultrasonic fi eld) sample 2-3 (two layers classically 

deposited); 


(one classical deposited layer) sample 3-2 (two layers 

classically deposited) sample 3-3 (a layer deposited in 

the ultrasonic fi eld). 

All samples were made using sheets of OL 42, with 

the thickness of 10mm, properly prepared for welding, 

which was fi led with the fi ller material in TIG welding 

positions, in accordance with ISO 9467, the enabling of 

the ultrasonic plates was made with a sole concentrator 

at the frequency of 24 KHz and amplitude of vibration 

22÷85 µm. 


The results of hardness tests showed the following: 

– hardness obtained for these two partner materials 

(OL42 - tool steel) is between 56 HRC and 62 

HRC; 

– there is a maximum hardness at penetration of 1,5 

mm for sample 1-1 and the penetration of 2,0 mm, 

sample 1-2, 1-3 sample hardness penetration depth 

decreased substantially; 

– the highest hardness is obtained when welding 

with a fi eld ultrasonic (sample 1-3), the decrease 

being relatively uniform. 

Theoretically at the third layer deposited, the hardness 

should have increased due to the decreasing dilution 

with the base material, but there was still a decrease 

in hardness compared to the option of depositing two 

layers. 

This is because of the welding regime, when the part 

is already hot and the temperature between the layers is 

approximately 350 °C, compared to the fi rst layer when 

the piece had only 100 °C. So if there are no requirements 

on the thickness is preferably to weld in two layers 

in the fi eld ultrasonic. 

84 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 83-86


– hardness obtained for these two partner materials 

(OL 42 - LINCORE 60-G) is between 48 and 56 

HRC; 

– there is maximum penetration hardness of 2,7 mm 

in the sample 2-1 and a minimum hardness penetration 

of 2,0 mm in the sample 2-2, respectively, 

of 3,6 mm for the sample 2-3; 

– the best hardness is obtained when welding to deposit 

one layer (sample 2-1), when approaching 

the one given by the manufacturer, unlike the sample 

2-3, where the hardness variation is very high 

(48÷54 HRC) although dilution is much smaller 

than for sample 2-1. 

– hardness obtained for these two materials partner 

(OL 42 - semi hard wire) is between 197 HB and 

232 HB; 

– there is a maximum hardness, at the submission of 

two layers of fi ller material, at the penetration of 

1,5 mm and a minimum hardness, when depositing 

in an ultrasonic fi eld, the penetration of 1,5 

mm but then hardness increases; 

– the best variation of hardness is obtained after submission 

in the ultrasonic fi eld as dilution is much 

smaller than the submission of a single layer or 

two layers. 

To determine the tensile strength and plastic fl ow 

behavior while there were prepared more test specimens 

from samples welded in the technological conditions 

from above. Attempts have been made on the equipment 

for tensile - compression testing type ATS 1600. 

Experimental results obtained from the tensile tests are 

presented in Table 4. 

Table 4 Experimental results obtained from tensile testing 

No. Sample from: R m / 

MPa 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 83-86 

A 5 / 

% 

Z / 

% 

1 Test 1 test 1-1 882 21,2 35,4 

2 test 1-2 824 19,0 31,2 

3 test 1-3 1275 25,4 37,8 

4 Test 2 test 2-1 701 14,5 26,2 

5 test 2-2 1102 24,7 43,2 

6 test 2-3 876 20,7 39,7 

7 Test 3 test 3-1 498 28,6 54,2 

8 test 3-2 515 24,4 47,5 

9 test 3-3 892 32,7 61,3 

To determine the behavior of a reconditioned part by 

welding in some dynamic stress conditions (speed, temperature 

or tension space) there were prepared several 

samples loaded under certain technological conditions 

presented from which the test samples were processed. 

Impact bending test was performed on a test equipment 

type TECNOTEST F O40/S. 

The results obtained from impact bend testing show 


– resistance to dynamic loads is the best for the samples 

welded with a fi ller material with a lower 

hardness (semi hard materials) corresponding to 

sample 3, when the tearing is mixed, predominat- 

ing the ductile character of rupture, while the lowest 

resistance to dynamic loads is obtained for 

sample 2, loaded with three layers (sample 2-3) 

when the section is dominated by brittle fracture; 

– generally in all the samples prevail mixed ruptures 

(brittle plus ductile) that may be dominant ductile 

(sample 3) or dominant brittle (sample 2). Therefore, 

to obtain parts reconditioned by welding with 

good resistance to dynamic loading and temperature 

conditions and complex space applications (in 

case the of some axles from the railway industry) 

we recommend the technological conditions of the 

samples 3-3 and for maximum wear resistance we 

recommend the technological conditions of the 

sample 2-2 

– from this test you can determine not only the behavior 

but also the susceptibility to cracking of a 

piece to form a crack coming from the outside or 

to stop a crack coming from the outside. When the 

in the section brittle ruptures dominate, crack 

propagation can not be stopped and the piece is 

decommissioned, unlike the section where ductile 

rupture predominantes, crack propagation can be 

stopped or fracture may occur after a long operation. 

From the analysis results there were found: 

– tensile strength of welded samples in ultrasonic 

fi eld with deposition of the fi ller material layer is 

the best, the results can be explained because in 

this case the dilution between the base metal and 

the fi ller material is the smallest therefore from the 

point of view of tensile resistance it is recommended 

the reconditioning by welding with submission 

of the fi ller layer under ultrasonic fi eld; 

– tear elongation A5 and bottleneck tear Z are better 

in samples loaded with a fi ller material with lower 

hardness (sample 3) using conventional welding 

because in this case the dilution between the base 

material and the fi ller material is higher and plasticity 

properties of the base material do not drop 

too much; 

– in the fi rst group of samples (sample 1 and sample 

2) was a brittle fracture, the separation section being 

approximately perpendicular to the specimen 

and the crystal structure as opposed to the second 

category of samples (sample 3), where the tearing 

was mixed (68 % ductile and 32 % fragile) it trickles 

from the center of the test specimen propagating 

on the maximum shear stress directions 

CONCLUSIONS 

– As a deposit is characterized by: low roughness, 

high adhesion between the deposited layer and 

base layer, high hardness, low porosity, low oxide 

content, resistance to wear and resistance to dynamic 

loads; 

– To highlight the behavior of service of a charging 

reconditioned by welding a series of tests are re- 

85


quired: hardness testing, wear testing, tensile testing, 

bend testing shock 

– Highest hardness is obtained when welding with 

two layers of fi ller material in ultrasonic fi eld; 

– Breaking strength of welded samples is the best 

when the weld was done with three layers of fi ller 

material in ultrasonic fi eld; 

– Elongation tear and bottleneck tear samples are 

better in samples loaded with fi ller material with 

lower hardness, in an ultrasonic fi eld because the 

dilution of the base material and fi ller material is 

smaller; 

– Experiments showed a substantial increase in 

hardness in the layer area, also a greater plasticity 

and toughness; 

– Accelerated diffusion under the action of ultrasonic 

waves leads to the formation of intermetallic 

better links at a lower dilution, the avoidance of 

defects in the transition and the best functional and 

technological features. 

REFERENCES 

[1] I. Samardzic, D. Bajic, Klaric, Metalurgija Journal, ME- 

TABK 49 (2010) 4, 325-329. 

[2] Gh. Amza, D. Dobrota, Ultrasound applications active, 

AGIR Publishing, 2008, 336-360. 

[3] P. D. Edmonds, F. Dunn, Ultrasonics/Methods of Exxperimental 

Physics, Caliofornia, Academic Press, (19) 1981. 

[4] C. Chen, L. Yan, E. Siu-Wai Kong Y. Zhang, Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics 

and Frequency Control, 48 (2001), 6, 1632-1639. 

[5] M. Dunder, S. Aracic, I. Samardzic, Metalurgija Journal, 

47(2008) 2, 87-91. 

[6] S. Matsuokaa, H. Imaib, Journal of Materials Processing 

Technology, 209 (2009) 2, 954–960. 

[7] P. Burgardt, C.R. Heiple, Welding Research Supllement,(1992), 

341. 

[8] T. Wang, D. Wang, L. Huo, Y. Zhang, International Journal 

of Fatigue, 31 (2009) 4, 644–650. 

[9] J. Norrish, Advanced welding processes, Institute of Physics 

Publishing, Bristol, Philadelphia and New York, 1992. 

Note: The responsible translator for English language is S.C. Purtrad 

S.R.L., Targu Jiu, Romania 

86 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 83-86

D. DOBROTĂ, Gh. AMZA 

ULTRASOUND INFLUENCE 

ON MATERIALS STRUCTURE IN PARTS 

RECONDITIONED BY WELDING WITH ULTRASONIC FIELD 

D. Dobrota, Engineering Faculty, University “Constantin Brâncuşi” of 

Târgu-Jiu, Romania, Gh. Amza, Engineering and Tehnological Systems 

Management Faculty, Polytehnic University of Bucharest, Romania, 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 87-89 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 87-89 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 669.11:620.186=111 




Research presented in the paper refers to the structural analysis of materials that are thermally infl uenced for loading 

by welding of pieces in the classical variant of manual coated electric arc welding and the version that in which 

the welding bath is activated by ultrasounds. The structural analysis made refer to: the size of the grains of the structure 

obtained under certain loading conditions through welding, grain size variation on the submission of a single 

layer in the ultrasonic fi eld, the mode of solidifi cation and fragmentation of grains when loaded in welding in a ultrasonic 

fi eld, acceleration of the diff usion process for ultrasonic activation, the appearance of hard carbides between 

grains. 

Key words: structural analysis, loading by welding, manual welding, ultrasonic activation 

INTRODUCTION 

Modifi cation of technological and functional properties 

under the action of ultrasound was fi rst highlighted 

in single crystals and metallic materials developed 

in laboratory and then the research was extended 

to a wide and varied industrial metals and alloys [1]. 

The infl uence of ultrasound on metals and alloys in the 

solid state generally is reduced to the following important 

effects, namely: the effect of “acoustic softening”, 

the effect of “acoustic hardening” and thermal effect 

and the effect of contact friction reducing [2]. 

Reconditioning by welding of the pieces involves 

lodging a fi ller material over a substrate in order to obtain 

the desired characteristics and dimensions (high 

resistance to fatigue and wear of erosion and /or corrosion). 

The effi ciency of the technological process of reconstruction 

depends primarily on the behavior of the 

base layer - fi ller layer torque and how it connects marginal 

homogeneity between atoms of the two materials 

in the contact area and near the contact area [3]. 

Homogeneous bond formation is the result of technological 

steps for the submission of the fi ller material 

over support material [4]. 

To highlight the operational behavior of the reconditioned 

part and especially to determine the optimal 

technology for reconditioning by ultrasonic fi eld welding 

is necessary to analyze the structural changes occurring 

in the thermally infl uenced area [5]. 

MATERIALS 

To accomplish an analysis of the structural changes 

in the thermally infl uenced area several types of tests 

were made for both classical without ultrasounds method 

and the version where the welding is activated with 

ultrasonic process (Table 1). 

The most diffi cult problem was linked to the introduction 

of ultrasonic energy in the liquid metal bath and 

the design of the ultraacustic system and in the test the 

ultrasounds were introduced directly in the direct welding 

bath [6]. 

Table 1 Type of test pieces used for structural analysis 

No. Test no. Support Material 

1 1C OL 42 

2 1U OL 42 

3 2C OL 42 

4 2U OL 42 

5 3C OL 42 

6 3U OL 42 

7 4U OL 42 

8 5U OL 42 

Legend: C - classic loading without ultrasonic welding; U - loading by 

welding in ultrasonic fi eld with characteristics f= 22 KHz; A= 

45 μm; ultrasound activation time t A = 5 min; 1 - one layer 

submission; 2 - two layers submission; 3 - three layers submission; 

4 - one layer submission in an ultrasonic fi eld with the 

characteristics f= 20 KHz; A= 30 µm; t A = 3 min; 5 - one layer 

submission in an ultrasonic fi eld with the characteristics: f= 22 

KHz; A= 62 µm; t A = 8 min 


To determine susceptibility to cracking and behavior 

of the reconditioned piece to cracks forming from the 

87

D. DOBROTĂ et al.: ULTRASOUND INFLUENCE ON MATERIALS STRUCTURE IN PARTS RECONDITIONED... 

outside or inside or to the stop of a crack we proceeded 

to metallographic analysis of OL 42 samples obtained 

by weding with a layer deposited in a classic welding or 

through ultrasonic activation. 

There were followed those effects of ultrasound 

propagation in welding and during bath application 

which infl uences the functional and technological properties 

of the deposited layer and obtained ansamble, in 

the different conditions of deposition of the layer of 

fi ller material. Crystal structure analysis was done on 

microscope ZEISS AXIOVERT40 MDT. 

By sectioning across the deposits made and their 

metallographic analysis there were found: 

A substantial change in the grain structure, respectively 

in size and uniformity of the grains (Figure 1) where 

the grain size change is evident (Figure 1, the base 

material) layer deposited without ultrasounds (Figure 1, 

b) and layer deposited in ultrasonic fi eld with the conditions: 

frequency f= 22 KHz; oscillation amplitude A= 

45 μm; time t A = 5 min (Figure 1, c), submission of two 

layers (Figure 1, d), in the conditions f= 22 KHz; A= 45 

μm; t A = 5 min, submission of three layers (Figure 1, e), 

in the conditions: f= 22 KHz; A= 45 μm; t A = 5 min. and 

submission of one layer (Figure 1, f) in the conditions: 

f= 22 KHz; A= 62 μm; t A = 8 min. 

It is also noted that as the activation time increases, 

the ultrasound frequency increases and the vibration 

amplitude increases, grain the decreases and smoothes. 

A change of grain size on the depth of the deposited 

layers (Figure 2) ascertaining a mixture of fi ne grains 

and uniform grain base layer in the transition zone between 

the base layer and deposited layer (Figure 2, b) 

and granular structure consists of equidistant fi ne grain 

layer deposited (Figure 2, c). From the analysis of grain 

a b c 

d e f 

Figure 1 Grain size structure under certain loading conditions 

obtained by welding: a - in the basic layer structure; 

b - deposit a single layer without ultrasound; 

c - deposit a single layer in an unltrasonic fi eld with 

the characteristics: f= 22 KHz; A= 45 µm, t A = 5 min; 

- depositing two layers in an ultrasonic fi eld with the 

characteristics f= 22 KHz; A= 45 µm, t A = 5 min; 

e - depositing three layers in an ultrasonic fi eld with 

the characteristics f= 22 KHz; A= 45 µm, t A = 5 min; 

f - depositing one layer in an ultrasonic fi eld with the 

characteristics f= 24 KHz; A= 62 µm, t A = 8 min. 

a b c 

Figure 2 Variation of grain size at the submission of a single 

layer in ultrasonic fi eld: a - base layer; b - interlayer; 

c - layer deposited in the conditions: f= 22 KHz; 

A= 45 µm, t A = 5 min 

a b 

c d 

Figure 3 Mode of solidifi cation and fragmentation of grains 

from fi eld ultrasonic welding load: a - in the 

conditions: f= 20 KHz; A= 30 μm, tA= 3 min; b - in the 

conditions: f= 22 KHz; A= 45 μm, t A = 5 min; c - in the 

conditions: f= 24 KHz; A= 62 μm, t A = 8 min; d - in the 

conditions: f= 26 KHz; A= 35 μm, t A = 10 min 

size we note an increase in cooling rate caused by the 

action of ultrasonic waves and it is found that as the 

amplitude increases so does the frequency of the fragmentation 

process, the last one is accelerating and widening. 

The action of ultrasonic waves causes acceleration 

of diffusion, a phenomenon that leads to the formation 

of intermetallic better links to a larger diffusion, to 

the avoidance of defects in the transition area and to 

better functional and technological features (Figure 3). 

It is found that as frequency increases, the amplitude 

increases and the activation time increases, the diffusion 

process is accelerated more avoiding any appearance 

defects such as porosity, as in the deposit without 

ultrasound (Figure 3, a). Also, due to ultraacustic cavitation, 

which produces powerful shock waves you can 

easily make a dispersion of one metal into another resulting 

in mixtures of metals that can not be obtained 

routinely (analog to producing emulsions of two liquids 

that normally are immiscible). This increase in solubility 

to obtain the combinations Fe-W, W-Ni, Al-Cr, Fe- 

Pb and others (depends on hard alloy for loading). 

88 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 87-89

D. DOBROTĂ et al.: ULTRASOUND INFLUENCE ON MATERIALS STRUCTURE IN PARTS RECONDITIONED... 

a b 

c d 

Figure 4 Accelerating the diff usion process: a - deposit a layer 

without ultrasound; b - deposit a layer under the 

ultrasonic fi eld: f= 20 KHz; A= 30 μm, t A = 3 min; c - 

deposit a layer under the ultrasonic fi eld: f= 22 KHz; 

A= 42 μm, t A = 5 min; d - deposit a layer under the 

ultrasonic fi eld: f= 24 KHz; A= 62 μm, t A = 10 min 

a b 

Figure 5 Occurrence of hard carbide between grains: a - 

submission of a layer without ultrasounds; b - the 

submission of a layer with ultrasonic fi eld 

By accelerating the diffusion process under the action 

of ultrasonic waves a phenomenon id produced that 

leads to the formation of better intermetallic links to a 

larger diffusion, to the avoidance of defects in the transition 

area and to better functional and technological 

features (Figure 4); 

It is found that as frequency increases, the amplitude 

increases and the activation time increases, the diffusion 

process is accelerated more avoiding any appearance 

defects such as porosity, as in the deposit without 

ultrasound (Figure 4, a). 

By applying ultrasounds in the welding process you 

produce uniform deposits of hard carbides at the bound- 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 87-89 

ary between crystalline graines (Figure 5) and eliminate 

the possible oxides, a phenomenon that is explained by 

the action of ultrasounds, preferential absorption of ultrasonic 

energy at the boundary between the grains and 

especially the occurrence of ultraacustic cavitation. 

CONCLUSIONS 

It is observed in the fi ller material a primary crystallization 

structure formed by a very fi ne ledeburit grown 

in a predominant martensite matrix; 

In the melting area there is a dilution of the fi ller 

material in the base material, depending on how dilution 

occurs the amount of ledeburite varies; 

In the melting area there is a dilution of the fi ller 

material in the base material, depending on how dilution 

occurs the amount of ledeburite varies; 

There was observed a substantial change in the grain 

structure, resectively a change in grain size and uniformity 

depending on the technological and acoustic 

parameters (frequency of oscillation, the particle velocity 

amplitude, activation duration and ultraacoustic intensity); 

Accelerating the diffusion process under the action 

of ultrasonic waves leads to the formation of intermetallic 

better links at a lower dilution, the avoidance of defects 

in the transition and the best functional and technological 

features; 

Because of the ultrasonic waves activation during 

the solidifi cation process uniformization of hard carbide 

occurs betewwn grains and the eventual elimination of 

existing oxides on the surface; 

The occurrence of cracks due to high thermal conductivity 

difference between the deposited layer and the 

base layer can be avoided by choosing the appropriate 

technological and acoustic parameters. 

REFERENCES 

[1] P. D. Edmonds, F. Dunn, Ultrasonics/Methods of Experimental 




[3] T. Wang, D. Wang, L. Huo, Y. Zhang, International Journal 

of Fatigue, 31 (2009) 4, 644–650. 


Technology, 209 (2009) 2, 954–960. 

[5] S. Stojadinovic, N. Bajic, J. Pekez, Metalurgija Journal, 

50(2011) 3, 189-192. 

[6] G. Girleanu, D. Girleanu, Gh. Calea, N.Avram, Metallurgy 

International Journal, 3 (2007), 20-24. 

Note: The responsible translator for English language is S.C. Purtrad 

S.R.L., Targu Jiu, Romania 

89

Gh. AMZA, D. DOBROTĂ 

RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE ULTASONIC 

ENERGY INFLUENCE ON THE RESISTENCE 

TO THE ABRASIVE WEAR OF LOADED WELDED PARTS 

Gh. Amza, Engineering and Tehnological Systems Management Faculty, 

Polytehnic University of Bucharest, Romania, D. Dobrota, Engineering 

Faculty, University “Constantin Brâncuşi” of Târgu-Jiu, Romania 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 90-92 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 621.73.042:669.1=111 




The researches presented in the paper refer to the eff ect of ultrasounds propagation in the liquid metal bath on the 

process of transferring the additive material through the electric arch and on the crystallization process, and all 

these eff ects are analyzed for loaded welded parts solicited at the abrasive wear. All these infl uences are conferred 

to these two basic phenomena due to the ultrasounds propagation in liquid environments, namely, ultra-acoustic 

cavitation and acceleration of the diff usion process. The results concerns the resistance to the wear obtained for the 

loaded parts through manual welding with electric arch and classically covered electrode and ultrasonically activated. 

Key words: overlay welding, manual welding, ultrasound activation, abrasive wear 

INTRODUCTION 

Overlay welding supposes the deposition of an additive 

material over a base material in order to obtain some 

desired characteristics and sizes (high resistance to tiredness 

and to erosion and/or corrosion wear). The effi ciency 

of the reconditioning technological process depends 

fi rstly on the couple basic layer – additive slayer and on 

the manner in which the homogeneous link between the 

marginal atoms of the two materials in the zone of contact 

and near the zone of contact is made [1]. 

The homogenous link is the results of the technological 

stages of depositing the additive material on the 

base material. The most important technological stages 

of the reconditioning process through overlay welding 

are: the suitable processing of the surface over which 

the additive material is deposited; cleaning, scaling, degreasing 

it aiming to create some optimal conditions of 

adhesion of the additive material to the basic material; 

preheating the basic material aiming to reduce the temperature 

gradient; the proper deposition; insuring some 

solidifi cation conditions by avoiding the apparition of 

fi ssures; applying some suitable thermal treatments with 

the desired exploitation characteristics and the processing 

at the functioning sizes [2]. 

Each of these stages can be more or less infl uenced if 

the ultrasonic energy due to the deposition process in ultrasonic 

fi eld is superposed on the classical energy [3]. 

The effi ciency of the reconditioning process in ultrasonic 

fi eld depends fi rstly on the manner of introducing 

the ultrasonic energy in the welding bath. The research- 

es we have carried out shoed that the ultrasounds propagation 

in the liquid metal bath has signifi cant infl uences 

on process of transferring the additive metal through the 

electrical arch and on the crystallization process. All 

these infl uences are conferred to the two basic phenomena 

due to the ultrasounds propagation in liquid environments, 

namely the ultra-acoustic cavitation and the 

acceleration of the diffusion process [4,5]. 

The most diffi cult problem is connected with the 

modality of introducing the ultrasonic energy into the 

liquid metal bath [6,7]. In the paper we used the introduction 

of ultrasounds directly into the welding bath. 

MATERIALS 

In order to characterize the wear behavior of the 

classically deposed layer in the ultrasonic fi eld we had 

in view to establish its coeffi cient of friction and its 

wear rate in different obtaining and working conditions. 

The coeffi cient of friction, defi ned as the ratio of tangential 

friction force and normal load depends on various 

factors, the most important being: the type and 

characteristics of materials in contact; the gliding speed; 

the possibility of forming the transferred layer; the regime 

of friction-greasing; he characteristics of the 

working environment etc. 

In order to establish the resistance to wear we have 

carried out various tests, in certain technological conditions, 

which were subject to the test to wear on an experimental 

stand. The modality to try the wear supposes 

the test of abrasive wear using an abrasive strip, because 

it was noticed that the analyzed parts beard a strong 

abrasive wear. 

In order to optimize the parameters of the reconditioning 

process through overlay welding in ultrasonic 

90 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 90-92

Gh. AMZA et al.: RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE ULTASONIC ENERGY INFLUENCE ON THE RESISTENCE... 

fi elds we have carried out various tests of overlay welding 

in different technological conditions, namely: TEST 

1 – carried out in the following technological conditions: 


– sheet thickness: 10,0 mm; 

– additive material: steal of tools as un electrode 

with diameter of ø 4 mm; 

– hardness of the additive material: 64÷65 HRC; 

– welding process: manual welding with electrical 

arch and covered electrode ultrasonically activated; 


– ultrasounds frequency: 24 KHz; 

– vibration amplitude: 85÷43 µm; 

– concentrator of ultrasonic energy sole type; 

– duration of activating the welding bath: 5 min 

– welding tension: Us = 25 V; 

– theoretical coeffi cient of deposition (kg deposed 

metal/kg electrodes): 0,58; 

– measured coeffi cient of deposition (kg deposed 

metal through welding/kg consumed electrodes): 

0,45. 

In the researches have been realized three variants 

for test 1, namely: test 1-1 obtained by depositing a 

layer of material by welding classic, test 1-2 obtained 

by depositing to three layers by welding classic, test 1-3 

obtained by depositing of two layers by welding in ultrasonic 

fi eld. 

TEST 2 – carried out in the following technological 

conditions: 



– additive material: welding wire with auto protection 

type LINCORE 60-G as electrode with diameter 

of ø 2 mm; 

– welding process: manual welding with electrical 

arch and covered electrode ultrasonically activated; 



– hardness of the additive material: 58÷60 HRC; 


– vibration amplitude: 55÷32 µm; 


– duration of ultrasonic activation: 5 min.; 

– theoretical coeffi cient of deposition: 0,6; 

– measured coeffi cient of deposition: 0,4. 

In these technological conditions have obtained 

three variants for test 2, namely: test2-1 obtained by depositing 

a layer of material by welding classic, test 2-2 

obtained by depositing a layer of material by welding in 

ultrasonic fi eld, test 2 – 3 obtained by depositing a two 

layers by welding classic. 

TEST 3 – carried out in the following technological 

conditions: 



– additive material: medium-hard welding wire, as 

electrode with diameter of ø 4 mm; 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 90-92 

– the welding process used at overlay: manual welding 

with electrical arch and classically covered electrode 

and ultrasonically activated; 




– oscillation amplitude: 45÷22 µm; 


– hardness of the additive material: 200÷230 HB; 

– theoretical coeffi cient of deposition: 0,87; 

– measured coeffi cient of deposition: 0,81. 

In these technological conditions have obtained 

three variants for test 3, namely: test 3-1 – obtained by 

depositing a layer by welding classic, test 3-3 – obtained 

by depositing the two layers by welding classic, test 3 

– 3 obtained by depositing three layers of weld fi ller 

material in ultrasonic fi eld. 


The tests we have carried out were subject to the 

abrasive wear testing, with the help of the projected 

stand, during 5 testing cycles of, each of them with duration 

of 5 minutes. 

