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METALURGIJA – ČASOPIS OSNOVAN 1962.
OSNIVAČ – DRUŠTVO INŽENJERA I TEHNIČARA ŽELJEZARE SISAK
METALURGIJA – JOURNAL FOUNDED IN 1962
FOUNDER – SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS AND TECHNITIANS OF STEELWORKS SISAK
UDK 669+621.7 + 51/54 (05) = 163.42 = 111
ISSN 0543-5846
METABK 49 (4) 289-360 (2010)
4
49 th
year
Metalurgija: prošlost XVI. st. Metalurgija: sada{njost
Metallurgy: Past – XVI cent. Metallurgy: Present
METALURGIJA, vol. 49, br. 4, str. 289-360 Zagreb, listopad / prosinac (October / December) 2010.

UDK 669+621.7+51/54(05)=163.42=111 ISSN 0543-5846
METABK 49 (4) 289-360 (2010)
METALURGIJA, vol. 49, br. 4, str. 289-360 Zagreb, listopad / prosinac (October / December) 2010.
Izdava~ / Publisher: Hrvatsko metalur{ko dru{tvo (HMD) - Croatian Metallurgical Society (CMS)
Adresa / Address: Berislavi}eva 6, 10 000 Zagreb, Hrvatska / Croatia
Phone/Fax: + 385 1 619 86 89 (service), Phone: + 385 98 317 173
Internet / On line: http://public.carnet.hr/metalurg; http://hrcak.srce.hr; http://www.doaj.org; http://search.ebscohost.com;
www.socolar.com / www.cepiec.com.cn; (On line) ISSN 1334-2576, (CD-ROM) ISSN 1334-2584
Uredni~ki odbor / Editorial Board:
I. ALFIREVI], Zagreb - Croatia, I. SAMARD@I] - zamjenik glavnog i odgovornog urednika / Deputy of Editor-in-Chief,
Slavonski Brod - Croatia, S. DOBATKIN, Moscow - Russia, @. DOMAZET, Split - Croatia, H. HIEBLER, Leoben - Austria,
M. HOLTZER, Krakow - Poland, M. JENKO, Ljubljana - Slovenia, T. MIKAC, Rijeka - Croatia, R. KAWALLA, Freiberg
- Germany, I. MAMUZI], Sisak - Croatia, L. MIHOK, Ko{ice - Slovakia, J. KLIBER, Ostrava - Czech, A. VELI^KO,
Dnipropetrovsk - Ukraine, F. VODOPIVEC, Ljubljana - Slovenia
Glavni i odgovorni urednik / Editor-in-chief: ILIJA MAMUZI], mamuzic@simet.hr
Lektori / Linguistic Advisers: B. ZELI], hrvatski jezik/Croatian language, V. MI[URA, engleski jezik / English language
Tehni~ki urednici / Technical Editors: M. IKONI], milan.ikonicºriteh.hr, J. BUTORAC, UDK / UDC: LJ. VUKOVI]
Internet / on line B. MACAN, bmacan@irb.hr
METALURGIJA izlazi u ~etiri broja godi{nje. Godi{nja pretplata 53 EUR (protuvrijednost u kunama).
METALLURGY is published quarterly. Subscription rates per year 53 EUR.
Komp. obrada / Comp. design; Tisak / Print: Denona d.o.o., Zagreb, e-mail:denona@denona.hr
Naklada / Print: 600 primjeraka / pieces. Rukopise ne vra}amo. / Manuscript are not returned.
^lanci objavljeni u ~asopisu “Metalurgija” referiraju se u me|unarodnim sekundarnim publikacijama i bazama podataka.
Articles published in the journal “METALLURGY” are indexed in the international secundary periodicals and databases:
- ISI web of Science
- Science Citation Index (Expanded)
- Materials Science Citation Index (MSCI)
- EBSCOhost Academic Search Complete
- Research Alert (ISI)
- Metals Abstracts
- EI Compendex Plus
- CA Search (R)
- PaperChem
- Metadex
- Geobase
- Chemical Abstracts
- Mechanical Engineering Abstracts
- Aluminium Industry Abstracts
- Dialog Sourceone (SM) Engineering
- Energy Science Technology
- Engineered Materials Abstracts
- Analytical Abstracts Online
- Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology Abstracts
- Referativny Zhurnal
- Fluidex
- Embase
- Elsevier Biobase
- Elsevier Geo Abstracts
- Corrosion Abstracts
- World Texstiles
- Scopus
- EMBiology
- TEME
Fotopreslici ~lanka mogu se dobiti u The Genuine Article service, Institute for Scientific Information 3501 Market Street
Philadelhia PA 19104 USA, i Copyright Clearance Center, ASM International; Materials Park, Ohio 44073-0002, USA.
Photocopies of the articles are available through The Genuine Article service, Institute for Scientific Information 3501
Market Street Philadelhia PA 19104 USA, and Copyright Clearance Center, ASM International; Materials Park, Ohio
44073-0002, USA.
^asopisu “Metalurgija” daje nov~anu potporu: Ministarstvo znanosti, obrazovanja i {porta Republike Hrvatske.
Journal “Metallurgy” is financially supported by: Ministry of Science, Education and Sports Republic of Croatia.

Content – Sadr`aj
Editorial Board of the Journal Metalurgija – MINUTES
Uredni~ki odbor ~asopisa Metalurgija – ZAPISNIK 291
Editorial Board of the Journal Metalurgija – RULE BOOK
OF THE JOURNAL METALURGIJA
Uredni~ki odbor ~asopisa Metalurgija – PRAVILNIK ~asopisa METALURGIJA 293
Original Scientific Papers – Izvorni znanstveni radovi
S. Kut
A simple method to determine ductile fracture strain in a tensile test of plane specimen’s
Jednostavna metoda odredjivanja plasti~noga prijeloma i ~vrsto}e plo{nih uzoraka 295
S. Kastelic, J. Medved, P. Mrvar
Prediction of numerical distortion after welding with various welding sequences and clampings
Numeri~ko predvi|anje izobli~enja nakon zavarivanja s razli~nim slijedom zavarivanja i spajanja 301
J. Matusiak, A. Wyciœlik
The influence of technological conditions on the emission of welding fume due to welding
of stainless steels
Utjecaj tehnolo{kih uvjeta zavarivanja nehr|aju}ih ~elika na emisiju zavariva~kih pra{ina 307
Preliminary Notes – Prethodna priop}enja
O. Híre{, I. Barény
Mechanical properties of forgings depending on the changes in shape
and chemical composition of inclusions
Mehani~ka svojstva otkivaka u ovisnosti od izmjene oblika i kemijskog sastava uklju~aka 313
M. Bur{ák, J. Michel’
Influence of the strain rate on the mechanical and technological properties of steel sheets
Utjecaj brzine deformacije na mehani~ka i tehnolo{ka svojstva ~eli~nih traka 317
M. [i{ko Kuli{, Z. Mrdulj{a, B. Klarin
Assessing the yield point of concrete steels based upon known chemical composition
Prognoziranje granice razvla~enja betonskih ~elika temeljem poznatog kemijskog sastava 321
I. Samard`i}, D. Baji}, [. Klari}
Influence of the activating flux on weld joint properties at arc stud welding process
Utjecaj aktiviraju}eg topitelja na svojstva zavarenog spoja kod elektrolu~nog zavarivanja svornjaka 325
S. Cvetkovski, V. Grabulov, Z. Odanovic, D. Slavkov
Optimization of welding parameters for gas transportation steel pipes
Optimizacija parametra zavarivanja ~eli~nih cijevi za plinovode 331
A. Yasar
Effects of alcohol-gasoline blends on exhaust and noise emissions in small scaled generators
Djelovanje alkoholno-benzinskih mje{avina na emisiju ispu{nih plinova i
buke kod malih generatora 335

M. Sekuli}, Z. Jurkovi}, M. Had`istevi}, M. Gostimirovi}
The influence of mechanical properties of workpiece material on the main
cutting force in face milling
Utjecaj mehani~kih karakteristika materijala obratka na glavnu silu rezanja pri ~eonom glodanju 339
Review Papers – Pregledni radovi
S. Dobatkin, J. Zrnik, I. Mamuzi}
Development of SPD continuous processes for strip and rod production
Razvitak intenzivnih plasti~nih deformacija (IPD) kontinuiranog procesa za trake
i {ipkaste proizvode 343
D. Malind`ák, M. Straka, P. Helo, J. Takala
The methodology for the logistics system simulation model design
Metodologije za dizajniranje simulacijskog modela logisti~kih sustava 348
R. Wiesza³a, B. Gajdzik
The Effectiveness of Environmental Management in a Metallurgical Company’s
Sustainable Development
Djelotvornost upravljanja okoli{em kod odr`ivog razvoja metalur{ke tvrtke 353
Proffesional Paper – Strukovni rad
G. Kosec, G. Kova~i~, J. Hodoli~, B. Kosec
Cracking of an Aircraft Wheel Rim Made From Al-Alloy 2014-T6
Pucanje naplatka avionskog kota~a izra|enog od Al-slitine 2014-T6 357
Croatian Metallurgical Society / Hrvatsko metalur{ko dru{tvo
Instructions to the authors 300
Additional important warning to authors for journal Metalurgija 306
10 th and 11 th International Symposiums of Croatian Metallurgical Society
– 2012 y. and 2014 y. – Call for participation 312
Izborna godi{nja skup{tina Hrvatskog metalur{kog dru{tva
Annual Election Annual Assambly of Croatian Metallurgical Society 330

MINUTES ZAPISNIK
Editorial Board of the Journal Metalurgija
Editor-in-chief - Acad. Ilija Mamuzi}
Minutes
Of the meeting of the Editorial bord of the Journal Metalurgija,
held on 21 June, 2010 in the Hotel Ivan – Solaris, [ibenik with the
beginning at 6.30 PM
The Editor-in-chief, Ilija Mamuzi} opened the meeting, greeting
all the attendants and proposed the following:
AGENDA
1. Welcome including Introduction of New Members /
Apologie for Abscenece
2. Amendments to the Rule Book of the Journal Metalurgija
3. Opinion on the Journal Metalurgija, and recommendations
for the future work
4. Election of Editor-in-chief of the Jounal Metalurgija
2010. - 2014. y.
5. Any other Buisness
6. Date Next Meeting
The Agenda was unchimously accepted.
Ad. 1. The Editor-in-chief pointed out that pursuant to the
Rule Book of the Journal Metalurgija, Article 10, the Meetings of
the international Editorial board shall be held at least once in two
years. The last meeting was held in [ibenik, Solaric, 23 June 2008
and the Minutes of the meeting were published in Metalurgija 47 (
2008 ) 4, 291 - 294
From this Meeting, pursuant to the Rule Book of the Journal
Metalurgija, Articles 3 following persons are appointed:
D. Sc. Milan Ikoni} – Technical Editor
Prof. Bo{ko Zeli} ( Absent – excused ) – Linguistic Adviser
for Croatia language.
D. Sc. M. Ikoni} gave briefly descriptions of his scientific and
educational achievement, covering (Article 6 of Rule Book):
– Related (adjoing / professions ; menagment)
Expressing his thanks for acceptance for the help at work of
Editorial Bord, the Editor – in – Chief explained then justified absence
of the Member H. Hiebler.
Ad. 2. In addition to the writen invitation to this meeting all
Members of the Editorial Bord received a copy of the Rule Book
of the Journal Metalurgija, available integrally on http://public.carnet.hr/metalurg.
There was a question raised if amendments
were nesessary?
After of the discussion, the Members of Ediforicl Bord of Journal
Metalurgije unanimously accepted the Amendments for Articles
1., 3., 9., 13., 14., 15. Rule Book of the Journal Metalurgija.
This Rule Book will be publisced in the Journal Metalurgija 49
(2010) 4, also at web – site http://public.carnet.hr/metalurg
Ad. 3. Members of the Editorial Bord expressed their compliments
on the activity of the Journal so far:
– involvement in teriary and secondary publications and databases,
with ISI issue and over 30 databases
– printing regularity (every issue is printed several months in
advance)
– the journal is well equipped, etc.
Uredni~ki odbor ~asopisa Metalurgija
Glavni i odgovorni urednik - Akad. Ilija Mamuzi}
Zapisnik
sa sastanka Uredni~kog odbora ~asopisa Metalurgija, odr`anog
dana 21. lipnja 2010. u Hotelu Ivan-Solaris, [ibenik s po~etkom u
18.30h
Sastanak je otvorio glavni i odgovorni urednik Ilija Mamuzi},
pozdravio nazo~ne, te predlo`io slijede}i:
Nazo~ni / Present: I. Alfirevi}, I. Samard`i}, S. Dobatkin, I. Duplan~i} (deputy for @. Domazet), M. Holtzer, D. Petrovi} Steiner
(deputy for M. Jenko), T. Mikac, Ph. Hagemann (deputy for R. Kawala), M. Bur{ak (deputy for L. Mihok),
J. Kliber, D. Skobir (deputy for F. Vodopivec) I. Mamuzi}, M. Ikoni} (technical editor), A. Stoji} (guest),
I. Kladari} (guest)
Izo~ni / Abscent: H. Hiebler (excused)
DNEVNI RED
1. Dobrodo{lica, s predstavljanjem novih ~lanova / isprika
za izo~nost
2. Amandmani na pravilnik ~asopisa Metalurgija
3. O~evid u ~asopis Metalurgija preporuke
za budu}i rad
4. Izbor glavnog i odgovornog urednika ~asopisa Metalurgija
za razdoblje 2010. - 2014.
5. Raznoliko
6. Datum slijede}eg sastanka
Dnevni red je jednoglasno prihva}en.
Ad. 1. Glavni i odgovorni urednik je istakao, da sukladno
Pravilniku ~asopisa Metalurgija ~lanak 10., sastanci
me|unarodnog Uredni~kog odbora odr`avaju se najmanje
jedanput u dvije godine. Zadnji sastanak je odr`an u [ibeniku 23.
lipnja 2008., a zapisnik sa sastanka objavljen u Metalurgiji 47
(2008) 4, 291. - 294.
Od tog sastanka, a jednako sukladno Pravilniku ~asopisa
Metalurgija ~lanak 3., imenovan je za tehni~kog urednika dr. sc.
Milan Ikoni}, a za lektora hrvatskog jezika prof. Bo{ko Zeli}
(izo~an opravdano)
Dr. sc. M. Ikoni} je dao kratki opis svojih znanstvenih i
obrazovnih postignu}a, a pokriva (~lanak 6. Pravilnika) podru~je
u ~asopisu:
– srodne stranke; menad`ment
Uz zahvalu za pomo} u radu Uredni~kom odboru ~asopisa,
glavni i odgovorni urednik je zatim obrazlo`io opravdanu
izo~nost ~lana H.Hieblera.
Ad. 2. Svi ~lanovi Uredni~kog odbora dobili su uz pismeni
poziv za ovaj sastanak i pravilnik ~asopisa Metalurgija, a koji je
cjelovito vidljiv na stranici http://public.carnet.hr/metalurg.
Postavilo se pitanje jesu li potrebne izmjene?
Nakon provedene rasprave, ~lanovi Uredni~kog odbora
~asopisa Metalurgija, jednoglasno su prihvatili izmjene - dopune
u ~lancima 1., 3., 9., 13., 14., 15., Pravilnika ~asopisa Metalurgija.
Ovaj Pravilnik }e se objaviti u ~asopisu Metalurgija 49
(2010)4, i na web stranici http://public.carnet.hr/metalurg.
Ad. 3. ^lanovi Uredni~kog odbora pohvalno su se izrazili o
dosada{njoj djelatnosti ~asopisa:
– uklju~enost u tercijalne i sekundarne publikacije i
bazepodataka, uz ISI izdanje i preko 30-ak baza podataka
– redovitost tiskanja (svaki broj se tiska nekoliko mjeseci
pred termin va`enja )
– opremljenost ~asopisa, itd.
– javna dostupnost - uz normalni pisani oblik izdaje se i na
CD-romu, te cjelovito na pet web-stranica
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 291-292 291

MINUTES ZAPISNIK
– public availability – in addition to normal hardcopy it is issued
on CD – ROM, and integrally on five web – site
– IF increase (impact factor) 0,455
– Substantial reduction of errors ( in relation to earlier issues
/ in translations and proofreading in English )
– Great improvement of the journal printingquality by
choosing a new printing house, Denona, etc.
Journal Metalurgija covers technical as well as other areas,
consequently such a broad range of different texts is difficult to
revise, i. e. translate (English – Croatian languages).
Ad. 4. Based on the past results of the Journal Metalurgija,
longterm successful voluntary work of the Editor – in – chief,
Prof. I. Mamuzi}, on the proposal of Prof. I. Alfirevi}a was unanimously
taken the following
DECESION
for the Editor – in – chief is elected Prof. I. Mamuzi} in the period
2010 – 2014.
The decesion comes to force immediately.
Ad. 5. The present members of the international Editorial
Bord of the Journal Metalurgija have also taken an active part in 9
th Symposium « Materials and Metallurgy «, [ibenik 20 - 24 June
2010. In discussion, they emphasized high quality of the Symposuim
with 514 reports from 46 countries, good organization
and comfortable atmosphere in Solaris hotels.
Ad. 6. In compliance with the terms the international Editorial
Bord of the Journal Metalurgija has been held so far, and the
Rule Book of the Journal Meatlurgija ( Article 10 ) the next meeting
is scheduled to be held on 22 June 2012.
The meeting ended at 9,00 PM
– porast IF (faktor odjeka) na 0,455
– ve}e smanjenje gre{aka (u odnosu na prije / prijevoda i
lekture engleskog jezika)
– veliko pobolj{anje kakvo}e tiska ~asopisa izborom nove
tiskare Denona, itd.
^asopis Metalurgija pokriva tehni~ka i ostala podru~ja pa je
tako razli~ite tekstove te{ko lektorirati, odnosno prevoditi (engleski,
hrvatski jezik)
Ad. 4. Na temelju dosada{njih rezultata ~asopisa Metalurgija,
dugogodi{njeg uspje{nog dragovolja~kog rada glavnog i
odgovornog urednika Prof. I. Mamuzi}a, na prijedlog Prof. I.
Alfirevi}a jednoglasno je donesena, sukladno ~lanku 2. Pravilnika,
ODLUKA
za glavnog i odgovornog urednika izabire se prof. I. Mamuzi} u
razdoblju 2010. – 2014. godine
Odluka stupa na snagu odmah.
Ad. 5. Nazo~ni ~lanovi me|unarodnog Uredni~kog odbora
~asopisa Metalurgija su i aktivni sudionici na 9. simpoziju
“Materijali i metalurgija”, [ibenik 20. - 24.06.2010. Istakli su u
raspravi, visoku kakvo}u simpozija gdje je prijavljeno 514
referata iz 46 dr`ava, dobru organizaciju te ugodan ambijent u
hotelima Solaris.
Ad. 6. Sukladno i do sada terminima odr`avanja me|unarodnog
Uredni~kog odbora ~asopisa Metalurgija, te Pravilniku
~asopisa Metalurgija ( ~lanak 10. ), slijede}i sastanak je zakazan
za 22. lipnja 2012. godine.
Sastanak je zavr{io u 21.00h.
SUDIONICI SASTANKA UREDNI^KOG ODBORA ^ASOPISA METALURGIJA
PARTICIPANTS OF THE MEETING OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD OF THE JOURNAL METALURGIJA
292 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 291-292

RULE BOOK OF THE JOURNAL METALURGIJA PRAVILNIK ^ASOPISA METALURGIJA
EDITORIAL BOARD OF THE JOURNAL
METALURGIJA
RULE BOOK OF THE
JOURNAL METALURGIJA
Based on the Rule Book of Croatian Metallurgical Society,
Article 21., Paragraph 1., 2., 3., Editorial Board of the
Journal Metallurgija on its conference held on 21 June 2010
has adopted
RULE BOOK
ON THE JOURNAL METALURGIJA
1. Starting point for this “Rule Book” is the Rule Book on
the Journal Metalurgija that was adopted by Publishing
Council of the Journal Metalurgija on 7 May
1990. Little modifications were necessary because the
Act of Publishing Activities in the Republic of Croatia
anticipated no Publishing Councils for single Journals.
Consequently, the Publishing Council of Journal
Metalurgija suspended its activities in 1993 (List of
members of the Publishing Council was no longer
published in Metalurgija (1993) 3). The competences
and obligations of Publishing Council are transferred
to Editorial Board or Publisher (i.e. co-publisher).
2. The term of office of the Editor-in-chief is four years.
Editor-in-chief can be re-elected by Editorial Board.
The number of terms is not limited.
3. Editor-in-chief is authorized to choose, appoint and discharge
the members of Editorial Board, Deputy Editor-in-chief,
two Editors, Linguistic Advisers (Croatian,
English and German language) and other assistants.
4. Editor-in-chief, with the purpose to raise the level of
the Journal Metalurgija to the worldwide level, select
as well the members of Ed-itorial Board in Croatia as
abroad. The International Editorial Board may count
15 members at most (including Editor-in-chief).
5. The members of the Editorial Board need to be
well-known scientists with their works published in
recognized world periodicals, by their vocation at least
senior research fellow (full professor) with at least one
re-election and must be able to speak two world languages
(one of them must be English).
6. The members of the Editorial Board cover special scientific
(professional) fields in metallurgy as follows:
- physical metallurgy and materials,
- processing metallurgy (non-ferrous and ferrous
metallurgy),
- mechanical metallurgy (manufacturing, energy
supply, ecology etc.),
- related (adjoing) proffesions:
mechanical engineering, chemistry, physics etc.
7. The members of Editorial Board are not representatives
of legal persons of their firms but they are physical
persons as prominent scientists from inland and
foreign countries.
8. In the International Editorial Board - for the reason of
reducing editorial costs - each member of Editorial
UREDNI^KI ODBOR ^ASOPISA
METALURGIJA
PRAVILNIK ^ASOPISA
METALURGIJA
Na temelju Statuta Hrvatskog metalur{kog dru{tva
(HMD) ~lanak 21., Stavak 1., 2., 3., Uredni~ki odbor ~asopisa
Metalurgija na sjednici odr`anoj dana 21.06.2010. godine
potvr|uje
PRAVILNIK
^ASOPISA METALURGIJA
1. Izvori{te za ovaj “Pravilnik” je Pravilnik ~asopisa
Metalurgija done{en na Izdava~kom savjetu ~asopisa
Metalurgija dana 07.05.1990. godine. Manje izmjene
su bile potrebite jer Zakon o izdava~koj djelatnosti
Republike Hrvatske nije vi{e predmnijevao Izdava~ke
savjete pojedinih ~asopisa, to je i Izdava~ki Savjet
~asopisa Metalurgija prestao djelovati u 1993. godini
(Lista Izdava~kog Savjeta nije vi{e objavljena u
Metalurgiji (1993.) 3.). Ovlasti i zadu`enja Izdava~kog
Savjeta se prenose ili na Uredni~ki odbor, ili
izdava~a (odnosno suizdava~a).
2. Zvani~ni mandat glavnog i odgovornog urednika je
~etiri godine. Glavni i odgovorni urednik mo`e biti
iznovice biran po Uredni~kom odboru. Broj mandata
nije ograni~en.
3. Glavni i odgovorni urednik je ovla{ten za izbor,
imenovanje i razrje{avanje ~lanova Uredni~kog
odbora, zamjenika glavnog i odgovornog urednika,
dva urednika, lektora (hrvatski, engleski i njema~ki
jezik) i ostalih pomo}nika.
4. Glavni i odgovorni urednik u svrhu podizanja ~asopisa
Metalurgija na svjetsku razinu, odabire i ~lanove
Uredni~kog odbora iz inozemstva i tuzemstva.
Me|unarodni Uredni~ki odbor mo`e imati najvi{e 15
~lanova (ra~unaju}i i glavnog - odgovornog urednika).
5. ^lanovi Uredni~kog odbora trebaju biti priznati znanstvenici
s objavljenim radovima u presti`nim ~asopisima
u svijetu, najmanje u zvanju znanstvenog
savjetnika (redovitoga profesora) barem s jednim
reizborom uz poznavanje dva svjetska jezika (jedan
obvezatan engleski).
6. ^lanovi Uredni~kog odbora pokrivaju odre|ena
znanstvena (stru~na) podru~ja iz metalurgije i to:
- fizi~ke metalurgije i materijala,
- procesne metalurgije (obojena i crna metalurgija),
- mehani~ke metalurgije (preradba, energetika,
ekologija itd.),
- srodne (dodirne) struke: strojarstvo, kemija, fizika, itd.
7. ^lanovi Uredni~kog odbora nisu zastupnici pravnih
osoba gdje su zaposlenici nego su fizi~ke osobe, kao
istaknuti znanstvenici iz tuzemstva i inozemstva.
8. Uspostavom me|unarodnog Uredni~kog odbora, a
zbog smanjenja tro{kova ure|ivanja, svaki ~lan
Uredni~kog odbora }e sa svog znanstvenog (stru~nog)
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 293-294 293