The test were not pressed on the abrasive strip, they 

sit on the strip with their own load, while the abrasive 

strip had a translation movement. We measured the initial 

test thickness, and after the polishing with abrasive 

strip, a time of 25 minutes in cycles of 5 minutes per 

cycle we measures once again the part’s thickness for 

test 1 and test 2. Since the material deposited for test 3 

has a lower hardness, the testing time to wear abrasion 

was reduced to 20%, ie 5 minutes in 1 minute cycles 

Because the hardness of the deposed layers is very high 

(between 55 HRC and 65 HRC) and to avoid infl uencing 

the measurements, we replaced the abrasive paper in 

the beginning of each set of 3 tests. The results obtained 

after fi ve cycles of testing at the abrasive wear test, for 

test 1, are presented in Table 1, and the image with the 

wore tests after the fi ve cycles of testing is presented in 

Figure 1. In what the results obtained after fi ve cycles of 

abrasive wear testing are concerned, for test 2, are presented 

in Table 2, and the image with the wore tests after 

the fi ve cycles of testing is presented in Figure 2. 

After fi ve cycles of abrasive wear testing there have 

been obtained for test 3 series of results that are presented 

in Table 3, and the image with the wore tests after 

the fi ve cycles of testing is presented in Figure 3. 

Table 1 Experimental results obtained after abrasive wear 

testing for test 1/ wt / mm 

No. The when trying Thickness of the deposited 

Test 1-1 Test 1-2 Test 1-3 

1 0 min 13,9 14,3 16,5 

2 after 5 min. 13,7 14,2 16,3 

3 after 10 min. 13,4 14,0 16,1 

4 after 15 min. 13,1 13,9 16,0 

5 after 20 min. 12,6 13,8 15,7 

6 after 25 min. 12,2 13,7 15,4 

91

Gh. AMZA et al.: RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE ULTASONIC ENERGY INFLUENCE ON THE RESISTENCE... 

a b c 

Figure 1 General view of tests carried out through wear 

testing after fi ve cycles of wear testing (5 minutes), 

test 2: a – test 1-1; b – test 1-2; c – test 1-3. 

a b c 

Figure 2 General view of tests carried out through wear 

testing after fi ve cycles of wear testing (25 minutes), 

test 2: a – test 2-1; b – test 2-2; c – test 2-3. 

a b c 

Figure 3 General view of the tests carried out by loading with 

welding after fi ve cycles of wear testing (25 minutes), 

test 3: a – test 3-1; b – test 3-2; c – test 3-3 

CONCLUSIONS 

Analyzing the size of the wear for the fi rst sample, 

when using as fi ller material the tool steel as electrode 

there is an increased wear of the layers deposited by the 

conventional procedure and less wear for deposition by 

ultrasonic fi eld welding, although the hardness value 

was quite high (58÷62 HRC). In conclusion, this type of 

material is not recommended for restoring by loading 

with welding because friction resistance is quite low. 

We recommend using this fi ller material for reconditioning 

by welding in ultrasonic fi eld. 

The analysis of the results for sample 2 shows that 

resistance to wear by abrasion is better in the 2-2 test, 

when we put a layer of fi ller material in ultrasonic fi eld, 

as hardness is increased by several units compared to 


testing for test 2 / wt / mm 



1 0 min 14,0 13,5 16,7 

2 after 5 min. 13,9 13,4 16,6 

3 after 10 min. 13,7 13,3 16,5 

4 after 15 min. 13,6 13,2 16,4 

5 after 20 min. 13,4 13,1 16,3 

6 after 25 min. 13,1 13,0 16,2 


testing for test 3 / wt / mm 



1 0 min 13,5 14,5 13,7 

2 after 1 min. 13,4 14,4 13,6 

3 after 2 min. 13,2 14,1 13,5 

4 after 3 min. 12,9 12,7 13,4 

5 after 4 min. 11,7 11,3 13,3 

6 after 5 min. 10,4 10,6 13,2 

the 2-1 and 2-3 samples and this is due to the fact that 

dilution in this layer is much smaller than in the other 

samples. Therefore, in this case it is recommended to 

charge by ultrasonic fi eld welding. 

The observation of the results obtained for sample 3 

shows that resistance to wear by abrasion is better in the 

3-3 test, when one layer was deposited in ultrasonic fi eld, 

not two layers and this is due to the fact that dilution in 

the third case is much smaller than in the sample 3-1, 

which was fi lled by the classic single layer procedure. 

It was also found that the adherence of the layer deposited 

onto the base coat is much better for the ultrasonic 

fi eld fi lling, increasing as the frequency and the 

duration of activation increases. 

REFERENCES 



[2] P. D. Edmonds, F. Dunn, Ultrasonics/Methods of Exxperimental 


[3] C. Chen, L. Yan, E. Siu-Wai Kong Y. Zhang, Ultrasonics, 

Ferroelectrics and Frequency Control, 48 (2001), 6, 1632 

– 1639. 

[4] M. Dunder, S. Aracic, I. Samardzic, Metalurgija Journal, 

METABAK, 47(2008) 2, 87-91. 


Technology, 209 (2009) 2, 954–960. 

[6] P. Burgardt, C.R. Heiple, Welding Research Supllement,(1992), 

341. 

[7] J. Norrish, Advanced welding processes, Institute of Physics 

Publishing, Bristol, Philadelphia and New York, 

1992. 

Note: The responsible translator for English language is S.C. 

PURTRAD S.R.L., Targu Jiu, Romania 

92 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 90-92

R. KRUZEL, M. SULIGA 

THE EFFECT OF MULTIPLE 

BENDING OF WIRE ON THE RESIDUAL 

STRESSES OF HIGH CARBON STEEL WIRES 

R. Kruzel, M. Suliga, Czestochowa University of Technology, Czestochowa, 

Poland 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 93-95 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 93-95 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 669.784.15:621.778:620.16=111 




Steel tire cord, springs and rope wires belong to the group of metal products from which the low residual stresses 

are required. In this paper the eff ect of multiple bending of wire on residual stresses of high carbon steel wires has 

been assessed. It was found that the application of the multi-roller straightening machine in the banding wire process 

enables to reduce the residual stresses in the drawn wires. It should be also noted that the value of the residual 

stresses depends on the type of straightener construction. The residual stresses on the basis of stress-strain curve 

has been determined. It has been stated that the application of seven-rolls straightener gives the best eff ect of 

straightening. 

Keywords: high carbon steel, wires, residual stresses, straightener 

INTRODUCTION 

Wires and wires products create signifi cant part in 

group of plastically treated articles. These products often 

work with high external loads and fi nd wide application 

in situations where high reliability of working is 

required, like different kinds of machines and devices. 

Ropes in crane and lift devices, cord for car tires reinforcing, 

different kinds of fl exible connectors, wire for 

reinforced concrete and also many different wire products 

belong to this group. Behaviour of different machine 

elements and constructions as well as operation 

reliability making work calm and safe are dependent on 

the surface layer condition. One of the most important 

parameters, which determine surface layer conditions 

are residual stresses [1-4]. 

Resultant state of stresses, present inside given article 

is equal to the sum of stresses caused by external 

load and residual stresses. 

Taking residual stresses into consideration during determining 

of real stresses value is necessary, especially 

when residual stress have the same character as stresses 

produced as a result of external loading, since the sum of 

stresses in this case occurs. If these stresses pose negative 

character in relation to stresses caused by external load 

then they cause decreasing of total strain of material. 

Many a time residual stresses are higher than stresses created 

as a result of external load. Lack of residual stresses 

consideration give simplifi ed image of material strain [5]. 

Researches conduced at Institute NIIMETIZ in Magnitogorsk 

showed, that with considerable residual stresses 

decreasing of fatigue strength about 20 % to 25 % occurs 

[6]. It results from researches performed by Golis that the 

highest fatigue strength was achieved in the cases of the 

lowest residual stresses value. Fatigue strength increasing 

with decreasing of residual stresses can be related 

with more favorable surface layer conditions in the presence 

of lower residual stresses value. 

Straightening operation that is removing of residual 

stresses is still not precise treated in literature and is often 

passed over in industry also. It leads to situation when 

inserted in technological line straightener do not fulfi ll 

their functions. Higher and higher customer requirements 

regarding fi nal product properties have led to wider interest 

in this stage of technological process. Appearing on 

the marked of newer and newer device for wire strengthening 

before entering the edge of coiler drum (so-called 

roll straightening units) goes to show it. 

MATERIAL AND 

APPLIED DRAWING TECHNOLOGIES 

The material applied for the investigation was of 

C76 high carbon steel wire rod. Before drawing, the 

wire rod was patented, itched and phosphating. The 

drawing process of φ 5,5 mm wires in the fi nal wire of φ 

2,7 mm was conducted in 6 passes with constant drawing 

speed v=1,6 m/s, in laboratory conditions, by means 

of a bull block machine. 

Single drafts, Ds, total drafts, Dt, and drawing 

speeds, V, for wires summarized in Table 1. In drafts 1-6 

calcareous lubricant Traxit GT60 was applied. In Table 

2 the mechanical properties of φ 2,7 mm fi nal wires was 

shown, where Rm ultimate tensile strength; Re yield 

stress; A elongation; Z reduction of area. 

93

R. KRUZELet al.: THE EFFECT OF MULTIPLE BENDING OF WIRE ON THE RESIDUAL STRESSES OF HIGH CARBON STEEL... 

Table 1 Distribution of single drafts, total drafts and 

drawing speed 

Draft φ / mm Ds / % Dt /% V / m/s 

0 5,50 - - - 

1 4,90 20,63 20,63 1,60 

2 4,35 21,19 37,45 1,60 

3 3,85 21,67 51,00 1,60 

4 3,40 22,01 61,79 1,60 

5 3,05 19,53 69,25 1,60 

6 2,70 21,63 75,90 1,60 

Table 2 Mechanical properties of φ 2,7 mm drawn wires 

φ / mm Rm / MPa Re / MPa A / % Z / % 

2,70 1544 1399 1,8 45 

Figure 1 The scheme of two-planes seven rolls straightening 

machine 

EXPERIMENTAL 

Proper investigations consisted in estimation of deformation 

process and infl uence of straightener construction 

on residual stresses value in high carbon 

wires. 

As introduction of researches observation of straightener 

work in one of wire drawing industrial plant was 

made. On the basis of this observation and collected 

data one can affi rm, that in spite of this operation simplicity, 

straightening is not correctly realized. Adjusting 

of straightener rolls is realized by the means of attempts 

and errors method, by the force of events it gives discontent 

effects. It often happens, that straightener are 

placed outside their working plane or one of straightener 

is used for straightening of wires with different diameters. 

It was decided to present in this work an infl uence of 

straightener construction on residual stresses value and 

to choose the most effective straightener from used for 

investigations ones. 

Symbols of investigated specimens after passing 

through adequate straightener are: 

A – specimen before straightener, 

B – specimen after two-planes seven-rolls straightener, 

C – specimen after two-planes fi ve-rolls straightener, 

D – specimen after two-planes three-rolls straightener, 

E – specimen after four-planes fi ve-rolls straightener 

(planes arrangement: horizontal, vertical, horizontal, 

vertical), 

E1 – specimen after four-planes fi ve-rolls straightener 

(planes arrangement: each 45 o ), 

F – specimen after three-planes fi ve-rolls straightener 

(planes arrangement: horizontal, vertical, horizontal), 

F1 – specimen after three-planes fi ve-rolls straightener 

(planes arrangement: each 60 o ), 

G – specimen after two-planes seven-rolls straightener 

(planes arrangement: horizontal, vertical). 

In Figure 1 the example of two-planes seven-rolls 

straightening machine was shown. 

Determination of residual stresses 

on the basis of stress-strain curve 

Stresses σ lw which act inside specimen during 

stretching are equal to the sum of external stresses σ lz 

and residual stresses σ lwł [7]: 

σ lw = σ lz + σ lwł (1) 

Assume that Young modulus is not dependent on 

stresses one can accept that beginning of plasticization 

suits point, in which tensile curve starts to be deviated 

form straight line. In this connection residual stresses 

on external surface of wire can be determined on the 

basis of plasticization condition: 

σ lz + σ lwł = σ p (2) 

hence 

σ lwł = σ p - σ lz (3) 

Therefore in order to residual stresses determination, 

knowledge about yield stress σ p in necessary (σ lz 

is known from received graph) [7]. Therefore in the 

work, for all variant the tensile tests were performed. In 

Figure 2 the example of tensile test for A variant was 

presented 

σ lwł = σ p - σ lz 

Variant A - σ lwł = 1399 – 850 = 549 MPa 

The same procedure of the determination of residual 

stresses for rest of variants were conducted. 

Considering infl uence of number of rolls on straightener 

on the basis of investigations one can suitably rank 

specimens, from specimen, for which the lowest residual 

stresses were obtained: B, C, D, A – not relaxed (Table 

3 and Figure 3. 

While taking into consideration number of straightener 

planes and their arrangement the following se- 

Figure 2 The tensile test for A variant 

94 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 93-95

R. KRUZELet al.: THE EFFECT OF MULTIPLE BENDING OF WIRE ON THE RESIDUAL STRESSES OF HIGH CARBON STEEL... 

Figure 3 The residual stresses in wires after straightening 

process in depends on number of rolls 

Table 3 The residual stresses of drawn wires 

Variant Residual stress / MPa Number of rolls 

B 299 7 

C 319 5 

D 349 3 

A 449 --- 

Table 4 The residual stresses of drawn wires 

Variant Residual stress / MPa Number of rolls 

E 299 4- each 90 o 

F 299 3- each 90 o 

E1 349 4- each 45 o 

G 359 2- each 90 o 

F1 399 3- each 60 o 

A 449 --- 

quence were: F, E1, G, F1, A – non relaxed, Table 4 and 

Figure 4. 

The data investigations presented in Tables 3, 4 and 

Figures 3, 4 shown that the application of the straightening 

machine causes the decrease of the residual 

stresses. In consequence the wires after straightening 

should have better fatigue strength. It is especially important 

because the metal product i.e. springs, ropes 

from which the highest fatigue strength is required, are 

producing form high carbon steel wires. 

CONCLUSIONS 

From experimental tests carried out, the following 

fi ndings and conclusions have been drawn: 

The application of the straightening machine infl uences 

essentially on the residual stresses of high carbon 

steel wires. 

The application of the straightening machine cause 

the decrease of residual stresses of drawn wires. It depends 

of type of straightener the decrease of residual 

stresses, approximately by 35 % was observed. 

Comparing straightener and taking into consideration 

number of rolls one can state, that seven-rolls 

straightener gives the best effect of straightening, i.e. 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 93-95 

Figure 4 The residual stresses in wires after straightening 

process in depends on straightener planes and their 

arrangement 

after passage through this straightener wire is characterized 

by the lowest residual stresses value. 

Considering next group of straightener with respect 

to the number of planes and their arrangement apparently 

is, that from two- three- and four-planes straightener 

(with different planes arrangement) four-planes 

straightener (planes arrangement: horizontal, vertical, 

horizontal, vertical) is the most effective one. 

The most effective straightener is when angle between 

planes is equal 90 o . 

It should be emphasized that effi ciency of straightener 

depends not only on their construction but on their 

correct arrangement too. 

The decrease of residual stresses after straightening 

process should improve the properties of drawn wires i.e. 

fatigue strength, number of twists and number of bands. 

The obtained data of investigations can be applied in 

wire industry while implementing the new technologies 

of manufactures of ropes and springs. 

REFERENCES 

[1] F. Knap, R. Kruzel, Ł. Cieślak, Ciągnienie drutów, prętów 

i rur, Wydawnictwo Politechniki Częstochowskiej, 

Częstochowa (2004). 

[2] J. Łuksza, A. Skołyszewski, F. Witek, W. Zachariasz, Druty 

ze stali i stopów specjalnych, Wydawnictwo WNT, Warszawa 

(2006). 

[3] J. Łuksza, Elementy ciągarstwa, Wydawnictwo AGH, Kraków 

(2001). 

[4] A. Peiter, Physikalische Verfahren der Eigenspannungsmessung 

Drahtwelt, 9 (1964), 567-574. 

[5] F. Knap, Naprężenia własne w ciągnionych drutach i wyrobach 

z drutu, Wydawnictwo Politechnika Częstochowska, 

Częstochowa (1991). 

[6] B. Golis, A. Maresz, Wpływ małych gniotów na trwałość 

zmęczeniową i wartość naprężeń pierwszego rodzaju dla 

drutów stalowych gatunku D45, Biuletyn Techniczny 

ZPWM (1977). 

[7] F. Knap, The Effect of Internal Stresses on Wire Tension 

Curve Shape at Uniform Tensile Strain. Archiwum Hutnictwa, 

2 (1984), 285-291. 


Grochowina, studio – Tekst, Częstochowa, Poland 

95

Z. MUSKALSKI, S. WIEWIÓROWSKA, M. PEŁKA 

THE INFLUENCE OF DRAWING PARAMETERS ON THE 

PROPERTIES HIGH-MANGANESE TWIP STEEL WIRES 

Z. Muskalski, S.Wiewiórowska, M.Pełka, Czestochowa University of 

Technology, Czestochowa, Poland 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 96-98 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 621.778.001.5=111 




The paper presents an experimental analysis of the eff ect of single draft magnitude in the multi-stage drawing process 

on the mechanical properties of the wire, and a theoretical process analysis aimed at identifying the causes of 

the variations in mechanical properties, made using Drawing 2D, a FEM-relying software program of high manganese 

TWIP steel rolling and stamping processes. 

It was found that wires drawn with small partial drafts (G %=11 %) had a larger plasticity reserve, as defi ned by the 

p 

R /R ratio, as compared with wires drawn with large partial drafts (G = 26 %). A drop both in tensile strength R 0.2 m p m 

and in proof stress R was also found to occur after a total draft of G = 80 % had been exceeded, which was caused 

0.2 c 

by the “strain softening” phenomenon. 

Keywords: drawing, properties, TWIP steel, wire 

INTRODUCTION 

The increasing demand by the automotive industry 

has resulted in searching for materials of increasingly 

high mechanical properties and, at the same time, high 

plastic deformability. These requirements are met by 

multiphase AHSS (Advanced High-Strength Steels). 

The following can be classifi ed into the group of AHSS 

type steels: diphase (DP) steels, TWIP steels, hot formed 

(HF) martensitic steels, plastic formed heat treated 

(PFHT) steels, and TWIP steels [1 - 3]. 

Intensive investigations into the deformation mechanism 

and the Fe-Mn-C phase equilibrium system have 

resulted in the development of high-manganese TWIP 

steels [4, 5] that are distinguished by a high value of the 

R m · A parameter, amounting to even more than 50 000 

MPa %. 

ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 

For testing the process of drawing high-manganese 

TWIP type steel wires, wire rod of chemical composition 

as shown in Table 1 was used. 

Table 1 Chemical composition of the steel tested /wt % 

C Si Mn Al 

0,0200 2,990 28,600 2,540 

The optimal variant of wire rod heat treatment was 

determined, whereby the material was solution heat 

treated at a temperature of 1 100°C for 10 minutes. 

The evolution of the structure, and so the mechanical 

properties of material being plastically deformed are 

infl uenced by the strain rate [4]. In drawing processes, 

the parameter infl uencing both the strain intensity and 

strain rate is the magnitude of single drafts used; therefore, 

drawing of 5,5 mm-diameter TWIP steel wire rod 

was carried out according to two variants, where in 

Variant A 9 draws using single drafts of about 26 %, and 

in Variant B 24 draws using single drafts of about 11 % 

were completed. In the both variants, the total draft 

amounted to 93,1%, and the fi nal wire diameter was 

1,44 mm. 

The variation in proof stress R 0.2 , ultimate tensile 

strength R m , R 0.2 /R m ratio and elongation A 100 as a function 

of the total draft (G c ,%) for drawing variants A and 

B is illustrated in Figures 1 (a, b) and 2 (a, b). 

From the testing results shown in Figures 1 and 2 it 

can be found that the use of small single drafts (Variant 

B) results in a signifi cant decrease in proof stress R 0,2 of 

about 15 %, while for fi nal 1,44 mm-diameter wires by 

about 10 % compared to wires drawn according to Variant 

A; in contrast, in wires drawn according to Variant 

A, a slight increase in ultimate tensile strength R m by 

approx. 2 % has occurred, compared to Variant B 

wires. 

The cause of the differences in the mechanical properties 

between the wires drawn according to Variant A 

and Variant B are probably the higher non-dilatational 

strain values in wires drawn with larger single drafts. 

Therefore, an analysis of the variation in non-dilatational 

strain ε xy as a function of the total draft was made for 

the both drawing variants, A and B, using Drawing 2D 

[5], an FEM based software program. An over 10 % 

increase in non-dilatational strain was found in the subsurface 

later of wires drawn with large single drafts 

96 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 96-98

a) 

b) 

Z. MUSKALSKI et al.: THE INFLUENCE OF DRAWING PARAMETERS ON THE PROPERTIES HIGH-MANGANESE... 

Figure 1 Variation in the proof stress R 0.2 and ultimate tensile 

strength R m of wires drawn according to Variants A 

and B as a function of the total draft 

(Variant A), which confi rms the proposition put forward 

(Figure 3). 

The analysis of the mechanical test results of wires 

drawn according to Variants A and B showed also that a 

local increase in plasticity, called “strain softening”, 

took place in the strain range of 78 ÷ 84 %. 

The observation of the wire microstructure (Figure 

4) revealed deformation bands extending through the 

Figure 3 Variation in non-dilatational strain ε xy in the subsurface 

layer of wires drawn according to Variants A 

and B, respectively 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 96-98 

a) 

b) 

Figure 2 Variation in the R 0.2 / R m ratio and the total elongation 

A 100 of wires drawn according to Variants A and B as a 

function of the total draft 

sample in two different planes relative to the wire axis, 

which suggests two different deformation systems being 

activated simultaneously. The material existing between 

the bands is characterized by lower strain harden- 

Figure 4 Microstructure of TWIP steel wire deformed with a 

draft of G c = 78,1 % (the arrows indicate the 

deformation bands), mang. 1500 x 

97

Z. MUSKALSKI et al.: THE INFLUENCE OF DRAWING PARAMETERS ON THE PROPERTIES HIGH-MANGANESE... 

ing. The higher strain hardening of deformation bands 

by mechanical twinning occurring in them forces the 

material to deform beyond these bands. This means 

that, at large deformations, a division of the material 

occurs into bands being deformed at a high strain rate 

and passive regions with a low strain rate, which exists 

until the both regions have reached the identical strain 

hardening level. 

CONCLUSION 

By running the drawing process with a varying single 

draft magnitude, both the mechanical and plastic 

properties of fi nal wire can be infl uenced. 

The progress of the “strain softening” phenomenon 

is accompanied by a distinct decrease in the proof stress, 

resulting in an increase in the plasticity reserve. The 

higher plasticity allowed the continuation of the drawing 

process, and thus the obtaining of a larger total strain 

of fi nal wire. 

REFERENCES 

[1] Cugy P., Hildenbrand A., Bouzekri M., Cornette D., Goglu, 

S., Hofmann, H. ‘A Super – High Fe – Mn – C Austenitic 

Steel With Excellent Formability For Automobile 

Applications, (2006) [viewed 2008]. 

[2] Frommeyer G. Brüx U., Neumann P.: „Supra-Ductile and 

High-Strength Manganese-TRIP/TWIP Steels for High 

Energy Absorption Purposes”, ISIJ International, 43 (2003) 

438-446. 

[3] Grässel O., Krüger L., Frommeyer G., Meyer L.W.: „High 

Strength Fe-Mn-(Al,Si) TRIP/TWIP steels developmentsproperties-application”, 

International Journal of Plasticity, 

16 (2000) 1391-1409. 

[4] Muskalski Z., Stradomski Z., Pilarczyk J.W., Suliga M., 

Herian J.: „Wpływ procesu ciągnienia na własności mechaniczne 

stali TWIP”, Hutnik – Wiadomości Hutnicze, 

(2005) 2, 107 - 109. 

[5] Milenin A.: „Program komputerowy Drawing2d”, Hutnik- 

Wiadomości Hutnicze, (2005) 2, 100-104. 


Grochowina, Studio – Tekst, Poland 

98 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 96-98

B. GRIZELJ, J. CUMIN, D. GRIZELJ 

EFFECT OF SPRING-BACK IN V-TOOL 

BENDING OF HIGH-STRENGTH STEEL SHEET METAL PLATES 

B. Grizelj, J. Cumin, Mechanical engineering Faculty in Slavonski Brod, 

Slavonski Brod, Croatia 

D. Grizelj, Siemens, Zagreb, Croatia. 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 99-102 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 99-102 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 621.9.02:539.384:621-41=111 




This paper deals with the eff ects of technological parameters used in the V-die bending process, on the obtained 

product properties and dimensions. By variation of the tool geometry, several cases of steel sheet bending process 

are observed through the FEM simulations. Also by variation of diff erent mechanical material properties, eff ects on 

product geometry are observed. Since the automobile manufacturers mostly use the high strength steel sheet metal 

plates, there is a need for the successful tool construction and optimization in order to produce quality products. 

Key words: V-tool, bending, sheet, spring-back 

INTRODUCTION 

The high-strength steel sheet metal plates are used for 

the production of light-weight high-strength products 

such as automobile body parts, motorcycle parts, ammunition 

storage cartridges, electronic boxes in airplanes, 

etc.In the production of these parts, the sheet metal plates 

are cut or stamped to desired shape and then bent, drawn 

or punched to a desired shape. Afterwards, they are assembled 

into a product by using screws, rivets, welding 

or brazing. 

In this paper, the operation of air bending with different 

process parameters, different tool geometries, 

different materials and material thicknesses was modeled 

by the FEM. According to [1], the shape of the 

sheet metal during bending does not depend on the geometry 

of the tool. It depends on the relative position of 

tools, material properties such as the fl ow curve and the 

sheet thickness. The authors [1] described how plastic 

deformation during bending occurs underneath the 

punch where it is maximal, and propagates towards the 

sheet ends. During this process, the radius of curvature 

of the sheet is independent of the punch geometry, but it 

is a function of bending moment,the bending die,the 

sheet thickness and the fl ow curve [1]. 

Afterwards, by constant moving of the tool, the radius 

of sheet plate beneath the punch is reduced until 

the contact between two tools is made. When the tool is 

closed, the sheet metal plate has exactly the same geometry 

as the tool, and after opening of the tool, the sheet 

metal plate has mechanical elastic spring back and it 

forms other shape. 

Figure 1 illustrates different V-tool geometries which 

are used for bending. There are two types of tools 

Figure 1 Diff erent V-tool geometries [2] 

shown: fi rst (a) in which the punch has 75 degree angle 

and the lower tool is 90 degrees, and (b) other tool, 

which both have 90 degree angle. Theradius of punch is 

denoted as r st in mm, s 0 – thickness of the sheet in mm. 

W. M. Chan et al. [3] investigated the effect of 

spring-back with the FEM analysis and concluded that 

the spring-back reduces with the increased punch angle 

and punch radius. They also determined that with a larger 

deformation zone, the effect of spring-back is also 

reduced [3]. Z. T. Zhang and S. J. Hu investigated stress 

and residual stress in the plane strain bending, and concluded 

that the stress distribution of a part before unloading 

determines the amount and direction of the elastical 

unloading [4]. W. L. Xu et al. investigated the parameters 

which had the most infl uence on the results in 

the FEM spring-back simulations [5]. They concluded 

that the FEM analysis is very complicated because of 

various input parameters such as: material constitutive 

law, strain hardening curve, FEM element type, contact 

model, friction law, material and geometrical nonlinearities 

[5]. S. Thipprakmas and S. Rojananan investigated 

the spring-back and spring-forward effects with 

the FEM method. They have concluded that the phe- 

99

B. GRIZELJ et al.: EFFECT OF SPRING-BACK IN V-TOOL BENDING OF HIGH-STRENGTH STEEL SHEET METAL PLATES 

nomenon of spring-forward was rarely investigated in 

the past, and that this phenomenon needs to be further 

researched [6]. When the sheet metal plate is bent, the 

outer «fi bers» are under tension, and the inner «fi bers» 

are under compression. The neutral line divides the tension 

and compression areas [6]. When the sheet metal 

plate is released of loads – the fi bers under tension try to 

contract, and the fi bers under compression try to expand, 

thus the sheet metal plate opens until the remaining 

stresses are in equilibrium. This is the effect of 

spring-back. According to [6], the phenomenon of 

spring-forward yet needs to be investigated. 

MATERIAL, MODEL 

AND EXPERIMENT DESIGN 

For the FEM experiment, two types of tools were 

chosen (Figure 2); two types of materials – St1403 

(DC04), and dent resistant steel DR180 used for automobile 

hoods, lids, etc., two types of punch radius, r = st 

0,4 and 2 mm respectively, and two sheet thicknesses as 

0,75 mm and 1,5 mm respectively. 

Figure 2 shows the tool geometry and measurements 

for one of the cases observed through the FEM simulations. 

Figure 3 shows the plan of parameters which were 

used for the FEM simulations. It can be seen that the 

plan is made for two materials, two tool geometries, two 

punch tip radii and two metal sheet thicknesses. 

Figure 4 shows the FEM models used for simulations 

based on the technical drawing from Figure 2. Steel 

St1403 is German DIN designation, European norm BS 

EN 10130:1999 is old designation for the same material. 

The new EU norm is EN DC04 (1.0338) [7]. This material 

has the following mechanical properties [8]: 

- yield stress, R = 157 MPa 

p02 

- ultimate tensile stress, R = 310 MPa 

m 

- n value, n = 0,242 

The fl ow curve is approximated with the expression 

[8]: 

k = 556 0,0058 + , MPa (1) 

f 

( ) 0,246 

Figure 2 Measures of V-tool with 75° angle of punch and 

radius r st =2 mm 

Figure 3 Plan of parameters for FEM simulations 

Figure 4 FEM model 

The strain hardening curve is supposed to be entered in 

the form of plastic portion of true strain/true stress. These 

calculations are done by the following expression: 

k f , (2) 

= − 

100 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 99-102 

p 

where E represents Young’s modulus of elasticity. For 

the steel sheet metal plate St1403 Young’s modulus of 

elasticity is E = 210 GPa. The fl ow curve for St1403 

material is shown in Figure 5. 

Steel DR180 is dent resistant steel used for the parts 

which should withstand possible dents such as the hand 

dents on the car hoods and doors. DR 180 or SAE J2340 

Type 180A has the mechanical properties [9] of yield 

strength R = 157 MPa and ultimate tensile strength of 

p02 

R = 310 MPa, Young’s modulus of elasticity E=200000 

m 

MPa, strain hardening exponent of n=0,17-0,21 [10,11]. 

The material fl ow curve was described by Ludwik-Hollomon’s 

law: 

k = 410,46 , MPa (3) 

f 

and it is shown in Figure 6. 

E


Figure 5 Strain hardening curve for St1403 material [8] 

Figure 6 Strain hardening curve for DR180 material [9] 

The sheet metal material was modeled in the FEM 

code as 27 mm wide, and respectively 0,75 mm, and 1,5 

mm thick with the average element length 0,18x0,15 

mm thus keeping the element ratio of 1,2. Five elements 

were modeled through thickness of the sheet with the 

alternate interpolation function which is modifi ed in 

such a way that the strain variations can be better represented 

[12]. Since the recommendations for Marc elements 

were to use a larger number of lower order elements 

(especially through thickness), with alternate interpolation 

functions, the element 11 was chosen [13]. 

Higher order elements are a bad choice in the contact 

analysis and plastic deformation problems, although 

they show the accurate representation of the strain fi elds 

in the elastic analyses [13]. In the area of punch radius, 

a mesh was refi ned two times for the fi ner representation 

of bending strains. 

As a result, primarily bending error was observed, 

and it was measured as the relative bending error between 

the angles before the sheet was released (α °), 1, 

and after the sheet was released (α °). 2, 

The relative bending error: 

RESULTS 

Oa 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 99-102 

− 

= 2 1 

(4) 

1 

In the FEM simulation, the material (sheet metal 

plate) is modeled as deformable; the upper and lower 

tools are modeled as the rigid bodies. The upper tool – 

punch had controlled travel dependent on time. The motion 

of punch was modeled in a way that in any model 

derived from Figure 3, the punch at the end of its displacement 

fully presses the sheet metal plate in order to 

Figure 7 Angles before and after unloading 

achieve the calibration (coining) to reduce the amount 

of elastical spring-back after unloading. 

Figure 7 shows the angles before the punch was unloaded 

(α 1, °), and after the punch was unloaded (α 2, °). 

Since the sheet metal plate is subjected to the pure moment 

during air bending (before the sheet plate touches 

the lower tool), and it takes various bending radii which 

changes with the upper tool motion, only the sheet ends 

are taken into consideration and the angles are measured 

between the sheet ends. 

Figure 8 shows the calculated relative bending errors 

for the different cases shown in Figure 3. It can be 

seen that for the same punch radius, the same material 

and the material thickness but different tool geometries, 

the bending errors follow the same curve up to the point 

in which the full contact of the sheet with the lower tool 

happens. Afterwards, the bending error changes because 

of the different tool geometries which causes different 

stress zones in a combination with the different touching 

zones between the sheet and both tools. At the end, 

a calibration (coining) process was modeled in order to 

Figure 8 Relative bending error for punch radius r st =0,4 mm 

101


Figure 9 Relative bending error for punch radius r st =2 mm 

observe the minimal bending error at the end of punch 

displacement. These cases are shown in Figure 8 (with 

relative bending error zero value at the end of punch 

travel for 90° tool geometry). Furthermore, it can be 

seen that the relative bending error is achieved even before 

the end of punch travel for 75° tool which was expected. 

It can be also seen that the cases with 75° punch 

tool geometry have the negative relative bending error 

which means that the angle after the punch unloading is 

even lower than before unloading. This effect is called 

spring-forward, as the “spring-back” effect in these cases 

is continued in the same direction of bending. 

Figure 9 shows the relative bending errors for the 

different cases shown in Figure 3. Also, as in the former 

case, it can be seen that for the same punch radius, the 

same material and the material thickness but different 

tool geometries, the bending errors follow the same 

curve up to a point in which the full contact of the sheet 

with the lower tool happens. But as opposed to the 

former case, it can be seen that at the punch travel end, 

the relative bending errors are more grouped than in the 

case with punch radius r st = 0,4 mm. Also looking at the 

amount of relative bending error from Figure 9, it can 

be concluded that with the larger punch radius, the relative 

bending error is lower. 

CONCLUSION 

The high-strength steel sheet metal plates are used for 

the production of light-weight high-strength. For the 

FEM simulations in this paper, two types of tools, two 

types of materials, two types of punch radius, and two 

sheet thicknesses were chosen. The relative bending error 

after the tool release was observed for all planned cases. 

The results were grouped in two groups by the amount of 

punch radius and shown in diagrams in Figures 8 and 9. 

REFERENCES 

[1] K. Lange et al., Handbook of metal forming, English language 

edition published by Society of manufacturing engineers, 

USA, (1985), 747-760. 

[2] B. Grizelj, Oblikovanje metala deformiranjem, Strojarskifakultet 

u Slavonskom Brodu, Slavonski Brod, (2004), 

282-306. 

[3] W. M. Chan; H. I. Chew; H. P. Lee; B. T. Cheok, Finite 

element analysis of spring-back of V bending sheet metal 

forming process, Journal of materials processing technology 

48 (2004), 15-24. 

[4] Z. T. Zhang; S. J. Hu, Stress and residual stress distributions 

in plane strain bending, Int. J. Mech. Sci, 40 (1998), 

6, 533-543. 

[5] W. L. Xu; C. H. Ma; C.H. Li; W.J. Feng, Sensitive factors 

in springback simulation for sheet metal forming, Journal 

of Materials Processing technology 151 (2004), 217-222. 

[6] S. Thippraksmas; S. Rojananan, Investigation of spring-go 

phenomenon using fi nite element method, Materials and 

design 29 (2008), 1526-1532. 

[7] Roymech, Strength of steels, URL: http://www.roymech. 

co.uk/Useful_Tables/Matter/Steel_Europe.html 

(25.11.2009.) 

[8] M. S. Ragab and H. Z. Orban, Effect of ironing on the residual 

stresses in deep drawn cups, Journal of Materials 

Processing Technology, vol. 99, issues 1-3, March 2000, 

54-61. (doi: 10.1016/S0924-0136(99)00360-X). 

[9] AK Steel, Cold rolled steels, product data bulletin, AK Steel, 

2012, 1-8. 

[10] ThyssenKrupp Steel, Bake hardening steels, Thyssen- 

Krupp, 2009, 1-11. 

[11] Auto/Steel Partnership, High strength steel stamping design 

manual, Southfi eld USA, 2000, 2-20 

[12] MSC.MARC, Volume A: Theory and user information, 

MSC.Software, 2007, 653. 

[13] MSC.MARC, Volume B: Element library, MSC. Software, 

2007, 153-228. 

Note: English language: Rosandić Željka, Mechanical Engineering 

Faculty in Slavonski Brod, Croatia 

102 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 99-102

Z. PATER, A. TOFIL, J. TOMCZAK 

STEEL BALLS FORMING BY CROSS ROLLING WITH UPSETTING 

Z. Pater, A. Tofi l, J. Tomczak, Lublin University of Technology, Lublin, 

Poland 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 103-106 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 103-106 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 621.73, 77, 669.1=111 




The paper describes a process of forming four balls with a diameter of 22 mm by means of cross rolling with upsetting. 

The paper also presents the tool used to form semi-fi nished balls. Owing to the application of the fi nite element 

method (FEM), the course of the rolling process as well as temperature and strain distributions in the obtained 

balls could be presented. The rolling tests conducted in laboratory conditions at the Lublin University of Technology 

have proved that the balls produced with the developed rolling method meet the demands for grinding media 

used in ball mills. 

Keywords: forming, steel balls, cross rolling, FEM 

INTRODUCTION 

Steel balls are employed on a mass scale as grinding 

media in ball mills which are then used for grinding 

metal ores, coal, used-up moulding sands, and other 

materials used in the economy. Owing to their spherical 

shape, grinding media have the most favourable (minimal) 

surface-to-weight ratio, which, in turn, results in 

decreased abrasive wear. 

At present, grinding media balls are mainly produced 

by casting, die forging, and highly effi cient skew rolling 

which is characterized by a good quality of obtained 

semi-products. In the process of skew rolling, balls are 

formed by means of two rolls positioned in a skew manner, 

which rotate in the same direction and which have 

helical grooves (roll passes) on their perimeter [1 - 3]. 

Despite its numerous advantages, this forming method is 

not however widely applied in industrial conditions due 

to the complex shape of the tools (helical rolls). 

Research into a modern technology of cross-wedge 

rolling (CWR) has been done at the Lublin University 

of Technology for about twenty years [4]; and this technology 

may also be employed to form balls. This process 

is not as effi cient as skew rolling, yet for its realization 

much simpler (less expensive) tools in the form of 

wedges are needed. Recently, an ever simpler method 

for ball forming based on the CWR technology has been 

developed, which is described in the present paper. 

NATURE OF CROSS 

ROLLING WITH UPSETTING 

The developed method for simultaneous forming of 

a semi-fi nished ball by means of cross rolling with fl at 

tools is shown in Figure 1. 

Figure 1 Scheme of cross rolling with upset ting of balls (see 

in the text) 

According to this method, the billet (1) in the form of 

a bar section whose diameter is smaller than the diameter 

D of the ball being formed (2) is put in between two fl at 

tools (3) and (4), which have the prongs (5) and (6) distanced 

from each other at the distance L bigger than the 

diameter D of the ball being formed (2). Next, the tools 

(3) and (4) are put into motion at the same velocity v, the 

prongs (5) and (6), which move in the opposite directions, 

cut into the billet (1) and make it rotate, reducing at 

the same time its diameter and cutting it into pieces with 

a volume equal to the volume of the ball (2). After that, 

the moving tools (3) and (4) and the concave surfaces of 

the side prongs (5) and (6) upset the cut-up semi-fi nished 

product (1), as a result of which the balls (2) whose diameter 

D is bigger than the diameter of the semi-fi nished 

product (1) are produced. The rolling process may also be 

conducted in a system in which only one of the tools (3) 

or (4) is in plane motion at the velocity v, while the other 

of the tools (3) or (4) does not move. 

FEM NUMERICAL MODELLING 

The modelling work began with designing wedge 

tools for the rolling process. It was assumed that balls of 

22 mm in diameter would be formed by two identical fl at 

103

Z. PATER et al.: STEEL BALLS FORMING BY CROSS ROLLING WITH UPSETTING 

Lf Ls Lo 

Figure 2 View of the tool used in cross rolling with upsetting 

of balls 

tools which move in the opposite directions with the 

same velocity. Figure 2 shows a geometrical model of the 

designed tool, where three zones are distinguished: the 

forming zone L f , the sizing zone L s , and the output zone 

L o . It was simultaneously assumed that the billet is in the 

form of a bar whose diameter dimensions are 17 mm by 

120 mm. To form balls with the assumed diameter of 22 

mm, it is then necessary to upset the billet by 29,4 %. 

The tool model was then used to design (with process 

symmetry taken into account) a numerical model of 

rolling with upsetting for four balls of 22 mm in diameter, 

which is shown in Figure 2. 

Made with DEFORM-3D, the numerical calculations 

assumed that the billet is made from rail steel 

grade R200 (in accordance with EN 13674-1), whose 

fl ow curves (Figure 3) are determined by plastometric 

tests. The choice of the material was dictated by the fact 

that scrapped railway rails are mostly processed into 

ball mill grinding media. 

It was assumed that the billet material is preheated 

all over its volume to a temperature of 1 150 °C, the 

wedge tools have a constant temperature of 50 °C and 

they move in the opposite directions with the same velocity 

of 0,125 m/s, the value of friction on the material-tool 

contact surface is determined with the friction 

coeffi cient µ = 0,5, and the material-tool heat exchange 

coeffi cient is of 10 kW/m 2 K. 

The course of cross rolling with upsetting is presented 

in Figure 4. During the rolling process, all the balls 

are formed simultaneously by the parallel tool prongs 

which gradually increase their height and, at the end of 

the process, their width as well. A characteristic of the 

discussed forming method is that the material volume 

closed in-between the adjacent prongs is equal to the 

ball volume. In the initial stage of the process, the 

prongs cut into the material, thereby forming ringshaped 

neckings. 

Next, the concave walls of the prongs come closer to 

each other, thereby compressing the material which is between 

them, and, fi nally, they form the balls. In this process 

stage, individual balls should be separated; this, however, 

was not modelled due to the limitations regarding 

the applied software (it was decided that the minimal 

connectors between the balls should be left as they guarantee 

continuity of the material being formed). 

Figure 3 R200 steel fl ow curves at: 

1) T = 1 000 °C, ε ⋅ = 0,1 s -1 ; 2) T = 1 000 °C, ε ⋅ = 1 s -1 ; 

3) T = 1 000 °C, ε ⋅ = 10 s -1 ; 4) T = 1 100 °C, ε ⋅ = 0,1 s -1 ; 

5) T = 1 100 °C, ε ⋅ = 1 s -1 ; 6) T = 1 100 °C, ε ⋅ = 10 s -1 ; 

7) T = 1 200 °C, ε ⋅ = 0,1 s -1 ; 8) T = 1 200 °C, ε ⋅ =1 s -1 ; 

9) T = 1 200 °C, ε ⋅ = 10 s -1 

Figure 4 FEM model of rolling with upsetting of balls, with 

forming symmetry taken into account 

Figure 5 shows the balls obtained in the process of 

rolling with upsetting. The ball profi le is not round as it 

was assumed, as the ball undergoes deformation during 

cutting when its side surfaces get fl attened due to the 

impact of the cutting prongs. The calculations also 

prove that a burr might occur in the place where the ball 

is separated (in the real process the burr should be 

smaller because the cutting knives draw closer to each 

other). At the same time, it should also be noted that the 

obtained ball shape can be considered satisfactory if the 

ball is to be used for grinding media where high production 

accuracy is not necessary (d ± 0,8). 

Figure 6 also shows the distribution of effective 

strain. The strain has the form of ring-shaped layers, 

placed in parallel to the tool prongs. The biggest strains 

occur in the places where the balls are separated, while 

the smallest ones occur in the central layer where the 

material underwent most of upsetting. 

The temperature distribution of the rolled balls is 

shown in Figure7. 

It can be observed that the material temperature is 

still very high even after rolling, which makes it possi- 

104 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 103-106

Figure 5 Process of rolling with upsetting of 4 balls with a diameter of 22 mm 

Figure 6 Eff ective strain distribution in the balls obtained in 

the process of rolling with upsetting 

ble to conduct another hardening operation (without reheating) 

when rolling balls for ball mill grinding media. 

The distributions of the radial force (which operates in 

the direction z – Figure 2) and of the tangential force 

(which makes the tool move) are illustrated in Figure 8. 

It can clearly be observed that in cross rolling with upsetting 

the forces gradually increase to reach their maximal 

values when the material placed in-between the 

prongs undergoes upsetting (at the border of the forming 

zone L f and the sizing zone L s – Figure 2). Then the 

forces decrease until they reach the zero value. In this 

connection, it should be stressed that the radial force is 

almost three times higher than the tangential force, 

which is typical of CWR processes [2]. 

Figure 7 Temperature distribution (in °C) in the balls obtained 

in the process of rolling with upsetting 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 103-106 


Figure 8 Numerically calculated distributions of the 

tangential and radial forces in cross rolling with 

upsetting of 4 balls with a diameter of 22 mm 

EXPERIMENTAL TESTS 

Laboratory tests of rolling balls were carried out 

with the use of the rolling mill LUW-2 (Figure 9), available 

at Lublin University of Technology. The unit consists 

of a mill stand, a bottom slide, an upper slide, a 

power unit, and a frame. The slides move thanks to two 

hydraulic operators, whose maximum stroke is of 630 

mm. The operators are powered by a hydraulic feeder 

which has an electric motor with a power of 11 kW. The 

maximum working pressure in the hydraulic unit reach- 

Figure 9 Wedge rolling mill LUW-2 available at the Lublin 

University of Technology 

105


Figure 10 Tools for cross rolling with upsetting of balls used in 

the experimental tests 

Figure 11 Balls obtained in the process of cross rolling with 

upsetting conducted at the Lublin University of 

Technology 

es 20 MPa. At this pressure value, the force driving into 

the wedge reaches the maximum value which equals 30 

kN per each of the operators. 

Balls rolling with the parallel method was conducted 

by means of the tools shown in Figure 10. The tools are 

made from hot-work tool steel grade 55NiCrMoV7. A 

characteristic of the tools is that the prongs which form 

balls are parallel to the rolling direction. Additionally, the 

bottom tool is equipped with a special recess in which the 

billet made from rail steel grade R200 is placed. 

The billets are heated in an electric chamber furnace 

until they reach a temperature of 1 150 °C. They are 

then placed in the recesses made in the guiding paths of 

the bottom tool. Once the billet position is stabilized, 

the rolling mill is switched on and the two tools moving 

in the opposite directions (with a velocity of 125 mm/s) 

begin to form the balls which fall on the lower plate of 

the rolling mill after cutting. The balls are then taken 

from the plate and placed on a grate to cool in free air or 

they are placed in a container fi lled with water to make 

them hardened. 

Figure 11 shows the balls obtained in the discussed 

rolling process. They are of an oval shape which is similar 

to the one determined in the numerical calculation, 

yet the maximum diameter of the balls (on the central 

plane) is of 22,5 mm, while the minimum diameter value 

(in the axis of rotation) is of 20,9 mm. The dimensions 

are stable, as they change only within the range of 

± 0,2. The produced semi-fi nished balls are free from 

internal cracks and they are characterized by a good 

production quality. 

In the course of the rolling process, the tangential 

force (which presses in the bottom tool) has been analyzed 

and its distribution is shown in Figure 12. 

The distribution is similar to the one determined by 

means of the FEM (Figure 8).It should yet be noted that 

the force determined experimentally is of a higher val- 

Figure 12 Tangential force distribution calculated during the 

tests of rolling with upsetting of four balls with a 

diameter of 22 mm 

ue, which can be attributed to the fact that the billet material 

becomes partially cooled when it is taken from the 

furnace and placed in the bottom tool recess. 

CONCLUSION 

The conducted analytical work and experimental 

tests have proved that cross rolling with upsetting can 

successfully be employed in hot forming of steel balls. 

A characteristic of the semi-fi nished balls obtained with 

the suggested method is their oval shape, which does 

not however hamper the process of producing ball mill 

grinding media. In comparison with die forging, the advantages 

of the new production technology include: environmental 

friendliness (noise reduction and no need 

for lubricating agents), lower material consumption (no 

fl ash), and increased process effi ciency (it is possible to 

form even several balls at the same time). Compared to 

helical rolling of balls, the technology of cross rolling is 

less expensive as it requires the use of less complex machines 

and tools. 

Acknowledgements. This research work was fi - 

nanced by funds from the Ministry of Science and 

Higher Education of Poland over years 2009-2012, as a 

project for development no. 0457/R/T02/2009/06. 

References: 

[1] V. I. Kotenok, S. I. Podobedov, Metallurgist, 45 (2001), 

363-367 

[2] W. Quanxian, W. Qiping, X. Jianming, Journal of Materials 

Processing Technology 55 (1995), 340-344 

[3] B. I. Tartakovskii, Steel in Translation, 39 (2009) 7, 590- 

592 

[4] Z. Pater, Steel Research International. Special edition: 

Metal Forming, 81 (2010) 9, 25-32 

Note: The professional translator for English language is Magdalena 

Jung, Poland 

106 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 103-106

B. OLEKSIAK, G. SIWIEC, A. BLACHA-GRZECHNIK 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 107-110 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 107-110 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 661.185:669.22=111 

RECOVERY OF PRECIOUS METALS FROM WASTE MATERIALS 

BY THE METHOD OF FLOTATION PROCESS 




The article presents the investigation results upon recovery of precious metals from electronics waste and used 

ceramic catalytic converters. Various frothing agents which generate stable and abundant foam as well as collectors 

and pH regulators have been used in the investigations . The tests were conducted with the use of laboratory 

fl otation device 

Key words: fl otation, fl otation reagents, waste, silver, recycled. 

INTRODUCTION 

Flotation is the method of separation commonly applied 

to the enrichment process of carbon and metal 

ores. It is an effect related to various interfacial phenomena 

present in solid/liquid/gas system. If the grain 

shows the hydrophilic properties under certain defi ned 

conditions then in the fl otation process it can be separated 

from those that do not feature such properties [1-4]. The 

intensity of fl otation process is determined by numerous 

factors the most important of which are: properties of fl otation 

foam (type of frothing agent) and grain size. The 

fl otation method can be used for separation of metal from 

grain fraction of some oxides and carbides. This was confi 

rmed by test results obtained during recovery of native 

gold from polymetallic copper ores performed at CSIRO 

Minerals in Australia [5]. 

The authors of the presented article conducted a 

number of tests on the recovery of silver from jewellery 

wastes and silver semi-products with the application of 

fl otation process [6-7]. They made some attempts at the 

recovery of precious metals from waste printed circuits 

boards of mobile phones, PC computers and used ceramic 

catalytic convertors. The results obtained are presented in 

the article. 

In majority of PCBs cases, precious metals are coated 

upon ceramic or plastic elements. The content of precious 

metals in such products greatly depends on the 

age of the waste material. In the 80 s of the last century, 

the thickness of the layer upon contacts in electronic 

devices was 1-2,5 µm whereas now it is 300 – 600 nm. 

It is estimated that there is ca.1kg of silver and 0,3 kg of 

gold in only 1Mg of used mobile phones while 1 Mg of 

used computers contains 3 kg of silver and 0,3 kg of 

gold. 

B Oleksiak, G. Siwiec - Silesian University of Technology, Department 

of Metallurgy, Katowice, Poland 

A. Blacha-Grzechnik - Silesian University of Technology, Department of 

Chemistry, Gliwice, Poland 

End-of life catalytic reactors constitute another group 

of waste materials and have been used in vehicles since 

2001. There are two types of catalytic convertors: ceramic 

and metal. In case of ceramic catalytic convertors 

the basic material is the mass which contains MgO, 

Al 2 O 3 i SiO 2 as well as ZrO and which is coated with 

precious metals from the platinum family: platinum, 

palladium, rhodium and occasionally ruthenium. The 

average platinum content in a catalyst is ca. 2 kg. The 

platinum content in a catalytic reactor is relatively high 

thus ca. 0,5 kg of platinum can be recovered from 1 Mg 

of reactors. In the view of the fact that this type of waste 

material is systematically growing, the process of its 

treatment seems to be vital. 

FLOTATION TEST STAND AND REAGENTS 

USED IN THE FLOTATION PROCESS 

Flotation test stand constructed as part of the presented 

paper was designated for some laboratory attempts 

at selective separation of components in scrap 

materials. It consists of a fl otation chamber made of 

Figure 1 The diagram of the device used in tests of fl otation 

process: 1 - the computer, 2 -the motor, 3 - the rotor, 

4 – the fl otation cell, 5 - the drift fender, 6 - the 

fl otation concentrate cell 

107

B. OLEKSIAK et al.: RECOVERY OF PRECIOUS METALS FROM WASTE MATERIALS BY THE METHOD… 

acid resistant steel and an engine-propelled rotor with 

height control device. The liquid is mixed by the rotor 

and air which is introduced by a compressor connected 

with the rotor. The rotor speed is set within the range 

from 100 – 1 500 rev/min whereas air fl ow is controlled 

by a rotometer. The scum is collected from the chamber 

surface with a mechanical rake as the process continues. 

Figure 1 presents a diagram of the device used in tests 

of fl otation process. 

Various types of frothing agents, collectors and pH 

regulators have been used for investigations. Table 1 

presents the agents applied. 