RULE BOOK OF THE JOURNAL METALURGIJA PRAVILNIK ^ASOPISA METALURGIJA
Board will in his scientific (professional) field independently
give suggestions for a reviewer (or personally
make such reviewes but not more than 5 per year).
9. The narrow part of the Editorial Board (Editor-in-chief
or Editors) is empowered to overtake the articles and
deliver them to the members of Editorial Board to
choose reviewer (according to the Article 8).
10. Each member of the International Editorial Board
must receive every issue of the Journal Metalurgija so
that he may send his written remarks if wished and
necessary. In this way, in view to reducing financial
costs, the session of the International Editorial bord
may be held at least once in two years. In case of their
absence, the members of Editorial Board can send
their approvals or this approvals of particular items on
the agenda or else designate aproxy. A member may
not be absent for more than four meeting in succession.
On this sessions minutes are taken. At the same
time, the members of Editorial Board in inland and in
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294 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 293-294

S. KUT
A SIMPLE METHOD TO DETERMINE DUCTILE
FRACTURE STRAIN IN A TENSILE TEST OF PLANE SPECIMEN’S
INTRODUCTION
In several practical cases, the ultimate ductile fracture
strain determined with tensile test is accepted as a
material plasticity measure 1. In this case, the plasticity
has to be defined as an ability of a material to accommodate
high permanent strains until fracture appears
where this strain reaches certain value called ultimate
fracture strain p. The strain value until fracture depends
not only on the material type, but also on other several
factors, as: strain speed, strain history, material starting
structure, temperature, specimen geometry, etc. It is impossible
to account for all factors in a single mathematical
description, due to a complexity of phenomena and
an insufficient state of the art, mainly for phenomena
present during a plastic strain. Several experiments 2-5
have demonstrated that the material fracture process
strongly depends on the hydrostatic stress. This conclusion
has been independently induced based on experiments
6-8.
Recently, several different fracture criteria, including
the state of hydrostatic stress, have been developed
8-10. However, the practical application of above cri-
Received – Prispjelo: 2009-11-05
Accepted – Prihva}eno: 2009-12-18
Original Scientific Paper – Izvorni znanstveni rad
The ultimate ductile fracture strain determination method for the specimen of circular cross-section has been
presented by FEM method. The state of stress in individual locations of tensile tested specimen in successive
process phases has been determined unequivocally with the stress triaxiality k. It has been demonstrated that
the plane specimen’s fracture strain value in the fracture location varies and depends on the state of stress,
which is present in the final specimen’s tension phase. The ductile fracture strain values in various fracture locations
for steel, copper and aluminum specimen have been experimentally determined and compared. The simple
and practical method to determine this strain has been proposed.
Key words: tensile test, ductile fracture strain, stress triaxiality, finite element method (FEM)
Jednostavna metoda odredjivanja plasti~noga prijeloma i ~vrsto}e plo{nih uzoraka. U ~lanku je
data metoda prora~una odre|ivanja plasti~noga loma uzoraka s okruglim prijesekom sa MKE metodom. Stanje
naprezanja u pojedina~nim mjestima vla~nog pokusnog uzorka u pojedinim fazama procesa su bile odre|ene
koeficientom troosnog naprezanja k. Dokazano je, vrijednosti naprezanja pri lomu plo{nih uzoraka u oblasti
prijeloma se mjenjaju u ovisnosti od stanja naprezanja koje je pokazano u zavr{noj fazi vu~enog uzorka. Vrijednosti
deformacije pri plasti~nom razaranju u raznim mjestima prijeloma za ~elik, bakar i aluminij su bile eksperimentalne
prora~unate i uspore|ene. Odre|ena je jednostavna i prakti~ka metoda pri prora~unu tih
deformacija.
Klju~ne rije~i: vlak, plasti~ko razaranje, troosno stanje naprezanja, metoda kona~nih elemenata (MKE)
S. Kut, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics, Rzeszów
University of Technology, Rzeszów, Poland
ISSN 0543-5846
METABK 49(4) 295-299 (2010)
UDC – UDK 669.14-418:539.37:620.17=111
teria to forecast the fracture during the metal forming
process has been feasible thanks the numerical computing
methods, which enable to determine the material’s
state of stress during the plastic forming process. Currently,
the ductile fracture criteria are commonly used
when simulating various plastic processing processes
10-13. However, the practical application of the criteria
requires the experimental determination of the ductile
fracture strain p value for a given material. This
strain is usually determined based on the tensile test, but
the determination method indeed is not so obvious, and
in several cases even doubtful.
In most cases, the tensile test is performed against
circular or rectangular cross-section specimens. Considering
that the ductile fracture strain p around the
fracture zone equals the equivalent strain z in this zone,
it can be calculated using the equation:
p z 2
3
2 2 2
123(1) For circular cross-section specimen (Figure 1a), the
strain components in direction 1 and 2 are calculated using
the equation:
1
12ln d
d
(2)
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 295-299 295
0

S. KUT: A SIMPLE METHOD TO DETERMINE DUCTILE FRACTURE STRAIN IN A TENSILE TEST OF PLANE SPECIMEN’S
The strain component in direction 3 is calculated using
the constant volume condition:
1 2 03 2
(3)
If (2) and (3) are substituted to (1) and transformed,
the equation to determine the ductile fracture strain p
for circular cross-section specimen is achieved.
p
1
2 ln
0
d
(4)
d
If a tensile tested specimen is plane (Figure 1b), the
strain components in directions 1 and 2 are different and
may be calculated using the equation:
1
ln
b1
(5)
b0
2
ln
g 1
(6)
g 0
The strain component in direction 3 is calculated using
the equation:
1 2 03( 1 2)
(7)
If (5), (6) and (7) are substituted to (1), the equation
to determine the ductile fracture strain p for rectangular
cross-section specimen is achieved:
2 2 2
2
p 12( 1 2) (8)
3
The equation (8) has been derived provided that the
specimen’s cross-section shape is not changed after the
strain. Actually, the specimen’s cross-section shape after
the tensile failure differs significantly from the starting
shape (Figure 2a). After the tensile failure, the plane
specimen’s cross-section has a shape of a saddle (Figure
2b), and it means that the ductile fracture strain value is
not identical within the cross-section, but varies significantly.
That’s why the calculation of the ductile fracture
Figure 1 Typical tensile specimens: a) a round specimen,
b) a flat specimen
Figure 2 Cross-sectional area in the neck at fracture:
a) before fracture, b) after fracture
strain p for plane specimen is not so obvious, as for the
circular cross-section specimen.
The lack of reference data how to proceed in this
case has been a basis to perform the experiments, in order
to develop the method to specify the ductile fracture
strain p for rectangular cross-section specimens.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
The static tensile test has been performed using UTS
100 tensile testing machine. The plane sheet metal specimens
have been tested made of the following material:
steel, copper, and aluminum 5 251. The mechanical
characteristics and the strain hardening curve parameters
for tested materials, achieved based on the tensile
test, have been presented in Table 1. In order to determine
material constants K and n, the specimen elongation
has been measured using the extensometer along
the section l0 = 80 mm. Then the strain hardening curve
p =f() has been plotted for the points below maximum
tension force. The stress p for individual strain hardening
curve points has been calculated as the ratio of the
force to the variable specimen cross-section, calculated
based on the constant volume condition. The logarithmic
strain for individual strain hardening curve points
has been calculated from the equation = ln(l/l0), where:
l0 =80mm,l – the length of section after specimen elongation.
The strain hardening curve points calculated this
way have been approximated with an equation p = K n .
The measuring bases to indicate the measuring zone
have been marked on the specimen surface. L, P – Lateral,
S – Middle (Figure 3). The zone width and specimen
thickness have been measured in these locations
before and after the specimen tensile failure. The geometrical
values have been measured using the
toolmaker’s microscope with an accuracy of 0,01 mm.
The average specimen thickness g1 after the tensile failure
within individual areas (L, P, and S, C) has been determined
as follows:
1) the specimen thickness has been measured after
the tensile failure in examined areas, with an interval
of approx. 0,5 mm on specimen width,
2) thickness g1 has been calculated as an arithmetical
mean of measured thickness values within individual
areas.
The measured values of geometrical parameters in
individual locations before and after the specimen ten-
Table 1 Mechanical properties of materials tested
Material
Yield
stress
Re /MPa
Ultimate
strength
Rm /MPa
Strain hardeningcoefficient
Strain hardeningexponent
K /MPa n
steel 399 447 591 0,072
copper 97 217 389 0,262
aluminium 65 175 378 0,31
296 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 295-299

S. KUT: A SIMPLE METHOD TO DETERMINE DUCTILE FRACTURE STRAIN IN A TENSILE TEST OF PLANE SPECIMEN’S
Table 2 Specimen’s geometry and average strain values
in analyzed regions
Ma
terial
Steel
Copper
Aluminium
Designation of
parametr
values of
geometricalparameters
mm
plastic
strain
values of
geometricalparameters
mm
plastic
strain
values of
geometricalparameters
mm
plastic
strain
L, P
lateral
Measuring zones
S
middle
C total
go 3,55 3,55 3,55
bo 2,1 2 14,92
g1 2,34 1,7 2,2
b1 1,47 1,56 10,97
1 -0,357 -0,248 -0,307
2 -0,417 -0,736 -0,564
p 0,774 1,024 0,884
go 3,55 3,55 3,55
bo 2,1 2,1 14,85
g1 1,27 0,98 1,12
b1 1,51 1,48 10,05
1 -0,32 -0,35 -0,39
2 -1,028 -1,278 -1,154
p 1,416 1,724 1,606
go 3,55 3,55 3,55
bo 2,1 2,25 14,78
g1 2,1 1,75 1,95
b1 1,81 1,93 11,75
1 -0,148 -0,153 -0,229
2 -0,525 -0,707 -0,599
p 0,707 0,918 0,855
sile failure, for individual materials have been stated in
Table 2. Then for all measured zones, the strain value 1
and strain value 2 have been calculated using (5) and
(6), and then the ductile fracture strain values in an individual
zones have been calculated using (8) (Table 2).
The analysis of the fracture strain value p for individual
materials demonstrates that, for all cases, the
highest strain appears in the middle part of specimen,
and the lowest in the lateral part. The experiments performed
show that the more plastic material is (in this
case - copper), the higher fracture strain value p difference.
For aluminum and copper specimen, both the
strain 1 in direction 1 (specimen width) and the strain 2
in direction 2 (specimen thickness) achieve the highest
value in zone S, its middle part. Whereas for the steel
specimen, the highest strain 2 appears in direction 2
(specimen thickness) in zone S, and in direction 1 (specimen
width) strain 1 is slightly lower than in its middle
part (Table 2).
It is also supposed that the differences between
strains in the middle and lateral part of the specimen will
increase as the specimen width is increased. The mean
strain value measured for an entire specimen is inaccurate
and depends mainly on its geometry. The following
question arises: where the fracture strain for the plane
specimens should be measured?
Figure 3 Tensile specimen with marked control lines
FEM NUMERICAL SIMULATION
To answer the question as referred to the above, the
steel specimen tension process numerical simulation has
been performed using MSC Marc Mentat software,
which enables solving non-linear and contact problems.
FEM simulation’s geometrical model has been created
based on the experimental model. The purpose of the
numerical simulation in this case is neither detailed
analysis of stresses and strains nor determining their values.
The purpose of the simulation is to indicate the area,
where the state of stress on the tensioned specimen is the
closest to uniaxial tension, within an entire strain range
up to specimen tensile failure. Therefore the specimen
tension process has been analyzed in the plane stress
condition. The elastic-plastic material model with
non-linear strain hardening has been adopted, described
by the following equation 14:
E
K
n
( 0 )
(9)
( 0 )
The material parameters for elastic strain have been
as follows: E = 210000 MPa, = 0,3. The strain hardening
parameters K, n are presented in Table 1. In order to
create FEM grid of deformable sheet metal, Class 4
Type 3 elements has been used – plane-stress quadrilateral
15. The start point of necking has been determined
based on Hill’s equation in form of 16:
n
*
(10)
( 1
)
where: * - critical strain for the onset of local necking,
31, n - strain hardening exponent.
The tension simulations have been performed for an
entire specimen, placed in the measuring area of an
extensometer (II) holding the griping area of the specimen,
right at the tensile testing machine grips. Such a purposeful
placement of the extensometer (II) enabled the introduction
of the movement boundary condition for the
specimen modeled as in the experiment. This also enabled
eliminating the machine structure susceptibility errors.
The boundary condition has been also introduced for
nodes placed at the ends of modeled specimen in the measuring
area of an extensometer (II). The node movements
towards the specimen axis have been forced in the boundary
condition. The node movement perpendicularly towards
the specimen has been disallowed.
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 3, 295-299 297

S. KUT: A SIMPLE METHOD TO DETERMINE DUCTILE FRACTURE STRAIN IN A TENSILE TEST OF PLANE SPECIMEN’S
Figure 4 Comparison of the tensile force-experimental
and numerical results (steel specimen)
Due to such an assumed boundary condition, the local
necking appears exactly halfway the length of
tensioned specimen.
The tension simulation has been performed until specimen
tensile failure, and it corresponds to extensometr
(II) displacement, which was 15,33 mm for the steel specimen.
The tensile force curves have been prepared and
compared (Figure 4) in order to validate the FEM simulation.
The limit value of ductile fracture strain depends on
the present state of stress. In the mechanical & mathematical
modeling approach, non-dimensional stress
triaxiality k = m/H, where m is a mean normal stress, H
is an equivalent stress, is the very important parameter,
which unequivocally specifies the plane state of stress
(Figure 5). If this factor is known, it is possible to determine
the state of stress in any point of strained object,
e.g.: if k = 0 – this is a simple shear (Figure 5.c), k = 0,66 –
it is a biaxial regular tension (Figure 5.e), k =-0,33–itis
an uniaxial compression (Figure 5.b), etc.
In considered case we determine the strain for the
tensile test, so that k factor value is 0,33. As seen in FEM
calculations, the uniaxial state of stress is present in an
initial tension phase and lasts until the neck is created,
and then once Rm limit is exceeded, the states of stress in
individual zones differ significantly (Figure 6).
The state of stress in the lateral zone L changes
slightly in the biaxial tension direction, reaching k =
0,36 in its final phase. Whereas the state of stress in the
middle zone S changes significantly in the simple shear
direction, reaching k = 0,106 in its final phase.
The state of stress factor k distribution in the initial
and final phase of the specimen tensile test has been presented
on Figure 7. The k factor value is explicitly different
in the middle and lateral part of the specimen under
test.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The experiments performed show that the fracture
strain in the tensile test for plane specimen
Figure 5 The k factor values for an individual plane stress
cases: a) biaxial compression, b) uniaxial compression,
c) simple shear, d) uniaxial tension, e)
biaxial tension
Figure 6 Comparison of stress triaxiality in different specimen
zone: L, P – lateral, S - middle
Figure 7 Distribution of stress triaxiality k: a) initial phase
of tensile test (3-item), b) final phase of tensile
test (20-item)
298 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 295-299

S. KUT: A SIMPLE METHOD TO DETERMINE DUCTILE FRACTURE STRAIN IN A TENSILE TEST OF PLANE SPECIMEN’S
must be determined in L or P zone, as the state of
stress in these zones is the closest to the uniaxial
tension for all tensile test.
2. The calculation of the ductile fracture strain for
an entire cross-section C is highly inaccurate and
the error mostly depends on the specimen dimensions.
3. The presented method of the ductile fracture
strain determination is simple and can be performed
during the conventional tensile test, once
the base line is marked on the specimen surface.
REFERENCES
1 Czichos, H., Saito, T., Smith L.: Springer Handbook of Materials
Measurement Methods. Springer-Verlag New York,
2006, pp. 302-307.
2 Bao, Y., Wierzbicki, T.: On fracture locus in the equivalent
strain and stress triaxiality space. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 46
(2004), 81-98.
3 Mohr, D., Henn, S.: Calibration of stress-triaxiality dependent
crack formation criteria: A new hybrid experimental-numerical
method. Exp.Mech. 47 (2007), 805-820.
4 Oh, C.-K., et al.: Development of stress-modified fracture
strain for ductile failure of API X65 steel, Int. J. Fract. 143
(2007), 119-133.
5 Kim, J., et al.: Modeling of void growth in ductile solids:
Modeling of void growth in ductile solids: effects of stress
triaxiality and initial porosity. Eng. Fract. Mech. 71 (2004),
379–400.
6 Bao, Y.: Dependence of ductile crack formation in tensile
tests on stress triaxiality, stress and strain ratios. Eng. Fract.
Mech. 72 (2005), 505–522.
7 Zhu, H., et al.: Investigation of fracture mechanism of 6063
aluminum alloy under different stress states. Int. J. Fract.
146 (2007), 159–172.
8 Zhao, Z., et at.: An improved ductile fracture criterion for
fine-blanking process. J. Shanghai Univ. (Sci.), 13 (2008) 6,
702-706.
9 Oyane, M., et al.: Criteria for ductile fracture and their applications.
J. Mech. Working Techn. 4 (1980), 65-81.
10 Hambli, R., Reszka, M.: Fracture criteria identification
using an inverse technique method and blanking experiment.
Int. J. Mech. Sci. 44 (2002), 1349-1361.
11 KUT, S.: The method of ductile fracture modeling and predicting
the shape of blanks. Progressive Technologies and
Materials. OWPRz, Rzeszów, 2007, 15-25.
12 Thipprakmas, S., et al.: An investigation of step taper-shaped
punch in piercing process using finie element method. J.
Mat. Proc. Techn. 197 (2008), 132-139.
13 Yu, S., at al.: Ductile fracture modeling of initiation and
propagation in sheet-metal blanking processes, J. Mat. Proc.
Techn. 187-188 (2007), 169-172.
14 Chen, W.F., Han D. J.: Plasticity for Structural Engineers.
Springer-Verlag New York, 1988, 12.
15 MSC Software, MSC.Marc Volume B, Element Library,
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16 MSC Software, MSC.Marc Volume A, Theory and User
Information, Version 2007.
Note: The responsible translator English language is
G. Rêbisz, Rzeszów, Poland.
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 3, 295-299 299

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in the Process Industry, D. H. Longsdail, M. J. Slater (ed.),
vol. 3, Elsevier Applied Science, London, 1993, pp.
1361-1368, or P. Matkovi} Hard Metals in Tehni~ka
enciklopedija (D. [tefanovi}, ed.), vol. 13, Lekisikografski
zavod “Miroslav Krle`a”, Zagreb, 1997, pp. 278-282,
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livarjev Slovenije, Portoro`, 1993, pp. 213-223, or G. M.
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300 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 300

S. KASTELIC, J. MEDVED, P. MRVAR
PREDICTION OF NUMERICAL DISTORTION AFTER WELDING
WITH VARIOUS WELDING SEQUENCES AND CLAMPINGS
INTRODUCTION
Welding is an important process and has significant
role in industry, especially in automotive, marine and
energy industries.
Knowledge of all the properties and welding parameters
enables prediction of final distortion. Accurate prediction
of distortion is important when distortion of
some unique, big parts has to be predicted. In order to
keep deformation in desirable limits, changes of welding
parameters, such as welding sequence and clamping
of the welded parts, may be needed. If change of welding
parameters for a complex part, with big number of
beads or multipass welding is made, then it is not easy to
predict distortion after the welding 1, 2.
In order to obtain all the needed data with numerical
calculation, all the main physical effects that accrue in
welding must be taken in account. All results were calculated
with the modified heat convection equation (1).
It enables to perform non-linear computations with all
the material properties that depend on temperature,
phase and material transformations, fractions of chemical
elements and other accompanying variables 3-5.
Numerical simulation was used to predict final distortion
after welding a test cover for hydro-power plant.
Test cover is shown in Figure 1. Its diameter is 5,5 m and
Received – Prispjelo: 2009-11-23
Accepted – Prihva}eno: 2010-01-15
Original Scientific Paper – Izvorni znanstveni rad
Welding simulation of a test cover for hydropower plant was made due to very large dimensions of the cover.
The main aim was to predict distortion after welding in order to avoid machining the cover. Welding process
was simulated with the Sysweld program to keep distortion in desired limits. Various welding sequences and
clamping conditions were calculated to reduce the distortion. Calculation of microstructure constituents in virtual
complex geometry of joints was also analyzed.
Key words: welding simulation, finite element method, multipass welding, distortion prediction
Numeri~ko predvi|anje izobli~enja nakon zavarivanja s razli~nim slijedom zavarivanja i spajanja.
Simulacija zavarivanja testnog pokrova hidroelektrane provedena je zbog velikih dimenzija ispitne prevlake.
Osnovni je cilj predvidjeti izobli~enje nakon zavarivanja. Radi postizanja veli~ine izobli~enja u `eljenim granicama
proces zavarivanja je simuliran programom Sysweld. Razli~iti tijekovi zavarivanja i uvjeta spajanja prora~unati
su radi smanjenja izobli~enja. Odre|ivanje mikrostrukturnih konstituenata u virtualnoj komleksnoj
geometriji spojeva je tako|er provedeno.
Klju~ne rije~i: simulacija zavarivanja, metoda kona~nih elementa, zavarivanje u vi{e slojeva, predvi|anje izobli~enja
S. Kastelic, J. Medved, P. Mrvar, Faculty of Natural sciences and engineering,
University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
ISSN 0543-5846
METABK 49(4) 301-305 (2010)
UDC – UDK 669.05:621.791.052:608.4=111
flange on the cover is 120 mm thick. Making the cover is
not issue of this paper. Cover was welded and then machined
in workshop to desirable dimensions. Problem
occurred with transport. These test cover will be used in
a reversible hydro-power plant that is located high in the
Alps – about 2000 m above the sea level. Transport of
5,5 m diameter test cover by road is not possible because
tunnels are not big enough. Transport with helicopter is
also not possible because the cover is too heavy at 2000
m above the sea level. So test cover must be cut to two
halves for transport by road and then welded together at
the hydro-power plant place.
T
Pi( C)
i
PiT
Lij
i t
i
( T) Aij Q (1)
ij P phase proportion
T temperature
t time
i, j phases
mass density
C specific heat
thermal conductivity
Q heat sources
Lij(T) latent heat of i›j transformation
Aij proportion of phase i transformed to j in time unit
The goal of this numerical simulation was to predict
distortion after welding and to determine welding sequences
to keep distortion in tolerances. Thus welding
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 301-305 301