Table 1 The agents applied 

Foaming 

agent 

Collecting 

agent 

pH 

regulator 

α-terpineol Acrylonitrile CuSO 4 

corfl ot Sodium amyl xanthogenate 

Pine oil Potassium etyl xanthogenate 

X-23 

PREPARATION OF THE MATERIAL 

FOR FLOTATION PROCESS 

In the fi rst stage of the carried out research, the printed 

circuit boards from PC computers and mobile phones have 

been subjected to crushing and grinding process. 

The following installation has been used in the investigations 

of the crushing process of waste materials which 

contain precious metals: screw mill, sharp mill, ball mill 

and buhr stone mill. 

In the course of the carried out investigations it was 

found that grinding of big size printed boards in a ball 

grinder does not bring satisfactory results. Although a signifi 

cant part of the charge sustains fi ne grinding, part of the 

post-process fraction retains the size which is not suitable 

for the process of fl otation. This problem had been eliminated 

by the application of preliminary crushing with 

screw mill, before ball mill was used. 

Two-step grinding of printed circuit boards helps obtain 

the fraction with granularity proper for fl otation process. 

Similarly satisfactory effect is obtained at additional 

grinding of the fraction initially refi ned with screw mill 

and with the assistance of buhr stone mill or sharp mill. 

In all cases, classifi cation of the materials obtained 

as the consequence of grinding was performed with 

LPzE-2e vibrating screen. Sieve analysis shows that in 

case of two-step crushing (screw mill - buhr stone mill, 

screw mill – sharp mill) the average 90 % of output 

fraction from mills shows the crushing which is appropriate 

for fl otation process. The remaining part (around 

10 %) has to be subjected to additional grinding since it 

shows granularity above 0.2 mm. In case of the device 

system screw mill - ball mill, the proportions are slightly 

less favorable and their average value amounts from 

80 % to 20 %. 

Apparent improvement of grinding effi ciency of 

such materials as printed circuit boards can be obtained 

by cooling them before they are introduced into crushing 

devices. An attempt was made with the application 

of liquid nitrogen. Crushing of ceramic catalytic convertors 

has to be a two stage procedure. The use of 

screw mill and then a ball mill, buhr stone mill or sharp 

mill assures positive effects. Sieve analysis shows that 

over 95 % of the output fractions (for three layouts of 

devices) presents granularity below 0.2 mm and thus is 

appropriate for fl otation process. 

The material obtained after grinding process has 

been subjected to X-ray analysis and the analysis on 

atomic adsorption spectrometer. Three samples were 

taken from each type of waste material. 

Chemical analysis of used printed circuit boards performed 

upon atomic adsorption spectrometer is presented 

in Tables 2 and 3. 

Table 2 Chemical composition of printed circuit boards 

from PC computers / % wt 

Sample number Ag Cu Pb 

1 0,044 23,6 4,76 

2 0,0017 26,8 5,24 

3 0,011 27,8 6,01 

Table 3 Chemical composition of printed circuit boards 

from mobile phones / % wt 

Sample number Ag Cu Pb 

1 0,044 23,6 4,76 

2 0,0017 26,8 5,24 

3 0,011 27,8 6,01 

Chemical analysis performed upon atomic adsorption 

spectrometer proved that the platinum content 

in crushed fraction of ceramic catalytic convertors is 

0,026 %. 

THE INVESTIGATIONS RESULTS 

OF FLOTATION PROCESS 

In order to learn more about fl otation kinetics in 

combinations ceramics-metallic fraction, polymer-metallic 

fraction, ceramics-polymer-metallic fraction 

which are quite essential when wastes containing precious 

metals are dealt with, the authors performed a series 

of tests with the use of synthetic mixtures. Silver 

powder and ceramic materials from the wastes containing 

precious metals i.e. aluminum oxide, silicon oxide 

and epoxy resin (typical representative of polymers) 

have also been used for tests. 

The carried out research were to determine the conditions 

of fl otation process of materials included in 

waste materials which occur in a real world. The obtained 

results were satisfactory therefore further tests 

were performed on real materials. Tables 4 and 6 present 

exemplary test results of fl otation process performed 

upon crushed printed circuits from PC boards. 

108 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 107-110

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 107-110 


Table 4 Results of the fl otation tests for printed circuit 

boards from PC computers using pine oil as 

frothing agent and oleic acid as collector 

Rotation 

frequency equal / 

rot/min 

500 

700 


boards from PC computers using Corfl ot as 

frothing agent and X-23 as collector 

Rotation 

frequency equal 

/rot/min 

500 

700 

pH 

pH 

Content in fl otate 

/ % wt. 

Ag Cu Pb 


/ % wt. 

Ag Cu Pb 

Ag content 

in chamber 

residues /% wt. 

Air fl ow rate 2 /dm3 /min 

6 0,055 8,6 4,2 0,001 

7 0,032 5,6 1,2 0,004 

8 0,029 8,8 2,2 0,003 

10 0,020 6,3 1,6 0,004 


6 0,074 9,7 1,6 0,002 

7 0,060 9,8 1,1 0,003 

8 0,026 8,0 2,1 0,002 

10 0,018 7,7 1,8 0,004 


boards from PC computers using Corfl ot as 

frothing agent and X-23 as collector 

Rotation 

frequency 

equal /rot/min 

500 

700 

pH 


/ % wt. 

Ag Cu Pb 

Ag content 

in chamber 



6 0,099 6,0 0,92 0,001 

7 0,097 6,0 0,91 0,001 

8 0,090 6,3 0,99 0,002 

10 0,072 7,8 1,01 0,003 


6 0,096 7,8 0,93 0,001 

7 0,061 6,8 0,97 0,005 

8 0,059 5,7 1,04 0,006 

10 0,023 5,2 1,82 0,007 

Ag content 

in chamber 



6 0,012 10,60 1,65 0,11 

7 0,011 8,34 1,45 0,16 

8 0,007 6,28 1,22 0,26 

10 0,003 6,12 1,05 0,45 


6 0,014 10,16 1,64 0,09 

7 0,009 8,12 1,32 0,10 

8 0,001 6,13 1,13 1,17 

10 0,000 6,04 1,00 0,33 

Tables 7-8 depict exemplary tests results of fl otation 

process performed upon crushed printed circuits from 

mobile phones. 


boards from mobile phone using Corfl ot as 

frothing agent and sodium amyl xanthogenate as 

collector 

Rotation frequency 


500 

700 


boards from mobile phone using Corfl ot as 

frothing agent and sodium etyl xanthogenate as 

collector 

Rotation frequency 


500 

700 

pH 

pH 


/ % wt. 

Ag Au Cu 


/ % wt. 

Ag Au Cu 

Ag content in chamber 



6 0,16 0,04 17,2 0,12 

7 0,11 0,02 10,1 0,24 

8 0,13 0,06 12,1 0,17 

10 0,15 0,05 17,9 0,13 


6 0,17 0,03 16,9 0,13 

7 0,15 0,02 16,0 0,20 

8 0,13 0,05 14,1 0,17 

10 0,14 0,04 13,6 0,14 

Ag content in chamber 



6 0,2 0,05 15,7 0,13 

7 0,2 0,06 14,1 0,28 

8 0,4 0,04 11,1 0,27 

10 0,2 0,05 16,3 0,23 


6 0,2 0,03 16,9 0,14 

7 0,2 0,04 16,0 0,19 

8 0,1 0,04 14,0 0,18 

10 0,1 0,03 13,5 0,14 

The application of different fl otation parameters i.e. 

the change of gas fl ow, rotor speed and fl otation reagents 

did not affect the scum enrichment. 

The tests results of fl otation process carried out upon 

ground ceramic catalytic convertors are presented in Table 

9. 

The application of different fl otation parameters i.e. 

gas fl ow above 2 dm 3 , rotor speed 700 and different reagents 

than those presented in Table 9 did not bring satisfactory 

fl otation results ( slight platinum enrichment 

in the scum as compared with the initial content). 

109


Table 9 The results of the fl otation tests carried out upon 

ground ceramic catalysts with the use of Corfl ot as 

a frothing agent, selected collecting reagents and 

CuSO4 as pH regulator (gas fl ow rate 2 dm 3 /min, 

rotation speed – 500 rot/min.) 

Collector reagent pH 

CONCLUSIONS 

Content in 

fl otate 

/ % wt. 

Pt content in 

chamber residues 

/ % wt. 

---------- 7,01 0,19 0,012 

Ksantog amylowy 10,03 0,32 0,001 

Ksantog amylowy 8,00 0,34 0,001 

Ksantog etylowy 10,01 0,14 0,018 

Ksantog -etylowy 8,00 0,38 0,001 

X-23 10,03 0,33 0,001 

X-23 8,03 0,30 0,003 

Akrylonitryl 10,01 0,12 0,015 

Akrylonitryl 8,04 0,32 0,001 

The parameters of fl otation process and fl otation re 

agents applied and presented in the paper, in case of 

waste printed circuit boards from mobile phones and 

PC boards, did not bring satisfactory results (though the 

results obtained with synthetic materials were promising). 

The obtained scum did not exhibit high content of 

precious metals. However, the increase of silver concentration 

in the fl otation chamber (Table 6) was observed. 

Promising results, on the other hand, were obtained 

from the tests on end-of-life ceramic catalytic convertors 

used in vehicles. The best results were obtained for 

rotor speed of 500 rev/min and gas fl ow of 2 dm3 /min. 

In case of these wastes the best results were obtained for 

the following reagents: 

• Frothing agents: corfl ot, 

Collecting: sodium amyl xanthogenate, X-23, ethyl 

110 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 107-110 

• 

xanthogenate. 

The application of such reagents helped obtain platinum 

concentration in a fi nal product up to 0,38 % which 

is close to its concentration in anode slime obtained in 

the process of copper electrorefi ning. The application of 

slightly different fl otation conditions (the same as in 

case of wastes from fi nal treatment of silver semi-products 

and jewellery) i.e. gas fl ow above 2 dm 3 rotor speed 

700 and different foaming reagents, did not bring satisfactory 

fl otation results (slight platinum enrichment in 

the scum as compared with its initial content). 

REFERENCES 

[1] Drzymała J.: Podstawy mineralurgii, Wyd. Pol. Wroc., 

Wrocław (2001). 

[2] Burdzik R., Folęga P., Węgrzyn T. Silva Abílio P.: Conferencia 

Engenharia’2009, Covilha Portugalia, 2009, p. 

168-171. 

[3] Pałucha K.: Prace i Materiały Wydziału Zarządzania Uniwersytetu 

Gdańskiego Sopot (2011) 4/6, 317-327. 

[4] Kolmasiak C.: Hutnik -Wiadomości Hutnicze (2010) 5, 

252-255. 

[5] Iskra J.: Ceramics International 23 (1997), 337 - 342. 

[6] Oleksiak B., Blacha-Grzechnik A., Siwiec G; Metalurgija 

51 (2012) 1, 97-100. 

[7] Oleksiak B, Blacha-Grzechnik A., Siwiec G; Metalurgija 

51 (2012) 3, 298-300. 

Note: Nowak P is responsible for English language, Katowice, Poland

A. ČIKIĆ, A. PINTARIĆ, I. SAMARDŽIĆ 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 111-114 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 111-114 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 620.95:662.96:621-73 =111 

THE INFLUENCE OF BIOMASS QUALITY ON THE PURIFICATION 

OF FLUE GASES AND MULTICYCLONE ASSEMBLY MATERIAL 




Various types, forms and states aff ect the heating value of biomass and its conversion into exploitable energy forms. 

As a result of biomass quality investigations, the share of solid particles in fl ue gases purifi ed in a multicyclone was 

measured and analyzed at various heating loads of a boiler, the maximum power of which amounts to 2,2 MW. This 

paper presents the infl uence of fl ue gases on the roughness and corrosiveness of multicyclone material inner wall. 

A corrective dimensional parameter of the multicyclone was suggested for the purpose of maximum purifi cation of 

fl ue gases at unfavorable incineration conditions and biomass characteristics. 

Key words: biomass, multicyclone, fl ue gases, purifi cation, roughness, corrosiveness 

UVOD 

Biomass is a traditional energy source and the most 

complex form of renewable energy sources. For the 

most part it involves forest and agricultural biomass, 

waste and residual material from wood-working and 

similar industries, non-wood biomass, animal waste and 

residues as well as selected municipal and public waste 

[1, 2]. Each of the biomass forms has a different energy 

value. Depending on the moisture content, density, type 

and variety, the lower heating value of renewable wood 

ranges between 7,5 kJ/kg and 20 kJ/kg [2]. At the immobile 

boiler grid the combustion of sawdust and woodchips 

of various moisture and quality is enabled. With 

fuel being homogenously distributed on the whole grid 

surface and the inlet of the primary air that is blown 

below the grid being even, the combustion process is 

carried out. Depending on the state, type, form and 

moisture of biomass and by means of varied air excess 

ratio control, complete fuel combustion with the highest 

heating effi ciency is aimed at. Grids with the fuel inlet 

from below are used in plants of lower power and for 

the combustion of biomass containing smaller amounts 

of ashes [3]. In the course of biomass combustion at 

such plants, the emission limit values of solid particles 

after the purifi cation of fl ue gases amount to 150 mg/m 3 

[4]. The removal of solid particles and ashes from fl ue 

gases is mostly carried out by using cyclone separators 

by means of combined actions of centrifugal and gravity 

force [5-7]. The separation of solid particles larger 

than 5 μm with the effi ciency of up to 97 % is performed 

by using a multicyclone composed of several cyclone 

A. Čikić, Technical College in Bjelovar, Bjelovar, Croatia. 

A. Pintarić, University of Applied Sciencies, Vukovar, Croatia 

I. Samardžić, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in Slavonski Brod University 

of Osijek, Croatia. 

separators in parallel arrangement that are suitably sized 

[7-9]. While driving plants of lower heating effi ciency, 

emissions of solid particles in fl ue gases are measured 

discontinuously or occasionally, mostly at convenient 

biomass characteristics and maximum heat load. There 

are limited analyses related to emissions of solid particles 

in purifi ed fl ue gases depending on the type, state 

and moisture of biomass. Research related to the effects 

of solid particles on the roughness of multicyclone assembly 

walls while they are being separated from fl ue 

gases during the combustion of biomass of variable 

quality is scarce. The fact that tiny solid particles “stick” 

to inner walls in certain multicyclone assembly zones is 

more or less neglected. Research into solid particles 

content in purifi ed fl ue gases during the combustion of 

various types and moisture levels of biomass was conducted. 

The research also involved the infl uence of solid 

particles on the roughness and “sticking” on to the multicyclone 

inner walls with the purpose of assessing fuel 

quality and emissions of solid particles. 

OBJECT, MATERIAL AND EXPERIMENT 

The research was conducted at a new thermal power 

plant, the maximum heat effi ciency of which amounts 

to Q = 2,2 MW, during the biomass combustion on a 

grid with fuel inlet from below. The purifi cation of fl ue 

gases was carried out by means of a multicyclone composed 

of 20 cyclone units, each with inner diameter d = 

150 mm and total height h = 1500 mm (Figure 1). The 

produced thermal energy was used for district heating 

of agrotechnological objects during two heating seasons. 

Examinations were carried out during the combustion 

of various biomass: sawdust (Sd), woodchips 

(Wc) sized 10 mm – 80 mm and crushed indigo bush 

(Ib) (Amorpha fructicosa) stem sized 30 mm – 100 mm. 

111

A. ČIKIĆ et al.: THE INFLUENCE OF BIOMASS QUALITY ON THE PURIFICATION OF FLUE GASES... 

Figure 1 Multicyclone (measurement points) 

Sawdust incineration in the boiler combustion chamber 

was carried out in three intervals, each lasting for 30 

days, with the moisture amounting to ≈ 20 %, ≈ 30 % 

and ≥ 50 %. In the following intervals, each lasting for 

40 days, woodchips with the moisture amounting to ≈ 

20 %, ≈ 35 % and ≥ 50 %, and fi nally crushed indigo 

bush (Amorpha fructicosa) stem with the moisture 

amounting to ≈ 18 %, ≈ 25 % and ≥ 45 % were used as 

fuel. 

By means of varied control of the fuel and air inlet 

the combustion process was controlled according to the 

changes of the plant’s thermal load. A digital instrument 

of the D – RX 250 type was used for measuring emissions 

of solid particles E sp in fl ue gases after they had 

been purifi ed by a multicyclone. At the input speed 

equaling between 15 m/s and 18 m/s and the output 

speed equaling between 14 m/s and 16 m/s fl ue gas temperatures 

were measured in all biomass combustion intervals. 

The values amounted to ϑ fg,in = 180 °C – 215 °C 

in front of and ϑ fg,out = 175 °C – 211 °C behind the multicyclone. 

The solid particles emission E sp in purifi ed 

fl ue gases was measured and recorded every 10 minutes 

within a 24-hour interval t during the combustion of 

each biomass category. The average value of solid particles 

emission E sp,av during each interval t was determined 

as the arithmetic average of the E sp,i measurement 

result, by means of the equation (1) [10]: 

112 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 111-114 

E 

sp, av 

E 

Esp,1 + Esp,2 + ... + Esp, 

N i= 

1 

= = 

N N 

N = 144. 

N 

∑ 

sp, i 

(1) 

During the combustion of sawdust of diverse moisture 

(≈ 20 %, ≈ 30 % and ≥ 50 %) 40 average values of 

the solid particles emission E were determined per 

sp,av 

group in purifi ed fl ue gases within 30 measurement intervals 

t, i.e. 40 average values of the solid particles emission 

E per group during the combustion of woodchips 

sp,av 

(moisture ≈ 20 %, ≈ 35 % and ≥ 50 %) and crushed indigo 

bush (Amorpha fructicosa) stem (moisture ≈ 18 %, 

≈ 25 % and ≥ 45 %) within 30 measurement intervals t. 

With the multicyclone being technically adapted, surface 

roughness measurements Ra of the inner cyclone separators’ 

wall were carried out along the height h in measurement 

test zones MZa, MZb and MZc, whereat there are 

various values of tangential and radial velocity of fl ue 

gases stream [6, 7]. In each multicyclone test zone measurements 

were carried out on N = 12 cyclone separators, 

i.e. at the total of 36 characteristic measurement points 

(Figure 1). Surface roughness Ra of the inner steel wall 

and the thickness of “stuck” solid particles on inner multicyclone 

walls δ during the purifi cation of fl ue gases 

sp 

were measured after each combustion cycle of a certain 

biomass type, granulation and moisture. Surface roughness 

of the steel wall was measured by a digital instrument 

with a corresponding probe of the M112/3522 

SURTRONIC 25 type, and the thickness of “stuck” solid 

particles on the wall with a mobile digital instrument of 

the PCE – PT – FN – S1 type. The average value of surface 

roughness Ra of the inner wall in the measurement 

av 

test zones MZa, MZb and MZc was determined as the 

arithmetic average of the Ra measurement results, by 

i 

means of the equation (2) [10]: N( a, b, c) 

∑ Rai 

i= 

1 

Raav ( MZabc , , ) = 

Nabc ( , , ) ; (2) 

N(a) = 12, N(b) = 12 and N(c) = 12. 

The relation (3) [10] was used for determining the 

average thickness value of “stuck” solid particles δ sp , av 

on inner walls in zones MZa, MZb and MZc of the multicyclone 

cyclone separators; 

N( a, b, c) 

∑ 

sp, i 

i 1 

sp, av ( , , ) 

( , , ) 

MZabc = = 

Nabc; 

(3) 

N(a) = 12, N(b) = 12 and N(c) = 12. 


Quantifi ed average values of solid particles emission 

E sp,av of purifi ed fl ue gases during the combustion 

of diverse biomass quality in a combustion chamber, 

the thermal effi ciency of which amounts to 2,2 MW, are

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 111-114 


shown in Figures 2, 3 and 4. Average values of solid 

particles emission E sp,av are four to six times higher than 

the limit allowed at plant commissioning. As the combustion 

of various types and granulation of wood biomass, 

the moisture of which amounts to more than 30%, 

takes place, the average emission of solid particles in 

purifi ed fl ue gases increases, especially when the plant’s 

thermal load decreases. There are oscillations and the 

values of solid particles emissions in purifi ed fl ue gases 

during the combustion of sawdust of diverse moisture 

are 3 − 5 times higher. Only in shorter intervals the 

emissions of solid particles equal ≤ 150 mg/m 3 during 

the combustion of sawdust, the moisture of which 

amounts to approximately 20 %. There are signifi cantly 

less oscillations in values of average emissions of solid 

particles in purifi ed fl ue gases during the combustion of 

woodchips and crushed indigo bush stem (Amorpha 

fructicosa) of various moisture levels at variable thermal 

load of the plant. The average emission of solid particles 

E sp,av increases by about 25 % to 60 % as the moisture 

content increases above 20 % in woodchips and 

above 18 % in indigo bush. 

Figure 2 Average emissions of solid particles E sp,av – sawdust (Sd) 

Figure 3 Average emissions of solid particles E sp,av – woodchips (Wc) 

Figure 4 Average emissions of solid particles E sp,av – indigo bush (Ib) (Amorpha fructicosa) 

Figure 5 shows a diagraph of the average surface 

wall roughness Ra av by following the combustion of a 

certain biomass type, granulation and moisture. 

In the MZa zone of high tangential speeds of fl ue 

gases and collisions of solid particles and cyclone separator 

walls, the average surface roughness of the steel 

wall Ra av is decreased for about 20 % − 25 % compared 

to the initial value, and then it becomes approximately 

constant regardless of the biomass quality and moisture. 

In the MZb and MZc zones the average wall roughness 

Ra av increases compared to the MZa zone by approximately 

15 % − 50 %, which is more apparent during 

the combustion of biomass with the moisture content 

amounting to ≥ 50 %. The quantifi ed average values 

of the “stuck” solid particles layer δ sp,av on cyclone separator 

walls of the multicyclone assembly are shown in 

Figure 6. During the separation solid particles do not 

“stick” in the MZa zone, whereas cumulative “sticking” 

of a part of solid particles, the layer thickness of which 

ranges between 40 µm and 540 µm, was determined in 

the MZb and MZc zones, where at the average surface 

113


Figure 5 Average surface wall roughness Ra av (MZa, MZb, MZc) 

wall roughness Ra av increases. The moisture of woodchips 

> 35 % and crushed indigo bush > 25 % contributes 

to faster “sticking” of smaller solid particles of fl ue 

gases on to the cyclone separator walls. 

At lower thermal load and during the combustion of 

biomass, the moisture of which amounts to ≥ 50 %, tiny 

particles partially get detached from the surface layer 

δ sp , which increases solid particles emissions in purifi ed 

fl ue gases. A corrosive effect of fl ue gases on the multicyclone 

assembly was not recorded. 

CONCLUSION 

During the combustion of examined biomass in a 

combustion chamber with maximum thermal effi ciency 

amounting to 2,2 MW and the purifi cation of fl ue gases 

by means of a multicyclone, the average surface roughness 

Ra av is altered and the layer of “stuck” solid particles 

δ sp,av cumulatively grows in certain cyclone separator 

zones. Ra av and δ sp,av directly contribute to higher average 

solid particles emission E sp,av in output fl ue gases. 

Multicyclone application correction parameter f m for 

a continuous emission of solid particles in output fl ue 

gases ≤ 150 mg/m 3 due to biomass combustion equals: 

− woodchips with moisture content ≤ 35 %, 

− crushed indigo bush (with moisture content ≤ 25 %, 

− independent sawdust combustion is not recommendable, 

− Ra av ≤ 100 µm, δ sp,av ≤ 320 µm. 

Figure 6 Average thickness of solid particles layer δ sp,av (MZa, 

MZb, MZc) 

LITERATURE 

[1] R. Marutzky; K. Seeger: Energie aus Holz und underer 

Biomasse, DRW Verlag, Weinbreener, Linfelden-Echtlingen, 

Njemačka, 1999. 

[2] A. Čikić; Ž. Kondić: Research of the waste biomass technical 

and economic valve as one of the technological and 

energy development criteria wood processing plants, Technical 

Gazzete, 17(2010)1, 53-59. 

[3] J. Kinni: Solutions of bioenergy – Fluidized bed boilers, 

http://www.greennetfi nland.fi /en/clusters/energy/currentactivites/biomass-seminar-12-sep-2005.html 

[4] Uredba o graničnim vrijednostima emisija…. NN 21/07. i 

10/08., NN RH, Zagreb, 2007. i 2008. 

[5] C. J. Wijsman; R. Tol: Cyclone calculation, April, 1982. 

[6] F. Boysan; H. W. Ayers: J. Swithenbank: A Fundamental 

Mathematical Modeling Approach to Cyclone Design, 

Trans. 1 Chem E, Vol 60, 1982. 

[7] G. R. Dorman: Dust control and air cleaning, Pergaman 

Press, Oxford, 1974. 

[8] J. A. Ter Linden: Cyclon Dust Collectors for Boilers, Transactions 

of the ASME, April, 1953. 

[9] H. Brover; G. B. Y. Varma: Air Pollution Control Equipment, 

Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 

1981. 

[10] I. Šošić; V. Serdar: Uvod u statistiku, Školska knjiga, 

Zagreb, 1997. 

Proofreading: prof. Ivana Jurković, Technical College in Bjelovar, 

Croatia 

114 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 111-114

D. LETIĆ, B. DAVIDOVIĆ, I. BERKOVIĆ, B. RADULOVIĆ, J. SAVIČIĆ 

PLANNING OF DESIGNING AND INSTALLATION 

OF MECHANICAL ELEMENTS AT THE GEAR SPEED 

REDUCER ON THE BASIS OF THE PARAMETER TECHNOLOGY 

D. Letić, B. Davidović, I. Berković, B. Radulović, Technical Faculty 

“Mihajlo Pupin”, Zrenjanin, J. Savičić, Faculty of Education, Sombor, 

University of Novi Sad 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 115-118 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 115-118 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 621.9.002.5:621.833:658.23=111 




The development and implementation of the computer methods at project managing in the part of the planning of 

designing and installation of mechanical elements with the fi t (assembly block) of the gear speed reducer is signifi - 

cant and at present irreplaceable engineering task if it has been realized by the modern parameter technology. 

There are multifunction uses of this organized group of activities, beginning from the quick changeability of elements 

still in the phase of designing and constructing, thanks to the characteristics of their associativity, still to the 

wide basis of standard elements that are incorporated in the very program package. Meanwhile, these activities are 

not simple, so their realization has to be planned from the stand - point of time, resource and cost of realization. For 

the very designing and constructing was used AutoCAD Mechanical, and for the design managing Microsoft 

Project. 

Key words: Mechanical elements, speed, reducer, CAD/CAE technologies, Project Management 

INTRODUCTION 

The computer methods and technologies of the type 

CAD/CAE have been given in recent years a fundamental 

new access to the process of projecting or designing 

and constructing [1, 2]. By computers applying will be 

multifunctionally shortened that process and, besides 

direct time saving, it enables substantially shortened 

way for the products development. In principle as well 

with constructing, beginning with the essential entities, 

still to the creating the complex 3D models, there take 

place large – scale calculations. With the computer geometry 

modelling a constructor – practicist is not practically 

interested how is mathematically formed e.g. 

Bézier’s curve or the union of many solids on the principle 

of Bool’s mathematics, but only the results and 

effects of the application of the user oriented tools. Because 

there is necessary high interactivity user – computer, 

every creating and/or editting is adapted to the 

user not only concerning geometry, calculation or 

graphics as the result of the information processing and 

the likes. Though Mechanical Structure (Figure 1) in 

AutoCAD [3], the user will learn to work with the folders 

and components of the view on the drawing. 

The same refers to the survey of the Bill of Materials 

(BOM) [4], restructuring geometry components, then kow 

to insert components from the external fi le, changes in real 

time localization of the outer drawing components and the 

changes of the fi xed form of the local components. 

The Function of the Mechanical Structure 

In this example is visually presented the machine 

structure necessary for forming the objects and folders 

that logically and structurally support the drawing. 

Meanwhile, parallely with the defi ning of the hierarchy 

structure of the elements in the fi t, there has also to 

be defi ned the sequence of the construction performing, 

and later its realization in production, especially when 

there is team work at stake. This set of the designer’s 

activities is backed by a program package as e.g. is MS 

Project [5], so that for the treated fi t are given the elements 

of the ganttogram (Figure 2) or network diagram 

of these activities which can be described in details up 

to the level of small time units (e.g., minutes). 

Figure 1 The duality of objects with the tree hierarchy of its 

forming 

115

D. LETIĆ et al.: PLANNING OF DESIGNING AND INSTALLATION OF MECHANICAL ELEMENTS AT THE GEAR SPEED... 

Figure 2 The ganttogram of the activities at the assembling 

of the toothed transmission gear 

The function of the bearings and sealings at 

the reducing gear constructing 

Rearings are the machine elements for the abutment 

of the shafts and axles. According to the more detailed 

defi nition [6] the bearings are the machine parts or engine 

details. Their assignment is to enable relative 

movement of the revolving parts together with the transmission 

of loading and ensuring of the accuracy of their 

location. One can differentiate carrier bearings for the 

radial force as well for the axial forces. The bearings 

ought to be lubricated in order to reduce frictions, heatings, 

vibrations and increasing of the degrees of effi - 

ciency and safety. The application of the roller bearers 

or antifriction bearings is considerably greater than the 

slide ones. They are distinguished by high degree of 

standardization and mass production in the specialized 

factories, lower producer’s cost, relatively simple structural 

construction of the bedding with satisfying carrying 

capacity for lower and medium rotation frequency, 

simple lubrication and maintenance and the convenience 

of replacement. The suitability of installation is 

not always present. The rolling bearings are accident 

sensitive to the impact loads and they are substantially 

more expensive than the slide bearings. 

The montage and dismantlement (depending on 

types) can be more complex than with the sliding bearings. 

They are classifi ed as follows: ball bearings, cylindrical, 

conoid – cylindrical, or tapered roller bearings, 

barrel shaped bearings, needle bearings and similar 

ones. The calculation of the carrying capacity is developed 

as for static working state so for the dynamical 

one. The sealings prevent leaking of the lubricants and 

penetration of alien bodies, the entrance of impurities, 

dust, etc. into the bearing or in the working premises 

(e.g. with the reducedr or multiplicator) where it is positioned. 

Different solutions of these sealing joints 

ahave been applied. For the sealing of bearings up to the 

medium working speeds are suffi cient the trapezoidal 

sealings. The sealing material is as well the artifi cial 

rubber resistant to the oil effects. Sealing packings have 

been used for the reliable sealing at the less pressure of 

the sealing material on the sliding surfaces. Further in 

this paper was worked out the sequence of the installations 

of the radial rubber ring between the shaft and the 

ring sealing at the housing. The choice of the rolling 

bearings has been performed on the basis of the assigned 

working conditions, according to the working 

characteristics of some bearings. The designer at fi rst 

commits himself to the certain type of the rolling bearing 

and then determinates the necessary dimensions according 

to the standard procedure. The selection of its 

value has been performed taking into consideration its 

statical, dynamical carrying capacity respectively. In 

the case that the bearing size is known, as well the exploitation 

conditions in which it is, its lifespan can be 

checked. The choice can be performed in this way 

choosing the best solution from many available variants. 

This selection method practically is a simulation 

procedure as the part of the bearing calculation. In this 

way can be obtained e.g. these data: 

Dynamic Radial Factor X: 0,56 

Dynamic Axiall Factor Y: 2,19 

Static Load Rating Co: 32500 N 

Dinamic Load Rating C: 47500 N 

Adjusted Rating Life Lna: 394910 h 

fo Factor 15,26. 

The application of the method of the 

including standard elements for the gear 

On the unfi nished subassembly the Elements of the 

gear according to the Figure 3 add the drawings of the 

standard bearings, screws, wedge, sealing and similar: 

• The preparation of the object for the application of 

the carrying in. 

Figure 3 The gear shalf prepared for carrying in the bearing, 

securing, sealing and wedge 

The choice of the rolling bearing for the support A: 

From the obtainable family of these bearings chose the 

standard one, according to DIN 628 - 3: 2008. 

The verifi cation of the load follows on the basis of 

the current dialogue DIN 628-3: 2008. 

Similar procedure can be done as well with the entering 

of the rolling bearing drawing for B journal 

116 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 115-118 

• 

• 

• 

•

• 

• 


Figure 4 Two phases of the carrying in of the rolling bearings 

in the support A 

Figure 5 Two phases of the bringing in and verifi cation of the 

rolling bearings in the B support 

Carrying in the nut and the lockring of A bearing 

Bringing in the sealing object on the drawing of B 

pivot 

Figure 6 The fi nishing phase of the inserting of the nut and 

the nut circlip 

Figure 7 The phases of the sealing setting on the shalf collar 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 115-118 

The inserting of the drawing 

for the inside screw thread 

Select the symbol of the internal screw thread by the 

procedure from the menu: Content � Holes � Tapped 

Blind Holes... and so is being opened the dialogue Select 

a Tapped Blind Hole. 

Figure 8 The phases of carrying in M8 x 35 mm screw 

• 

The procedure of the carrying in the screw repeat as 

well for the lower (down) position of the aperture. 

The cottered joints 

Cotters keys connect shafts and hubs of the cog gears, 

couplings and others. The essential characteristic of the 

connection with the cotter key, is the possibility of the 

transfer of relatively great rotary moments and possibly 

axial forces. Their assembly and disassembly out of the fi t 

is relatively simple. They are being connected by the cotters 

with the shaft of the arm pulley, cog wheels, fl ywheels 

with the crank shafts, levers, couplings and similar. There 

are many standard forms of keys: longitudinal and transversal, 

with the camber angle or without it. In modern constructional 

solutions the most frequent are longitudinal 

cotters without inclination. These cotters keys are set by 

solid fi tting in the shaft groove. In the hub key – way the 

resting is loose. 

Entering the groove and cutter 

keyon the right side of the shaft 

• 

From the pallet of the tools Content, activate the 

icon command Parallel / Woodruff Keys, and so is 

opened the dialogue Select a Key or Hub. 

Figure 9 The phases of the creating of the fl ute and the 

cutter and determining of the appropriate 

dimensions 

117


Entering the drawings of the central nests 

on the shaft 

• 

The fi nished fi t in one projection is given in the following 

Figures 10, and 11 respectively. 

Figure 10 The inserted central nests on the shaft ends 

Figure 11 The formed drawing of the fi t of the gearing shaft 

CONCLUSION 

The procedures of the entering of the fi nished elements 

for the experienced designers are not now a great problem 

taking into consideration the disposability of the high – 

sophisticated softwares as AutoCAD Mechanical and for 

the planning of the complex projects MS Project. In those 

terms can be combined as well their information relations, 

so these procedures become more compatible and more effi 

cient. 

REFERENCES 

[1] K. Lee, Principles of CAD/CAM/CAE systems, Addison 

– Wesley, USA, (1999), p. 88. 

[2] B. Grizelj, I. M. Kenter, P. Jović, Potpora računala primjenom 

CAD-CAM u planiranju alata i tehno loš kom optimiranju, 

Metalurgija 40(2001)2, 91-93. 

[3] D. Letić, B. Davidović, E. Desnica, AutoCAD Mechanical 

2011, Computer library, Belgrade, (2011), p. 2-17 

[4] P. Virdzek, K. Teplická, Napredne metode u dizajnu i njihova 

primjena u strojarstvu, Metalurgija 45(2006)4, 347- 

351. 

[5] J. Heizer, B. Render, Operation s management, 8th ed. Pearson, 

Prentice Hall, New Jersey, (2011), p. 93-113. 

[6] R. Celin, D. Kmetič, The cracks in the cylindrical bearing, 

Metallurgy periodical, 47 (2008)1, 69-72. 

Note: The responsible translator of English language is Srđan Šerer, 

Technical Faculty “M. Pupin”, Zrenjanin, University of Novi 

Sad, Serbia 

118 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 115-118

J. ŠEBO, J. BUŠA, P. DEMEČ, J. SVETLÍK 

OPTIMAL REPLACEMENT TIME ESTIMATION FOR 

MACHINES AND EQUIPMENT BASED ON COST FUNCTION 

J. Šebo, J. Svetlík, P. Demeč, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical 

University in Košice, Slovakia 

J. Buša, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics, Technical 

University in Košice, Slovakia 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 119-122 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 119-122 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 621.81:621-772:338.58=111 




The article deals with a multidisciplinary issue of estimating the optimal replacement time for the machines. Considered 

categories of machines, for which the optimization method is usable, are of the metallurgical and engineering 

production. Diff erent models of cost function are considered (both with one and two variables). Parameters of 

the models were calculated through the least squares method. Models testing show that all are good enough, so for 

estimation of optimal replacement time is suffi cient to use simpler models. In addition to the testing of models we 

developed the method (tested on selected simple model) which enable us in actual real time (with limited data set) 

to indicate the optimal replacement time. The indicated time moment is close enough to the optimal replacement 

time t*. 

Key words: machine replacement time, estimation, cost function 

INTRODUCTION 

The classic approach to determination of optimal replacement 

time in framework of renewal theory is based 

on probability. In the framework of replacement analysis 

[1-5] we can fi nd different approaches as e.g. economic 

life models [6], productivity analysis [7] simulation 

model [8] profi t maximization models [9]. Some 

authors incorporate different considerations: technological 

change [10-12], partially observed Markov process 

[13, 14], demand responsiveness [15], pricing policies 

[16], etc. to the analysis. Our approach is based on 

the idea, that „optimal maintenance policies can be obtained 

by minimizing the total expected cost...“ [17]. 

In our investigation we use real data set of commercial 

car operation, presented in Table 1. Presented input 

data received from an existing company contain information 

on cumulative costs and passed kilometers for 

each of 31 quarters (93 months) of the commercial car 

operation. 

Table 1 Input data structure 

Time t 

/quarters = 3 months 

Distance 

s / km 

Cumulative costs 

N / EURO 

1 895 8 364,87 

2 2 685 9 294,30 

… … … 

31 310 541 77 175,86 

Remark: The cumulative costs cover: fuel consumption 

and consumption of other liquids needed for car 

operation (oil, distilled water, brake liquid, etc.), regular 

servicing (inspections, new oil, new tires, new bulbs, 

etc.), and unexpected repairs (servicing after a road accident, 

etc.). 

Our approach to determination of optimal replacement 

time has not been developed from the mainstream 

renewal theory models. We started from a model [18- 

20] in the beginning which calculates optimal replacement 

time on the base of cost function in a form 

� 

N ≈ A + Bt + Ct 

(1) 

where t is the time. Then for unit cost we get 

N A 

−1 

= + B + Ct . (2) 

� 

t t 

Optimal replacement time t* at which unit costs are 

minimal is: 

* A 

t = (3) 

� 

C( 

−1) 

The model is operating in a way based on the data 

set (sequence of periods of machine or equipment use 

with information on cumulative costs for each period 

(e.g. our data set in Table 1 (column 1 and 3)). Parameters 

A, B, C, δ of the model for N (resp. N/t) are determined 

by some fi tting technique, and then the optimal 

replacement time t* is calculated. 

As the optimal replacement time we consider the 

time t* calculated using data from longer period of time, 

e.g., in our case 31 quarters (about 8 years) of machine 

operation. But in practice, we would like to know earlier 

if it is suitable to replace a machine. 

If we use the original model for calculation of optimal 

replacement time t * successively at the end of each 

time period (starting, e.g. from the 5th quarter) the fi rst 

estimates of t* will be fundamentally different from t* 

itself. 

119

J. ŠEBO et al.: OPTIMAL REPLACEMENT TIME ESTIMATION FOR MACHINES AND EQUIPMENT BASED ON COST... 

In text below we present in detail an approach based 

on sequential improvement of optimal replacement time 

estimation. 

In addition to presented successive estimation of replacement 

time we also studied some models for function 

N/t with more parameters and/or terms, and/or with 

incorporation of the second variable s. The reason is to 

study if more complicated models will have signifi cantly 

better approximations of our real data set. 

Models are compared by the value of the Sum of 

squared residuals (SSR): 

K ⎡ N ⎤ i 

SSR = ∑ ⎢ f () ti 

− ⎥ 

i= 1 ⎣ ti 

⎦ 

(4) 

where K is the sample size, and f(t) is the corresponding 

model. For each considered model we have 

calculated the Mean SSR error (MSSRE): 

SSR 

MSSRE = (5) 

K 

The model with minimal MSSRE value is considered 

as the most appropriate one for data approximation. 

DEVELOPMENT AND 

COMPARISON OF ALTERNATIVE MODELS 

In this section we fi rst present models which we 

have studied based on one variable – model (6), (7), and 

(8) for variable t, and models (9) and (10) for variable s. 

We have considered also two variable models (11), (12), 

(13), and (14). 

For the model parameters marking unifi cation reason 

let us consider fi rst Selivanov model in the form: 

N c2 

c4 

≈ c1 

+ + c3t 

t t 

(6) 

Beside the Selivanov model we have studied next 

model N 

c4 

≈ c1 

+ c2t 

+ c3t 

(7) 

t 

The next model have been more complicated one: 

N c2 

c5 

≈ c1 

+ + c c 4t 

(8) 

3 t t 

which is a generalization of both models (6) and (7). 

For models (7) and (8) we got the following “optimal” 

formulae: 

N 

−0, 

684 

≈ −1 

987, 5 + 112, 

3t 

+ 10 246,8 

t 

t 

N 

0, 

947 

−0, 

665 

≈ −2 

273, 

3 + 4141, 

9t 

+ 10 500, 

3t 

t 

The approximation (8) has smaller MSSRE (see Table 

2) what is the result of additional parameter introduction. 

In addition to models based on time variable t, we 

have considered next two models for distance variable 

s: 

2 

≈ c + c s + c s 

120 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 119-122 

N 

t 

1 

2 

c4 

3 

N c4 

+ c5 

ln s 

≈ c1 

+ c2s 

+ c3s 

(9) 

t 

(10) 

Next four two-variable models combine terms containing 

both variables t and s: 

N 

t 

N 

t 

t 

N c 

4 ≈ c1 

+ c2t 

+ c3t 

+ c5s 

t 

c4 

≈ c + c t + c t + c s + c s 

1 

N c 

2 

3 

5 

c7 

6 

(11) 

(12) 

4 

≈ c1 

+ c2t 

+ c3t 

+ c5s 

+ c6t 

⋅ s 

, (13) 

≈ c + c t + c t 

1 

2 

c4 

3 

+ c s + c t ⋅ s + c s 

5 

6 

c8 

7 

.(14) 

Parameters c 1 ,…,c 8 for all considered models we 

have determined using least squares method, by minimizing 

SSR value. Corresponding MSSRE values are 

shown in Table 2. 

Table 2 MSSRE errors for all models 

Model (6) (7) (8) (9) 

MSSRE 76,523 37,907 37,794 82,472 

(10) (11) (12) (13) (14) 

80,098 37,795 37,179 37,784 36,862 

The residuals for all models are graphically presented 

in Figure 1. Dashed line corresponds to Selivanov 

model (5), dotted lines correspond to the s-variable 

models (9) and (10). We can see that residuals of these 

models are larger than residuals for other t-variable and 

two-variable models represented by solid lines which 

are all close to each other. So, models (7), (8), and (11)– 

(14) are according to the spread of residuals preferable. 

From Table 2 it is evident that models (9) and (10) 

based only on the variable s, and also the Selivanov 

model (6) have larger MSSRE values than other models. 

Adding new parameter or successive new terms to 

the model (7), and combining t and s variables leads to 

Figure 1 Residuals for all models


Figure 2 Approximation comparison 

smaller MSSRE for models (8), and (11)–(14). The residuals 

for models (7), (8), and (11)–(14) are very similar, 

and practically equal, see Figure 1. Despite of different 

MSSRE values shown in Table 2, Figure 2 indicates 

that all approximation are good enough, hence all 

models are good descriptions of the behavior of unit 

costs from our data set. From this we can assume, that it 

is not necessary to use in practice more complicated 

models, respectively it is suffi cient to use simple models 

(7) or (8). 

OPTIMAL REPLACEMENT TIME ESTIMATION 

We defi ne the optimal replacement time t * as the 

time at which the unit costs are minimal. After that moment, 

unit costs are increasing. 

Based on the knowledge received in previous section 

we will further focus our optimal replacement time 

estimation to the models (7) and (8). For model (7) we 

come to the optimal replacement time t * by the assumption 

that the derivative N/t at point t * (resp. at the minimum 

of the cost function) should be equal to zero, so 

we get: 

1 

( c4 

−1) 

* ⎡ c ⎤ 2 t 7 = ⎢− 

(15) 

⎥ 

⎣ c3 

⋅ c4 

⎦ 

In the same way we get optimal replacement time 

formula for model (8): 

1 

( c3+ 

c5 

) 

* ⎡c2 

⋅ c ⎤ 3 t8 

= ⎢ ⎥ 

(16) 

⎣c4 

⋅ c5 

⎦ 

If we count particular optimal replacement times for 

both models, we can see that difference between 

* t =11,6388 and t5 

1 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 119-122 

* =11,5869 is irrelevant, what is caused 

by fact, that both models are good approximations to 

the real cost data set, what we have found out in previous 

section. These optimal replacement times are but 

calculated on the base of models approximated with use 

of whole real data set (in our case 31 quarters) (Remark: 

Approximations presented in Figure 2 are all based on 

Figure 3 Replacement time estimation 

complete data for 31 periods). But the point is that at the 

time when we should decide about replacement of machine, 

we do not have whole data set (in our case 31 

time periods). So our approach to enable practically usable 

replacement time estimation also with cost data set 

from limited number of time periods of machine operation 

consists in an idea that it is possible to use actual 

data which arrive at the end of each time period, and 

successive improve the estimation. 

On the Figure 3 we can see a sequence of estimates 

* * of “optimal” replacement times t (it means t calcu- 

7 

lated by using model (7) and corresponding formula for 

optimal replacement time (15)) for different number of 

time periods from beginning (k ) (in our case number of 

p 

quarters from the beginning of car purchase). For each 

value k we use corresponding partial data set for the 

p 

calculation of parameters for model (7) and consequent- 

* ly for the replacement time t calculation. The dotted 

7 

horizontal line indicates the value of the optimal replacement 

time calculated for the whole data set 

* (t =11,6388). 

7 

How we could use described behavior of successive 

* t estimations on Figure 3 on prediction of the optimal 

1 

replacement time in real time? This behavior bring us 

to the idea, that we can make the replacement decision 

* at the moment k , when the corresponding t value get 

p 7 

* below the bisectrix t = kp (see Figure 3 or in more de- 

7 

tail Figure 4). After that value k we get the next estima- 

p 

* tions of the replacement time in the past (t


Figure 4 Replacement time at point k p = 12 

CONCLUSION 

We can conclude that for determination of optimal 

replacement time t * defi ned as the time at which the unit 

costs are minimal we can use presented method using 

behavior of successive t * estimations. It is indicating 

when estimated replacement time is for the fi rst time 

smaller than actual real time (t *

A. WZIĄTEK-STAŚKO 

DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT – A TOOL 

TO IMPROVE A METALLURGIC ENTERPRISE 

A. Wziątek-Staśko, The Academy of Business in DąbrowaGórnicza, Department 

of Management, Poland 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 123-126 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 123-126 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 65.01:669.013.003:658.5:658.8=111 



Review Paper – Pregledni rad 

Global recognition of the Diversity Management concept is growing day by day and he is one of the most popular 

business areas of the past two decades. This article emphasises the key role played by diversity management in the 

process of optimising economic and social eff ectiveness of an enterprise, with a particular emphasis on the importance 

of the strategy in the operations of ArcelorMittal. 

Key words: diversity management, economical effi ciency,social benefi ts, metallurgical enterprise 

DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT – 

UNDERSTANDING EMPLOYEE DIVERSITY 

Diversity management is about noticing differences 

between people in (and outside) an enterprises and conscious 

development of strategies, policies and programmes 

which create a climate for respecting and using 

the differences for the benefi t of the organization. „Different 

people have different Leeds. The issue is to identify 

them” [1].In spite of frequent deliberations over diversity 

and diversity management, knowledge about the 

effect of diversity factors, other than gender, on effectiveness 

of an organisation management process [2]. However, 

a process of analysis may be signifi cantly impoverished 

when we limit ourselves to that parameter only. 

Personnel of an enterprise differs in terms of sex, age, 

educational background, race, sexual orientation, origin, 

religion and ability/disability. The personnel also differs 

in terms of their family status, personality and character, 

dreams and values, experience and competences. An 

equally diversifi ed classifi cation has been commonly 

used when setting employee diversity criteria. They include 

such discriminates as “visible, discriminates e.g. 

sex” and “invisible discriminates, e.g. religion” [3]; those 

that we can control e.g. our knowledge and those which 

cannot be controlled e.g. race [4], “observable” and ‘unobservable” 

parameters. According to [5], literature on 

diversity is diffi cult to comprehend and synthesize. First 

of all, the diffi culty comes from a wide range of defi nitions 

of the term and its often complicated systematic. 

Diversity management is based on a close relation between 

personnel, organisational culture and degree, to 

which the company’s mission is achieved.It applied to an 

invisible and often informal dimension of enterprise’s 

operation i.e. organizational culture (shared values, standards, 

convictions, habits as well as widely-held ways of 

thinking and behaving).It is an innovative personnel 

management strategy and it comes as the top level of deliberation 

over the role of a man in an enterprises [6], 

creating the real opportunity to optimize process fl ow effectiveness 

of many business processes [7].The strategy 

gains a particular importance when applied in traditional 

sectors of industry such as steelworks, where deeply 

rooted stereotypes continue to prevent equal treatment of 

employees. 

DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT – 

A STRATEGY WHICH PAYS 

IN SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC TERMS 

A well-planned diversity management introduced by 

those, who believe in its effectiveness, may bring a 

number of measurable benefi ts to enterprises. It should 

be approached both from the inside and outsider of an 

organisation [8, 9], which results in a multi-platform 

analysis. More and more often research results are popularized 

which indicate that equality and diversity in an 

enterprise, in particular in the category of sex of employees, 

correlate with the enterprise’s profi tability. Longterm 

research carried out by Roy Adler [10] from Pepperdine 

University, USA, identifi ed a relation between 

women occupying managerial positions and profi tability 

in a short and long-term perspective. An exhaustive study 

of 19 years which analysed 215 „Fortune 500” enterprises 

proved that there was a strong correlation between a 

high interest of women promoted to managerial positions 

and high profi tability of enterprises which employed 

them. Having measured the profi tability in 3 different 

ways (appropriate for different sectors): profi t as % of 

income, profi t as % of assets, profi t as % of the equity, it 

was proven that 25 “Fortune 500” companies (every 

year) with the highest representation of women in managerial 

positions, generated profi t higher by 18 to 69 % 

from Fortune 500 median in the same sector. Other inter- 

123

A. WZIĄTEK-STAŚKO: DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT – A TOOL TO IMPROVE A METALLURGIC ENTERPRISE 

esting results came from Catalyst’s research (“The Bottom 

Line: Connecting Corporate Performance and Gender 

Diversity”). An analysis covering 5 years of operation 

of 353 companies included in Fortune 500 list proved 

that there was a relation between sex diversity and company’s 

fi nancial performance. Companies with the highest 

number of women occupying top managerial positions 

reported better fi nancial performance than companies 

where the number of woman was the lowest. The 

conclusions were reported for both analysed criteria: 

ROE, which was higher by 35 % and the total shareholder’s 

profi t, higher by 34 %. An analysis of McKinsey’s 

research results also lead to interesting observations. Experts 

analysed responses of more than 58,000 respondents 

(European, USA and Asian Corporation). It turned 

out that companies with 3 or more women at top managerial 

positions generally reported better performance, considering 

organizational criteria, than companies without 

any female top manager. At the second stage of the research, 

performance of enterprises with women at top 

managerial positions in terms of their better fi nancial performance. 

To this end, in collaboration with Amazone 

Euro Fund, other research was organised. 89 listed European 

companies were selected, demonstrating the highest 

diversity at top managerial positions. These companies 

were selected from among listed European companies 

with market capitalisation in excess of EUR 150 million, 

on the basis of the following criteria: the number and percentage 

of female executive board (the CEO, the CFO, 

two or more female board members, as well as statistics 

on sex variety presented in the annual report). The results 

were contrasted with the mean for their sector. The analysis 

showed that the enterprises typically reported better 

performance than other companies in the sector in terms 

of ROE (11,4 % against always the mean of 10,3 %), 

EBIT (11,1 % against 5,6 %) and P/E (64 % against 47 % 

2005 – 2007) [11]. Apart from economic benefi ts, diversity 

management may also have social benefi ts. The leading 

strengths of diversity management include: 

1) An impulse to come up with new ideas and striving 

for excellence in work approach – diversity 

and inclusion of many ideas, points of view and 

employee experience may lead to break-through 

discoveries, thus increasing the competitive edge 

of an enterprise. 

2) Enhanced adaptability of an organisation. 

3) A bigger pool of options for internal recruitment. 

4) Extensive opportunities of HR reconfi guration 

supporting selection of an optimum management 

strategy. 

5) A possibility of a more accurate work divisi on 

and mutual replacement of employees thanks to 

complimentary qualifi cations. 

6) A bigger pool of potential company’s representatives 

to participate in negotiation processes. 

7) Increased knowledge resources of an organisation. 

8) Support for introducing the concept of a learning 

organisation, reduced monotony. 

9) Possibility to make more accurate decisions. 

10) Reduced distance to working out the best solutions 

thanks to an exchange of experience and 

ideas of diversifi ed staff. 