S. KASTELIC et al.: PREDICTION OF NUMERICAL DISTORTION AFTER WELDING WITH VARIOUS WELDING...
Figure 1 CAD model of test cover
will be performed without machining after the welding
process.
PREPARING FEM MESH FOR
CALCULATIONS
Finite elements mesh of test cover with Visual Mesh
program was prepared for this calculation. The finite elements
mesh for calculation is shown in Figure 2. Only
half of the test cover was meshed because symmetry was
taken into account.
Two simulations with different welding sequences
and clamping conditions were made. The sequence for
the first simulation started with welding on the flange.
First 17 beads were made from the top of flange and
continued with second 17 beads from the lower side of
flange. Then 26 beads were made on the upper side of
flange and at the end the rest of 26 beads on the lower
side of flange. Together there were 86 beads altogether
on flange. After flange was welded on the cover, welding
of cover itself started, at first with six beads on the
top and then with six beads on the lower side of cover.
Welding sequence on flange is presented in Figure 3. In
calculation with the first sequence, the clamping was
minimal, it was without reinforcement plates, as shown
in Figure 2. These plates were taken into account in the
second calculation.
In the second simulation, also welding sequence was
changed. Welding started on the upper side of cover
Figure 2 FEM mesh of the test cover
Figure 3 Welding sequence on
flange
Table 1 Welding parameters
Flange Cover
Electrode EVB 50 EVB 50
Current type DC / + DC / +
Electrode size 3,25 /4/5 3,25 / 4
Current
110-130 / 140-160 /
180-200 A
with 6 beads and continued with 17 beds on the upper
side of flange. Afterwards, 6 beads were welded onto the
lower side of cover and welding continued with 17
beads on the lower side of flange. Then welding continued
on the upper side of flange with 26 beads and finished
with 26 beads on lower side of flange. Clamping
was also changed. In the second simulation, the clamping
was stiffer and reinforcement plates, as shown in
Figure 2, were included into the calculation.
DEFINING HEAT INPUT
110-130 / 140-150
A
Voltage 24-26 / 25-27 / 26-28 V 24-26 / 25-27 V
Welding speed
15-20 / 20-25 / 25-30
cm/min
12-15 / 15-18
cm/min
Defining the heat input is based on actual welding
parameters that are presented in Table 1. These parameters
are also important for preparation of mesh. Volume
of deposited material for each bead is determined with
electrode size and welding speed. Energy input is defined
with welding current, voltage and welding speed.
Defined heat input is based on the size of test cover
and on welding parameters. The method, applied in this
particular case, is called “Macro weld deposit methodology”.
Heat is transferred into weld instantaneously in
one or several macro steps. Real weld trajectory is divided
into several macro sections. It was included into
the structure before the beginning of computation and
omitted after definition of the macro time steps. Energy/length
ratio that is transferred into the structure is
the same as in actual process, but it is taking place in another
time frame.
Heat input for each bead on flange was defined in
one single macro step. Temperature distribution during
the cooling after the last bead has been welded onto
flange is presented in Figure 4.
302 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 301-305

S. KASTELIC et al.: PREDICTION OF NUMERICAL DISTORTION AFTER WELDING WITH VARIOUS WELDING...
Figure 4 Temperature distribution after welding the last
bead on flange
Table 2 Chemical composition of St355 steel
Heat input on the cover was defined for each bead
with ten macro steps. It meant that weld on the cover
was divided into ten segments.
Heat was then defined for each segment separately
with time delay between single segments. Time delay
between segments depended on the length of segment
and on the welding speed. Temperature distribution
during welding the first bead onto the cover is shown in
Figure 5.
DEFININING MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Base material of the cover is St355 steel with chemical
composition presented in Table 2. In order to obtain
reliable numerical results, precise thermal and material
properties of the used material must be taken in account.
Figure 5 Temperature distribution during the first bead on
cover
Element C Si Mn P S Al N Cr Cu Ni
Composition in wt% 0,18 0,47 1,24 0,029 0,029 0,024 0,0085 0,10 0,17 0,06
Figure 6a Density Figure 6b Thermal conductivity Figure 6c Young’s modulus
Figure 6d Latent heat Figure 6e Yield stress Figure 6f Strain hardening
All these properties must be measured as functions of
temperature and phases. Yield stress, thermal strains,
Young’s modulus, Poisson ratio, strain hardening, density,
thermal conductivity and latent heat must be known
for quality welding. Some of these properties are presented
in graphs in Figures 6a to 6f.
Digitalized CCT diagram is needed for calculation of
microstructural constituents. Diagram is presented in
Figure 7.
RESULTS
With all these data several results for deformation after
welding can be obtained. In our case, deformation after
welding was the main goal. Next to deformation,
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 301-305 303

S. KASTELIC et al.: PREDICTION OF NUMERICAL DISTORTION AFTER WELDING WITH VARIOUS WELDING...
Figure 7 CCT diagram of St355 steel
very important parameters are also stresses and
microstructure in the welding area after the welding.
Deformation of test cover after the welding with the
second sequence in the flange area was less than 2 mm.
The deformed shape of the cover is presented in Figure
8. In this picture wireframe of cover before welding and
also the deformed shape afterwards are presented. The
deformed shape was multiplied by 20 so that deformed
shape is more pronounced.
Effect of various welding sequences and clamping
conditions is presented in Figures 9a and 9b. Maximum
deformation after welding with the first sequence was
4,3 mm. Deformation of test cover on the X-axis after
welding is shown in Figure 9a.
Welding with the second sequence resulted in
smaller deformation. The deformation on the X-axis,
shown in Figure 9b, is smaller and it is less than 2 mm.
The deformed shape in Figures 8 and 9 is multiplied by
20.
Figure 10 Stresses after welding with first sequence (a), and second sequence (b)
Figure 8 Deformation after welding with the first sequence
Figure 9 Deformation in the X-axis after welding, a) first
sequence, b) second sequence
Next to deformation also distribution of stresses in
heat affected zone was calculated. It became obvious
that there was compressive stress in the middle of flange
where first beads were weld onto flange, Figures 10a
and 10b. The highest tensile stress was found under the
surface of flange and in the area where last beads were
welded.
The results that are presented in Figures 11a, 11b,
12a, and 12b show the microstructure of the heat affected
zone after welding. Figures 11a and 11b present
distribution of bainite in the welding area. The amount
of bainite in the beads was quite high (90 vol. %) since
preheating of area was 150 °C. Increased amount of
martensitic phase, being between 10 to 20 vol. %, was
found on the interface between base material and
Figure 11 Bainite distribution after welding with first sequence (a), and second sequence (b)
Figure 12 Martensite distribution after welding with first sequence (a), and second sequence (b)
304 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 301-305

welded-on beads. This was result of higher cooling rates
at the interface with the base material. Distribution of
martensite is presented in Figures 12a and 12b.
CONCLUSION
S. KASTELIC et al.: PREDICTION OF NUMERICAL DISTORTION AFTER WELDING WITH VARIOUS WELDING...
In order to predict distortion after welding the cover,
two simulations were made with various welding sequences
and clamping conditions. Deformation with the
second simulation was smaller. In order to reduce deformation
further, another calculation with changed welding
sequence could be made, but obtained results were
satisfactory for now. Peak values of stresses were relatively
high for this material, but these peaks referred to
very small areas. Also these values should be moderated
with some simple trial welding under similar conditions.
Trial welding should be simulated too that a comparison
could be made whether these stresses would cause some
cracks or not. Absolute values of stresses in the second
case were slightly higher since clamping in the second
case was more rigid, because the reinforcement plates
were taken into consideration.
Amount of martensitic phase on the interface could
be reduced with higher preheating temperature, but
higher temperature could be hardly reached because
heat capacity of cover was big. Also the possibility of
cracks was relatively small because the areas with
higher fraction of martensite did not appear on the same
spots as the areas with high stresses.
REFERENCES
1 D. Deng, H. Murakawa, W. Liang: Comput. Methods Appl.
Mech. Engrg., 196 (2007), 4613–4627
2 T. Schenk, I. M. Richardson, M. Kraska, S. Ohnimus: Computational
Materials Science, 45 (2009), 999–1005
3 ESI Group: Sysweld reference manual, digital version
SYSWELD 2008.1
4 F. Boitout, D. Dry, P. Mourgue, H. Porzner, Y. Gooroochurn:
Transient Simulation of Welding Processes - Thermal,
Metallurgical and Structural Model, Sysweld v2004
5 F. Boitout, D. Dry, P. Mourgue, H. Porzner, Y. Gooroochurn:
Distortion control for large maritime and automotive
structures, Sysweld v2004
Note: The responsible person for English language is prof. dr. A. Paulin.
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 301-305 305

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306 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 306

J. MATUSIAK, A. WYCIŒLIK
THE INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGICAL
CONDITIONS ON THE EMISSION OF WELDING
FUME DUE TO WELDING OF STAINLESS STEELS
INTRODUCTION
While welding, parent metals and welding
consumables as well as physical and chemical processes
involving temperature change and UV radiation is the
sources of welding fume, which contains solid particles
(welding fume) and gases. Numerous tests conducted by
the research centres all over the world have revealed that
welding fume and gases emitted during welding contain
hazardous substances, which pose a threat to human
health while welding. Toxic and carcinogenic character
of the welding fume and the level of the threat result
from fume emission, its concentration at the workplace
as well as fraction and chemical constitution. Welding
fume emitted while welding of stainless steels contains
significant quantities of elements, characteristic for those
steels: in particular chromium and nickel. Some
forms of chromium and nickel as well as chemical compounds
of those metals have been recognised as leading
chemical features for the estimation of health hazard,
which accompanies welding of stainless materials. This
means that those substances being emitted in large quantities
are highly toxic. Some chromium and nickel com-
Received – Prispjelo: 2009-06-19
Accepted – Prihva}eno: 2009-09-10
Original Scientific Paper – Izvorni znanstveni rad
Welding of stainless steel is very popular, which consequently is the reason for growing concern for the working
environment at welding stations. Chromium is the basic alloying element of all groups of stainless steels.
Majority of those steel grades contains nickel. Compositions of the elements occurring in welding fume have a
probable or confirmed carcinogenic effect. The article shows the results of research of the relations between
selected groups of stainless steels as well as technology parameters of arc welding processes and the welding
fume emission, total chromium, chromium (VI) and nickiel contents in the fume.
Key words: stainless steels, arc welding, welding fume, carcinogenic substances
Utjecaj tehnolo{kih uvjeta zavarivanja nehr|aju}ih ~elika na emisiju zavariva~kih pra{ina. Velika
popularnost ovih materijala jedan je od razloga da povezano sa zavarivanjem stanje radnog mjesta budi veliko
zanimanje. U nehr|aju}im ~elicima svih grupa, osnovni sastojak je krom. Ve}ina ovih ~elika sadr`ava tako|er nikal.
Spojevi ovih elemenata koji se nalaze u zavariva~koj pra{ini, ubrajaiju se u tvari s opravdanim ili vjerojatnim
kancerogenim djelovanjem. U ovom ~lanku prikazani su rezultati ispitivanja odnosa izme|u izabranih grupa
nehr|aju}eg ~elika, tehnolo{kih parametra lu~nog zavarivanja i veli~ine emisije pra{ine, sadr`aja potpunog kroma,
kroma (VI) i nikla u pra{ini.
Klju~ne rije~i: nehr|aju}i ~elici, lu~no zavarivanje, zavariva~ka pra{ina, kancerogene tvari
J. Matusiak, Institute of Welding, Gliwice, Poland
A. Wyciœlik, Silesian University of Technology, Faculty of Materials Science
and Metallurgy, Department of Technological Processes Management,
Katowice, Poland
ISSN 0543-5846
METABK 49(4) 307-311 (2010)
UDC – UDK 621.791.669:669.14.018.8:628.511.123:661.874= 111
pounds occurring in the welding fume have carcinogenic
action stated by the International Agency for Research
on Cancer. Epidemiological research carried for
welders’ population in many countries has revealed that
the exposition to those substances, especially for
long-term exposure, cause serious cancer diseases of
various organs and systems of the human body 1-3.At
Instytut Spawalnictwa research into the reduction of
health hazards occurring in welding by selection of the
proper material and technological conditions for the
process have been conducted for many years. Welding
fume quantitative and qualitative emission result from
the applied process, technological conditions as well as
parent metal and welding consumables composition. Parameters
of arc welding significantly influence the
quantity of the emitted pollutants 4-5. Majority of the
arc welding parameters are modifiable without any influence
on the correct welding performance.
THE MATERIAL AND
TECHNOLOGY SCOPE OF RESEARCH
Austenitic chromium – nickel steels are the majority
of the whole corrosion resistant steels used for welded
structures. The most popular, widely known and applied
is X5CrNi18-10 steel. It is weldable with all arc welding
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 307-311 307

J. MATUSIAK et al.: THE INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGICAL CONDITIONS ON THE EMISSION OF WELDING FUME...
processes and welding conditions for this steel are representative
for the whole austenitic steel group. Above
mentioned factors were taken into consideration while
selection of X5CrNi18-10 steel as the basic material for
research. X6Cr17 steel was selected from the large
group of chromium steels as it was relatively often used
material for welded structures. Stainless steel group is
continually developing and new materials are being created.
Such relatively new group are Duplex steels of
austenitic – ferritic structure, whose alloying constituents
are chromium, nickel, molybdenum and nitrogen.
Duplex steels are used for welded structures, however
this group is not very well known in industrial practice.
In order to select good representation of tested materials
as the third grade of steel – Duplex steel 2205 -
X2CrNiMoN22-5-3, which is produced by all important
steelworks companies, was chosen.
Aiming at the practical application of research results,
the relation between fume emission, total chromium,
chromium (VI) and nickel content in welding fume as
well as technological conditions of three arc welding processes,
which are the most frequently used for stainless
steels: i.e. MIG/MAG, TIG and MMA processes were investigated.
In accordance with general recommendations,
welding consumables used while welding of ferritic,
austenitic and Duplex steels should be as a principle similar
to the parent metals. This rule has numerous advantages
connected with the characteristics of the deposited
metal of those materials. The deposited metal is similar to
the parent metal in respect of mechanical properties, appearance
(colour), flexibility and results of heat treatment
and corrosion resistance 4. An alternative for filler metals
similar to the parent metals are (especially for ferritic
steels) materials of austenitic structures, which have good
plasticity of deposited metal as well as crack and corrosion
resistance, but are dissimilar in the respect of a structure,
colour, heat treatment workability and are definitely
more expensive.
THE INFLUENCE OF THE MATERIAL
AND TECHNOLOGY CONDITIONS
ON THE FUME EMISSION
Total fume emission during arc welding of stainless
steels is closely connected with applied welding
consumables and welding current of the selected welding
process. While welding of stainless steels, i.e.
X5CrNi18-10 (Figure 1), X6Cr17 (Figure 2) as well as
X2CrNiMoN22-5-3 with MIG/MAG and TIG processes,
research has revealed that fume emission results from the
welding current intensity. The emission of total fume increases
along with the increase of current intensity. While
investigating the fume emission during MIG/MAG welding
process, three values of the welding current were applied:
150, 200 and 250 A. For the current of 150 and 200
A short circuit metal transfer in the arc was observed. The
emission of total fume was smaller in comparison to that
determined during globular metal transfer. For 250 A and
mixed metal transfer, significant increase in the fume
emission has been found. The influence of the current and
current dependent method of metal transfer on the fume
emission has been stated for all gas shields applied in the
tests. For TIG process three current values have been set:
80, 100 and 140 A. The increase of the fume emission
along with current increase has been stated (Figure 3).
Current intensity for TIG process influences heat generation
when arc is burning between non-consumable electrode
and welded material, thus current determines thermal
power of the arc. The increase of the current intensity
causes the increase of arc plasma temperature as well as
intensifies vaporisation of liquid metal and oxidation reaction.
The tests have confirmed the influence of the current
applied during stainless steels welding with MIG/MAG
processes (Figures 4, 5) and TIG process on the chromium
(VI) and nickel content in welding fume. The content
of chromium (VI) and nickel increased along with
the increase of current intensity. This relation occurred
for all shielding gases and for all electrode wires and
rods grades applied in the tests. The change of the chromium
(VI) and nickel content in welding fume is connected
with the oxidation reaction intensity. This intensity
in the arc depends on the temperature of plasma,
which is dependent on current intensity. For higher current
the arc column increases as well, which is accompanied
by the growing amount of dissociated oxygen. For
higher amount of atomic oxygen in the arc area, chromium
(III) can be easily oxidised to the form of chromium
(VI). The presence of the atomic oxygen contributes
to the creation of nickel oxides.
The influence of shielding gas composition on the
fume emission and hazardous substances content is an
important issue. Research have revealed that the impact
of the shielding gas composition on total fume emission,
chromium (VI) and nickel content in fume is significant.
During testing of X6Cr17 steel, seven various gas mixtures
were applied (Figures 1, 4). Shielding gases varied
in respect of oxidising factor (I0). Gases of high oxidising
factor I0 =9-8(82%Ar+18%CO2,92%Ar+8%O2),
gases of medium factor I0 =4-5(92%Ar+8%CO2,95
%Ar+5%O2) and gases of low oxidising factor I0 =
1,5-2 (97 % Ar+3%CO2,98%Ar+2%O2) were applied
during research. It has been found that shielding
gases of high and medium oxidising factor caused high
content of chromium (VI), while gases of low oxidising
factor resulted in its lower content (Figure 4).
The analysis of research results have revealed the relation
between total fume emission and gas shield constitution
in MIG/MAG welding of chromium ferrite
steel. In general, it can be stated that the highest fume
emission occurred while applying gas mixtures of Ar +
CO2. Shielding gases of Ar + O2 caused significantly
lower emission of total fume.
308 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 307-311

J. MATUSIAK et al.: THE INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGICAL CONDITIONS ON THE EMISSION OF WELDING FUME...
Figure 1 The influence of welding current and the composition
of shielding gases on the welding fume
emission during MIG/MAG welding of austenitic
steel
Figure 2 The influence of welding current and the composition
of shielding gases on the welding fume
emission during MIG/MAG welding of chromium-ferritic
steel
Figure 3 The influence of welding current on the welding
fume emission during TIG welding of stainless
steels
During research into welding of austenitic steel three
different shielding gases, including two mixtures of Ar
+O2 and Ar + CO2 type as well as inert gas – argon were
used. Tested gas mixtures have low oxidising factor.
Figure 4 The influence of welding current and the composition
of shielding gases on the contents of
chromium (VI) in fume during MIG/MAG welding
of chromium-ferritic steel
Figure 5 The influence of welding current and the composition
of shielding gases on the contents of
chromium (VI) in fume during MIG/MAG welding
of austenitic steel
Like in case of chromium ferritic steel welding an influence
of shielding gas constitution on fume emission during
testing of hazardous substances has been found.
Analysis of the results has revealed that the mixture of
argon + oxide type creates favourable conditions for reduction
of total fume emission. Similar tendency is
achieved for argon shielded welding. In case of
austenitic steel welding higher content of chromium
(VI) was detected for shielding gas with higher oxidising
factor (98 % Ar +2%O2) (Figure 5). Whereas
shielding gas containing 97 % Ar+3%CO2, hose oxidising
factor amounts to 1,5, during welding contributed
to the reduction of chromium (VI) content. The mechanism
of creation of chromium (III) and chromium (VI)
during welding can be described in the following way:
– the arc plasma reaches high temperature, chromium
from parent metal and welding consumable
achieves the form of pure metal vapours,
– with the presence of atomic oxide, oxidising process
to the chromium (III) occurs in accordance to
the reaction
4Cr+3O2 2Cr2O3
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 307-311 309
(1)

J. MATUSIAK et al.: THE INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGICAL CONDITIONS ON THE EMISSION OF WELDING FUME...
The presence of strongly active atomic oxide provokes
further oxidation to the chromium (VI) form. Stable
form of hexavalent chromium bonded by oxide takes
the form of CrO4 2- or Cr2O7 2- . The presence of atomic
oxide in the arc area also influences the formation of
nickel oxides (NiO, NiO2,Ni2O3). During the analysis of
the nickel content in welding fume it has been found that
for Ar and the mixture Ar + O2 gas shielding the content
of nickel reaches the highest values (Figure 6). The mixture
Ar + CO2 reduces the nickel content in welding
fume.
The investigation into fume emission and carcinogenic
substances content in welding fume during stainless
steels welding with MIG/MAG process were conducted
using solid wires and tubular cored electrode.
Tubular cored electrode was applied in the process of
welding of X6Cr17 austenitic-ferritic steel. The results
have revealed that welding with tubular cored electrode
implies high emission of total welding fume and particularly
high content of chromium (VI) in welding fume.
During testing of the fume emission and total chromium,
chromium (VI) and nickel content in welding
fumes during welding of stainless steels with MMA process,
electrodes of various coverings were applied. For
austenitic stainless steel welding basic, rutile-acid and
rutile coated electrodes were used. For austenitic-ferritic
steel basic and rutile coated electrodes were applied,
whereas chromium ferritic steel was welded with basic
electrodes. While summing up the research into carcinogenic
substances content in the fume arising from covered
electrodes it has been revealed that the covering
type fails to have significant influence on the percentage
of chromium (VI) and nickel. High content of chromium
(VI) in welding fume however occurs during welding of
stainless steels with all types of covered electrodes. The
Figure 6 The influence of welding current and the composition
of shielding gases on the contents of
nickel in fume during MIG/MAG welding of austenitic
steel.
electrode coating determines the total fume emission in
the tested MMA process, so indirectly the electrode covering
influences the emission of chromium (VI) and
nickel to the work environment (see Table 1).
From the research a conclusion can be drawn that of
three tested processes of welding stainless steel, i.e.
MAG/MIG, TIG and MMA the highest potential hazard
connected with chromium (VI) and total chromium is
caused by welding of steel with covered electrodes. It is
not only because of the higher content of chromium (VI)
in the fume but also with several times greater temporary
emission of total fume.
CONCLUSION
Basing on the research result several conclusions can
be drawn, which are of great importance for optimisation
of the process of stainless steel welding, having in
view improvement of work conditions:
Table 1 The fume emission and contents of total chromium, chromium (VI) and nickel during the welding of stainless
steels
Steel
X5CrNi18-10
X2CrNiMoN22-5-3
X6Cr17
Welding process / parameters/
gas shielding
Fume mg/s
Components content / % m/m
Cr Cr (VI) Ni
MIG/MAG
150A/Ar
1,76 13,4 0,3 5,1
TIG
100A/Ar
0,11 13,7 0,2 4,4
MMA / 120 A 8,05 4,5 3,9 0,4
MIG/MAG / 150 A
82%Ar+18%CO2
2,97 10,8 1,1 0,8
TIG
100A/Ar
0,07 9,8 1,5 4,7
MMA / 120 A 13,47 5,9 4,7 0,8
MIG/MAG
150 A
95%Ar+5%O2
1,62 12,5 0,5 -
TIG
100A/Ar
0,08 11,2 0,2 -
MMA / 110 A 3,17 3,9 3,3 -
310 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 307-311