11) An easier access to the talent base – a more open 

environment attracts more talented and more 

creative persons who hope to be able to put their 

ideas into practice. The skills of using the talent 

diversity infl uences maximisation of company’s 

profi ts. 

12) Creating the atmosphere of cultural sensitivity 

and mutual tolerance. 

13) Enriching employees – employees infl uence one 

another, they work and operate in a diversifi ed 

environment – it is an opportunity to learn from 

one another. 

14) A more extensive network of colleagues. 

15) More effective management of an organisation 

– selection of management tools (recruitment 

and selection, motivation, career path, evaluation, 

leadership style, etc.) accounting for diversity 

of employee helps to reduce the risk of a 

failure thus reducing the precious time required 

to reach the end result intended by the employer 

[12]. 

DIVERSITY IN A MATEALLURGICAL 

ENTERPRISE 

ArcelorMittal focused on human resources believes 

that people are the major capital of business. One of the 

basic rules of the conception of human resource management 

is improving the employees’ potential and 

treating them as an integral part of the company’s development 

process.Te employees are encouraged to study 

and develop.The employees are expected to implement 

changes (innovative solutions) in particular departments 

of the company.The idea of the changes is to exchange 

present solutions by new, better ones.Each improvement 

of the company’s function simplifi es the working 

process while the work itself becomes safer.Arcelor- 

Mittal organizes trainings in the group’s plants.In the 

company there is Mittal University and Manager Academy.Manger’s 

Academy of ArcelorMittal is a complex 

training programme set up in 2006 for managerial staff. 

Managers learn innovative and analytical thinking, 

stress controlling, decision making in problem solution, 

solving confl icts, building team cooperation and principles 

of business communication [13].Moreover training 

programmes are also available in English (e-learning). 

Besides new employees attempt in trainings in the 

Academy of Talents – mentoring programme (mentors 

are experienced employees).The Academy of Talents 

was launched in 2009 [14]. ArcelorMittal does not approach 

Diversity Management as a fashion in enterprises 

management but as a useful tool improving the company 

and generating an added value for shareholders. 

This is confi rmed in the content of “Diversity and Inclu- 

124 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 123-126

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 123-126 


sion Policy” document addressed to the company’s 

staff. The company declares that: “Our goal is to build a 

modern fl exible workplace which allows for a thriving 

workforce where everybody is treated equally and respected 

for contribution.Realising the full potential of 

these capabilities will enhance our performance through 

helping us defi ne new markets, solve customer challenges 

and meet stakeholder expectations with innovation 

and creativity”.ArcelorMittal plans to put the words 

of the declaration into practice by achieving the following 

goals: 

1. Proactively identifying, analyzing and addressing 

diversity challenges within the Group and its units 

in order to support the deployment of this policy. 

2. Ensuring that all business units comply with legal, 

regulatory obligations, Code of Business Conduct 

and Values. 

3. Removing discriminatory behaviour at every step 

of work life and at every hierarchical level. 

4. Giving the right to all employees or service providers 

to a workplace free from harassment. 

5. Creating a supportive and understanding workplace 

environment in which all individuals feel 

welcome, respected and heard, and where they 

can realize their full potential regardless of their 

race, colour, sex, age, religion, ethnic or national 

origin, and disability. 

6. Adapting internal processes and procedures to 

support diversity and inclusion. 

7. Providing training and awareness on the responsibilities 

and benefi ts of diversity and inclusion to 

promote understanding of differences and similarities, 

decrease judgmental behaviour and increase 

acceptance and fl exibility and so enhance 

the effi ciency of our multicultural teams. 

ArcelorMittal has a lot of respect for experienced 

employees. The strategic “age management” directions 

in the company include: 

Preservation of knowledge in the organisation by 

creating inter-generation transfer of knowledge, in particular 

on line positions. 

Introduction of intermentoring to promote mutual 

education – the elder teach the younger, sharing their 

knowledge of the organisation and experience gained at 

the job, the younger teach the elder to use a modern approach 

to technologies and collection of information. 

Provision and promotion of continuous employee 

development – employees 50+. 

“50+ Friendly Company” project assumptions by 

ArcelorMittal [15]. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The contemporary world of business is transforming. 

The ability to meet these requirements and fi t into 

the new reality will largely depend on fl exibility of an 

enterprise, its innovation, and openness of its managers 

to innovation, managers’ competences in introducing 

changes and convincing other employees to accept 

them. The historical model of economy and job market, 

based on a male domination, in particular in sectors 

which are, by tradition, considered typically “masculine” 

(steelworks, mining, metallurgy), a crushing majority 

of male managers (and male top managers in particular), 

a pay gap between representatives of one and 

the other sex, is a model which does not pay off! Many 

economists claim that women are one of three emerging 

powers which shape 21 st century, i.e. „Weather, Women 

and the Web” [16]. Organisations profi t from diversity 

[17]. Companies and state institutions which favour one 

sex, do not appreciate the potential which diversity can 

bring. They behave as if they do not want to use half of 

their resources. Diversity management is one of the 

most popular business areas of the past two decades. In 

popularity rankings, it effectively competes with leadership, 

ethics and quality[18]. In particular, diversity 

management grows in importance in M&A. Organisational 

transformations are particularly challenging to 

HR management. They may create the opportunity to 

generate the synergy effect (human variety is a huge potential), 

unfortunately, they may also (in case of mismanagement) 

lead to total chaos. For example, Arcelor- 

Mittal Group which is the largest steel producer in the 

world treats mergers and acquisitions as the main strategic 

direction of the group.It was set up in 2006 as a result 

of merger between Arcelor and Mittal Steel.Thus 

the world received a company that employs over 320 

thousand people in more than 60 countries, and that is a 

global leader throughout all markets [19]. All the transactions 

are executed by the group of experienced and 

tested managers who usually fi ll the top managers’ positions 

in the new ventures. Gradually they move to the 

other steel plants being the parts of the corporation.The 

group is constantly enlarged as the concern broadens its 

scale and scope [20]. 

REFERENCES 

[1] Durbin S., Lovell L. Winters J.:Professional insights diversities 

in an organizational context.Equal Opportunities International.Emerald 

Group Publishing Limited 0261-0159, 

27 (2008)4, 400 

[2] Clair A.J, Beatty J.E., Maclean T.L.:Out of sight but not 

out of mind:managing invisible social identities in the 

workplace.Academy of Management Review, 30 (2005) 1, 

78 

[3] Egan M.L., Bendick M.:Workforce diversity initiatives of 

US multinational corporations in Europe.Thunderbird International 

Business Review, 45 (2003) 6, 701-727 

[4] Greenberg, J., Baron, R.A.:Organizational Behavior.New 

Yersey:Prentice– Hall (2000) 

[5] Harrison D.A., Klein K.J.:What’s the difference?Diversity 

constructs as separation, variety or disparity in organizations.Academy 

of Management Review, 32 (2007) 4, 

1200 

[6] Wziątek-Staśko A.:Diversity Management narzędzie skutecznego 

motywowania pracowników.Difi n, Warszawa 

(2012),24 

125


[7] Kormancová G.:Rozvoj ľudského kapitálu v oblasti 

projektového riadenia, In.Vedecko-odborný časopis: Ekonomika 

– Management - Inovace č., Moravská vysoká 

škola Olomouc, Olomouc, 3 (2011),1, 44- 49. 

[8] Allen R., Dawson G., Wheatley K. & White C.:Perceived 

diversity and organizational performance.Employee Relations, 

30 (2008)1, 20 

[9] ChavezC.I. & Weisinger J.Y.:Beyond diversity training:a 

social infusion for cultural inclusion.Human Resource Management, 

47 (2008) 2, 331 

[10] Adler R.D.:Executive director of the glass ceiling research 

center.Women in the executive suite correlate to higher 

profi ts.Glass Ceiling Research Center.Harvard Business 

Review, November (2001), 30 

[11] Report:Przełam stereotypy związane z płcią.Daj szansę talentowi.Zestaw 

narzędzi dla doradców oraz menagerów 

ds. zasobów ludzkich w MŚP.Międzynarodowe Centrum 

Szkoleniowe MOP, Stowarzyszenie Europejskich Izb 

Przemysłowo-Handlowych, (2008), 13 

[12] Wziątek-Staśko A.:Diversity Management narzędzie skutecznego 

motywowania pracowników.Difi n, Warszawa 

(2012), 44-47 

[13] Gajdzik B.:Concentration on knowledge and change management 

at the metallurgical company, Metalurgija 47 

(2008) 2, 142-144 

[14] Gajdzik B.:Workers’ development in the Polish steelworks 

plants, Annals of F.E.H. - Journal of Engineering, Faculty 

of Engineering Hunedoara – International Journal of Engineering, 

7 (2009) 1, 215-219 http://www.arcelormittal. 

com/corp/people-and-careers/why-arcelormittal/ di-versity 

(18.04.2012) 

[15] Wittenberg–Cox A., Maitland A.:Why women mean 

business:Understanding the emergence of the new economic 

revolution,Wiley & Sons, Chichester, (2008), 45 

[16] Worma D.:Is there a business case for diversity?Personnel 

Today.17 th of May (2005), 27-28 

[17] Anand R., Winters M.R.:A retrospective view of corporate 

diversity training from 1964 to the president.Academy of 

Management Learning & Education,7 (2008) 3, 356–372 

[18] Sroka W.:Competitive advantage through cooperation in 

networks on sector level:the case of steel industry, in:J.Kaluza 

(ed.): Strategic Management and its Support by Information 

Systems, VSB – Technical University of Ostrava, 

2009, p.62-69. ISBN 978-80-248-2031-6. 

[19] Sroka W.:Czy sieci aliansów potrzebują swoich menedżerów? 

Ekonomika i Organizacja Przedsiębio-rstwa, 

(2009) 10, 46-52 

Note: The responsible translator for English language is A. Nowińska, 

Poland 

126 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 123-126

W. SROKA 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 127-130 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 127-130 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 65.01:669.013.003:658.5:658.8=111 

COOPETITION IN THE STEEL INDUSTRY 

− ANALYSIS OF COOPETITION RELATIONS IN THE VALUE NET 



Review Paper – Pregledni rad 

The paper presents some of the problems relating to the coopetition relations in the steel industry. Coopetition is 

one of the key issues relating to the inter-organizational cooperation in recent years. On one hand, companies are 

working together and sharing the eff ects of uncertainty arising from the environment, and on the other hand they 

compete with each other in other areas, remaining competitors. In other words, they must reconcile each aspect of 

competition and cooperation, which is particularly important in case of cooperation involving more than two partners. 

Coopetition is a relatively new phenomenon, however it is growing very rapidly, and companies which are able 

to utilize this concept eff ectively can gain a coopetitive advantage over their competitors. 

Key words: coopetition, steel enterprise, inter-fi rm cooperation, competition. 

INTRODUCTION 

Coopetition is a phenomenon of inter-organizational 

cooperation, both bilateral and multilateral, and has developed 

very intensively in recent years. On one hand, 

enterprises cooperate together, e.g. in the form of strategic 

alliances, and network organization (alliance networks), 

which is especially evident in inter-organizational 

cooperation, and share the effects of uncertainty 

arising from the environment. On the other hand, they 

compete with each other in other areas, remaining competitors. 

In other words, companies need to accept the 

aspect of simultaneous competition and cooperation. It 

is by no means easy, especially when inter-fi rm cooperation 

includes more than two partners. Coopetition is 

increasingly gaining importance throughout the global 

economy. There is no industry that would no utilize this 

phenomenon in some shape or form. This applies mainly 

to the sectors with a high degree of globalization, 

however it also relates to traditional sectors such as the 

steel industry. 

THE IDEA OF COOPETITION 

Coopetition is regarded as a complex phenomenon, 

occurring both within an organization (in this case it 

usually relates to the large, diversifi ed entities operating 

in different sectors and at least in some markets) and 

between companies [1]. The concept was introduced in 

the 90s. as a combination of two concepts: cooperation 

and competition; etymologically, the word coopetition 

is a combination of these two terms. The complexity of 

W. Sroka, Academy of Business in Dąbrowa Górnicza, Department of 

Management, Poland 

the phenomenon relates to the simultaneous implementation 

of two contradictory logics of relations between 

companies: trust, which is a manifestation of a community 

of interests, and confl ict of interest. Therefore a 

paradox appears: companies that are working together 

need to trust each other, sharing information and experience, 

while at the same time remembering that they are 

dealing with competitors. A.J. Brandenburger and 

B.J. Nalebuff [2] are regarded as the precursors of the 

implementation of the coopetition concept in Management 

Science. They pointed out the necessity of developing 

coopetition dependencies in the economy. In turn, 

M. Bengtsson and S. Kock treat coopetition as a situation 

where competitors simultaneously compete and 

cooperate with each other [3]. K. Walley makes a similar 

claim [4]. W. Czakon [5] is of the opinion that coopetition 

is a system of actors in interaction which is 

based on partial compatibility of goals and businesses. 

He also claims that coopetition concentrates on the 

processes of value creation and reaping the benefi ts 

therein, and not only on relations between partners. 

Companies are at once clients, suppliers, service providers, 

competitors and partners to each other. They are 

the subject of mutual evolution both in terms of competition 

and cooperation. A common evolution is associated 

with sharing the same vision, alliance formation, 

negotiating contracts and establishing comprehensive 

relationships at management level. Generally coopetition 

is gaining importance and is increasingly visible in 

various industries. There is coopetition between two 

competing companies and also coopetition of a network 

nature. The basic benefi ts of coopetition include obtaining 

a cost advantage, which is the result of savings by 

coordinating activities with suppliers or distribution 

channels, access to innovation, and economies of scale. 

127

W. SROKA: COOPETITION IN THE STEEL INDUSTRY – ANALYSIS OF COOPETITION RELATIONS IN THE VALUE NET 

COOPETITION IN 

THE STEEL INDUSTRY IN POLAND 

Coopetition occurs in sectors with diversifi ed potential 

for globalization. Although there is a signifi cant 

positive correlation between the coopetition prevalence 

and the degree of globalization in the sector [6], the 

coopetition phenomenon can be observed also in the 

steel industry, despite the fact that the rate of globalization 

in the steel industry is only 33 % as opposed to a 

rate exceeding 100 % for sectors considered as highly 

globalized. Coopetition of enterprises in the Polish steel 

industry began in the early years of this century. The 

basic conditions for integration in the sector were: complete 

privatization of the largest Polish steel enterprises, 

transition from the repair restructuring to the development, 

greater liquidity, and favorable situation on the 

steel market, resulting in increased production. The domestic 

steel market of steel producers and steel products 

is formed by 22 steel enterprises, but the steel is 

melted in only nine of them. Eight companies (Coke 

Plant Zdzieszowice, Huta Warszawa, Huta Królewska, 

Walcownia Blach Grubych Batory, Huta Katowice, 

Huta Cedler, Huta Sendzimira, Huta Florian) belong to 

ArcelorMittal Poland SA [7]. At the time of its entrance 

into Polish market, ArcelorMittal also became the owner 

of a wide range of dependent companies, affi liated 

companies and those with minority interest, operating 

in different branches such as industry automation, service 

and production mainte nance, transport, waste management, 

trade, social activities and other. A theoretical 

division of their activities could have taken the following 

form: 

– entities connected with the basic activity of the 

concern – entities providing service assigned by 

the Polish Steelworks. 

– entities not directly connected with metallurgy 

which could provide services outside metallurgy. 

– entities not directly connected with the economic 

activities of the group [8]. 

The rest of the 22 steel companies belong to the 

owners representing foreign capital, or mixed (nationalforeign). 

By observing the changes in the steel market 

in Poland, one can try to develop a framework model of 

coopetition activities (Figure 1). 

There were some forms of internal competition between 

companies in the network confi guration, although 

this sometimes led to internal tensions. Such tensions 

were useful because they allowed increased fl exibility 

and network members were forced to keep a permanent 

fi nger on the pulse. Such forms of network relations 

were observed in the vast majority of steel enterprises. 

Coopetition is of particular importance in the case of 

cooperation involving more than two partners. This applies 

to the Polish steel industry, especially ArcelorMittal 

Poland. Internal competition within the network 

confi guration is determined by both the number of enterprises 

performing similar functions in the market, 

Figure 1 Model of “maturation” of steel enterprises to 

coopetition [9] 

and the mutual relations between them. Network participants 

have different approaches to this issue. Some 

will prefer to limit the number of network members, 

which reduces the potential for competition between 

them. Others will accept overall competition between 

the companies, which in turn allows for complementarity 

and ensures that the partners are more interested in 

cooperation than competition. Such internal competition 

has two different effects: 

– it increases fl exibility, drives innovation and ensures 

security of supply, 

– it marks the boundary between the optimal and excessive 

competition. 

This therefore requires a balance between cooperation 

and competition amongst partners. Companies 

within the network confi guration will have a completely 

different opinion as to what level of competition is appropriate. 

Those that are subject to internal competition 

will prefer more orderly processes, while others may 

benefi t from competition among suppliers and customers. 

The simultaneous occurrence of competition and 

cooperation between companies in the network is the 

most complex situation, but also leads to the most advantageous 

relationship between competitors. Partners 

can be separated from each other by various degrees of 

closeness to the customer, and by access to competitive 

assets. Coopetition is inherently linked to the phenomenon 

of confl ict of interest between partners, especially 

if there are more partners in the network. It is extremely 

rare to fi nd companies amongst which there are no confl 

ict of interest. It is therefore in the interest of the partner 

companies to fi nd a delicate balance between cooperation 

and competition amongst partners. This can be 

achieved through the careful selection of cooperating 

companies, also choosing an appropriate structure and a 

suitable management system. However, given the specifi 

city of coopetition, a key role is played by competent 

managers and human resource management, including 

the theme of diversity management. Perception of values 

and advantages� of diversity management and understanding 

of its importance can be a key factor in improving 

the process of inter-organizational cooperation 

[10]. Ultimately, people make all decisions, including 

those related to HRM. As has been already said, there is 

128 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 127-130


Figure 2 A classic network of steel enterprise relations 

network [1] 

a kind of paradox in coopetition. In any event, it is worth 

noting that being a company with a “human face”, and 

furthermore demonstrating social responsibility, is an 

important determinant of creating a positive or negative 

image of the company [11]. 

FACTORS SHAPING COOPETITION 

RELATIONS IN THE POLISH STEEL INDUSTRY 

Coopetition is driven mainly by global corporations 

seeking to increase value-added sources. These corporations 

create links, both vertical and horizontal, by 

building a so- called a value net ��and striving to achieve 

maximum benefi t. A classic example of a steel enterprise 

relations network consists of fi ve basic elements 

(Figure 2). 

Four of the fi ve factors presented, namely customers, 

competitors, suppliers are widely known and have 

been recognized in literature, e.g. in Porter’s fi ve forces 

model. In contrast, complementary organization is another 

important link, which enables competition and 

cooperation simultaneously and ensures that the combined 

operations should be profi table to all the participants. 

Suppliers, customers and complementary organizations 

generate benefi ts to the company in the value 

net. The vertical links indicate the occurrence of both 

cooperation and competition. Cooperation occurs when 

both suppliers and clients build customer relationships 

in order to create value. If there are benefi ts, they must 

be divided among the various participants. Customers 

usually insist on the price of the products, while suppliers 

exert their bargaining power according to expectations 

regarding prices, delivery time, payment conditions, 

etc. A more complex situation occurs in the case 

of a network of horizontal relations. In such networks, 

enterprise relations with both competitors and complementary 

organizations are more complicated. Complementary 

organization increases the value of products 

offered by the company compared to similar products 

offered by its rivals. Through the contribution of both 

tangible and intangible assets made by these organizations, 

the value of products offered by the company is 

also higher compared to products offered by the company 

itself. In the steel industry, service centers would 

be a classic example of such a complementary organiza- 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 127-130 

tion. Complementary organization enhances partners’ 

attractiveness for suppliers, because it is more benefi - 

cial for them to deliver their products to the complementary 

system than to a direct competitor. Competitors 

also reduce the attractiveness of suppliers to the consumers, 

because it is more appropriate to perceive competitors 

through the prism of coopetition, indeed, an 

open fi ght and competition can bring a Pyrrhic victory 

to the winner. The model presented uses the principles 

of game theory in relation to competition, cooperation, 

and creating coopetitive relationships. The model assumes 

that companies compete with each other, ensuring 

themselves the maximum benefi t, and relationships 

between participants in networks of relationships are a 

non-zero sum game. In other words, the achievement of 

business satisfaction, including profi t and an increased 

level of competitiveness does not only apply to a winlose 

relationship. 

RESEARCH ON COOPETITION 

IN THE STEEL INDUSTRY 

Although no specifi c research on the coopetition in 

the Polish steel sector has yet been carried out, at least 

two surveys have been partly devoted to this subject. 

The fi rst studies were conducted in 2008, i.e. before the 

economic crisis, and were mainly aimed at identifying 

the presence, scale and scope of network relations in the 

Polish steel industry. The study was conducted in three 

main thematic blocks: alliance networks formation, 

management of alliance networks, existence and growth 

of the networks. The research took place from April to 

May 2008. Questionnaires were sent to 50 managers 

representing 33 companies. Respondents were asked to 

comment on the proposed statement, answering “yes” 

or “no”; or to indicate the correct answer on a scale of 1 

to 5 (1 - minor importance, 5 - very high importance); or 

fi nally to submit their own proposals. A total of 32 responses 

were fi nally received, representing 64 % of the 

research sample. A few addressees did not answer due 

to the fact that the scope of the survey and/or type of 

character of questions was too comprehensive. The surveys 

confi rmed the existence of networks in the steel 

industry in Poland. They take usually the form of dominated 

networks: steel companies (a part of global concerns) 

are surrounded by a chain of steel business related 

companies, operating in different sectors. They are 

all connected by means of capital bonds, although some 

respondents also indicated the utilization of commercial 

bonds, with no capital engagement amongst the parties. 

In turn, in other research (conducted in 2011) aimed at 

the application of modern management concepts by 

Polish enterprises (which included a group of 125 companies 

operating in fi ve traditional sectors of the Polish 

economy: metallurgy and steel-related sectors such as 

machinery, coke, mining and energy), inter-organizational 

cooperation strategies were among the least popular 

management concepts utilized by the companies 

129


[12]. Respondents mainly favoured the formation of bilateral 

alliances, among which “loose agreements ...” 

were strongly dominant. Other forms of bilateral alliances 

were seemingly utilized only two or three times. 

It is worth noting that two respondents identifi ed the 

creation of virtual and network organizations, which 

means that the respondents mainly use the simplest 

forms of inter-organizational cooperation. On the other 

hand, it should be noted that virtual organizations, due 

to their nature, are rather the domain of other sectors of 

the economy. The outcome of said research confi rms 

the theory that modern management concepts, including 

inter-fi rm cooperation strategies where coopetition 

exists, are not only the domain of high-tech sectors. Research 

has confi rmed that companies from traditional 

sectors of the economy utilize modern management 

concepts in their operations, although the respective 

popularity of those concepts is highly differentiated. 

CONCLUSION 

Coopetition plays an increasingly important role in 

the global economy. Leading global corporations operating 

on a global scale, especially those that rely mainly 

on inter-organizational cooperation strategies, such as 

ArcelorMittal Group, make extensive use of this concept. 

Although there is no doubt that coopetition exists 

to a greater extent in sectors with a high degree of globalization, 

such as advanced technology, we can also 

observe coopetition in traditional branches such as the 

steel industry. On the other hand, it should be also 

stressed that while research into coopetition is growing 

very rapidly, and is an important issue particularly in 

the context of strategic management, many fundamental 

issues linked with the concept remain unexplained. 

This indicates, therefore, the need for further in-depth 

research on this phenomenon. Surveys on practical utilization 

of the concept in industries characterized by a 

high degree of globalization, such as consumer elec- 

tronics, would be particularly desirable. It is also important 

to analyze the coopetition in evolutionary terms, 

because the character of coopetition is constantly changing 

with the passage of time. 

REFERENCES 

[1] Cygler J.: Kooperencja przedsiębiorstw. Czynniki sektorowe 

i korporacyjne, Wyd. Szkoły Głównej Handlowej w 

Warszawie, Warszawa (2009), 30-48. 

[2] Brandenberg A.J., Nalebuff B.J.: Co-opetition, Doubleday, 

New York (1997) 

[3] Bengtsson M., Kock S.: Tension in coopetition. Academy 

of Marketing Science Annual Conference, Washington, 

DC, May 28-31, (2003) 

[4] Walley K.: Coopetition, International Studies of Management 

and Organization, 37 (2007), 2, 11-31 

[5] Czakon W.: Koopetycja - splot tworzenia izawłaszczania 

wartości, Przegląd Organizacji, 2009, 12, 11-14 

[6] Farrell D.: Odkryj globalny potencjał swojej fi rmy, Harvard 

Business Review Polska, November (2006), 88-99 

[7] Gajdzik B.: Przedsiębiorstwo hutnicze po restrukturyzacji, 

Politechnika Śląska, Gliwice (2009), 19-30 

[8] Gajdzik B., Sroka W.: Analytic study of the capital restructuring 

process in metallurgical enterprises around the 

World and in Poland, Metalurgija, 51 (2012) 2, 265-268 

[9] Gajdzik B.: Struktura łańcucha wartości dodanej w sektorze 

hutniczym, Gospodarka Materiałowa i Logistyka, 64 

(2012) 3,13-19 

[10] Wziątek-Staśko A.: Diversity management - narzędzie 

skutecznego motywowania pracowników, Difi n, Warszawa 

(2012), 61-65 

[11] Wziątek-Staśko A.: Ethics in the HRM process as a way to 

the sustainable development of the organization, Journal of 

Management and Sustainable Development, 29 (2011) 

2,71-75. 

[12] Lisiński M., Sroka W., Brzeziński P., Jabłoński A., Stuglik 

J.: Application of modern management concepts by Polish 

companies - analysis of research results, Organizacija, 45 

(2012) 2, 41-49. 

Note: The responsible translator for English language is Andrew Gillin, 

Poland 

130 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 127-130

B. GAJDZIK 

WORLD CLASS MANUFACTURING IN 

METALLURGICAL ENTERPRISE 

B. Gajdzik, The Silesian University of Technology, Faculty of Materials 

Science and Metallurgy, Department of Technological Processes Management, 

Poland 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 131-134 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 131-134 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 65.01:669.013.003:658.5:658.8=111 



Professional Paper – Strukovni rad 

World Class Manufacturing (WCM) assumes increase of effi ciency of the company by elimination of all the losses, 

wastage and dangers of safety. In ArcelorMittal the concept of WCM is implemented in particular enterprises within 

the capital group. In this publication the activities conducted in some of those enterprises are described. 

Key words: WCM – World Class Manufacturing, metallurgical enterprise, TPM - Total Productive Maintenance, cost, 

safety 

INTRODUCTION 

A competitive advantage is a consequence of low 

costs and high work effi ciency. The main condition of 

market success of an enterprise is continuous improvement 

of both production processes and the methods of 

management. The main assumption of WCM is optimisation 

of the processes through elimination of all losses and 

wastage. An enterprise which minimises the costs of its 

activities is considered a benchmark in a given sector. In 

the attempt to reach the competitive advantage other enterprises 

use the achievements of the world leaders of 

technological progress in the area of operational and marketing 

activities [1]. One of those world class producers 

in metallurgical sector is ArcelorMittal. The enterprise 

concentrates on the main areas of business activity improvement 

in an attempt to reach World Class Manufacturing. 

Particular areas in the enterprise called the pillars 

of WCM are presented further in this publication. 

PILLARS OF WCM 

IN METALLURGICAL ENTERPRISE 

WCM is a kind of problem solving philosophy in 

manufacturing enterprise. Initially, the concept functioned 

in big corporations on the territory of the USA 

and Japan. It was implemented mainly by automotive 

concerns. At present, the WCM system functions in 

many sectors of industry. World Class Manufacturing is 

based on the one hand on the management of the enterprise 

and on the other on the reduction of costs of conducted 

activities [2]. Integration of those aims requires 

continuous improvement of functioning of the enterprise. 

The result of implementation of WCM is the in- 

crease of effi ciency in various areas of functioning in 

the enterprise. In the subject literature a lot ways of improving 

the enterprise are described. The ones worth 

mentioning are for example the publications presenting 

the market success of Toyota [3]. In business practice 

each company has to work out its own way to reach 

WCM. Metallurgical concern ArcelorMittal established 

10 main pillars which, after their implementation, 

should provide the position of benchmark in the world 

metallurgical sector (Figure1). The main pillars are typical 

for World Class Manufacturing but the way to reach 

them is individual. 

First pillar of the WCM is the care about the work 

safety and the health of the workers. The enterprise 

Figure 1 Pillars of World Class Manufacturing in ArcelorMittal [4] 

131

B. GAJDZIK: WORLD CLASS MANUFACTURING IN METALLURGICAL ENTERPRISE 

Figure 2 Pyramid of safety in ArcelorMittal 

strives at the no-accident manufacturing. ArcelorMittal 

plans to keep the accident frequency rate at a level of 

less than 1. The rate between 0,5 to 0,3 is achieved in 

the best companies in the world and is a form of benchmark 

for the enterprise. In ArcelorMittal Poland this 

rate equalled 0,8 (the number of accidents per the 

number of man-hours in 2011) [5]. For the purpose of 

reaching the goal the standards of safe work and the 

pyramid of safety were created (Figure 2). The main 

task of the workers is the elimination of all the accident 

anomalies. Anomalies are all the irregularities in the 

work place which are instantly eliminated by the worker 

who identifi ed them. 

Another pillar of WCM is the monitoring of costs. 

The enterprise uses internal benchmarking by comparing 

the production costs per 1 Mg of ready products. 

Aiming at the reduction of production costs the employees 

take part in improving the course of the processes 

submitting the rationalisation ideas. The actions in one 

area only – in the fi eld of order on the work stations (5S 

method) brought a reduction of costs by about 13,9 

USD per 1Mg of ready products (data from enterprise in 

Saldanha, ArcelorMittal South Africa) [4]. 

The involvement of the working teams in the improvement 

of the company is the third pillar of WCM. 

The employees of the enterprise are treated as a team in 

which, no matter their grade in the hierarchy, each person 

can state their opinion, suggest a more effi cient solution 

or even question the decision of the supervisor. 

Fourth, fi fth and sixth pillar of WCM concerns the 

concept of TPM (Total Productive Maintenance). The 

main purpose of introducing TPM is to enhance the effectiveness 

of the whole machinery. TPM could also be 

looked at in the following way [6]: 

– T (Total) – the concept should apply to all employees 

from all company departments, 

– P (Producti ve) – productivity is a synonym of aspiring 

to achieve an ‘above-average’ result in the 

sector, 

– M (Maintenance) – could be interpreted as a company’s 

belief in its ability to remain on the competitive 

market or even gain a competitive advantage. 

TPM teaches machine operators and workers how to 

look after the company’s equipment. The essence of the 

concept is zero stoppages and zero breakdowns. Thanks 

to the TPM system each piece of equipment in the production 

line is always ready to perform its task and 

therefore no disruptions in the production process take 

place. TPM is a tool that helps to detect and reduce 

waste by means of three zeroes: 

– zero breakdowns, 

– zero defects, 

– zero accidents at work[6]. 

In order to achieve the high effi ciency of the machines 

and devices in ArcelorMittal, a re-organisation 

of work maintenance forces started. The company had 

to go from the intervention work system to the preventive 

system involving all the workers of the enterprise in 

the perfection of the manufacturing process by providing 

the reliability of the functioning of machines and 

devices. The basis for the creation of a new organisational 

structure of work maintenance forces in metallurgical 

enterprise was ordering the work posts into basic 

ones, the so-called core and secondary, the so-called 

non-core. Among the basic ones there are posts connected 

with work fl ow from creation of a notice concerning 

the need of a change to its completion [7]. The 

employees working on the improvements must know 

the device and the problems connected with it very well. 

They must be open to changes and have abilities to generate 

ideas individually. In the organisational structure 

of the maintenance services the costs expert is a very 

important post. Such employee receives a notifi cation 

about each change in the course of the process. There 

are three types of notifying which can be performed by 

any worker: 

– inspection and conservation, 

– registration of the defects, 

– registration of the standstill of a device [7]. 

The ideas concerning innovations proposed by the 

workers undergo a thorough assessment and are ordered 

according to a categorisation of changes and time of 

completion. In the analysed enterprise there are four 

levels of priorities for particular notifi cations: 

– level A – unexpected works, 

– level B – works for which the deadline has been 

set, 

– level C - works for which the deadline has not been 

set, 

– level Z– works for which the deadline has been set 

but has been put off (the postponement may result 

from the necessity to conduct additional analyses, 

expertise or costs calculations). 

Costs expert assesses each of the notifi cations and 

decides about their transformation into projects. Besides 

the costs expert post in the company there are also planning 

experts who deal with issues concerning planning 

and harmonising the notifi cations. First of them analyses 

the demands defi ning the materials, equipment and 

resources necessary for conduction of each of the tasks 

(tools, spare parts, workers and their qualifi cations), 

second expert creates a timetable of the orders which 

132 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 131-134

guarantees effi cient application of the resources and reduces 

the standstill of an installation to the minimum. 

Executors of the projects are the teams (gangs) which 

are lead by the foreman or the ganger. In justifi ed cases 

the conduction of the work is commissioned to external 

subcontractors. Additionally, in the organisational structure 

of maintenance services, a special post has been 

created of an expert on controlling the subcontractors. 

Moreover, among the additional posts there are also the 

production line supervisor and the expert on reliability 

issues. The reliability expert is a new post which did not 

exist in the structures of maintenance services of the enterprise 

in the past. Such employee serving the function 

of reliability expert analyses the reliability of the machines 

and devices, assesses the indicators of their functioning, 

creates a “tree” of equipment recording all the 

inspections, defects and breakdowns and sets the socalled 

critical points which undergo monitoring. Reliability 

expert co-operates with technological service by 

taking preventive measures. Simplifi ed diagram of improvement 

of the functioning of machines is presented 

in Figure 3. 

Sixth pillar of WCM is “early equipment management”, 

in which the time of decision-making, introduction 

of changes and conduction of operations (activities) 

really counts. In the enterprise the most modern 

techniques and methods of management are applied. 

Each of the pillars of WCM has its tools, for example in 

TPM the basic tool is 5S, in TQM - Six Sigma, in TBM 

– SMED [8]. 

Seventh pillar of WCM concerns the concept employees 

development. In the enterprise, a program of 

“competence management” has been introduced which 

assumes a skill matrix for each post as a tool for promotion 

and professional development of workers. For the 

purpose of WCM the organisational structure of the enterprise 

is being improved. The activities within Lean 

Management are implemented which allow for delegation 

of authorisations for as low grades of the company 

as possible. Besides, the whole structure of the company 

is aim-meeting oriented. System of motivation in the 

enterprise in based on diversity rule [9]. Diversity management 

is a high level step in the human resources 

management process. Is a good way to built well perceived 

image of the organization socially responsible 

[10]. The enterprise puts emphasis on the engagement of 

the employees. Currently the engagement of employees 

in ArcelorMittal Poland is 47 % (almost one in two workers 

takes part in realisation of goals of the enterprise). 

Being a benchmark in metallurgy sector is not possible 

without the care for product quality. Organisational 

structure of ArcelorMittal is based on two key pillars 

of manufactured products: the long and the fl at products. 

The enterprise cares for the customers and that is 

why it has prepared a program called “FoCuS” (For our 

Customers). It consists of four theme blocks: 

– development of Lean Management strategy, 

– research and development (B+R), 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 131-134 


Figure 3 Diagram of improvement of the functioning of 

machines in ArcelorMittal 

– best technology of manufacturing (BAT), 

– increasing the sales results. 

Providing the best quality of the products must go together 

with customer service system (ninth pillar of 

WCM). The basis for the assessment of the customer 

service is CSI - Customer Satisfaction Index. This index 

is calculated once a week for metallurgical products and 

consists of two elements: type On Time in Full - completion 

of the order on time and in accordance with expectations 

of the customer; and type Old Backlog − number of 

the orders completed on time. Each index is calculated 

separately for two segments of the market that is for superior 

customers and for regular customers. 

The last pillar of WCM is “environment and social 

responsibility”. In terms of environmental management 

the enterprise implements programs based on 3xR rule 

(Reduce, Reuse, Recycle). Examples of such programs 

are: rational waste management, that is reduction of the 

amount of metallurgical waste (currently per 1 Mg of 

produced steel there is 0.600 Mg of waste, mostly slag, 

70 % of which is disposed), reduction of pollution emission, 

particularly CO 2 – key environmental aspect of the 

enterprise (currently per 1 Mg of produced steel 2 Mg 

of CO 2 is produced). In the area of social responsibility 

the enterprise implements the following programs: 

„safety sustainable steel”, „investing in our people”, 

„enriching our communities” and “transparent governance”. 

In 2008 the enterprise published fi rst report 

about social responsibility [11]. In relations with other 

enterprises in value chain (cooperation in supply and 

distribution processes) tends towards strategic alliances 

and treats external growth as the main strategic direc- 

133


tion of the group. Up to now it has experienced a rapid 

growth by the execution of a successful consolidationbased 

strategy. The group made its fi rst acquisition in 

1989, leasing the Iron & Steel Company of Trinidad 

and Tobago [12]. It is worth adding that all the transactions 

are executed by the group of experienced and 

qualifi ed managers who usually fi ll the top managers’ 

positions in the new ventures. Gradually they move to 

the other steel plants being the parts of the group [13]. 

More recently, the group’s acquisitions have been concentrated 

on vertical integration, i.e. acquisitions of raw 

material producers or production sites. 

CONCLUSION 

The main goal of industrial companies nowadays is 

to gain a competitive advantage. The changing circumstances 

and the growing demands on the part of the customers 

necessitate the implementation of new production 

management methods. WCM have gained popularity 

in the steel industry in the last few years. In the analysed 

enterprise ten pillars of WCM were fi xed, each 

pillar has its owner and in each of them the working 

teams are being created with their leaders whose tasks 

are infl uencing the involvement of all employees in improvements 

of the enterprise in an attempt to reach: 

quality, reliability, safety, effi ciency and savings. 

This publication is a synthesis of the activities undertaken 

in ArcelorMittal in order to be granted the 

benchmark status among world producers of steel and 

metallurgical products. 

REFERENCES 

[1] Emilian B., Stec D., Grasso L., Stodder J.: Better Thinking, 

Better Results: Using the Power of Lean as a Total 

Business Solution, Center for Lean Business Management, 

Kensington Connecticut, (2002) 

[2] Kotter J.K.: Leading Change, Harvard Business School 

Press, Boston, Massachusetts (1996) 

[3] Itazaki H.: How Toyota Developed the World’s First Mass- 

Production Hybrid Vehicle, The Kikkan Kogyo Shimbun, 

Ltd., Tokyo (1999) 

[4] Rodaway Ch.: WCM in practice, Newspaper of Arcelor- 

Mittal, April 2011, p. 2 

[5] Safety and Health Report, ArcelorMittal Poland, Dąbrowa 

Górnicza (2011). 

[6] Gajdzik B.: Introduction to Total Productive Maintenance 

in steelworks plants, Metalurgija 48 (2009), 2, 137-140 

[7] Gajdzik B.: Maintenance process improvement through 

involvement of employees, „Gospodarka Materiałowa i 

Logistyka, 62 (2010) 11, 12-17 

[8] Womack J.P., Jones D.T., Lean Thinking: Banish Waste 

and Create Wealth in Your Cosporation, Simon & Schuster, 

New York (2002) 

[9] Wziątek-Staśko A.: Corporate social responsibility as a 

tool of improving employer branding in a company. Contemporary 

Challlenges in Management II - Proceedings 

from International Scientifi c Conference, Matej Bel University, 

Bańska Bystrzyca, (2010) 

[10] Wziątek-Staśko A.: Diversity Management narzędzie skutecznego 

motywowania pracowników, Difi n, Warszawa 

(2012), 65-67 

[11] Gajdzik B.: Social and ethical challenges for metallurgical 

companies, Metalurgija 47 (2008) 1, 61-64 

[12] Sroka W.: Mergers and acquisitions or inter-organizational 

cooperation? Determinants of choice, 29th International 

Conference on Organizational Science Development “People 

and Organization”, University of Maribor, Portoroz, 

Slovenia, March (2010), 24-26 

[13] Sroka W.: Czysieci aliansów potrzebują swoich menedżerów?, 

“Ekonomika i Organizacja Przedsiębiorstwa”, 

(2009),10 

Note: The responsible translator for English language is D. Grachal, 

Katowice, Poland 

134 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 131-134

J. KUTÁČ, K. JANOVSKÁ, A. SAMOLEJOVÁ, P. BESTA, Š. VILAMOVÁ I. VOZŇÁKOVÁ 

THE IMPACT OF PRODUCTION CAPACITY 

UTILIZATION ON METALLURGICAL COMPANIES FINANCING 

J. Kutáč, K. Janovská, Š. Vilamová, P. Besta, A. Samolejová, I. Vozňáková, 

Faculty of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, VŠB – Technical University 

of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czech Republic 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 135-137 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 135-137 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 669.1: 338.3 =111 



Professional Paper – Strukovni rad 

The most important and the most problematic in-house sources of fi nancing of metallurgical companies are profi t 

and depreciations. In the event that the aggregate value of the economic result and depreciations goes over to 

negative values, then this kind of in-house fi nancing ceases to increase Cash Flow of the company but, on the contrary, 

it will cause its reduction. It means that this type of fi nancing is to some extent uncertain, particularly in times 

of crisis, when there are noticeable fl uctuations in sales volumes, leading to a signifi cant infl uence of the volume of 

production on the amount of profi t. The article discusses the impact of production capacity utilization on metallurgical 

companies fi nancing. 

Key words: metallurgical production, production capacity, fi nancial resources, Cash Flow 

INTRODUCTION 

Obtaining fi nancial resources and their use to secure 

the necessary goods and to cover the expenditures of 

company activities is referred to as fi nancing. Companies 

have several options available to ensure their fi - 

nancing. An enterprise may be fi nanced either from foreign 

sources, which include mainly loans from banks 

and short-term liabilities, or from its own resources, especially 

from the basic capital, depreciations and profi t. 

It depends on each company and its fi nancial management 

which of the possible sources it will decide for and 

which is the most suitable one for its unique character 

and internal organization. The most effective solution 

is, in most cases, a combination of more of them. 

THE IMPACT OF PRODUCTION CAPACITY 

UTILIZATION ON METALLURGICAL 

COMPANIES FINANCING 

The factors that have recently had the highest share 

on the economic result of metallurgical enterprises include 

the impact of exchange rates, the impact of input 

prices, the impact of sales prices and the impact of production 

volume (infl uence of unused production capacities). 

The rate of the Czech currency, especially against 

Euro or Dollar, is a factor that cannot be infl uenced by 

the company. Its impact on the economic result can be 

managed by the company to some extent, but not signifi 

cantly and permanently. Regarding the infl uence of 

prices, each fi rm tries to reduce the purchase prices and 

increase the selling prices. This attempt is understandable, 

but we can in no way assume that any eventual successes 

in this area could offset the losses resulting from 

the simultaneous impact of unused production capacities. 

This effect has the most signifi cant impact on the 

economic result at the moment. 

The impact of unused production capacities on Cash 

Flow (CF) and on company fi nancing is based just on 

this effect on the economic result (ER). 

EXPERIMENTAL PART AND RESULTS 

It is desirable to defi ne the required formulas in order 

to calculate the effect of unused production capacities 

(rolled material) in metallurgical enterprises in the 

Czech Republic on the ER and CF, based on the available 

information. 

The effect of unused production capacities on the ER 

is calculated as an infl uence of the production volume on 

the ER, which is based on the product of the volume of 

unused production capacities in volume units (tonnes) 

and the gross spread per unit of production (€/t). The 

gross spread [1] is the difference between the price and 

variable costs per unit of production volume. It is a contribution 

to cover the fi xed costs and profi t [2]. 

Gross spread calculation [1]: 

KPj = Cj – Vj (1) 

KPj - gross spread per unit of production (€/t) 

C - sales price (€/t) 

j 

- variable cost per unit of production (€/t) 

V j 

Effect of utilization of production capacity on ER 

[3]: 

k = 

Qs 

(2) 

c 

Q p 

135

J. KUTÁČ et al.: THE IMPACT OF PRODUCTION CAPACITY UTILIZATION ON METALLURGICAL COMPANIES... 

k - production capacity utilization coeffi cient 

c 

Q - real production volume (tonnes) 

s 

Q - production capacity (tonnes) 

Unused production capacity-capacity reserve in 

units of production [2]: 

Q = Q – Q (3) 

r p s 

Q - capacity reserve (tonnes) 

r 

Q - production capacity (tonnes) 

p 

Q - real production volume (tonnes) 

s 

From the above presented formulas, we can derive a 

formula for the unused production capacity coeffi cient: 

it means that: 

Qr 

k n = 

Q p 

(4) 

k + k = 1 c n 

k - unused production capacity coeffi cient 

n 

k - used production capacity coeffi cient 

c 

(5) 

A coeffi cient of the relation between unused and 

used (real) production capacity can be derived in a similar 

way: 

Qr 

k v = (6) 

Q s 

it means that: 

k 

( 1 − 

k 

) 

c 

v = (7) 

kc 

kv - coeffi cient of relation between unused and used 

production capacity 

kc - used production capacity coeffi cient 

The calculation of the infl uence of unused production 

capacity on the VH (total amount of the gross 

spread) is based on the formula: 

VHr = Qr · KPj (8) 

VHr - infl uence of capacity reserves on the economic 

result (€) 

Qr - capacity reserve (tonnes) 

KP - gross spread per unit of production (€/t) 

j 

The calculation of the infl uence of the unused production 

capacity on the ER in relation to the unit of real 

production volume is based on the formula: 

VHj = 

VHr 

Qs 

(9) 

VHj - infl uence of unused production capacity per unit 

of real production volume (€/t) 

In cases where there is no indication of real volume 

of production, but only a coeffi cient (percentage) of 

production capacity utilization (k ) and the information 

c 

on the amount of the gross spread per unit of production 

(KP ), it is suitable to calculate the effect of unused pro- 

j 

duction capacities on the economic result in relation to 

a unit of real production volume using the following 

formulas derived from the previous ones: 

VHj = KPj · kv (10) 

VHj - impact of production volume in relation to unit of 

real production volume (€/t) 

KP j - gross spread per unit of production (€/t) 

kv - relation between unused and used production 

capacity 

The last formula can be practically used to calculate 

the general impact of unused production capacities per 

unit of real production volume. 

In case of metallurgical production of the Czech Republic, 

we can consider a gross spread ranging from 80 

to 180 €/t, which are values typical for majority of metallurgical 

productions. This range of gross spread values 

relate to VHj values presented in Table 1. 

Multiplying the real production volume of a concrete 

metallurgical enterprise by a value presented in 

the table above, within the scope of the corresponding 

amount of gross spread and utilization of production capacity, 

helps us to calculate the total value of the impact 

on economic results of the given company in € and, at 

the same time, the impact on the fi nancing of the company 

itself using their own resources. 

Table 1 Impact of production capacity utilization on 

economic result in €/t of real production volume 

Gross spread Production capacity utilization % 

100 90 80 70 60 50 

180 €/t 0 20 45 77 120 180 

170 €/t 0 19 43 73 113 170 

160 €/t 0 18 40 69 107 160 

150 €/t 0 17 38 64 100 150 

140 €/t 0 16 35 60 93 140 

130 €/t 0 14 33 56 87 130 

120 €/t 0 13 30 51 80 120 

110 €/t 0 12 28 47 73 110 

100 €/t 0 11 25 43 67 100 

90 €/t 0 10 23 39 60 90 

80 €/t 0 9 20 34 53 80 

If an average sales price of rolled material is, for example, 

about 550 €/t and the gross spread is approximately 

25.5% of the sales price, which are average values 

for rolled material common in the Czech Republic, 

the gross spread is about 140 €/t. 

A decrease in sales of rolled material in metallurgical 

companies in the Czech Republic in 2011 (4,974 

million tonnes) by 1.3 million tonnes [3], compared to 

2006 (6,274 mil. tonnes), indicates deterioration of economic 

results of these enterprises by about 182 million 

€ when the average level of gross spread is 140 €/t. This 

impact is logically refl ected in the reduction of their 

own resources usable for fi nancing, thus signifi cantly 

reducing investments into modernization of metallurgical 

production. 

DISCUSSION 

The tasks associated with determining the size of 

production capacity and its utilization belong to the 

most important factors of company economics. The ca- 

136 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 135-137

J. KUTÁČ et al.: THE IMPACT OF PRODUCTION CAPACITY UTILIZATION ON METALLURGICAL COMPANIES... 

pacity is a factor that affects both the total cost and the 

separate utilizations of the fi xed costs. If we examine 

this factor in relation to the fi xed costs, we must also 

take into account the type of production capacity, i.e. 

whether it is the use of machinery (technological) equipment 

or the labour force [4]. The capacity of machinery 

equipment in metallurgical production is based on the 

annual calendar time, and on the annual amount of fi xed 

costs associated to this capacity. The labour force capacity 

has a discontinuous character and it is based on the 

possibility of its utilization within a scope of a singleteam 

up to quadruple-team operation. The fi xed costs 

associated with this capacity have discontinuous course 

as well, characterized by their so-called step change 

when changing the working mode. Signifi cant changes 

in the working mode (adding or cancelling shift) often 

cause expense lag (e.g. costs of compensations, retraining 

of employees) in the area of fi xed costs. 

At present, the non-utilization of production capacities 

has infl uence on the decrease of the effi ciency of the 

expended fi xed costs, as a result of their digression. 

The categories of used and free fi xed costs represent 

a possible expression of this fact, although they are not 

very often used in metallurgical companies. This is a 

fi ctional division of the total fi xed costs to a value corresponding 

to the level of capacity utilization (used 

fi xed costs) and the value that is proportional to the degree 

of unused production capacity (free fi xed costs). 

Although the total fi xed costs of these two parts cannot 

be divided in the budgets and calculations, the explanatory 

power of these categories is important for information, 

especially in terms of the value expression of the 

unused part of production capacity [5]. 

The decline in production effi ciency due to unused 

production capacity can be offset directly through savings 

of fi xed costs. It is necessary to take into account 

the different suggestibility of the amount of fi xed costs 

when decreasing production, which is based on the nature 

of their origin. 

The costs are divided into the so-called sunk costs, 

which were mostly incurred in the past, before the actual 

production launch and which de facto determined 

the purpose of the business process. The reduction of 

capacity utilization has no effect on their amount. This 

category also includes depreciations of fi xed assets related 

to the subject of the main business activity. The 

possibility of elimination of these costs is given by their 

potential alternative utilization for a different kind of 

business activity [5]. 

The costs are also divided into the so-called avoidable 

costs. They arise as a result of securing the conditions 

of the entrepreneurial process as a whole, including 

the security of the created production capacity. 

When reducing the utilization of production capacity, it 

is possible to reduce the avoidable costs. However, the 

amount of savings related to these costs must not jeopardize 

the product quality, safety, work organization, 

etc., and cause other, especially fi xed costs. Time wages 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 135-137 

of foremen, unskilled workers, and administrative workers, 

costs of heating, lighting and protective equipment 

can serve as examples of this type of costs. These costs 

are more closely associated with the expenditure on 

their settlement, because they appear continuously, especially 

during the production process. These costs savings 

will be refl ected in a jump of fi xed costs, which, 

however, doesn’t mean their absolute reduction, while 

maintaining the same production capacity [5]. 

CONCLUSION 

The tasks associated with determining the size of 

production capacity and its utilization are one of the 

most important areas of company economics. The deterioration 

of economic results of metallurgical enterprises 

due to unused production capacities raises both the 

pressure to reduce all costs, which is fi ne if there is no 

deterioration of product quality, but it often goes hand 

in hand with an effort to refl ect this infl uence in the sales 

price. However, this is the beginning of a vicious circle 

which can be characterized by stating: “We have no orders, 

because we have a high sales price, we have a high 

sales price, because we have unused production capacities.” 

One way how to address this vicious circle is not to 

determine the fi nal sales price from the cost per unit of 

production taking into account unused capacities, but to 

use the costs that correspond to the target (optimal) capacity 

utilization. If the sales price defi ned using this 

method does not provide a corresponding increase in 

sales volume and production, then it is necessary to get 

rid of the excess capacities. All other solutions are often 

associated with drawing their own created sources of 

fi nancing or with looking for new, foreign sources. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

The work was supported by the specifi c university 

research of Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of 

the Czech Republic No.SP2012/12. 

REFERENCES 

[1] B.,Král a kolektiv. Manažerské účetnictví. Praha: Management 

Press, s.r.o., 2006. pp.74 

[2] M.,Synek, a kol. Podniková ekonomika. Praha: C. H. 

Beck, 2006. pp. 178 

[3] Hutnictví železa a.s., dostupné z www.hz.cz/cz/vyrobaocelarskeho 

[citováno 28.4.2012] 

[4] M. Mikušová, The Creation of the Performance Measurement 

System – House Model. ICMSS 2011 Management 

and Service Science. 2011, 8, pp. 48-52. 

[5] J. Kutáč, J., Mruzková, Možnosti kalkulování nákladů v 

podmínkách nevyužitých výrobních kapacit, Sborník 

vědeckých prací VŠB-TU Ostrava, řada hutnická. 2009; 

LII1, pp. 1-14 

Note: The responsible translator for English language is Petr Jaroš 

(English Language Tutor at the College of Tourism and Foreign 

Trade, Goodwill - VOŠ, Frýdek-Místek, CR. 