J. MATUSIAK et al.: THE INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGICAL CONDITIONS ON THE EMISSION OF WELDING FUME...
1. Material and technological conditions of stainless
steel welding using MIG/MAG, TIG and
MMA processes influence the total fume emission
as well as total chromium, chromium (VI)
and nickel contents in welding fume.
2. Shield gas constitution has significant effect on
the total fume emission as well as total chromium,
chromium (VI) and nickel contents in
welding fume occurring during stainless steel
joining with MIG/MAG welding process.
– Shielding gases of argon + oxygen type reduce the
emission of total fume during welding of stainless
steels using MIG/MAG process. For austenitic
steel welding, shield gas of 98 % Ar+2%O2 limits
fume emission on the average by 10 % in comparison
to the argon shielded welding and by 30 %
in the comparison to welding in gas shield of 97 %
Ar+3%CO2 composition.
– The highest emission of the total welding fume occurs
while application of gas mixtures of argon +
carbon dioxide type.
– Shielding gases of argon + oxygen type, characterised
by high and medium oxidising factor cause
higher content of chromium (VI) in welding fume.
– Shielding gases of argon + carbon dioxide make
possible to achieve lower amounts of chromium
(VI) in the welding fume. The content of chromium
(VI) in welding fume during welding of
chromium ferritic steel in a shielding atmosphere
of 92%Ar+8%CO2 gases is on the average
lower by 40 % than that occurring for the mixture
of 92%Ar+8%CO2.
– Shielding gases of higher oxidising factors cause
emission of higher amount of total chromium in
the fume.
– The highest contents of nickel in the welding fume
were achieved during welding in argon gas shielding.
Gas mixtures of argon + oxygen and argon +
carbon dioxide reduce the nickel content in welding
fume.
3. Current intensity in MIG/MAG and TIG processes
determines the total welding fume emission
as well as total chromium, chromium (VI)
and nickel content in the fume occurring during
stainless steel welding.
– While welding of stainless steel with MIG/MAG
process, the influence of current which determines
the way of metal transfer in the arc has been specified
for all shielding gases applied during research.
Short circle transfer of metal in the arc for
the current range of 150 to 200 A caused lower
emission of total fume. For 250 A and mixed
metal transfer, significant increase in the fume
emission has been found. During austenitic steel
and chromium ferritic steel welding fume emission
for current of 250 A was approximately twice
as high in the comparison to fume emission for the
current of 150 A.
– During welding of stainless steel with TIG
process, the increase of current causes higher total
fume emission. For 140 A fume emission is twice
as high in the comparison to that for current of 80
A.
4. The type of the covering in the case of welding of
stainless steels with covered electrodes fails to
significantly influence the percentage of total
chromium, chromium (VI) and nickel content. It
has been found that high amount of chromium
(VI) in welding fume during welding of stainless
steels with covered electrodes occurs for all covering
types. The covering type determines the
emission of total fume for selected MMA welding
process, thus indirectly the electrode covering
influences the emission of total chromium,
chromium (VI) and nickel to the work environment.
5. Among the tested welding processes, the highest
potential hazard associated with chromium (VI)
and total chromium is definitely higher during
welding of steel with covered electrodes. It results
not only from the higher content of chromium
(VI) in welding fume, but also it is associated
with several times higher temporary emission
of total fume.
REFERENCES
1 V.E. Spiegel-Ciobanu, Chromium and nickel in welding
and allied processes-some important aspects, IIW Doc. VIII
1799-97.
2 P.J. Cunat, Chromium in stainless steel welding fumes, IIW
Doc.VIII-1973-03.
3 G. McMillan, Lung cancer and electric arc welding, IIW
Doc.1988-05.
4 J.C. Lippold, D.J. Kotecki, Welding Metallurgy and Weldability
of Stainless Steels, Wiley – Interscience, J.Wiley &
Sons Inc. Publication, 2005.
5 J. Matusiak, A. Wyciœlik, Welding of stainless steels and
the hazard of health and occupational safety of welders Hutnik.
Wiadomoœci hutnicze. 9(2007), 538-545.
6 J. Matusiak, The influence of technological conditions of
stainless steels arc welding on the welding fume toxicity,
Doctor’s thesis, Silesian University of Technology, 2007.
Note: The language lecturer for English was Barbara Dobaj-Tumidajewicz,
Institute of Welding, Poland.
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 307-311 311

10 th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM
OF
CROATIAN METALLURGICAL SOCIETY
11 th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM
OF
CROATIAN METALLURGICAL SOCIETY
Al the informations please see:
http://public.carnet.hr/metlurg
SHMD´2012.
SHMD´2014.
«MATERIALS AND METALLUARGY»
CALL FOR PARTICIPATION
The 10th and 11th Symposiums are also in the “Calendar of International
Conferences for 2012 and 2014.”
(Meeting of World Metallurgical Society’s, Düsseldorf, November 2009)
CROATIA, June, 2012., 2014.
312 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 312

O. HÍRE[, I. BARÉNY
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FORGINGS
DEPENDING ON THE CHANGES IN SHAPE
AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF INCLUSIONS
INTRODUCTION
Enlargement of quality requirements in metallurgical
semi products used in cannon barrels production
(forgings) has resulted in substantially increased number
of defective products. The main issues are poor quality
of plastic properties and yield point of processed materials.
Careful analysis of forgings technology and adaptation
of its constituent phases has not resulted in the
quality enhancement of the forgings. Consequently, the
issue is searched in metallurgical phase of production
technology. 1-3.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
USED IN EXPERIMENT
The experiment is aimed at the quality of bar shaped
steel forgings of large dimensions with diameter 350
mm and length 8500 mm. The forgings are made of medium
alloyed steel with chemical composition and mechanical
properties according to Table 1.
Cannon barrel steels have a favorable relation between
plastic and strength properties and high hardening
ISSN 0543-5846
METABK 49(4) 313-316 (2010)
UDC – UDK 621.73.042:669.1=111
Received – Prispjelo: 2009-01-06
Accepted – Prihva}eno: 2010-02-27
Preliminary Note – Prethodno priop}enje
The article deals with mechanical properties of forgings used for special technology in cannon barrels production.
The forgings are treated by elctroslag remelting technology (ESR) to enhance its plastic properties and
yield point. Described experiments are focused on mechanical properties and metallurgical quality (microstructure)
of steels from which are the forgings made. The article includes microstructure photographs and description
of inclusions located in examined steels. Experimental results compare forgings treated by ESR and next
ones without ESR.
Key words: medium alloyed steel, ingot, forging, electroslag remelting, quality, mechanical properties,
non-metallic folds
Mehani~ka svojstva otkivaka u ovisnosti od izmjene oblika i kemijskog sastava uklju~aka. ^lanak
daje prikaz mehani~kih svojstava otkivaka koji se rabe pri posebnoj tehnologiji za topovske cijevi. Otkivci su tretirani
elektro pretaljivanjem pod troskom glede povi{enja plasti~nih svojstava i granica razlu~enja. Eksperiment se
fokusira na mehani~ka svojstva, mikrostrukturu i metalur{ku kakvo}u materijala otkivka. Rezultati eksperimenta
uspore|uju otkivke sa i bez pretaljivanja pod troskom.
Klju~ne rije~i: srednje legirani ~elik, ingot, otkivak, pretaljivanje pod troskom, mehani~ka svojstva, nemetalni
uklju~ci
O. Híre{, I. Barényi, Faculty of special technology, Alexnader Dubcek
University of Trencin, Slovakia
Table 1 Characteristics of examined steel 4
Chemical composition (wt. %)
C Ni Cr Mo Si
0,35 3,0 1,0 0,25 0,30
Mn Pmax Smax Cumax
0,40 0,025 0,025 0,030
Mechanical properties
Rp0,2
Z
KCV
/ MPa /
/%/
/ J/cm 2 /
873 25 34
capacity (over 150 mm). These conditions make steel
suitable for forgings of large dimensions 3, 5.
Methodology of testing is performed according to
the following steps:
– Testing mechanical properties on samples from
defective forgings prepared of originally used
steel
– Detailed analysis of solid phase on samples from
originally used steel and following evaluation of
its metallurgical quality
– Enhancement of metallurgical quality of originally
used steel by application of ESR (Electroslag
Remelting)
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 313-316 313

O. HÍRE[ et al.: MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FORGINGS DEPENDING ON THE CHANGES IN SHAPE...
– Testing mechanical properties on samples made
of steel improved by ESR.
– Comparing results gained in the process of analyzing
technologies employed (by ESR and without
ESR)
SOLID PHASES ANALYSIS
The solid phase is analyzed via the fractures surface
testing employing electron microscopy on the samples
from tensile strength test and Charpy impact test of ESR
and non ESR steel. Also the qualitative analysis of the
unfamiliar particles located on the samples fracture surfaces
is realized 6.
Inclusions on the fracture surfaces are classified into
various different types but only two types of non-metallic
particles are of the high priority. The first type is
fanout aligned baculiform particles (Figure 1). Chemical
analysis confirms the presence of the manganese sulfide
MnS (Figure 2) 2. The second type of the inclusions
consists of small cumulated particles segregated in
lines, strips or clusters (Figure 3). Polyhedral particles
are angular and in some cases are almost formed into a
regular hexagon. Chemical analysis by EDAX system
confirms presence of the complex chemical compounds
comprising O, Si, Ca, Al, Ti, S, Mn (Figure 4) 2, 3.
These compounds are complexes of sulfide oxides separated
by strip of metallic base.
The highest number of defective products was occurred
in those forgings where fanout aligned
baculiform folds were detected.
ENHANCING METALLURGICAL
QUALITY OF STEEL
Detailed analysis of fracture surfaces indicates
clearly that the way of enhancing the tested product
Figure 1 Fanout aligned baculiform folds –magnification
600x
3000x 100 s 250 s
Sec. electrons: SKá Ká Mn
3000x 100 s 250 s.
Sec. electrons: SKá Ká Mn
Figure 2 Area distribution of characteristics X-radiation
Ká Mn and S in folds of baculiform shape
Figure 3a Polyhedral shaped
clusters and rows of
folds - magnification 600x
Figure 3b Polyhedral shaped
clusters and rows of
folds - magnification 2000x
2000x 250 s 250 s 250 s
Sec. electr.: KáO SiKá CaKá
100 sec. 250 s 250 s 250 s
TiKá AlKá SKá MnKá
Figure 4 Area distribution of characteristics X-radiation
Ká0, Si, Ca, Ti, Al, S, Mn and S in folds segregated
in clusters
quality means affecting the inclusions in the melting
phase of the production process.
The primary liquid alloy could not be affected on a
large scale during the casting process of ingot. Therefore
testing is focused on secondary melting as a product
of electroslag remelting of the ingot to the forged electrode.
The electrode was forged using hydraulic jack
314 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 313-316

CKV – 2500 and remelted in the electroslag device (Figure
5) under the refining slag with composition of 70%
CaF2 a 30% Al2O3.
The principle of ESR technology is described in
more details in lit. 6.
Ingot made by ESR is annealing for stress relieving,
forged and finally heat treated.
RESULTS COMPARISON
- ESR AND NON-ESR STEEL
O. HÍRE[ et al.: MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FORGINGS DEPENDING ON THE CHANGES IN SHAPE...
Figure 5 Equipment for electroslag remelting of steel 3
1 – Inventory head
2 – Seating clamps
3 – Electrode (forged and remelted product)
4 – Crystallizer
5 – Feeding device
6 – Cooling of crystallizer
7 – Input power
Samples are prepared from each of forgings (with
ESR and without ESR) to be tested for tensile strength
and to carry out Charpy test. The samples are taken from
places in transverse direction to forging line of forgings.
Tensile strength test is realized according to the standard
STN EN 10002-1 and Chapry test is carried out in line
with the standard STN EN 10045-1 4,7.
Five samples are prepared from each of forgings and
final values of its mechanical characteristics (Table 2
and Table 3) are arithmetic mean.
Results gained in mechanical values of originally
used and enhanced steel show significant differences as
it is stated in Table 2 and Table 3 1, 3.
Table 2 Results in mechanical properties acquired
from remelted steel
Forgings
No.
Rp0,2
/MPa/
Z
/%/
KCV
/ J/cm 2 /
4742
958
26,4
48
4743
974
30,9
52
4744
959
29,7
51
4745
964
24,6
54
4832
866
19,5
43
4833
909
18,6
42
4834
886
19,3
42
4835
953
21,2
42
5748
982
21,3
40
5749
915
30,5
48
5751
945
22,1
42
5752 1001
27,8
42
5753
922
35,9
48
5754 1013
32,2
40
5756
947
28,0
50
5757
947
34,9
58
5758
953
36,7
54
5759
962
36,6
51
Average value 947 27,5 47
Table 3 Results of mechanical properties acquired
from non-remelted steel
Forgings
No.
6395
6396
7482
7483
Rp0,2
/MPa/
Z
/%/
KCV
/ J/cm 2 /
1182
42,6
61
1165
43,2
62
1187
44,3
67
1092
44,7
68
Average value 1131 43,2 64,5
Comparison of both types of steel unambiguously
shows the increase in all mechanical characteristics of
re-melted steel.
Absolutely different types of non-ferrous inclusions
on the fracture surfaces of ESR steel are found if compared
to the fracture surfaces of steel without ESR. Inclusions
are dispersed in steel, not segregated in any
clusters and they have almost globular form as it is
shown in Figure 6. The inclusions were identified as a
complex sulfide oxide by chemical microanalysis (Figure
7) 8.
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 313-316 315

O. HÍRE[ et al.: MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FORGINGS DEPENDING ON THE CHANGES IN SHAPE...
Figure 6 Typical folds of ESR forgings Figure 7 Chemical microanalysis of folds in ESR forgings
CONCLUSIONS
The presented results show that the electroslag
remelting forgings have significantly higher values of
mechanical characteristics than the values of requirements
recommended. Therefore steel produced in arc
furnace and then refined by ESR technology follows to
its conditions suitable for the designer to design products
with better utility properties.
An important benefit of ESR technology lies in plastic
properties distribution homogenously through volume
of forging. The plastic properties of ESR forgings
are also significantly higher at high yield point level
than the properties of forgings without ESR. This positive
effect of ESR to steel forgings is due to distribution
of non-ferrous inclusions in the steel. Forgings without
ESR has inclusions segregated in cluster but this effect
did not appear in ESR forgings. The refinement effect
causes that some inclusions got stuck in the slug (a third
of them according to analysis) and the rest, breaking off
the slug, are segregated individually in the liquid. Individual
segregation of inclusions does not affect mechanical
properties of steel in a negative way if compared to
inclusion segregated in clusters.
REFERENCES
1 Híre{, O., Mimopecná rafinácia ocelí. In: Zborník Akademická
Dubnica, 1999, pp. 219
2 Pernis, R., Teória tvárnenia kovov. TnU AD v Tren~íne,
2007, Tren~ín, pp. 104-110
3 Híre{, O., Mäsiar, H., Barényi, I.: Vplyv elektrotroskového
pretavovania dlhých výkovkov z CrMoNi ocele na jej plastické
vlastnosti. In: Zborník predná{ok z medzinárodnej
vedeckej konferencie FORMING 2002, Luha~ovice 2002,
I, pp. 113-115
4 Barényi, I. Dizerta~ná práca. TnU AD v Tren~íne, 2008, pp.
57-67
5 Ptá~ek, L. et al., Náuka o materiálu II. Akademické nakladatelství
CERM, Brno, 2002
6 [tepánek A., Vydarený V, Electroslag remelting Cr-Ni-Mo
alloy steels, In: Acta Metalurgica Slovaca, 3(1997), 23-28
7 Zábavník, V., Bur{ák, M., Materiál, tepelné spracovanie,
kontrola kvality. EMILENA Ko{ice, 2004
8 Li~ková, M., Drsnost’povrchu plazmovo striekaných povlakov,
In: Strojárstvo, MediaST s.r.o., 4(2008), 106-108
Note: English translation corrected by: Mária Igazova, TnU, Tren~ín,
Slovakia
316 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 313-316

M. BUR[ÁK, J. MICHEL’
INFLUENCE OF THE STRAIN RATE ON THE MECHANICAL
AND TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL SHEETS
INTRODUCTION
Increasing of strain rate during forming of semi
products or products is one of the ways of production intensification.
Therefore an attention is paid to the study
of the influence of the strain rate on the material behaviour
in the deformation process, but also on the methodology
of evaluation of formability at increased strain
rates (including impact) 1,2. In general, it applies that
increased strain rates result in increased strength characteristics
of materials, while the yield stress is rising up
more intensively than the tensile strength 3. Asaresult,
increased strain rate results in an increased Re/Rm ratio,
and for certain materials is ratio Re/Rm > 1. This fact
significantly influences the formability (especially compressibility)
of materials due to of localization of plastic
deformation to “suitable” areas.
Plastic deformation is characterized by the fact that
its development is markedly non-homogeneous. The degree
of non-homogeneity is a function of internal and
external factors. The internal factors are internal
mikrostructure of material, as follows: number and
structure of phases, grain size and structure type. By in-
Received – Prispjelo: 2009-09-18
Accepted – Prihva}eno: 2010-05-10
Preliminary Note – Prethodno priop}enje
The paper analyses the influence of strain rate on the behaviour of un-alloyed steels with Re (yield strength) in
the range of 210 … 550 MPa in the deformation process. It analyses the results of the influence of strain rate
ranging from 10 –3 to 2,5·10 2 s –1 on the yield strength, the ultimate tensile strength (Rm), the elongation (A) and
the reduction of area (Z). Achieved results of strain rate in relationship on values of Erichsen number IE are also
given. By increasing of strain rate ranging from 10 –3 to 2,5·10 2 s –1 the ratio Re/Rm is increased, whereas it was observed
more intensively for steels with the lower value of Re. By increasing of strain rate up to 1 s –1 are IE values
of tested steels increased, whereas the ratio Re/Rm was equal 0,82. After exceeding of this strain rate was the ratio
Re/Rm increased and IE value is remarkable decreased.
Key words: Plastic deformation, Erichsen number IE, tensile tests
Utjecaj brzine deformacije na mehani~ka i tehnolo{ka svojstva ~eli~nih traka. U ~lanku se analizira utjecaj
brzine deformacije na pona{anje nelegiranog ~elika s Re (granica razvla~enja) 210 do 550 MPa tijekom deformacije.
Motre se rezultati utjecaja brzine deformacije u rasponu 10 –3 do 2,5·10 2 s –1 na granicu razvla~enja,
vla~nu ~vrsto}u (Rm) istezanja (A) i kontrakciju (Z). Dodatno se prikazuje utjecaj brzine deformacije na vrijednost
Erichsenovog broja IE. Pove}anjem brzine deformacije u intervalu 10 –3 do 2,5·10 2 s –1 pove}ava se odnos Re/Rm
i to intenzivnije za ~elik s ni`om vrijedno{}u Re. Pove}anjem brzine deformacije do cca 1 s –1 pove}ava se IE ispitivanog
~elika pri ~emu Re/Rm = 0,82. Iznad te brzine odnos Re/Rm se pove}ava, a IE izrazito se smanjuje.
Klju~ne rije~i: plasti~na deformacije, Erichsen broj IE, vla~ni pokus
M. Bur{ák, J. Michel’ - Faculty of Metallurgy, Technical University of
Ko{ice, Slovakia
ISSN 0543-5846
METABK 49(4) 317-320 (2010)
UDC – UDK 669.14-418:539.37:620.17=111
creasing of grain size and number of phases, non-homogeneity
of plastic deformation significantly increased.
The temperature, strain rate and the stress state are crucial
external factors 4,5.
The sensitivity of materials on strain rate during the
forming process is, as it was mentioned earlier, a function
of material, and therefore it is beneficial to analyze
this sensitivity, especially for new developed materials
intended for the cold forming. This is necessary in order
to determine the limit state, as well as the properties of
the final product.
The main aim of the paper is to extend the knowledge
and to mention on certain problems occurring during
forming at increased rates (up to impact loadings).
EXPERIMENTAL MATERIAL AND METHODS
Experimental programme was realized on samples
taken from stripes produced of un-alloyed high-grade
and micro-alloyed cold rolled steels with yield stress
ranged from 210 to 550 MPa. Cut-outs from the steel
sheet and flat test specimens oriented in the rolling direction
were machined out for the tensile test. The same
procedure was applied for the samples used in Erichsen
deep-drawing tests.
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 317-320 317

M. BUR[ÁK et al.: INFLUENCE OF THE STRAIN RATE ON THE MECHANICAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES...
For static tensile tests a universal test machine
INSTRON 1185 was used and this machine was used retooled
with an Erichsen test fixture for the deep-drawing
tests in the press tool velocity interval from 3,3·10 –3
m·s –1 to 1,10 –1 m·s –1 . Deep-drawing tests with speed
punch up to 2,5 m·s –1 were done by drop tower.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The influence of strain rate on the basic mechanical
properties of tested steel C4 is shown in Figure 1, which
indicates that increased strain rates result in increased
strength properties, whereas the intensity of growth of Re
is higher than of Rm. The dependence of the strength properties
on the strain rate for un-alloyed high-grade steels in
the range from 10 –3 to 10 3 s –1 was described using parametric
equations, mostly in the form presented in 4,6,8,
Re Re k ln( / )
0
0
Rm Rm k ln( / )
0
0
where Re, Rm are the yield strength and the ultimate tensile
strength at the given strain rate , R and R , are
e0 m0
the yield strength and the tensile strength at the static
strain rate (10 –3 s –1 ).
When the material is more homogeneous and there is
the lower amount of obstacles for dislocations movement,
the more sensitive to the strain rate is. Figure 2
shows the influence of the strain rate on the increment of
the yield strength Re of C33 steel after various heat
treatments.
The as-quenched steel has the lowest sensitivity to ,
because the martensitic makrostructure has the highest
number of obstacles to dislocations movement, and the
as-normalized steel has the highest sensitivity.
Similarly, Figure 3 documents the influence of on
Reand Rmvaluesof C4 and E500TS steels with different
grain size.
The grain boundaries are insuperable obstacles to
dislocation movement, therefore the finer grain caused
the more obstructions, and the steel is less sensitive to
the strain rate . In terms of assessment of formability,
the Re/Rm ratio is the most important criterion.
Test results realized on different steel grades confirmed
fact that by increasing of strain rate the ratio
Figure 1 Influence of the strain rate on mechanical properties
of steel C4.
Figure 2 Influence of the strain rate on the increment of
strength properties Re or Rm, after heat treatment,
compared with the initial state ( =10 –3
s –1 ) of steel C33, after various heat treatments.
Figure 3 Influence of the strain rate on the increment of
strength properties ÄRe or ÄRm, compared with
the initial state at =10 -3 s -1 for various steel
grades.
Re/Rm is also increased and the intensity of that increase
is a function of material. The lower amount of obstructions
for dislocations movement in material causes the
more remarkable influence of . Figure 4 shows an example
of influence of grain size to ratio Re/Rm for different
strain rates.
Analysis of achieved results of strength properties
(Re, Rm) showed that un-alloyed high-grade steels dedicated
for cold forming up to critical strain rate kr allocated
the ratio Re/Rm < 1 and from the view of macro volume
up to that strain rate should be keeping the plastic
stability till deformation responded to stress Rm.
Figure 4 Influence of the strain rate on Re/Rm for various
steel grades.
318 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 317-320