137

I. MAMUZIĆ, UREDNIČKI ODBOR/EDITORIAL BOARD 

GLAVNI I ODGOVORNI UREDNIK/EDITOR-IN-CHIEF 

ZAHVALA RECENZENTIMA 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT TO REVIEWERS 

The Editorial Board of Journal Metalurgija gratefully acknowledges assistance given 

during 2012 (volume 51) by the following Reviewers: 

Alfi rević Ivo, Croatia 

Aronin Aleksandar, Russia 

Basan Robert, Croatia 

Bačova Viera, Slovakia 

Balakin Vladimir, Ukraine 

Bocko Jozef, Slovakia 

Bogomolov Anatolij, Ukraine 

Bokuvka Otokar, Slovakia 

Boltazar Miha, Czech Republic 

Bratutin Vladimir, Ukraine 

Brezinova Janetta, Slovakia 

Bukhanovski Viktor, Ukraine 

Buršak Marian, Slovakia 

Ciglar Damir, Croatia 

Constantinescu Dan, Romania 

Čigurinski Jurij, Ukraine 

Dinik Julija, Ukraine 

Dobatkin Sergej, Russia 

Dolžanski Aleksej, Ukraine 

Dunđer Marko, Croatia 

Eremiaš Boleslav, Czech Republic 

Esih Ivan, Croatia 

Fajfar Peter, Slovenia 

Franz Mladen, Croatia 

Garišić Ivica, Croatia 

Glavaš Zoran, Croatia 

Grizelj Branko, Croatia 

Grozdanić Vladimir, Croatia 

Guljajev Jurij, Ukraine 

Hajduk Daniel, Czech Republic 

Hidveghy Julius, Slovakia 

Hloch Sergej, Slovakia 

Holtzer Mariusz, Poland 

Hornak Peter, Sloavkia 

Ikonić Milan, Croatia 

Iljkić Dario, Croatia 

Imriš Ivan, Slovakia 

Ivandić Željko, Croatia 

Jankura Daniel, Slovakia 

Kavička František, Czech Republic 

Kelemem Michal, Slovakia 

Kijac Jozef, Slovakia 

Kladarić Ivica, Croatia 

Klarić Štefanija, Croatia 

Kliber Jiri, Czech Republic 

Kniewald Dušan, Slovakia 

Kolmasiak Cezary, Poland 

Kolumbić Zvonimir, Croatia 

Kormanikova Eva, Slovakia 

Kostelac Milan, Croatia 

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Kosec Borut, Slovenia 

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Medved Jožef, Slovakia 

Michel Jan, Slovakia 

Mihok Lubomir, Slovakia 

Mironenko Aleksandar, Ukraine 

Nagode Aleš, Slovenia 

Nikulin Sergey, Russia 

Pandula Blažej, Slovakia 

Pavković Nenad, Croatia 

Pepelnjak Tomaž, Slovenia 

Petrinšev Valentin, Ukraine 

Pietrikova Ana, Slovakia 

Pindor Jaroslav, Czech Republic 

Pinjak Ivan, Ukraine 

Plančak Miroslav, Serbia 

Projdak Jurij, Ukraine 

Rudolf Rebeka, Slovenia 

Rutkovski Anatolij,Ukraine 

Samardžić Ivan, Croatia 

Sanin Anatolij, Ukraine 

Skuza Zbigniew, Poland 

Slavić Janko, Slovenia 

Slota Jan,Slovakia 

Smolej Anton, Slovenia 

Soković Milan, Slovenia 

Stoić Antun, Croatia 

Stolyarov Vladimir, Russia 

Šemberger Jaroslav, Czech Republic 

Šercer Mladen, Croatia 

Ševčikova Jarmila, Slovakia 

Šimčak František, Slovakia 

Šimunović Katica, Croatia 

Štrkalj Anita, Croatia 

Terpak Jan, Slovakia 

Trebuna František, Slovakia 

Tuleja Stanislav, Slovakia 

Turk Rado, Slovenia 

Vašek Zdenek, Czech Republic 

Vetrov Ivan, Ukraine 

Vitez Ivan, Croatia 

Vodarek Vladimir, Czech Republic 

Vodopivec Franc, Slovenia 

Vuherer Tomaž, Slovenia 

Weis Gabriel, Slovakia 

Zabavnik Viktor, Slovakia 

138 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 138

B. GAJDZIK 

DIAGNOSIS OF EMPLOYEE 

ENGAGEMENT IN METALLURGICAL ENTERPRISE 

B. Gajdzik, The Silesian University of Technology, Faculty of Materials 

Science and Metallurgy, Katowice, Poland 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 139-142 

ISSN 0543-5846 

METABK 52(1) 139-142 (2013) 

UDC – UDK 65.01:669.013.003:658.5:658.8=111 



Professional Paper − Strukovni rad 

In the theoretical part of the publication an overview of the defi nitions of employee engagement was conducted 

together with the analysis of the methods and techniques which infl uence the professional activity of the employees 

in the metallurgical enterprise. The practical part discusses the results of diagnosis of engagement in steelworks. 

Presented theories, as well as the research, fi ll the information gap concerning the engagement of the employees 

in metallurgical enterprises. This notion is important due to the fact that modern conditions of human resources 

management require the engagement of the employees as something commonly accepted and a designation 

of manufacturing enterprises. 

Key words: metallurgical enterprise, employee engagement, management 

INTRODUCTION 

In recent years the classic approach to shaping the 

activity of the employees is mainly based on the motivational 

infl uence (rewarding the effects of the work) 

gives way to management by engagement of employees. 

The employees are expected to possess productivity, 

creativity, conceptualism, fl exibility of behaviour, 

the ability to cooperate in teams and constant readiness 

to engage in various forms of activities in the company 

including the activities which are beyond the obligatory 

set of duties of an employee. Each enterprise has worked 

out a separate set of methods and techniques of infl uence 

on the professional activities of their employees. It 

is also important to underline here that such activities 

are complex sets of tasks which include the culture of 

organisation, management of staff, communication and 

motivation system. 

Author in this publication presents the activities 

which shape professional activity of the employees in a 

metallurgical enterprise and discusses the results of the 

diagnosis of involvement on the basis of cycle of meetings. 

The biggest steelworks in Poland, ArcelorMittal 

was a case study here. 

EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT IN DEFINITIONS 

Doing an overview of the defi nitions of engagement 

of employees according to different authors it was concluded 

that as the times change the defi nition evolves. 

Starting from the engagement in work, which was performing 

the tasks of the employee in a dependable way 

[1] the defi nitions reach the point of defi ning engage- 

ment in the functioning of the whole enterprise. D.E. 

Guest defi nes this type of engagement as „the real dedication 

to the organisation” [2].What is the real dedication 

to the organisation? It is a passion and willingness 

to do something more than the assigned set of duties for 

a given employee. It is a fusion of physical and intellectual 

effort and emotional approach to everything 

which is connected with functioning of the company 

[3]. S. Cook distinguishes such main aspects of engagement 

as: operation, thinking, feeling [4]. In engagement 

of employees the following aspects are underlined: the 

independence of actions, limitation of control, and increase 

in the decisive initiative of the employees. Engagement 

is full identifi cations with the aims of the 

company in time of its development as well as with its 

problems in crisis situations [5]. Engaged employee 

agrees with the values of the company such as: quality, 

cost leadership, innovations. Engagement of employees 

should be equal with business results, which may refer 

to fi nance (profi t), production (productivity), merchandising 

(turnover, sales value), marketing (quality and 

customer service), and organisation (elimination of all 

kinds of wastage). 

BUILDING ENGAGEMENT OF EMPLOYEES IN 

METALLURGICAL ENTERPRISES 

Building engagement of employees in metallurgical 

enterprises requires infl uence on the employees, their 

attitudes, values and behaviour. In an attempt to increase 

the professional activity of employees the basis for a 

new culture in an organisation should be created and it 

means a new set of norms and values which promote 

high engagement of employees, for example dialogue, 

bonds between people, dignity of people, rules of social 

interactions, tolerance and honesty [6,7]. 

139

B. GAJDZIK: DIAGNOSIS OF EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT IN METALLURGICAL ENTERPRISE 

Well-functioning culture of organisation should refl 

ect in the way the employees work. They should know 

how to work in an enterprise for their work to bring effects. 

Enterprises must strive for such conditions in 

which the employees are integrated by new values and 

aims. It requires changes in organisation of work and 

management structures. A concept of a fl exible employee 

appeared in this context. He or she is an employee 

who is able to perform a broad range of tasks. In order 

to learn how to function on various work stations in 

metallurgical enterprises an employee crossing was applied 

(delegating an employee to work on identical or 

similar work station in some other branch or section of 

the enterprise). Team work became crucial (working 

teams, project teams, task teams, problem teams etc.) 

The changes of the organisation of work were followed 

by the change in technology of manufacturing (elimination 

of the old fashioned technologies, introduction of 

continuous casting of steel, automation and computerisation 

of technological processes etc.). Building engagement 

of employees required fl attening of the management 

structures (Lean Management) – executives 

closer to the employees, relationships built on partnership 

between the employee and its superior. Moreover, 

the managers had to learn how to manage the company 

fl exibly, react quickly to changes in dynamic conditions 

of functioning (different combinations of strategies, resources, 

methods and tools). Steelworks have introduced 

new methods and techniques of management, for 

example TPM, SMED, TQM, 5S, Six Sigma, FMEA. In 

the stage of organisational and management changes 

the steelworks combined planning the activities with 

their implementation and assessment of effects (Management 

by Objectives). A lot has changed in the fi eld 

of human resources management. Employees who engage 

in the functioning of the company become the intellectual 

capital. Through their knowledge and experience 

they take part in the process of improving the enterprise. 

According to Kaizen concept they initiate new 

operational solutions both in the range of how should 

basic processes (supply, production, distribution) and 

the auxiliary processes look like (facilities maintenance, 

technical maintenance of devices). In order to engage 

the employees in functioning of the enterprise, changes 

had to be made in the system of rewarding and motivation 

– limitation of the fi nancial bonuses not connected 

with fi nancial situation of the enterprise. Instead, the 

employees have their share in the profi t. Some of the 

shares of the enterprise have been distributed among 

them. The importance of the non-fi nancial motivation 

grew, for example being praised by the superior. In 

terms of promotion of the employees the vertical career 

paths are transformed into horizontal ones. Career development 

organised by the employer is completed by 

self-training. To achieve a high level of employees engagement 

some mechanisms had to be introduced which 

allowed the employees to present their opinion on important 

issues. The steelworks organise direct meetings 

of the highest management with the workers of the production 

lines (managing staff presents the situation of 

the enterprise to the workers together with planned actions 

and expects feedback in the form of workers’ 

opinions on the issue of the presented solutions). In 

communication systems, besides the communication 

(top-down) the communication was extended to (bottom-up) 

and horizontal communication. In engagement 

of employees a system of multi-lateral communication 

must be formed. Such communication favours the creation 

of closer relationships of worker-supervisor and 

common solving of the problems as well as faster introduction 

of changes. In the fi eld of aims approved by the 

enterprise, besides the quality and customer satisfaction, 

the expectations of the internal stakeholders are 

taken into account (meeting the needs of the employees, 

improvement of the work conditions, providing safety), 

as well as the expectations of all external stakeholders 

including local communities are met (social responsibility) 

[8]. 

DIAGNOSIS OF THE 

ENGAGEMENT LEVEL IN ENTERPRISE 

A case study here was metallurgical enterprise ArcelorMittal 

Poland. The enterprise is the largest steel producer 

in Poland. ArcelorMittal Poland employs over 

12 thousand people. The enterprise consists of six steel 

plants and Zdzieszowice coke plant.In March 2008 the 

fi rst tests of the level of employee engagement were 

conducted (company Hewitt Associates). The basic testing 

tool was a survey form. Questions referred to six 

topic ranges: 1) work, 2) possibilities of professional 

development, 3) remuneration, 4) interpersonal relations, 

5) applied practices of actions, 6) quality of life. 

The following people took part in the tests: employees 

of the production lines, management staff, administration 

employees and members of the Board. 1620 survey 

forms were distributed at random among the employees 

(Figure 1). In order to deepen the results of tests, additional 

group interviews were conducted together with 

workshops which were organised for chosen employees 

of particular sections of the enterprise. 

On the basis of results of survey a rate of employee 

engagement as the percentage of the engaged employees 

that is such people who answered positively to most 

questions in the survey. In 2008 this rate was 31 % [9]. 

Second measurement of employee engagement level 

Figure 1 The structure of the employees taking part in the 

research 

140 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 139-142

Figure 2 The areas of employee engagement 

was conducted in June 2011. The rate of employee engagement 

rose to 47 % . The biggest number of employees 

who expressed willingness to take part in the survey 

were from Coking Plant Zdzieszowice (59 % of surveyed). 

In the analysis of the engagement level of the 

employees of the organisational departments the biggest 

engagement was observed among employees subject 

to human resources manager (63 %) [9]. It is assumed 

in such tests that the range of best results is between 

65 % and 100 %. In the range from 0 % to 30 % 

the employees do not feel engaged. The range from 

30 % to 45 % is the area of insecurity or lack of trust of 

the employees towards the company. Range from 45 % 

to 65 % is defi ned as a neutral zone (Figure 2). 

In implementation of the programs of building employee 

engagement ArcelorMittal Poland went from the 

area of insecurity and lack of trust to the neutral zone. 

The factors, appreciated by the employees, which infl uence 

the achieved level of engagement in the enterprise 

are [9]: effi cient communication in horizontal and vertical 

system of organisational structure of the enterprise, 

non-fi nancial forms of employee protection (non-fi nancial 

benefi ts), reputation of the enterprise in society, 

physical conditions of work, 

training and the possibility of professional development, 

balance of activities between areas of work and 

life. Mentioned factors cause that over 60 % of surveyed 

employees connect their future with development of 

ArcelorMittal Poland enterprise, 40 % expresses positive 

opinion about the company, and 50 % recommends 

ArcelorMittal as a good employer to their friends and 

people who are looking for a job (Figure 3) [9]. 

The trust to the company rose by 9 % (Figure 4). 

ArcelorMittal Poland continues the conduction of the 

program of shaping employee engagement to reach the 

level of the companies in the world (Figure 5). 

THE PROCESS OF SHAPING THE EMPLOYEE 

ENGAGEMENT IN ARCELORMITTAL POLAND 

The process of shaping the employee engagement in 

presented enterprise is realised in stages, but systematically. 

It can be assumed that it is the period of the last 

few years. Before the introduction of employee engagement 

system the foreign capital had to modernise the 

METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 139-142 


Figure 3 Some results of employee engagement in 

ArcelorMittal Poland 

0,8 

0,6 

0,4 

0,2 

0 

45 % 

ArcelorMi�al 

Poland in 

2008 

54 % 


Poland in 

2011 

67 % 

Trust in the 

best 

enetrprises 

Figure 4 The level of employee trust in ArcelorMittal Poland 

37 % 

Big 

companies 

44 % 

Poland 

45 % 

EU 

47 % 


Poland 

57 % 

Figure 5 The rate of employee engagement (average level) 

enterprise (technological investments with value of 4 

billion PLN) - restructuring process. In the next stage of 

changes the work organisation improvements were introduced 

and a new organisational structure was constructed: 

functional-product-task type. In order to 

achieve the standards of world class manufacturing 

(WCM) the elimination of all wastage started (from 

Japanese muda) together with the improvement of manufacturing 

processes (SMED - single-minute exchange 

of die) and maintenance of machines (TPM – Total Productive 

Maintenance). Increase of engagement by a few 

World 

141


per cent in the enterprise is the result of personnel policy 

placed on employees. In August 2006, the enterprise 

initiated a complex training program for the managers 

of all the sections, entitled Manager’s Academy. The 

aim of this program is to prepare the managing staff to 

building employee engagement. To eliminate the communication 

barrier employees learning foreign languages 

online (http://spexx.com/arcelormittal). Next stage 

was the creation of Training Centre which is electronic 

database of trainings in the fi elds connected with the 

company. The access to knowledge was broadened: 

browser Business Book Review – current business publications 

and Steel University Words – metallurgical 

dictionary in English. The company organises a series 

of meetings of the General Manager of the company 

with the employees. To plan the development of each 

employee of the enterprise precisely, a program was 

worked out of the assessment of employee competence 

on each work station both physical and managerial, entitled 

“let’s defi ne our competence”. The enterprise 

ArcelorMittal Poland implements also different projects 

of professional development entitled “You have got talent” 

(program “Academy of Talents”). Next program 

“Twinning Project allowed employees to share knowledge 

and experience on identical or similar work posts. 

By comparing processes and engaging employees in 

search for savings the company managed to save 19,7 

Euro/ 1 Mg of steel. The program “We base on the Quality” 

also functions in the company and within it the employees 

engage in search of innovations in a broader 

sense (these are process, product, technological, organisational 

and managerial innovations). In 2011, another 

program was introduced, entitled Academy of Steel 

which aims at exchange of technological knowledge in 

the areas of: coking plants, blast-furnace practice, steelmaking, 

rolling of long products and rolling of fl at 

products. The enterprise has been, since 2007, a member 

of the Social Responsibility Program [8]. Arcelor- 

Mittal takes actions for various groups of stakeholders 

providing sustainable development. 

CONCLUSION 

Shaping engagement of the employees is a continuous 

process where ArcelorMittal metallurgical enterprise 

introduces new programs which let the workers 

engage in functioning of the enterprise. In 2008 the rate 

of employee engagement was 31 %, in 2011 the rate 

rose to 47 %. Advantages of the enterprise in building 

the employee engagement are: strong brand of the company, 

high quality of products, well-defi ned expectations 

towards employees (clear, well communicated, 

connected with high quality and aim of the company), 

good preparation to work – useful training and access to 

information. 

REFERENCES 

[1] Salancik G.R.: Commitment and the control of organizational 

behavior and belief, [in:] New Directions in Organizational 

Behaviour (ed.) B.M. Staw, G.R. Salancik, St. 

Clair Press, Chicago (1977), 27 

[2] Guest D.E.: Personnel management: the end of orthodoxy, 

British Journal of Industrial Relations, 29 (1991) 2, 149- 

176 

[3] Saks A.M.: Antecedents and Consequences of Employee 

Engagement, Journal of Managerial Psychology, 7 (2006) 

June, 30 

[4] Cook S.: The Essential Guide to Employee Engagement, 

Kogan Page, London-Philadelphia (2008), 4 

[5] Smythe J.: CEO – dyrektor do spraw zaangażowania, Ofi - 

cyna a Walters Kluwer Business, Kraków (2009), 44 

[6] Juchnowicz M.: Zarządzanie przez zaangażowanie, PWE, 

Warszawa (2010), 26 

[7] Gajdzik B.: The level of workers’engagement in steeworks, 

Hutnik-Wiadomości Hutnicze, 76 (2009), 10, 766- 

770 

[8] Gajdzik B.: Social and ethical challenges for metallurgical 

companies, Metalurgija 47 (2008) 1, 61-64 

[9] ArcelorMittal Poland, Polish Steel, (04.07. 2008) 26, 1,3; 

Folder HR „Jedynka”, ArcelorMittal Poland, (2011) 6, 11. 

Note: The responsible translator for English language is D. Grachal, 

Katowice, Poland 

142 METALURGIJA 52 (2013) 1, 139-142

I. MAMUZIĆ – PRESIDENT 

SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE 

Survey of 10 th International Symposium of Croatian Metallurgical Society (CMS) 

At the 10th International Symposium of Croatian 

Metallurgical Society »Materials and Metallurgy« 

had participated following countries: 

1. Argentina 25. Macedonia 

2. Austria 26. Malaysia 

3. Belgium 27. Mexico 

4. Belarus 28. Montenegro 

5. Benelux 29. Netherlands 

6. Bosnia and Herzegovina 30. Philippine 

7. Brasil 31. Poland 

8. Bulgaria 32. Portugal 

9. Chile 33. Romania 

10. China 34. Russia 

11. Croatia 35. Serbia 

12. Czech Republic 36. Serbia/Republic of Kosovo 

13. England 37. Singapore 

14. Egypt 38. Slovakia 

15. Finland 39. Slovenia 

16. France 40. South Africa 

17. Germany 41. Spain 

18. Hungary 42. Sweden 

19. India 43. Thailand 

20. Indonesia 44. Turkey 

21. Italy 45. Ukraine 

22. Japan 46. USA 

23. Korea 47. Vietnam 

24. Lithuania 48. Wales, United Kingdom 

The aim of this Symposium is to point all the possibilities 

of the materials and achievements in metallurgy. 

METALURGIJA 51 (2012) 1, 143-144 

SHMD `2012 

»Materials and Metallurgy« 

http://public.carnet.hr/metalurg 

Šibenik 2012, June, 17 – 21 

Solaris Beach Resort, Croatia 

10 th International Symposium of Croatian Metallurgical Society »Material and Metallurgy« was held as a part of: 

– 60 th anniversary of THE FOUNDATION OF CROATIAN METALLURGICAL 

SOCIETY (from Society of Engineers and Technician Steel works Sisak, 1952 y) 

– 60 th 

anniversary of THE ESTABLISHMENT OF TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, 

Košice, Slovakia, 1952 y 

– 50 th 

anniversary of THE ESTABLISHMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 

STUDY PROGRAMS UNIVERSITY OSIJEK, Slavnonski Brod, Croatia, 1952 y 

– 50 th anniversary of THE FOUNDATION AND PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL 

METALURGIJA (1962 y), Zagreb, Croatia 

TOPICS OF THE SYMPOSIUM WERE : 

Materials 

New Materials 

Refractory Materials 

The Development 

Applications 

Physical Metallurgy 

Metallurgy 

Process Metallurgy and Foundry 

Plastic Processing of Metals and Alloys 

Technologied 

Energetics 

Ecology in Metallurgy 

Quality Assurance and Quality Menagement 

There were 641 reports, over 1100 authors and coauthors 

registered for the 10 th International Symposium 

of the Croatian Metalurgical Society. 

327 participants were present at the Symposium. 

Symposium activity took place through plenary lectures 

and four sections (poster): 

Plenary lectures 9 

Materials – Section »A« 321 

Process Metallurgy – Section »B« 131 

Plastic Processing – Section »C« 79 

Metallurgy and Related Topics – Section »D« 101 

= 641 

For the plenary lectures research topics were selected 

relating partly to the new materials and partly to the 

increase of effi ciency of metallurgical procedures, as 

143


well as improving of research of ferrous and non ferrous 

metals, selected new technologies and simulation in 

material forming, several plastic deformation etc. 

PLENARY LECTURE WERE 

– J. Raab, J. Mannheim; Czech Steel Federation, 

Prag, Trinecke železarny, Trinec, Czech Republic, 

Dynamics in the Development of Global Steel 

Production & Consumption. 

– P. Tardy; Association of the Hungarian Steel Industry, 

Budapest, Hungary, Clean technologies in the 

steel industry. 

– M. Holtzer, R. Danko, S. Žymankowska-Kumon; 

AGH – University of Science and Technology, Krakow, 

Poland Foundry industry – corrent state and 

future development 

– M. Godec, F. Vodopivec, M. Jenko; Institute of 

Metals and Technology (IMT), Ljubljana, Slovenia 

Progress of use of advanced research equipment 

IMT, Ljubljana,Slovenia 

– R. Kawalla, M. Schmidtchen, M. Graf; Institute 

of metal forming at TU Bergakademie Freiberg, 

Germany 

Simulation of plastic deformation process 

– S. V. Dobatkin, I. Mamuzić; A. A. Baikov Institute 

of Metallurgy and Materials Science, Moscow Russia; 

University of Zagreb, Zagreb,Croatia 

Structure and properties of ultrafi ne – grained 

aluminium alloys and possibilities of their application 

– R. Fabik, J. Kliber, I. Mamuzić, T. Kubina, S. A. 

Aksenov; VSB – TU Ostrava, Ostrava, Czech Republic; 

University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia, 

MIEM, Moscow, Russia 

Mathematic modelling of fl at and shape hot rolling 

based on Finite Element methods 

– D. Malindžak; BERG Faculty, Technical University 

of Košice, Košice, Slovakia 

Application of logistic principles in metallurgical 

production. 

– M. Ikonić; University of Rijeka, Croatia 

Case study in metallurgy plants strategy formulation. 

Comprehensive outline of plenary reports (the 3 reports) 

were published in the journal Metalurgija 51 

(2012) 3, 337-348 as the articles. The summaries of all 

lectures of 10 th Symposium were published also in 

Metalurgija 51 (2012) 3, 377-432. Total holded 303 lectures 

in the 10th Symposium. 

For this symposium the reports were prepared by the 

authors and coauthors from various world universities, 

institutes, academies and companies. It is to be emphasised 

that the scientists from Croatian universities (Zagreb, 

Rijeka, Osijek) particpated in the symposium. 

In the time 10 th Symposium was also held: 

– Meeting of Editorial Board of Journal Metalurgija with 

Promotion of Monograph »Metallurgy, always prosperity 

for humanity« June18, 2012, 12 AM. 

Minutes of this Meeting, Metalurgija 52 (2013) 1, 9-10 

– Annual Assembley of Croatian Metallurgical Society 

(15 Participants, delegates of Institute, University 

etc.), June 19, 2012, 6,00 PM, Metalurgija 52 (2013)1, 

4 

More than 150 participants were included in a round 

table session on the achievements, conclusionts and 

closing of the 10 th International Symposium »Materials 

and Metallurgy« (June 20, 6,00 PM). 

In the discussions it was confi rmed that the Symposiums 

organized by Croatian Metallurgical Society have 

become traditional assembly of experts and scientists of 

various profi les: metallurgists, geologists, physicists, 

chemists, mechanical engineers et. 

Based on the analysis and evaluation of the subject 

matter of the symposium, the symposium has been appraised 

positively and it has been acknowledged that it 

has its place in the international exchange of knowledge. 

It is reasonable to conclude that the demonstrated results 

of scientifi c and professional investigation accompanied 

by the complete and quality manifestations, especially 

discussions at the round table prove that the organizing 

of the 10 th International Symposium of Croatian 

Metallurgical Society »Materials and Metallurgy« in 

Šibenik 2012 June 17-21 was justifi ed. E specially has to 

be emphasized that the participants will keep wonderful 

memories of Šibenik and Solaris Hotels. 

Based on the agreement of Meeting of World Metallurgical 

Societys, Dusseldorf, November 2009, 2010 y, 

and the conclusion of the round table, the next 11 th 

International Symposium of Croatian Metallurgical Society 

»Materials and Metallurgy« will be held 2014 – 

June 22-26, Solaris Beach Resort, Šibenik, Croatia. 

(First Circular – Call for Papers, SHMD’2014, Metalurgija 

52(2013)1, 5-8) 

144 METALURGIJA 51 (2012) 1, 143-144

Metalurgija: sadašnjost Metallurgy: Present Metalurgija ... - CARNet

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