M. BUR[ÁK et al.: INFLUENCE OF THE STRAIN RATE ON THE MECHANICAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES...
The critical value kr is affected by internal structure
of material and commonly should be stated that by increasing
Re value also the value kr increase. Table 1
shows values of Re, Rm, Re/Rm of tested steels at characteristic
strain rates as well as the characteristics of its
state (carbon content, content of micro-alloying elements
and grain size).
Based on the Re/Rm ratio obtained from the static tensile
tests, the tested steels can be divided into three
groups: steels with Re < 300 MPa and Re/Rm < 0,7, steels
with Re >300 MPa and Re/Rm > 0,7, and the third group
consists by steels with Re > 500 MPa and Re/Rm > 0,8.
Figure 5 shows the graphic relationships vs. A and vs.
Z of tested steels. A decrease of the elongation with an
increase of value is only shown for steels with Re < 300
MPa after exceeding of ratio Re/Rm > 0,82. Steels with a
higher yield stress maintain or even increase their elongation
at ratio Re/Rm > 0,82.
Results of Erichsen deep-drawing tests showed that
the indentation depth up to the fracture of the indented
cup (IE) is actually the same for both used steel grades,
although there are big differences in elongation A80. This
can be related to the changes in the stress distribution
during the Erichsen deep-drawing test on the one side
and during tensile test on the other.
Basic information about the formability of the steel
sheet can be obtained by tensile test. However, the compressibility
of the sheet is affected by a number of fac-
Table 1 Mechanical properties of tested steels at characteristic strain rates
Tested steels
C4
C < 0,04%
d = 0,031 mm
E280G
C < 0,04 %
d = 0,009 mm
H340LAD
Nb, V < 0,1 %
d = 0,008 mm
C33
C < 0,33 %
d = 0.012 mm
C33
quenched
C33 quenched + tempered 300
°C
C33 quenched + tempered 550
°C
S460 MC
C

M. BUR[ÁK et al.: INFLUENCE OF THE STRAIN RATE ON THE MECHANICAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES...
Table 2 Results of Erichsen deep-drawing test for different movement rate of punch knife
Mark of steels
v
/m·s -1
3,3·10 –3
8,34·10 –3
1,6·10 –2
2,0·10 –1
2,5
H220YD
12,5 12,6 13,0 12,7 11,2
H340LAD
IE
/mm
12,4 12,5 12,8 12,6 11,3
H380LAD 12,4 12,5 12,6 12,5 11,5
Figure 6 Influence of pressing tool velocity on Erichsen
number IE for investigated steel.
sponded to the strain rate 1 s –1 . The experiments are in
good agreement with data reported in references
1,6,7,9, declaring that up to the strain rate of about 1 s –1
there is no significant decrease of steel sheet formability
by the increase of the loading rate, and therefore in this
zone the traditional deep-drawing criteria can be applied.
At this strain rate is ratio Re/Rm for H340LAD steel equal
0,82. At strain rate of 2·10 2 s –1 is ratio Re/Rm = 0,9.
During testing, but also during production by forming
is deformation rate due to inhomogeneous process of
plastic deformation changing and instantaneous deformation
speed of particular position is almost higher than
the mean deformation strain rates.
The outstanding decrease of IE value at impact loading
(v = 2,5 m·s –1 , 10 2 s –1 ) is caused due to different
factors. We assume that the decisive factor is the increase
of macro heterogeneity of plastic deformation of
the cup by deformation rate increasing and also deformation
localization into the critical parts of the cup. This
can results in a decrease of the total value of plasticity.
Changes of the friction between the tool and sheet
should have an influence, too 9,10.
CONCLUSIONS
The aim of the paper was to judge the influence of
strain rate in the range from 10 -3 to 2,5·10 2 s –1 on the mechanical
properties, with regards to the plasticity of un-alloyed
high-grade steels with the yield strength ranged
from 210 to 550 MPa. Based on the analysis of experimental
results obtained from a long time period and literature
sources, the following conclusions can be stated:
– The resistance of material to plastic deformation is
increases with strain rate increasing, herewith the
strength properties of tested steels as well as ratio
Re/Rm are increased.
– The intensity of increase of ratio Re/Rm with an increasing
strain rate is a function of the internal
structure of material. The intensity of increase in
ratio Re/Rm with an increasing strain rate is the
highest for steels with Re < 300 MPa, lower for
steels with Re < 500 MPa, and slightly for steels
with Re > 500 MPa.
– The influence of the strain rate on the plasticity
characteristics (elongation and reduction of area)
is related to the ratio Re/Rm. Only steels with Re <
300 MPa exhibit a decreasing elongation in the
studied strain rate interval, and it from the strain
rate where ratio Re/Rm > 0,82. Steels with the
higher values of yield stress are keeping or increasing
its elongation, respectively.
– Movement rate of punch knife during the stamping
process (Erichsen deep-drawing test) up to rate
about 0,2 m·s –1 what responds to average strain rate
about 0,1 m·s –1 causes the slight increase of
deep-drawing. Exceeding of this rate leads to the
decrease of deep-drawing, whereas it was more intensive
for steel sheet with the lower yield stress.
– The decrease of Erichsen number was observed at
strain rate for ratio Re/Rm > 0,82.
REFERENCES
1 M. Bur{ák, I. Mamuzi~, Metalurgija, 46 (2007), 1, 37-40
2 J. Janovec, J. Ziegelheim, Rùst ú`itných vlastností u tenkých
automobilových plechù, In.: Technológie ´99, STU Bratislava,
8.-9.9.1999, 319
3 P. Veles, Mechanické vlastnosti a skú{anie kovov, Alfa
Bratislava, 1989
4 J. Michel’ Materiálové in`inierstvo, 3, 1996, 22
5 J. Elfmark, Plasticita kovù, V[B Ostrava, 1984
6 J. Michel’, E. ^i`márová, S. Oru`inská, Kovové materiály,
37, (1999) 3, 191-195
7 E ^i`márová, J. Miche¾, Acta Metallurgica Slovaca, 9,
(2003) 90-96
8 E. ^i`márová, et al., Metalurgija, 43, (2004) 3, 211-214
9 E. Spi{ák,E, et al., Výrobné in`inierstvo, Ko{ice, 2003
10 O. Hrivòák, E. Evin, Lisovate¾nos plechov, Elfa, Ko{ice,
2004
Acknowledgement: This work has been supported by
APVV Agency under No. APVV-0326-07.
Note: The responsible translator for English language is Peter
Hornak, Slovakia
320 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 317-320

M. [I[KO KULI[, Z. MRDULJA[, B. KLARIN
ASSESSING THE YIELD POINT OF CONCRETE
STEELS BASED UPON KNOWN CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
INTRODUCTION
The incorporation of recycling, which is the production
of raw materials from old buildings and devices, is an
increasing trend in industries worldwide. This increase in
recycling is motivated by the conservation of energy and
environmental resources, in particular, the decrease of
carbon dioxide and green house gas emission by the intensive
burning during various technological processes.
The procedures for determining the yield point and
the other relevant mechanical properties of concrete
steels produced from waste irons are very expensive.
The high expense is due to the relatively small production
quantities and considerable variation of the chemical
composition as a consequence of the variety of the
raw materials associated with the use of waste iron.
The yield point is taken as a base point and is representative
of the other mechanical properties (tensile,
breaking strength and the proportion limit), enabling easier
analysis. The yield point, Y, is defined as the stress
value after which additional specimen elongation takes
place, as clearly seen in Hook’s diagram, Figure 1 1.
Received – Prispjelo: 2009-11-24
Accepted – Prihva}eno: 2010-04-20
Preliminary Note – Prethodno priop}enje
This research is based on both, theoretical and experimental work and aims to assessment the yield point of
concrete steels, based on the known alloy chemical composition. The experimental portion of the work was
performed at the Split steelmaking factory, which produces concrete steels from the waste iron. The theoretical
portion of this study involves mathematical modelling carried out using the software package MATLAB. The
work presented here provides both a scientific and practical contribution to the field. By using mathematical
modelling, the accuracy of the estimation of the yield point is improved by 8,5%. Using this correlation enables
the reduction of the concrete steel production costs because it is possible to reduce the use of expensive tests
for the characterization of strength and mechanical properties.
Key words: yield point, assessment, steel, alloy elements
Prognoziranje granice razvla~enja betonskih ~elika temeljem poznatog kemijskog sastava. Ovo
istra`ivanje je teorijsko eksperimentalnog karaktera, a obra|uje procjenu granice razvla~enja betonskih ~elika
na temelju kemijskog sastava slitina. Eksperimentalni dio istra`ivanja realiziran je u `eljezari Split koja proizvodi
betonske ~elike iz otpada ili starog ~elika. Teorijski dio rada - matemati~ko modeliranje realizirano je kori{tenjem
softverskog paketa MatLab. Istra`ivanje je rezultiralo znanstvenim i prakti~nim doprinosom. Matemati~kim
modeliranjem pobolj{ana je to~nost do sada poznate po~etne korelacije odre|ivanja granice razvla~enja
za 8,5 %. Kori{tenjem ove korelacije omogu}it }e se smanjenje tro{kova proizvodnje betonskih ~elika, jer je
mogu}e smanjiti opseg skupih ispitivanja ~vrsto}e i mehani~kih svojstava vla~nom probom.
Klju~ne rije~i: granica razvla~enja, prognoza, ~elik, legirni elementi
M. [i{ko Kuli{, Z. Mrdulja{, B. Klarin: Faculty of Mechanical, Electrical
Engineering and Shipbuilding University of Split, Split, Croatia
Figure 1 Hook’s diagram
ISSN 0543-5846
METABK 49(4) 321-325 (2010)
UDC – UDK 669.162.2:519.673=111
For further simplification, the number of chemical
elements within an alloy is reduced to the six elements:
Mn, Si, Cr, Cu and P. Their influence on the yield point
is shown in Figure 2 2,5.
This research represents an attempt to predict the
mechanical properties of concrete steels produced by
waste iron by means of mathematical modelling based
on chemical analysis. This is a difficult problem to solve
by classical programming due to the large number of
variables. However, using the software package
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 321-324 321

M. [I[KO KULI[ et al: ASSESSING THE YIELD POINT OF CONCRETE STEELS BASED UPON KNOWN CHEMICAL...
Figure 2 Influence of the alloy elements on the yield point
increment
MATLAB (the name is derived from matrix laboratory)
enables quality optimization of a great number of factors
6-7 that have considerable influence on the value of
the yield point.
RESEARCH
The aim of this research is to successfully assessment
the yield point of a steel material based on the
chemical analysis of its components. Theoretically, the
most secure and precise procedure is the laboratory estimation
of the dependence of properties on chemical
composition. First, a molten alloy in which each element
is represented by the mean value of its weight fraction is
produced. In this way, a reference with precisely determined
quantities of alloy elements is obtained. For the
other specimens, the concentration of particular alloy elements
is changed to mimic realistic changes in chemical
compositions. As a result of the changing weight
proportions of alloy elements, the steels have different
mechanical properties, i.e., different yield point values.
For each change in an elemental weight proportion, it is
necessary to produce a new alloy. When testing a wide
range of possible chemical compositions, this technique
quickly becomes overly tedious and not economically
acceptable.
Considering the cost and long duration of the present
procedures, we wanted to develop a way to estimate the
yield point based on a mathematical model, where accurate
results can arise from only one measurement of one
Table 1 Chemical elements concentration in the test steel specimen
composition of the alloy elements and the deviation of
calculated and experimental values is small. In other
words, we aim to develop a formula that yields an expected
yield point value.
The materials under consideration are civil engineering
steels that are produced in the Split steel factory using
a melting procedure. Unlike alloyed carbon steels of
trade quality, the concentration of carbon (C) is not the
predominant influence on the final mechanical properties,
including the yield point. In these steels, Mn, Si, Cr,
Cu and P also have strong influences on the mechanical
properties. This work takes into account the presence of
these six elements and their effects on the material,
while influence of the other chemical elements is neglected
in order to avoid complicated analysis.
The content of each chemical element is defined by
means of spectral analyses with a quant meter. Table 1
shows the range in possible concentration of single
chemical elements and their minimal yield point values.
In this work, the yield point of 636 specimens collected
immediately after production is measured.
Modelling the relationship of chemical composition and
mechanical properties, in order to assessment the yield
strength, was completing according to the steps below.
First step – initial relationship
The yield point in (MPa) was calculated using the
following (initial) relationship 2, 5:
12,4 28C8,4Mn 5,6Si
Y 5,5Cr 4,5Ni 8Cu 5,5P 10
MPa (1)
30,2( d5)
Where is d = 10
(specimens of standard dimensions).
The relative error between the measured value for
each of these specimens and the calculated value was
determined according to equation (2):
( Y) calculated ( Y)
measured
100
% (2)
( Y ) calculated
Deviations between calculated and experimental
values using the initial relationship given in equation (1)
are high (up to 49 %), suggesting that in addition to the
chemical content there are other factors that influence
the considered property.
Steel Min. Gy / MPa C Si Mn P Cu Cr
^.0000 320 0,170-0,220 0,150-0,300 0,350-0,600 0,000-0,065 0,750-0,850 0,000-0,300
^.0002 340 0,170-0,220 0,150-0,300 0,350-0,0600 0,000-0,060 0,650-0,750 0,000-0,300
^.0261 330 0,110-0,150 0,0150-0,300 0,400-0,550 0,000-0,045 0,000-0,450 0,000-0,300
^.0300 340 0,160-0,220 0,150-0,300 0,400-0,600 0,000-0,060 0,500-0,850 0,000-0,300
^.0372 360 0,140-0,170 0,150-0,300 0,400-0,600 0,000-0,050 0,000-0,500 0,000-0,300
^.0552 420 0,260-0,330 0,150-0,300 0,750-0,950 0,000-0,050 0,000-0,500 0,000-0,300
322 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 321-324

M. [I[KO KULI[ et al: ASSESSING THE YIELD POINT OF CONCRETE STEELS BASED UPON KNOWN CHEMICAL...
Second step – involving
of correlation factors
This work aims to introduce various correlation factors
into the initial relationship for yield point determination,
and optimize them. These factors should compensate
for the influence of the environment and other
previously “neglected” elements on the yield point
5-9.
The correction factors were obtained by means of an
iterative method. The relationship (1) can be multiplied
with each of the following expressions:
- 1,05+C) (3)
- (0,5+Mn) (4)
- (0,5+Mn+C) (5)
- (0,99+C) (6)
The best results are obtained by multiplying the initial
relationship with the correlation factor (0,99+C).
Relationship (1) then becomes:
Y = 12,4 + 28C + 8,4Mn + 5,6Si + 5,5Cr
+ 8Cu + 5,5P + 3,0 – 0,2(d–5 (7)
(0,99 + C) 10 (MPa)
Where is d=F10
(specimens of standard dimensions).
When relationship (7) is used to predict the yield
point values of the 636 molten element test specimens,
an acceptable deviation between experimental and calculated
results of less than 10 % is achieved for only
86,5 % of the elements. The magnitude of the permissible
deviation is defined by a DIN (Deutsches Institut für
Normung ) recommendation.
The third step – optimisation
of influence of content of carbon
The software package MATLAB (Nelder – Meade
simplex algorithm) was used to optimize the (0,99+C)
correlation factor in relationship (7), thus optimizing the
portion of the equation that represents the influence of
carbon (the most influential factor in our system).
The following relationship was obtained:
Y = (14,4 + 28C + 5,6Si + 5,5Cr + 8Cu + 5,5P)
(1,06705 + 0,00336 C) 10 (MPa) (8)
Relationship (8) gives acceptable results for 90,5 %
of the molten material specimens, proving that is it a
more effective solution in comparison to the previous
relationship (7), which predicted acceptable yield points
for only 86,5 % of the molten materials.
The fourth step - optimisation
of influence of the chemical elements
After the third step, it was logical to optimize the
other influencing factors, obtaining the whole correlation.
The new relationship becomes:
Figure 3 Results of deviation of the Yield Point for the
three relationships
Y = (25,9630 + 23,17C + 6,69Si +
6,66 Mn + 2,13P + 3,92Cu + 2,81Cr)
(0,8137 + 0,68C) 10 (MPa) (9)
The relationship was found to provide acceptable
predictions for 95 % of the test specimens.
RESEARCH RESULTS
Figure 3 plots the deviation of the measured and calculated
values of the yield point for each relationship:
the initial (1), improved (7), and final (9) relationship.
In Figure 3, the molten materials are sorted on the x –
axis according to increasing relative error, with the
value for the relative error plotted on the y – axis. It is
clear that the improved correlation (7) and final correlation
(9) gives better results than the initial correlation
(1), which prior to this work was the preferred method
for prediction for this author.
In this work, the assessment of the yield point was
improved by 8,5% compared to results obtained using
the initial relationship.
CONCLUSION
The most accurate way to determine the mechanical
properties of steel is to measure its tensile strength using
a tensile test. These properties are primarily influenced
by the proportion of carbon and other alloy elements.
The production of concrete steel (with the weight percent
of carbon between 0,17 and 0,33 %) from waste
iron in steel factories is cost effective - knowing the exact
composition is not necessary for this quality of steel.
Relationships developed in this work show that it is possible
to accurately determine, by means of a mathematical
method, the yield point of a concrete steel specimen.
In other words, by knowing the chemical composition of
the molten material, one can determine the necessary
mechanical properties of the final alloy. This characterization
is a critical part of the production process when
casting concrete steel alloys.
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 321-324 323

M. [I[KO KULI[ et al: ASSESSING THE YIELD POINT OF CONCRETE STEELS BASED UPON KNOWN CHEMICAL...
The final correlation for assessing the yield point (9)
is based on the chemical composition of the steels with
carbon concentrations ranging from 0,17 to 0,33 % C.
The accuracy of results predicted using this correlation
(9) in comparison to the initial (the previous preferred)
correlation (1) is improved by 8,5 %.
Assessing the yield point on the basis of a steel’s
chemical composition allows for intervention before the
casting. This capability has the potential to improve the
required properties of the steel component, resulting in a
decrease in the number of redundant procedures, which
greatly reduces production costs.
REFERENCES
1 http://www.tpub.com
2 Pavlovi}, P., Materijal ~elik, SKTH, Kemija u industriji, Zagreb,
1990.
3 Hrgovi}, D., Tehni~ki materijali 2, [kolska knjiga, Zagreb,
1992.
4 De`eli}, R., Metali, FESB, Split, 1985.
5 \uki}, V.: Metalni materijali, Nau~na knjiga, Beograd,
1989.
6 http://www.mathworks.com
7 http://www.math.utah.edu
8 Wlayne Hayden, W., Moffat, W.G., Wulft, J: Mehani~ke
osobine, knjiga III, TMF, Beograd, 1982.
9 Moffat, W. G., Pearsall, G. W., Wulft, J., Strukture i osobine
materijala: Strukture - knjiga I, TMF, Beograd, 1985.
Note: The responsible translator for English language is Leslie, J.
324 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 321-324

I. SAMARD@I], D. BAJI], [. KLARI]
INFLUENCE OF THE ACTIVATING FLUX ON WELD
JOINT PROPERTIES AT ARC STUD WELDING PROCESS
INTRODUCTION
The first papers on the activating flux application appeared
already in 1950’s and 1960’s, but the interest for
this welding process has been activated again in the last
ten years 1, 2. In order to increase the efficiency and
productivity of TIG process, a variant of process with
the activating flux is applied (ATIG). With the presence
of the activating flux and high temperature, the value of
the surface tension of the melted metal is reduced, the
electric arc is stabilised and summarised, and the weld
bead width is reduced with increased penetration 2, 3.
The activating flux contains activating elements that ensure
the necessary weld geometry and modifying elements
that refine the weld metal structure (achieving
small grained structure) 4. The activating flux is the
mixture of oxide and fluoride metal powders that approve
microalloying and modification of the weld
metal. It can be produced as a solid chemical substance
(powder flux) or as the aerosol spray 3. Very often, the
activating flux is applied as a suspension (solvent of
powder flux in acetone or alcohol) that is applied on a
Received – Prispjelo: 2009-08-11
Accepted – Prihva}eno: 2009-10-20
Preliminary Note – Prethodno priop}enje
In this paper, the influence of the activating flux on the weld joint properties at the drawn arc stud welding process
with ceramic ferrule is analysed. In the experimental part of the paper, the arc stud welding process is applied
with the application of the activating flux for ATIG process. In order to evaluate the influence of the
activating flux on the welding process parameters variations, the main welding parameters were monitored by
an on-line monitoring system. Besides monitoring of welding current and voltage, the influence of the activating
flux on the weld joint appearance is investigated. The macrosections of the weld joints welded with the
same parameters, but with and without the presence of activating flux are shown.
Key words: arc stud welding, activating flux, on-line monitoring, macrosection analysis
Utjecaj aktiviraju}eg topitelja na svojstva zavarenog spoja kod elektrolu~nog zavarivanja svornjaka. U
radu je analiziran utjecaj aktiviraju}eg topitelja na svojstva zavarenog spoja kod elektrolu~nog zavarivanja svornjaka
uz za{titu kerami~kog prstena. U eksperimentalnom dijelu rada izvr{eno je zavarivanje svornjaka uz primjenu
aktiviraju}eg topitelja za ATIG postupak. Pri zavarivanju su pra}eni glavni parametri zavarivanja, jakost
struje i napon elektri~nog luka uz pomo} on line monitoring sustava u cilju ocjene utjecaja prisustva topitelja na
promjene glavnih parametara zavarivanja. Uz pra}enje jakosti struje i napona zavarivanja u nastavku rada
istra`ivan je utjecaj aktiviraju}eg topitelja i parametara zavarivanja na izgled zavarenih spojeva te su prikazani
makropresjeci spojeva zavarenih istim parametrima sa i bez prisustva aktiviraju}eg topitelja.
Klju~ne rije~i: elektrolu~no zavarivanje svornjaka, aktiviraju}i topitelj, on line monitoring, analiza makropresjeka
I. Samard`i}, [. Klari}, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in Slavonski
Brod University of Osijek, Slavonski Brod, Croatia.
D. Baji}, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Montenegro,
Podgorica, Montenegro.
surface with a brush or as a spray with 10-20 % acetone.
Evaporable liquid, (acetone or alcohol) functions as the
solvent. A thin layer of the activating flux is applied on
the width of 8-10 mm on both sides of the weld joint.
Maximal current density in the electric arc is achieved
when there is 4 mg/cm of the activating flux in the welding
zone 5.
In order to monitor any possible stability changes at
the arc stud welding process, in case of a layer of the activating
flux for ATIG process on the surface of the base
metal, the results of on-line monitoring of the main
welding parameters during arc stud welding with a layer
of the activating flux on the base metal, are presented in
this paper.
SETUP OF EXPERIMENT
ISSN 0543-5846
METABK 49(4) 325-329 (2010)
UDC – UDK 621.791.75:620.184=111
In the experimental part of the paper, the influence of
the activating flux for ATIG process (developed at the
E.O. Paton Electric Welding Institute, Kyiv) on the weld
joint properties at the arc stud welding process is investigated.
The applied activating flux for ATIG process is
developed for welding of non alloyed steel and it is applied
with a brush (as a suspension) on the base metal
surface (the designation of the applied activating flux
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 325-329 325

I. SAMARD@I] et al.: INFLUENCE OF THE ACTIVATING FLUX ON WELD JOINT PROPERTIES AT ARC STUD WELDING...
Figure 1 Setup of experiment
according to ÒÓ ÈÝÑ ¹643-87 is BC-2Ý; or in Latin
alphabet: VS-2E).
In this experimental research, the welding was performed
by drawn arc stud welding with a ceramic ferrule
process (DAW with ceramic ferrule) with on-line monitoring
of welding current and voltage during the welding
process. Welding was performed with the equipment for
the arc stud welding process: Nelson Stud Welding,
Inc., Oh, USA (power source: ALPHA 850, stud welding
gun NS 40 B), while the main welding parameters
are monitored with a developed on-line monitoring system
(sampling frequency was 5 kHz). Figure 1 shows a
scheme of the on-line monitoring system during arc stud
welding. Experimental welding was performed on the
studs ’Nelson KS 10,0×50’ with ceramic ferrule ’Nelson
KW 10/5.5’. A stud was made from X10CrAl18
(EN 10095), and the base material was steel type 16 Mo
3 (EN 10028-2); with the following dimensions of the
base metal sheets: 45505.
In order to connect the arc stud welding process stability
changes with the quality of the weld joint, the
macrosections of the welded studs are also analyzed.
The setup of selected welding parameters is shown in
Table 1.
For further analysis of the weld joint appearance, the
macrosections of the studs welded on the surface of the
base metal with a layer of the activating flux, are com-
Table 1 Welding parameters (weld process stability investigation)
Trial
No.
Welding current
I /A
Welding
time t /s
Plunge
Ps /mm
pared with the macrosections of the weld joint performed
on the clean surface of the base metal. Besides
specimens welded according to welding parameters
stated in Table 1, additional welding trials are performed
according to the parameters setup in Table 2.
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
After the experimental welding, the main welding
parameters changes and macrosections of the weld joint
are analyzed. In Figure 2, besides, the macrosections of
the weld joints, the distribution of the welding current
and voltage for the specimens welded according to the
welding parameters stated in Table 1 is shown.
Stability variations of the electric arc for welding
with lower values of the welding current (Trial No. 12),
especially at the end of the electric arc duration time and
during plunging of the stud into the molten base metal
can be noticed in Figure 2. On the macrosection shown
also in Figure 2 for the specimen welded with the activating
flux (Trial No. 12) the considerable amount of
porosity and the lack of fusion can be noticed. The variations
in electric arc stability are less distinctive for the
welding process with higher values of the welding current
and time, and that can be connected with the weld
joint quality for Trial No. 13. As it can be noticed for the
specimens welded with higher welding parameters, the
quality of the weld joint is acceptable and there is no porosity,
but, in comparison with Trial No. 11 (the specimen
welded on the clean surface of the base metal) the
appearance of the weld fusion zone is considerably
changed: for Trial No. 13 the fusion zone is more narrow
and with increased height.
Figure 3 shows the specimens welded with the same
welding parameters but with and without the activating
Lift
L /mm
Welding condition
11 600 0,4 2,9 2,5 Clean surface of the base metal
12 400 0,55 1,5 2 Activating flux (VS-2E) on the surface of the base metal
13 600 0,55 1,5 2 Activating flux (VS-2E) on the surface of the base metal
Table 2 Welding parameters (investigation of the acitvating flux influence on weld macrosection)
Trial No. Welding current I / A Welding time t /s Welding condition
21
22
500 0,35
Clean surface of the base metal
Activating flux (VS-2E) on the surface of the base metal
23
24
600 0,35
Clean surface of the base metal
Activating flux (VS-2E) on the surface of the base metal
25
26
500 0,45
Clean surface of the base metal
Activating flux (VS-2E) on the surface of the base metal
27
28
600 0,45
Clean surface of the base metal
Activating flux (VS-2E) on the surface of the base metal
Plunge Ps =2mm, lift L = 1,5 mm
326 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 325-329

I. SAMARD@I] et al.: INFLUENCE OF THE ACTIVATING FLUX ON WELD JOINT PROPERTIES AT ARC STUD WELDING...
Trial No. 11 Welding condition: Clean surface of the base metal
Trial No. 12
Trial No. 13
flux for ATIG on the surface of the base metal (welding
setup according to Table 2). The differences in the appearance
of the weld joints are evident. During welding
with lower welding parameters, the porosity appears for
the specimens welded with the activating flux. Besides
the macrosections for Trials No. 22, 24 and 26, this appearance
of the porosity was already evident for the
Trail No.12 in Figure 2. During welding with higher values
of the welding current (600 A) and welding time of
0,45 and 0,55 s, the appearance of porosity is avoided
for the studs welded on the base metal with the layer of
the activating flux (Trial No. 13 for setup of the experi-
Welding condition: Activating flux (VS-2E) on the surface of the
base metal
Welding condition: Activating flux (VS-2E) on the surface of the
base metal
Figure 2 Weld joint macrosections and welding parameters distribution for weldments with and without the activating
flux VS-2E (setup of experiment in Table 1)
ment in Table 1 and Trial No. 28 for the experimental
setup in Table 2).
CONCLUSIONS
The activating flux for ATIG welding process
VS-2E, foreseen for the application on non alloyed
steels, is applied for the analysis of the activating flux
influence on the properties of the joint welded with the
arc stud welding process. These analyses have confirmed
the influence of the activating flux for ATIG process
on the changes of the electric arc stability but also
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 325-329 327

I. SAMARD@I] et al.: INFLUENCE OF THE ACTIVATING FLUX ON WELD JOINT PROPERTIES AT ARC STUD WELDING...
a)
Trial No. 21
Clean surface
of the base
metal
c)
Trial No. 23
Clean surface
of the base
metal
e)
Trial No. 25
Clean surface
of the base
metal
g)
Trial No. 27
Clean surface
of the base
metal
on the weld joint properties for welding with the arc stud
welding process.
For lower welding parameters, the stability changes
and resulted porosity during welding with the activating
flux have also manifested through the variations of the
monitored main welding parameters (welding current
and voltage). For welding with higher values of welding
current and time, the result was a better quality of the
weld joint, which is confirmed with the macrosection
appearance and also with considerably less oscillation
of the monitored welding parameters. So, the important
precondition for achieving the quality weld joint with
application of the activating flux is the adequate value of
welding current that ensures melting of the activating
b)
Trial No. 22
Activating
flux (VS-2E)
on the surface
of the
base metal
d)
Trial No. 24
Activating
flux (VS-2E)
on the surface
of the
base metal
f)
Trial No. 26
Activating
flux (VS-2E)
on the surface
of the
base metal
h)
Trial No. 28
Activating
flux (VS-2E)
on the surface
of the
base metal
Figure 3 Weld joint macrosections for weldments with and without the activating flux VS-2E (setup of experiment in Table 2)
flux. If the activating flux is not melted, it is imported in
the melted weld pool and it induces porosity in the weld
joint. It is evident that the welding time of 0,35 s is too
short, and the higher value of the welding current is necessary
at welding times of 0,45 s and 0,55 s.
Also, a further analysis of the macrosections has
shown that during welding with the activating flux at
higher welding parameters, the weld joints with larger
amount of melted metal, compared to welding without
the layer of the activating flux on the surface of the base
metal, are created.
Since the influence of the mentioned activating flux
on the appearance of the weld joint is presented in this
paper, the influence of the activating flux on the me-
328 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 325-329

I. SAMARD@I] et al.: INFLUENCE OF THE ACTIVATING FLUX ON WELD JOINT PROPERTIES AT ARC STUD WELDING...
chanical properties (possible hardness and strength
changes) will be investigated in the following research.
Taking into consideration that the applied activating
flux is developed for ATIG process, where electric arc is
shielded by inert gas, the following experimental welding
will be directed to determine the influence of the activating
flux on the geometrical and mechanical properties
of the weld joint at the drawn arc stud welding process
with shielding gas. This experimental research
welding was performed with two different types of steel.
Therefore, the influence of the activating flux on the
weld joint properties is planned to be investigated during
the arc stud welding process with the stud and the
base metal belonging to the same steel group.
REFERENCES
1 N. Nigaj, Welding International, 17 (2003) 4, 257-261.
2 A. Köve{ in Zbornik, 4. Me|unarodno znanstveno-stru~no
savjetovanje “Tehnologi~na primjena postupaka zavarivan-
ja i zavarivanju srodnih tehnika u izradi zavarenih konstrukcija
i proizvoda“, I. Samard`i} (ed.), Strojarski fakultet u
Slavonskom Brodu, Slavonski Brod, 2007, 45-51.
3 D. Baji}, Istra`ivanje mogu}nosti zavarivanja sklopova
energetske opreme primjenom aktiviraju}eg topitelja, Doktorska
disertacija, Ma{inski fakultet u Podgorici, Podgorica
2003, 30-61.
4 B. Baji}, D. Baji} in Zbornik, Me|unarodni nau~ni skup
„Zavarivanje spaja“, Dru{tvo za zavarivanje Bosne i Hercegovine,
Sarajevo, 2005, 105-116.
5 O.E. Ostrovsky, V.N. Krjukovski, B.B. Buk at al., Svarochnoe
proizvodstvo, 3 (1977), 3-4.
Acknowledgment – The presented results derive from a
scientific research project (Advanced joining technology
in light mechanical constructions No.
152-1521473-1476) supported by the Croatian Ministry
of Science, Education and Sports.
Note: English language lecturer: @eljka Rosandi}, Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, Slavonski Brod, Croatia.
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 325-329 329

Izborna godi{nja skup{tina Hrvatskog metalur{kog dru{tva
Annual Election Annual Assambly of Croatian Metallurgical
Society
Zastupnici iz Hrvatske, Slovenije, Slova~ke, ^e{ke, Poljske, Njema~ke, Rusije, Ukraine
Delegate from Croatia, Slovenia, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Poland, Germany, Russia, Ukraine
REZULTATI/RESULTS:
Predsjednik Hrvatskog metalur{kog dru{tva 2010.-2014. – Akad. Ilija Mamuzi}
President of Croatian Metallurgical Society 2010-2014 – Acad. Ilija Mamuzi}
Upravni odbor / Menagement Board:
Prof. dr. sc. Milan Ikoni}
– Tehni~ki fakultet Rijeka / Technical Faculty Rijeka
– Podpredsjednik / Vice President
Prof. dr. Mrian Bur{ak
– Metalur{ki fakultet Tehni~ko sveu~ili{te Ko{ice /
Faculty of Metallurgy Tehnical University of Ko{ice, Slovakia
– Zastupnik za ~lanove iz inozemstva / Delegate of members from the abroad
B. sc. Jasenka \uki}
– Tajnica / Secrerary
B. Sc. Dubravko Novak
– ^lan / Member, Vatrostalna Sisak d.o.o.
Acad. Ilija Mamuzi}
– Predsjednik / President
330 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 330

S. CVETKOVSKI, V. GRABULOV, Z. ODANOVIC, D. SLAVKOV
OPTIMIZATION OF WELDING PARAMETERS
FOR GAS TRANSPORTATION STEEL PIPES
INTRODUCTION
Steel pipes still have the main roll in petrochemical
industry. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) process
could be treated as one of the most important processes
for obtaining longitudinally welded steel pipes, mainly
due to the very good quality of welded joints and high
productivity. However the defects in welded joints often
lead to damage of installations and even more dangerous
- human victims 1-3.
Therefore the optimization of welding parameters is
the most important task in order to obtain welded pipes
with high exploitation safety, which is also the main aim
of the investigations presented in this paper.
SETUP OF EXPERIMENT
Steel plates of 8 mm thickness with designation
X-52, were used as a base material for the production of
welded pipes for gas transportation. Specification of
steels for pipeline production, for petrochemical indus-
ISSN 0543-5846
METABK 49(4) 331-334 (2010)
UDC – UDK 621.791.75:643.2-034.14 =111
Received – Prispjelo: 2009-09-22
Accepted – Prihva}eno: 2009-11-05
Preliminary Note – Prethodno priop}enje
The aim of this paper is to define optimization of welding conditions for Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) of steel
pipes for gas transportation. Fine grain steel X-52 with thickness of 8 mm were used as a base material. Welding
was performed from inner and outer side. Two wires, inclined under different angles, were feed separately.
Eleven samples divided in three series were experimentally welded. Performed investigations indicated
that the best properties showed weldments from series III, welded with the highest heat input. On the contrary
of our expectations, welds from series II, using self made equipment, showed pretty bead properties and improper
geometry. So, improving of this this equipment and obtaining welds with better properties is the target
in future investigations.
Key words: welding parameters, microalloyed steel, tandem process
Optimizacija parametra zavarivanja ~eli~nih cijevi za plinovode. Cilj ovog rada je definirati optimizaciju
parametara zavarivanja pod pra{kom ~eli~nih cijevi za plinovode. Finozrnati ~elik X-52 debljine 8 mm je
kori{ten kao osnovni materijal. Zavarivanje je izvedeno s vanjske i unutarnje strane. Dvije `ice, pod razli~itim kutom
su dodavane odvojeno. Jedanaest uzoraka, podeljenih u tri serije ekserimentalno je zavareno. Ispitivanja su
pokazala da najbolja svojstva imaju zavari iz serije III, zavareni s najve}om koli~inom une{ene toplote. Suprotno
o~ekivanjima, zavari iz serije II, kod kojih je kori{tena oprema koju su izradili autori rada, pokazali su vrlo lose
karakteristike i neadekvatnu geometriju spoja. Stoga je osnovni cilj u sljede}im istrazivanjima pobolj{anje ove
opreme u cilju dobijanja kvalitetnijih zavara.
Klju~ne rije~i: parametri zavarivanja, mikrolegirani ~elik, zavarivanje s dvije `ice
S. Cvetkovski, D. Slavkov, Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy,
Skopje, Republic of Macedonia; V. Grabulov, Z. Odanovic, Institute for
materials testing, Republic of Serbia
try is in accordance with American standard API 5L 4.
According to this standard, “X” represents longitudinally
welded pipes, and “52” shows minimal tensile
strength of 520 N/mm 2 . Chemical composition and mechanical
properties of the base material are given in Tables
1 and 2.
Prior to welding, plates of a base material were
formed as pipe segments and tack welded using Shield
Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) process with basic electrode,
classified as E 42 4 B 32 H 5 according EN 499,
( 3,25 mm). SAW welding process was performed us-
Table 1 Chemical composition of base material for pipeline
production, steel X52 4
Chem.
elem.
C Si Mn P S Nb Ti
Mas.% 0,059 0,27 0,9 0,007 0,013 0,023 0,01
Table 2 Mechanical properties of base material in rolling
(R) and transverse (T) directions, steel
X52 4
Re / N/mm 2 Rm / N/mm 2 A5 / % KV / J -40 °C
R dir. 439 510 27,0 275, 301, 341, 305
T dir. 422 492 28,0 174, 170, 171, 171
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 331-334 331

S. CVETKOVSKI et al: OPTIMIZATION OF WELDING PARAMETERS FOR GAS TRANSPORTATION STEEL PIPES
Table 3 Chemical composition of weld metal (L-70
wire) 4, 5
Ch. elem. C Mn Simax
Mass. % 0,109 0,91 0,14
Momax Cumax Smax Pmax
0,5 0,77 0,009 0,007
ing welding wire L-70 (4 mm) with chemical composition
given in Table 3 4, 5. The welding wire has the
following mechanical properties: Re = 400 N/mm 2 , Rm =
520 N/mm 2 , A5 =25%andKV = 133 J at -40 °C.
The welding wire L-70 is generally used in order to
satisfy the high toughness requirement of welding
joints. Neutral welding flux Lincoln 995 (granulation:
0,2-2,5 mm) was used for single layer butt welding. The
flux can be used five times in welding process, and it is
recommended to perform draying at temperature of 300
°C/2h before welding 5. Welding was conducted at the
both sides of the pipe, with two wires for each run,
which is known as tandem process. The first wire was
connected to direct current (DC, + pole) and the second
wire to the alternating current (AC). There was no gap
between the edges of the pipes. Experimental welding of
the steel pipes was performed for 11 samples, welded on
automatic SAW machines ELLIRA 6. One machine
was used for inner and other for outer welding, while the
maximum current for the both machines was 1200 A.
The first weld was performed from inner side and was
made under the same conditions for all segments.
Inclination of torches, distance between torches and
tip of the wire (stick out) is shown in Figure 1.
The following parameters were used for this welding
process: Wire I (welding current 460 A, welding voltage
26 V, welding speed 1,16 m/min) and Wire II (welding
current 480 A, arc voltage 32 V and welding speed 1,16
m/min). Since the basic task in this investigation is to
obtain optimal geometry of outer welds, three types of
experiments (series) were performed.
Series I. Welding was performed under the conditions
shown in Figure 2, with manual regulation of
welding geometry along the weld length. Two segments
1 and 2 were welded in this way. Welding parameters
which were used are given in Table 4. As can be seen
Figure 1 Welding geometry for inner tandem welding
Table 4 Welding parameter for segments 1 and 2
from Series I
from the table 4, higher amperage and arc voltage were
used for segment 2.
Series II. Welding was performed using self-made
equipment which aimed to maintain the uniform geometry.
Four segments with different geometry were welded
using this approach. Segments 3 and 4 were welded as
shown in Figure 2, while segments 5 and 6 were welded
as shown in Figure 3.
Series III. Five segments (7-11) were welded under
the conditions shown in Figure 3, with manual maintain
of welding geometry. In order to obtain dipper penetration
for this series, higher welding parameters were
used. The torch angle for the first and second wire was
90 0 and 60 0 , respectively. Welding parameters for segment
7-11 are given in Table 6.
Macro, micro and fractographic analysis were performed
to the welded joints produced in these investigations.
Testing of the mechanical properties and hardness
were also performed at the sample of the Serie III.
332 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 331-334
Ser
No
I
Weld. Param.
Segment 1 Segment 2
Wire I Wire II Wire I Wire II
Current / A 460 480-500 510 520
Arc voltage / V 26 28 30-32 36-38
Weld speed / (m/min) 1,12 1,12 1,12 1,12
Figure 2 Welding geometry for series II, (left)
Figure 3 Welding geometry for series III, (right)
Table 5 Welding parameter for segments 3, 4, 5 and 6
from Series II
Ser
No
II
Weld. Param.
Segment 3 and 4 Segment 5 and 6
Wire I Wire II Wire I Wire II
Curent / A 510 500-520 680 580
Arc voltage. / V 30 36 30-32 40-42
Weld speed / (m/min) 1,12 1,06 1,12 1,16
Table 6 Welding parameters for segment 7-11, Series
III
Ser.
No
Weld. Param.
Segment 7
Wire I Wire II
III Current / A 680 580
Arc voltage. / V 32 40
Weld speed / (m/min) 1,4 1,4

S. CVETKOVSKI et al: OPTIMIZATION OF WELDING PARAMETERS FOR GAS TRANSPORTATION STEEL PIPES
Figure 4 Macroscopic observation of segments 1 and 2
from series I weldments (a, b respectively), etched
in Nital
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Macrostructure investigations of all welded joints
were performed and the results for Series I to III are presented
in Figures 4 to 6. Metallographic analyses of the
Series I segments has shown low penetration between
the welds, especially for the first segment (Figure 4a),
because of the low current 460 A. In addition, misalignment
between the welds was observed (the second segment,
Figure 4b). Reinforcement of the faces were 1,8 -
2 mm for the first and 1,8 - 2,5 mm for the second segment.
It is observed that weld shapes in both segments
are not regular. The row of pores in both segments was
observed by radiographic control. Pores can be seen on
metallographic specimen in Figure 4 (arows).
Macroscopic results of the Series II are presented in
Figure 5. Rows of pores, insufficient root penetration
and misalignment of welds are the defects which were
found in all welded segments. In addition, it was shown
that with this equipment and welding procedure this
equipment was not able to completely maintain the uniform
geometry. Higher penetration which can be seen in
Figure 5 is a result of the fact that probes are taken at the
beginning of the weld, when the geometry of welding is
still irregular. Proper penetration between the welds is
obtained in Serie (Figure 6), as a result of the higher
welding parameter use. Dimensional, radiographic and
metallographic control was conducted for each segment.
Radiographic control showed small number of isolated
pores in the welds. Weld penetration was recorded to be
between 4,2 and 5 mm and all segments showed good
welded joints characteristics. It was observed that the
segment 7 in Figure 6a had the best characteristics.
Welding speed during this process was 1,4 m/min. As
can be seen from Figure 6b, segment 10 showed just little
lower penetration.
Metallographic observations were conducted on segment
7, (Series III), in order to analyze microstructural
characteristics of different areas in SAW joints. Figure 7
shows the locations of the microstructural observations.
Microstructure of those areas of welded joint can be
seen in Figure 8 (a-f).
Figure 8a show dendritic microstructure of weld
metal. It was observed that the elongated dendrites propagate
parallel with cooling direction. Traces of
proeutectoide ferrite (PF) on the boundaries of primary
Figure 5 (a and b) Macro photos of series II weldments,
segments 3 and 5, etched in Nital
Figure 6 (a and b) Macro photos of series III
weldments, segments 7 and 10, etched in Nital
Figure 7 Macro photo of
welded joint (segment 7, serie
III) and locations of microstructural
observations,
etched in Nital
austenitic grains, and acicular ferrite (AF) inside the
grains can be seen too 8. Micro photo, Figure 8b presents
the point of penetration between inner and outer
welds. The influence of the second (outer) weld to the
first one is clearly seen on the image. In the upper part of
the picture, microstructure is dendritic, but in the lower
part it can be seen that dendritic microstructure is partially
destroyed as a result of a heat input of the second
weld. Reaustenitisation contribute to the formation of
equiaxed grains as seen in coarse grained HAZ.
Microstructure in Figure 8c shows the coarse grained
HAZ. It consists of coarse, equiaxed grains of primary
austenite formed as result of retransformation. Proeutectoide
ferrite and Widmanstaten ferrite are formed on
the boundary of primary austenitc grains (black arrows)
9, 10. Micro constituent found inside the grains is
identified to be acicular ferrite. Point 8d represent fine
grained normalized HAZ which generally poses very
good mechanical properties, strength and impact toughness
9. Figure 8e presents intercritically HAZ i.e. zone
of partially transformation of perlite where max. temperature
is between A1 and A3 points. Figure 8f shows
microstructure of base material X52 with very fine
grains (9-10 according to ASTM), which was not exposed
to the influence of the welding thermal cycle.
Furthermore Charpy impact testing was performed
with the notch located in different areas (weld metal,
heat affected zone and base metal) followed by
fractographic analyses. Fractographic analyses of the
fractured surfaces (segment 7 serie III are presented in
Figure 9. Figure 9a shows that base material has a ductile
(dimple) type of fracture.
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 331-334 333

S. CVETKOVSKI et al: OPTIMIZATION OF WELDING PARAMETERS FOR GAS TRANSPORTATION STEEL PIPES
Figure 8 Microstructure of the locations presented on Figure
7, a. weld metal, b. penetratration between
the welds, c. CGHAZ, d. FGHAZ, e. ICHAZ, f.
base metal fine grained microstructure, magnification
x200, etched in Nital
The weld metal shows mixed type of fracture, containing
both areas of brittle and ductile fracture (see Figure
9b). It was observed that the micro crack found in
this region is parallel to the proeutectoid ferrite, marked
with black arrow.
Testing of mechanical properties was performed according
to GOST 20295 7. These investigations concerns
segments 7-11 from Series III. Generally the following
values are obtained Re = 389-403 N/mm 2 , Rm=
519-531 N/mm 2 , A5 = 27-31% and KU = 106-125 J, at
-40 o C. Hardness measurements (Vickers method) were
performed on the cross section containing base metal
and weld joint. The measurements were defined in a
way to investigate all characteristic zones of welded
joint. In summary, it can be said that the lowest hardness
values were recorded in the base metal (145-160 HV)
because of the low carbon content, while the highest values
were found in the weld metal (200 HV). It should
be noted that increase in hardness in the HAZ was not
recorded. Generally, the highest measured value is 202
HV, which is much lower than 300 HV that is treated as
a critical value for this type of steels 10.
CONCLUSIONS
Experiments showed that increase of the welding
current improved penetration. Increasing of arc voltage
resulted in a broadening of the weld face without a significant
influence to the penetration, while the increasing
of the welding speed lowers the welds. The best
Figure 9 Fractured surface (segment 7 Serie III), a. base
metal, b. weld metal
properties were found in the sample 7 (Series III)
welded with the following parameters: wire I welding
current 680 A, arc voltage 32 V. Wire 2 welding current
580 A, arc voltage 40 V. Welding speed is 1,4 m/min.
Torches inclination: 90° for the first and 60° for the second
wire.
Performed welding with self made equipment (serie
II) didn’t satisfy requirements. Pure welds quality and
bed geometry was obtained. So improving weld properties
and geometry, using this equipment will be the main
target in our next investigation.
REFERENCES
1 American Petroleum Institute: Recommended pipeline maintenance
welding practices. API RP 1107, USA.
2 G. Tither and W. E. Lauprecht, Pearlite-reduced HSLA steels
for line pipe, Metal Science and Heat Treatment, December
07, 2004.
3 V. N. Marchenko and B. F. Zin’ko, Current trends in the development
and production of steels and pipes for gas and oil
pipelines; Translated from Metallurg, (2008) 3, 49-55.
4 American Petroleum Institute: API 5L standard
5 Lincoln Electric, Welding Handbook
6 Linde ELLIRA handbook, 1988.
7 Standard GOST 20295/85
8 G: M: Evans, N Bailey, Metallurgy of Basic Weld Metal;
Abington Publishing, TWI, Cambridge England 1997.
9 Norman Bailey, Weldability of Feritic Steels, Abington Publishing,
TWI, Cambridge, England 1994.
10 S. Shanmugam, R.D.K. Misra, J. Hartmann and S.G. Jansto,
Microstructure of high strength niobium-containing pipeline
steel, Materials Science and Engineering, 441(2006) 1-2,
215-229.
ACKNOWLWDGMENT - The part of this study was
conducted under support of Ministry of Science and
Technological Development, Republic of Serbia
Note: English language lecturer: Biljana Mostrova, Faculty of Technology
and Metallurgy, Skopje.
334 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 331-334

A. YASAR
EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL-GASOLINE BLENDS ON EXHAUST
AND NOISE EMISSIONS IN SMALL SCALED GENERATORS
INTRODUCTION
The increasing industrialization and motorization of
the world has led to a step rise for the demand of petroleum-based
fuels. Petroleum-based fuels are obtained
from limited reserves. These finite reserves are highly
concentrated in certain regions of the world. Therefore,
those countries not having these resources are facing energy/foreign
exchange crisis, mainly due to the import
of crude petroleum. Hence, it is necessary to look for alternative
fuels which can be produced from resources
available locally within the country such as alcohol,
biodiesel, vegetable oils etc. 1.
The simple approach to the use of alcohols in spark
ignition (SI) engines is to blend moderate amounts of alcohols
with gasoline. The second and more technically
challenging option is to use alcohols essentially neatly
as engine fuel 2. Alcohols such as methanol (CH3OH),
butanol (C4H9OH) and ethanol (C2H5OH) have received
considerable attention recently because they are considered
as highly efficient, and low-polluting future fuels
through their lean operating ability 3.
Alcohol burns cleaner than regular gasoline and produce
lesser carbon monoxide, HC and oxides of nitrogen
4. Alcohol has higher heat of vaporization; therefore,
it reduces the peak temperature inside the combustion
chamber leading to lower NOx emissions and in-
Received – Prispjelo: 2009-09-18
Accepted – Prihva}eno: 2009-11-30
Preliminary Note – Prethodno priop}enje
In this study, the effect of methanol or butanol addition to gasoline on exhaust emissions and noise level has
been experimentally investigated. Results showed that the concentrations of CO and NOx emissions were decreased
depending on the higher alcohol contents and the carbon monoxide concentration of gasoline was higher
than that of methanol or butanol-gasoline blends for all engine loads. It was determined that content of
the HC was decreased at higher engine load but noise level was increased.
Key words: environmental protection, exhaust emissions, alcohol-gasoline blends, generators
Djelovanje alkoholno-benzinskih mje{avina na emisiju ispu{nih plinova i buke kod malih generatora.
U ovom radu eksperimentalno je ispitano djelovanje dodataka mentola ili butanola u benzin na emisije
ispu{nih plinova i na razinu buke. Rezultati su pokazali smanjenje koncentracije emisija CO i NOx, ovisno o
ve}im udjelima alkohola. Koncentracija CO kod benzina bila je vi{a nego kod mje{avina benzina i metanola ili
butanola, za sva optere}enja motora. Utvr|eno je da je pri ve}em optere}enju motora sadr`aj CH smanjen, ali je
pove}ana razina buke.
Klju~ne rije~i: za{tita okoli{a, emisije ispu{nih plinova, mje{avine alkohol-benzin, generatori
A. YASAR, Faculty of Technical Education, Mersin University, Tarsus,
Turkey
ISSN 0543-5846
METABK 49(4) 335-338 (2010)
UDC – UDK 502.72:628.512:661.72:621.431.36=111
creased engine power. The oxygen presence in alcohol
fuel provides soot-free combustion with low particulate
level.
Methanol’s most desirable features its high octane
quality. Methanol rates 106-115 octane numbers by the
research method and 88-92 octane numbers by the motor
octane method 5. Because of these characteristics,
methanol is considered to be one of the most likely alternative
automotive fuels for SI engines in the foreseeable
future 6.
Iso-butanol (C4H9OH) is an attractive alcohol fuel
because of its high heating value compared to methanol
and ethanol. Iso-butanol heating value represents 77 %
of gasoline heating value, and it has the advantages of a
low affinity for water solubility in blends 7. The high
octane number of iso-butanol makes it inherently adaptable
as fuel for conventional spark ignition engine 8.
Various studies were performed related to the usage
of alcohols-gasoline blends in spark ignition engines.
The effect of methanol and butanol addition to gasoline
on brake specific fuel consumption (b.s.f.c.), exhaust
gas temperature, and thermal efficiency has been experimentally
investigated 9. The performance measurements
show that there is an increase in b.s.f.c. when using
alcohol-gasoline blends, and b.s.f.c. of a butanol-gasoline
blend is less than for a methanol-gasoline
blend. The experimental results show that the engine
thermal efficiency was decreased when fueled with alcohol-gasoline
blends. Alasfour 10 investigated the ef-
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 335-338 335

A. YASAR: EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL-GASOLINE BLENDS ON EXHAUST AND NOISE EMISSIONS IN SMALL SCALED...
fect of using a 30 % iso-butanol-gasoline blend on NOx
emission in a spark ignition engine. It was observed that
by using the 30 % iso-butanol-gasoline blend the maximum
level of NOx emission is reduced by 9 % compared
to gasoline and the reduction of NOx level was evident in
the rich region.
Although a great deal of experimental exhaust emissions
data at various engine loads in spark ignition engines
using ethanol have been accumulated, very few
data are available for methanol and butanol as fuel at
higher alcohol contents. The aim of this study is to determine
the suitable methanol-gasoline and butanol-gasoline
blend rate in terms of emissions and noise on a single
cylinder spark ignition generator at various engine loads.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The Lombardini single-cylinder, spark ignition engine
which has 8,6 compression ratio, 349 cm 3 cylinder
volume, air cooling, 7 BG power, 82 mm bore, 66 mm
stroke, 4 stroke number and 3000 rpm was used for the
experiments.
A Capelec model gasoline engine gas analyzer with
the infrared system was used in the experiments. The device
has the potential to analyze exhaust gases of gasoline
vehicles. Hydrocarbon (HC), Carbon Monoxide
(CO), Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and Nitrogen Oxide (NOx)
were measured by means of this device within the exhaust
emissions. Technical properties of test device are
given in Table 1.
The exhaust gas sample was carried from the exhaust
through a probe passing through a filter and dryer to prevent
any water and particulate from entering the analyzer.
Measurement distance of exhaust gas analyzer was 1 meter
from the engine block. The system was calibrated at
the beginning of each test series. The schematic diagram
of the experimental setup is shown in Figure 1.
Experiments were performed at 0,8 kW, 1,6 kW and
2,4 kW at partial engine loads. Alcohol-unleaded gasoline
blends were prepared by volume measure. Alcohol
fuels used were butanol and methanol (industrial grade,
CH3OH, C4H9OH, 95 %). Alcohol-gasoline blends used
in the experiment were 5 %, 15 %, 25 %, 35 %, 50 %
volume both methanol and butanol. The rate of methanol
and butanol in blend were called as M and B, respectively.
The properties of gasoline, methanol and butanol
are given in Table 2.
Table 1 The specifications of the exhaust gas analyzer
Measurements range Accuracy
HC 0-20000 ppm 1 ppm
CO 0-15 % 0,001 %
CO2 0-20 % 0,1 %
O2 0-21,7 % 0,01 %
NOx 0-5000 ppm 1 ppm
Figure 1 The schematic diagram of the experimental setup
The blends used during the experiments were kept
for fifteen day period and it was observed that there was
no phase-separation at any blend rate.
The engine was operated for a period of 15 minutes
with gasoline to reach steady state operation conditions.
Engine temperature was kept under the control during
the engine performance test. The tests were conducted 3
times for each of the test fuels and average of the results
was taken. A Testo model 816 type noise tester, which is
given in Table 3, was also used to measure noise of the
engine.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figure 2 shows the effect of methanol-gasoline and
butanol-gasoline blends on CO emissions of engine. CO
is toxic gas that is the result of incomplete combustion.
When methanol and butanol containing oxygen is mixed
with gasoline, the combustion of the engine becomes
better and therefore, CO emission is reduced. The similar
results were also reported by Rice et al. 11. The oxygen
ratio in blend is 21,62 % in methanol, 50 % in
butanol. For this reason, CO emission concentration of
methanol was lower than those of butanol. It was observed
that by using 50 % methanol-gasoline blend at
higher engine loads. CO emission is the least comparing
Table 2 The properties of gasoline, methanol and
butanol
336 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 335-338
Fuel
Density
/kg m -3
Res. Octane
Number
Mot. Octane
Number
Unleaded
Gasoline
738,7 96,787 86,758
M5 747,3 98,785 75,737
M15 749,3 101,658 78,197
M25 751,8 103,337 81,647
M35 756,4 104,905 82,490
M50 768,3 106,625 88,837
B5 747,1 103,932 83,681
B15 748,9 102,574 81,653
B25 755,8 101,665 81,359
B35 764,2 101,646 79,701
B50 775,7 101,442 77,382

A. YASAR: EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL-GASOLINE BLENDS ON EXHAUST AND NOISE EMISSIONS IN SMALL SCALED...
Table 3 Technical data of noise tester
Measurement range +30 to 130 dB
Accuracy
± digit
Class 2
± 1,0 dB
Resolution 0,1 dB
to other methanol-gasoline % volume blend. In addition,
the decrease in CO emissions is also observed when
butanol is used.
The effect of various fuels on HC emission is given
in Figure 3. At 800 W engine loads, the HC emissions
are higher than that of gasoline, when using methanol-gasoline
blend and butanol-gasoline blend. As the
load increases, the ratio of HC in the emission decreases.
Also, HC emission decreases by increasing the % volume
of methanol and butanol-gasoline blend. These results
are similar to the results of Kim et al. 4, Taylor et
al. 12. As it is shown in Figure 3, dramatic decrease occurs
at 50 % of methanol and butanol-gasoline blends
for 2400 W engine load.
The effect of various engine loads on NOx emissions
is given in Figure 4.
NOx is formed as a result of nitrogen and oxygen reaction
under high temperature and pressure in the engine
cylinder. The heat occurring from the combustion of
methanol is low. So, the conditions for high amount of
NOx can not arise 13. As it is shown in Figure 4, at 800
W engine loads, 35 % methanol-gasoline blend has almost
the same NOx emission, but 50 % methanol-gasoline
blend, NOx emission has a lower value. At 1600 W
engine load, NOx emission is reduced gradually for
50 % and 35 % methanol-gasoline blend with respect to
% volume of other blends. But for butanol-gasoline
Figure 2 The effect of various engine loads on CO emissions
Figure 3 The effect of various engine loads on HC emissions
Figure 4 The effect of various engine loads on NOx emissions
blends as the engine load increases, NOx emissions also
increase. NOx emission obtained with all butanol-gasoline
blends has similar results with gasoline because
butanol and gasoline fuels have approximately the same
octane number.
Figure 5 shows the effect of methanol and
butanol-gasoline blends on CO2 emissions. CO2 emission
obtained with M 50 fuel is lower than that obtained
with gasoline at 2 400 W engine load, but the effect of
butanol on CO2 emissions did not noteworthy change
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 335-338 337

A. YASAR: EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL-GASOLINE BLENDS ON EXHAUST AND NOISE EMISSIONS IN SMALL SCALED...
Figure 5 The effect of various engine loads on CO2 emissions
with respect to % volume of other blends. CO and CO2
have complementary correlation. That is, with increasing
CO2 emission, the amount of CO decreases. CO2
emission depends on air-fuel ratio and CO emission
concentration 14.
The effect of various engine loads on noise level is
given in Figure 6. With increasing engine loads, noise
level obtained with methanol and butanol-gasoline
blends increases. It was observed that the maximum
noise level is 95,5 dB(A) at 2 400 W for M25 and B25
fuel, the minimum noise level is 93,64 dB(A) for M15
and B15 fuels.
CONCLUSIONS
The following features of methanol-gasoline and
butanol-gasoline blended engines may be drawn:
1. CO emission concentration of engine operated
with methanol-gasoline blend was lower than
those of butanol-gasoline blend as the oxygen ratio
in blend is 21,62 % in methanol, 50 % in
butanol.
2. Methanol which has lower flame temperature
compared to gasoline provides better combustion
and decreases the NOx and CO concentration. It
was found that the most suitable fuels in terms of
CO emission were M50 and B50 fuels.
3. Concentrations of NOx emissions were decreased
depending on the higher alcohol contents.
4. The content of the HC was decreased at higher
engine loads but noise level was increased proportionally.
Figure 6 The effect of various engine loads on noise level
REFERENCES
1 A.K. Agarwal: Progress in Energy and Combustion Science,
33 (2007), 233-271.
2 P.W. McCallum, T.J. Timbario, R.L. Bechtold and E.E.
Ecklund: Chemical Engineering Progress, 78 (1982) 8,
52-59.
3 B. Winfried: Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 3
(1997), 139-150.
4 S. Kim, BE. Dale: Biomass & Bio-energy, 28 (2005), 475-89.
5 E.E. Wigg: Methanol as a gasoline extender: A Critique,
Science, 186 (1974) 4166, 775-780.
6 A Technical Assessment of Alcohol Fuels, Alternate Fuels
Committee of Engine Manufacturers Association, SAE paper
820261, 1982.
7 L.K. Eugene: Applied Combustion, Marcel Dekker Inc.,
New York, 1993.
8 O. Keith and C. Trevor: Automotive Fuels Handbook, SAE
Inc., Pennsylvania, 1990.
9 F.N. Alasfour: International Journal of Energy Research,
21(1997) 1, 21-30.
10 F.N. Alasfour: Applied Thermal Engineering, 18 (1998) 5,
245-256.
11 R.W., A.K. Sanyal, A.C. Elrod and R.M. Bata: Journal of
Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, 113 (1991),
377–381.
12 AB. Taylor, DP. Mocan, AJ. Bell, NG. Hodgson, IS.
Myburgh and JJ. Botha: Gasoline/alcohol blends: exhaust
emission, performance and burn-rate in multi-valve production
engine, SAE paper 961988, 1996.
13 DA. Caffrey PJ., V. Rao: Investigation into the Vehicular
Exhaust Emission of High Percentage Ethanol Blends, SAE
paper no. 950777, 1995.
14 C.W. Wu, R.H. Chen, J.Y. Pu and T.H. Lin: Atmospheric
Environment, 38 (2004), 7093-7100.
Note: The professional translator is Serhan Yamacli. Faculty of Technical
Education, Mersin University Kartaltepe Mah. Takbas Mevkii. PK.92
Tarsus, Turkey.
338 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 335-338

M. SEKULI], Z. JURKOVI], M. HAD@ISTEVI], M. GOSTIMIROVI]
ISSN 0543-5846
METABK 49(4) 339-342 (2010)
UDC – UDK 669.14/15:620.171.70/178:620.18 = 111
THE INFLUENCE OF MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES OF WORKPIECE MATERIAL
ON THE MAIN CUTTING FORCE IN FACE MILLING
INTRODUCTION
There are several criteria for material machinability
evaluation, and the most frequently used ones are: tool
life (influencing the machining time and production
costs), cutting forces (influencing energy consumption),
cutting temperatures (influencing tool wear), machined
surface quality and chip shape. Based on these criteria,
better material machinability is due to: longer cutting
tool life, higher productivity (the amount of removed
chip), better machined surface quality, lower cutting
forces, lower cutting temperatures, and more favourable
chip shapes, as long as they have been achieved under
the same conditions. In machining diverse materials, under
constant machining conditions, diverse cutting
forces owe their origin to different physical and chemical
properties of the workpiece material. Tensile
strength and hardness are typical material properties influencing
the main cutting force. There is, of course, a
set of other material properties, like the microstructure,
crystal grains size and shape, type and amount of impurities
and the like, which also exert influence on the
main cutting force.
The paper presents the researches into cutting forces
in face milling of workpieces made from three different
materials (steel for improvement, nodular cast iron, and
silumine). To calculate cutting forces, the Kienzle equa-
Received – Prispjelo: 2009-10-20
Accepted – Prihva}eno: 2009-12-20
Preliminary note – Prethodno priop}enje
The paper presents the research into cutting forces in face milling of three different materials: steel ^ 4732 (EN
42CrMo4), nodular cast iron NL500 (EN-GJS-500-7) and silumine AlSi10Mg (EN AC-AlSi10Mg). Obtained results
show that hardness and tensile strength values of workpiece material have a significant influence on the
main cutting force, and thereby on the cutting energy in machining.
Key words: machinability, main cutting force, face milling
Utjecaj mehani~kih karakteristika materijala obratka na glavnu silu rezanja pri ~eonom glodanju.
U radu su prikazana istra`ivanja sila rezanja pri ~eonom glodanju za tri razli~ita materijala: ~elik ^ 4732 (EN
42CrMo4), nodularni lijev NL500 (EN-GJS-500-7) i silumin AlSi10Mg (EN AC-AlSi10Mg). Dobiveni rezultati pokazuju
da vrijednosti tvrdo}e i vla~ne ~vrsto}e materijala obratka imaju veliki utjecaj na glavnu silu rezanja, a
time i na ukupno utro{enu energiju rezanja pri obradi.
Klju~ne rije~i:obradivost, glavna sila rezanja, ~eono glodanje
M. Sekuli}, M. Had`istevi}, M. Gostimirovi}, Faculty of Technical Sciences,
University of Novi Sad, Serbia
Z. Jurkovi}, Faculty of Engineering, University of Rijeka, Croatia
tion constants are determined by the application of the
model that enables rational use of laboratory time resources
and small workpiece material consumption 1.
From the calculated constants, the main cutting force for
adequate cutting conditions may be calculated and thus
separate material machinability compared.
MODEL OF CUTTING FORCES
In face milling, the cutting forces exerted by the face
milling cutter tooth on the workpiece are changeable in
time and space. Figure 1 presents the cutting forces
scheme in one-tooth face milling (a shaded area is a chip
removed by one tooth per revolution). The paper 1
shows that the main cutting force Fv can be calculated on
the basis of measured cutting forces in x and y direction
using the following equation:
Fx
Fv
Fy
sin cos
(1)
where - angle of cutting point measured from x -
axis is anti-clockwise.
The equation (1) can be utilized to draw variation diagrams
for the main cutting force Fv during a one-tooth
cut. For quality implementation of the Kienzle equation:
1mv
Fvbh kv11
.
(2)
it is necessary to know two constants of the
workpiece material (kv1.1-main specific cutting force related
to the cross-sectional area of the cut bxh=1x1=1
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 339-342 339

M. SEKULI] et al.: THE INFLUENCE OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WORKPIECE MATERIAL ON THE MAIN...
Figure 1 The scheme of cutting forces 2
mm 2 and exponent 1-mv). The Kienzle equation constants
are machinability parameters of material itself.
The undeformed instantaneous chip thickness and width
of the cut can be derived as follows:
hs1sin sin bap/ sin (3)
suggesting that there are - tool cutting edge angle,
s1 - feed per tooth and ap - depth of cut.
Since the undeformed chip thickness varies according
to the angle of cutting point only one experiment can
be performed to obtain straight line Fi/b=f(h), necessary
for graphic and analytic determination of the Kienzle
equation constants 2.
The power requirements of the milling machine is
designed on the basis of the average value of the main
cutting force:
1mv
Fvbhm kv11
.
(4)
In this equation, hm is an average undeformed chip
thickness which can be approximately calculated by the
following equation:
B
h
D s
114, 6
m 1 sin
(5)
s
where are: B - cutting width, D - cutter diameter, s -
maximal contact angle between the cutter tooth and
workpiece.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The experimental work was carried out at the Department
of Production Engineering, the Faculty of
Technical Sciences in Novi Sad. The machining was
conducted on a Vertical-spindle Milling Machine
(„Prvomajska“ FSS-GVK-3). A face milling cutter with
80 mm diameter („Jugoalat“ G.707.1), with cemented
carbide inserts („Sintal“ type P25 for steel and nodular
cast iron and type K10 for silumine) with tool cutting
edge angle =75° and rake angle =0°, was used as a
tool. All of the experiments were conducted with one insert
without coolant, except for machining silumine
when, due to intensive adhesion chip for insert, petroleum
was used. The analysed materials are: steel ^4732,
nodular cast iron NL500 and silumine AlSi10Mg.
During the experiments, cutting forces were measured
using a three-force components Kistler dynamometar
(the model 9257A) and also sampled using a
PC based data acquisition system with LabVIEW software
3. The experiment conditions and research into
mechanical properties of material are summarized in
Table 1. The selection of cutting conditions are closely
connected to the cutting tool and workpiece material.
The chemical composition of the investigated materials
is shown in Table 2. Figures from 2 to 4 show their
microstructure.
The quenched and tempered microstructure of the
steel ^4732 was determined by the metallographic research,
Figure 2.
The microstructure of the nodular cast iron is composed
of ferrite, perlite and graphite nodule, Figure 3.
Table 1 Experiment conditions and mechanical properties of materials used during machinability test
Workpiece material
Code in JUS Code in DIN
Tensile strength
Rm /MPa
Hardness /HB
Cutting tool
material
^4732 42CrMo4 975 265 HM P25 89,17 0,281 1
NL500 GGG-50 495 170 HM P25 89,17 0,281 1
AlSi10Mg G-AlSi10Mg 85 49 HM K10 281,48 0,281 1
Table 2 The chemical composition of materials used during machinability test
Figure 2 The microstructure of steel ^4732
v / m/min s1 / mm/tooth ap /mm
Chemical composition / wt. %
Material
C Si Mn S P Cr Mo Ni Cu V Fe Mg
^4732 0,40 0,427 0,497 0,042 0,039 0,914 0,183 0,35 0,17 0,01 - -
NL500 3,50 2,67 0,40 0,012 - 0,05 - - - - - -
AlSi10Mg - 9,03 0,282 - - - - - 0,069 - 0,46 0,104
340 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 339-342

M. SEKULI] et al.: THE INFLUENCE OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WORKPIECE MATERIAL ON THE MAIN...
Figure 3 The microstructure of nodular cast iron NL500
Figure 4 The microstructure of silumine AlSi10Mg
Figure 5 Cutting forces variation vs. tooth position
Figure 6 Cutting forces variation vs. tooth position
There are also micro-cavities of irregular shapes, as well
as non-homogenity in perlite amount (micro-cavities
can be observed in perlite as well).
Figure 4 presents modified silumine comprising of
solid solution and granular eutectic. Micro-cavities and
the dendrite orientation of the microstructure can be observed.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Figures 5 to 7 present diagrams of variations in orthogonal
cutting forces and main cutting force, derived
from the equation (1) for face milling of the tested materials.
Figure 7 Cutting forces variation vs. tooth position
Figure 8 Empirically determined Kienzle constants
Figure 9 Variation Fvm vs. feed per tooth
Determined values of the main specific cutting force
kv1.1 and exponent of the Kienzle equation 1-mv are
shown in Figure 8.
Based on the constants from Figure 8 and the conditions
from Figure 1 (B=D, s=), the average value of
the main cutting force for different feed per tooth can be
calculated by utilizing the equation (4), Figure 9.
The average value of the main cutting force with reference
to hardness of analysed materials (e.g. for feed
per tooth s1=0,281 mm/tooth, accordingly for average
undeformed chip thickness hm=0,173 mm and width of
the cut b=1,035 mm), is presented in Figure 10. It is obvious
that the hardness value of workpiece material has
a significant influence on the value of the main cutting
force in face milling.
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 339-342 341

M. SEKULI] et al.: THE INFLUENCE OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WORKPIECE MATERIAL ON THE MAIN...
Figure 10 Variation Fvm vs. hardness HB
CONCLUSION
Mechanical properties of workpiece material are important
factors affecting machining conditions. Regarding
low cutting forces, low values of hardness and tensile
strength usually provide better machinability. This
investigation has shown that hardness and tensile
strength of the workpiece material have a significant influence
on the main cutting force in face milling, and
thereby on the cutting energy in machining.
REFERENCES
1 H. Q. Zheng, X. P. Li, Y. S. Wong, A. Y. C. Nee, International
Journal of Machine Tools&Manufacture 39 (1999), pp.
2003-2018.
2 M. Sekuli}, M. Gostimirovi}, Z. Jurkovi}, P. Kova~, Proceedings,
7 th International Scientific Conference on Production
Engineering, Kairo, 2009, pp. 17-18
3 F. Mocellin, E. Melleras, W. L. Guesser, L. Boehs, J. of the
Braz. Soc. of Mech. Sci&Eng, XXVI (2004) 1, pp. 22-27
4 R. T. Coelho, A. Braghini Jr., C. M. O. Valente, G. C. Medalha,
J. of the Braz. Soc. of Mech. Sci&Eng, XXV (2003)
3, pp. 22-27
Note: The responsible translator for the English language is Ksenija
Mance, Senior Lecturer at the Faculty of Engineering, Rijeka, Croatia.
342 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 339-342

S. DOBATKIN, J. ZRNIK, I. MAMUZI]
DEVELOPMENT OF SPD CONTINUOUS
PROCESSES FOR STRIP AND ROD PRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
The possibility of producing nanocrystalline (grain
size smaller than 100 nm) and submicrocrystalline
(grain size in the range 100–1000 nm) structures has
been reliably established for various severe plastic deformation
(SPD) schemes, such as equal-channel angular
pressing (ECAP), multiaxial deformation, twist extrusion,
high pressure torsion, accumulative roll bonding,
and other methods 1-5. Grain refinement down to
a nano- and submicro level results in a significant increase
in the strength at satisfactory ductility and to increase
the service properties, such as fatigue strength,
cold resistance, superplasticity, wear resistance, etc. that
is shown already now on various classes of metal materials,
including the industrial 1-5. However, the industrial
application is limited due to the absence of effective
continuous SPD processes. The potential of development
of continuous SPD processes based on the ECAP
process from one side and continuous extrusion or drawing
processes from another side is considered.
Received – Prispjelo: 2009-09-18
Accepted – Prihva}eno: 2010-04-25
Review Paper – Pregledni rad
Grain refinement upon the severe plastic deformation (SPD) at low temperatures (below the recrystallization
temperature ) and an unusual improvement the properties of such materials are shown reliably. However, the
industrial application is limited due to the absence of effective continuous SPD processes. The potential of development
of continuous SPD processes based on the equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) process from one
side and continuous extrusion or drawing processes from another side is considered. Existing various continuous
SPD processes for strip, rod and wire production are analyzed.
Key words: severe plastic deformation (SPD), equal – channel angular pressing (ECAP), rod production, strip,
wire
Razvitak intenzivnih plasti~nih deformacija (IPD) kontinuiranog procesa za trake i {ipkaste
proizvode. Usitnjavanje zrna pod utjecajem intenzivnih plasti~nih deformacija (IPD) na ni`im temperaturama
(ispod temperature rekristalizacije) i neuobi~ajno pobolj{avanje svojstava takovih materijala se pokazalo stvarnim.
Me|utim, industrijska primjena je ograni~ena glede nedostatka efektivnog kontinuiranog procesa IPD.
Razmatraju se mogu}nosti razvitka kontinuiranog IPD procesa na temelju s jedne strane na kutno kanalnom
pre{anju (KKP), a s druge strane na kontinuiranoj ekstruziji ili procesu vu~enja. Analiziraja se i postojanje razli~itih
kontinuiranih IPD procesa za traku, {ipkaste proizvode i `icu.
Klju~ne rije~i: intenzivne plasti~ne deformacije (IPD), kutno kanalno pre{anje (KKP), {ipkasti proizvodi, traka,
`ica
S. Dobatkin - A. A. Baikov Institute of Metallurgy and Materials Science,
Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia, J. Zrnik - COMTES
FHT, Plzen, Czech Republic, I. Mamuzic - University of Zagreb, Sisak,
Croatia
ISSN 0543-5846
METABK 49(4) 343-347 (2010)
UDC – UDK 669.14-418:539.37:620.17=111
CONTINUOUS ECAP PROCESSES
BASED ON CONTINUOUS PRESSING
Upon conventional pressing, the friction forces acting
between the billet and container impede the process.
The active friction forces occurring when the billet
moves together with the container were used for the development
of the continuous pressing methods achieved
only due to the friction forces acting between the container
and the lateral surface of billet.
Three basic methods of continuous pressing are distinguished:
Conform, Linex, and Extrolling. They differ
in the mode of the sample input to the deformation zone,
i.e., by the nature of the container circulation.
ECAP-Conform process
The Conform method of continuous pressing using
the active friction forces was first tested by D. Green in
the Laboratory of the Reactor Fuel Cells of the United
Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (Springfield, UK)
in 1971 (Figure 1) 6,7.
D. Green proposed a simplest device consisting of a
wheel with a ring groove of rectangular cross section at
the hoop. The groove with an immobile shoe covering
the wheel forms a closed pass. Such design provides a
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 343-347 343

S. DOBATKIN et al: DEVELOPMENT OF SPD CONTINUOUS PROCESSES FOR STRIP AND ROD PRODUCTION
Figure 1 Setup for continuous pressing by the Conform
process 6,7: 1-driving wheel; 2- ring groove;
3- shoe; 4- ring insert; 5- stopper; 6- matrix; 7semifinished
product; 8- finished product
Figure 2 Setup for continuous ECAP of long billets 8,9:
1- case; 2- square pass drive roll; 3- ring sector
insert; 4- semifinished product; 5- jaw; 6- axis
of rotation; 7- stopper; 8- wedge clamp
circulation of the pass with three mobile sides belonging
to the groove and one immobile side belonging to the
shoe. Depending on the matrix arrangement, the devices
with radial or tangential metal flow through the matrix
calibrating hole are distinguished. There is not reduction
of the sample. The samples are moved into the matrix
due to friction forces.
V. M. Segal et al proposed continuous simple shear
process of long–size rods based on Conform process in
1977 (Figure 2) 8, 9.
This process was successfully realized on copper
M1(Russian standart) rods of square section 8×8mmin
size 9. A similar continuous ECAP device was recently
made in Ufa, Russia (Figure 3) 10.
The wire from commercially pure Al (99.95 %) of 2,8
× 3,9 × 1000 mm in size was deformed at room temperature
with N=4 passes. It was shown that ECAP-Conform
process can effectively refine grains and produce
ultrafine grained (UFG) structure with average grain size
650 nm 10. ECAP-Conform process has significantly
increased the yield strength (from 47 to 140 MPa) while
elongation is decreased (from 28 to 14 %).
Figure 3 Schematic illustration of the ECAP – Conform
setup 10
Figure 4 Scheme of the CFAE setup 11: 1-driving roll;
2- sheet workpiece; 3- workpiece support
block; 4 - die assembly, where 2 is the extrusion
angle; 5- first extrusion channel; 6- second
extrusion channel. (ED is the extrusion
direction; ND is the normal to the sheet; TD is
the transverse direction.)
Recently Y. Huang and P. B. Prangnell 11 designed
the Continuous Frictional Angular Extrusion (CFAE)
based also on Conform process (Figure 4). They obtained
subgrain-grain structure in Al alloy AA1100 with the average
size of structural elements 600 nm.
ECAP-Linex process
The continuous pressing using the Linex method
12-14 is performed by the rectilinear displacement of a
plate, which is grabbed from the top and from the bottom
by a continuous track assembly (Figure 5). To avoid
any metal flow to the sides, immobile sidewalls are provided,
which are greased for decreasing friction. Two
moving track assemblies and two immobile sidewalls
form a closed pass with a matrix installed at the outlet.
However, the Linex method is still used rarely. At present,
the Conform method is most widely used for the
continuous pressing of aluminum alloys.
There is one continuous ECAP process that partially
corresponds to the Linex process called Conshering
process (Figure 6) 15, 16.
An equal channel angular die is installed at the exit
of compact rolling mill called Satellite mill (Figure 6).
The process occurs without practically any reduction at
room temperature on CP Al AA1100 up to N=6. The
size of strip was 2,0 mm in thickness, 19 mm in width
and 2000 mm in length. Typical microstructure of cold –
worked aluminum having dislocation cells and
subgrains is observed after the first or the second pass.
344 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 343-347

S. DOBATKIN et al: DEVELOPMENT OF SPD CONTINUOUS PROCESSES FOR STRIP AND ROD PRODUCTION
Figure 5 Setup for continuous pressing by the Linex process
12-14: 1-caterpillar chains; 2- guide
member; 3- matrix; 4-cogwheels
Figure 6 Schematic illustration of the Conshearing process
15,16
After four passes, it could be observed by approximately
0,5 m – thick banded structure of subgrains. After six
passes, subdivision of the bands to ultra fine grains
starts, though the bands remain visible. The mean thickness
and the mean length of the grains after six passes
are 0,42 m and 1,44 m, respectively.
The strength increases with the pass number, except
for the excessive angle (70-degree) die. The strengthening
is most obvious in the case of the 65-degree die. The
tensile strength increases from the initial 100 MPa to
171 MPa by six passes. On the other hand, the elongation
to fracture decreases from 50 % to 20 % by one pass
operation. However it does not change much after the
first pass and still to 23 % after six passes. So the material
shows super high strength-ductility balance 16.
ECAP- Extrolling process
The Extrolling process combines rolling and pressing
at a stretch 17, 18 (Figure 7). A billet is continuously fed
into the pass and deformed in it. By action of rolling
forces the billet is pressed out in the expanding section of
the pass and squeezed out into the calibrating hole of the
matrix installed at the outlet of the pass (Figure 7).
The most well-known and may be single process of
continuous ECAP process of strip production bases on
Extrolling process is Continuous Confined Strip
Shearing (C2S2) (Figure 8) 19.
A specially designed feeding roll and a guide roll
with diameter up 10 cm were used as a feeding assembly.
The forming die is equipped with two channels. The
outlet channel (1,55 mm) is larger then inlet channel
(1,45 mm). The strip is reduced into the 1,45 mm thick
strip when it is fed through the feeding rolls and when
Figure 7 Setup for continuous pressing by the Extrolling
process 17,18: 1-upper roll with groove; 2bottom
roll with groove; 3- matrix; 4- semifinished
product; 5- finished product
Figure 8 (a) Schematic illustration of C2S2 continuous
process based on ECAP for producing the metallic
sheets. (b) A detailed die configuration of
the forming zone in (a) 19
the strip exits through the outlet channel, it retains its
initial thickness 1,55 mm. This fact makes the multipass
operation possible in a continuous manner.
Strips of AA1050 aluminum alloy with dimension of
1,55 × 20 × 1000 mm were fed into the C2S2 machine
with different channels intersection angle in range of
=110-140 ° and deformation cycles up to N=100 (=58
at =120 °) 19. After the first pass N=1 dislocation
starts tangling to form cell and subgrain structure with
high dislocation density inside (Figure 9).
Misorientation angle were measured to be 3-5°. After
N=2 the cell size decreased and misorientation increased.
At N=5 ultrafine grains with high angle bound-
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S. DOBATKIN et al: DEVELOPMENT OF SPD CONTINUOUS PROCESSES FOR STRIP AND ROD PRODUCTION
Figure 9 TEM micrographs of Al alloy AA1050 after
C2S2 at room temperature at an angle of 120 °
between the channels: (a) N=1(e=0,6), (b)
N=2(e=1,2), (c) N=3 (e=1,7), (d) N=5(e=2,9),
(e) N=9(e=5,2), and (f) N=50(e=29) 19
Figure 10 Schematic illustration of drawing through the
equal channel angular die 20-22
Figure 11 Principal scheme of sheet processing by
ECADS (a) and general view of the plunger
and the base of the ECADS setup (b) 23
aries were observed. This structure did not vary significantly
with further straining. It should be noted a gradual
increase in the grain size with increasing strain.
CONTINUOUS ECAP
PROCESSES BASED ON DRAWING
A. B. Suriadi, P. F. Tomson and U. Chakkingal were
the first who deformed material by drawing through the
equal channel angular die (Figure 10) 20-22. During
Equal Channel Angular Drawing (ECAD) material undergoes
a plastic deformation which can be presented as
a bending under tension process. Once more ECAD process
called Equal Channel Angular Drawing of Sheet
Metals (ECADS) was proposed by Dr. Zisman with colleagues
23 (Figure 11). The principal deformation
mode was simple shear supplemented by some elongation
along the drawing direction and the related thickness
reduction. ECADS was used for pure Al at room
temperature on a strip of 40 mm in width and 1mm in
thickness. The initial yield stress was doubled after four
passes, but the deformed structure can be characterized
as subgrain dominating structure 23.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Applying continuous SPD processes of strips and
rods results mostly in submicrocrystalline structure
and materials show high strength- ductility
balance.
2. In the present time the methods of SPD continuous
processes for strip and rod production are realized
and studied rarely. The strip samples in-
346 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 343-347

vestigated are limited mainly in thickness – 2 mm
and in width – 20-30 mm, the rod samples are
limited mainly in square section – 10x10 mm.
REFERENCES
S. DOBATKIN et al: DEVELOPMENT OF SPD CONTINUOUS PROCESSES FOR STRIP AND ROD PRODUCTION
1 T. C. Lowe, R. Z. Valiev (Eds), Investigations and Applications
of Severe Plastic Deformation, Kluwer Academic Publishing,
Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2000, p. 395.
2 M. J. Zehetbauer, R. Z. Valiev (Eds), Nanomaterials by Severe
Plastic Deformation, Wiley-VCH, Vienna, Austria,
2003, p. 850.
3 Z. Horita (Ed), Nanomaterials by Severe Plastic Deformation,
Trans Tech Publications Ltd, 2005, p. 1030.
4 Y. Estrin, H. J. Maier (Eds), Nanomaterials by Severe Plastic
Deformation, Trans Tech Publications Ltd, 2008, p.
1094.
5 V. M. Segal, S. V. Dobatkin, and R. Z. Valiev (Eds),
Equal-Channel Angular Pressing of Metallic Materials:
Thematic Issue, Part 1: Russian Metallurgy, 1 (2004) 1; Part
2: Russian Metallurgy, 2 (2004) 109.
6 Patent No. 1370894 (UK),1971.
7 D. Green, J. of the Inst. of Metals, 100 (1972) 295-300.
8 Patent No. 575151 (USSR), 1977.
9 V. M. Segal, V. I. Reznikov, V. I. Kopylov, et al. Processes
of Plastic Structure Formation in Metals. Nauka i Tekhnika,
Minsk, Belarus, 1994, p. 232 in Russian.
10 G. I. Raab, R. Z. Valiev, T. C. Lowe, Y. T. Zhu. Mater. Sci.
Eng. A 382 (2004) 30-34.
11 Y. Huang, P. B. Prangnell. Scripta Mater. 56 (2007)
333-336.
12 Patent No. 936717 (UK), 1974.
13 Patent No. 39228998 (USA), 1975.
14 W. G. Voorhees. Light Metal Age., 36, No.1 (1978) 18-20.
15 Y. Saito, H. Utsunomiya, H. Suzuki, T. Sakai. Scripta mater.
42 (2000) 1139–1144.
16 H. Utsunomiya, K. Hatsuda, T. Sakai, Y. Saito. Advanced
Technology of Plasticity, 2 (2002) 1561-1566.
17 Patent No. 3934446 (USA), 1973.
18 B. Avitzur. Wire Journal, (1975)7 73-80.
19 J.-C. Lee, H.-K. Seok and J.-Y. Suh. Acta Mater. 50 (2002)
4005-4019.
20 A. B. Suriadi, P. F. Thomson, in: T. Chandra, et al. (Eds.),
Proceedings Australia-Pacific Forum on Intelligent Processing
an Manufacturing of Materials, Queensland, Australia,
1997, 920-926.
21 U. Chakkingal, A. B. Suriadi, P.F. Thomson. Scripta Mater.
39 (1998) 677-684.
22 U. Chakkingal, A. B. Suriadi, P.F. Thomson, Mater. Sci.
Eng. A 266 (1999) 241-249.
23 A. A. Zisman, V. V. Rybin, S. Van Boxel, M. Seefeldt, B.
Verlinden. Materials Science and Engineering A 427 (2006)
123-129.
Note: The responsible translator for English Language is professor from
Baikov Institute of Metallurgy and Materials Science.
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 343-347 347

D. MALIND@ÁK, M. STRAKA, P. HELO, J. TAKALA
THE METHODOLOGY FOR
THE LOGISTICS SYSTEM SIMULATION MODEL DESIGN
INTRODUCTION
The content of this paper is focused oriented on data
obtaining for the modelling and simulation of the production,
transport and stores processes in the metallurgy,
which represents system approach of LS starting
from the raw material resources through mining and
metallurgy processes to the customers (automobile
companies, cold roll mill factories, civil engineering industry,
e.g.).
This large system can be considered as a LS, or logistics
nets. For the research purposes this type of the system
can be analyzed applying simulation models. In
many cases the simulation (when parameter systems are
stochastic) is only one possible solution.
The goal of this paper is to describing the methodology
of the simulation model design and optimization of
parameters LS applying simulation models. LS consists
from elements which have very complicated structure.
In the LS model this complicated units are represented
as one element with its inputs and outputs. For informa-
Received – Prispjelo: 2009-05-21
Accepted – Prihva}eno: 2009-09-27
Review Paper – Pregledni rad
The present paper describes the methodology of the simulation model design applied in the analysis and parameter
optimization of the large scale logistics system (LS) in metallurgy. The first part of the papers describes
the method and steps of the simulation model design. The second part describes the analysis of the really complicated
logistics system. Differences in large scale simulation model design are mainly in the obtaining of the
data for individual elements model. Each element inside of LS has very complicated structure of the operations
(blast furnaces, raw material stores, transport between mine and metallurgy). For the data obtaining have to
perform detail analysis and research this individual elements.
Key words: simulation model, LS design, LS optimization, large metallurgy LS, simulation methodology
Metodologije za dizajniranje simulacijskog modela logisti~kih sustava. ^lanak opisuje metodologiju
za dizajniranje simulacijskog modela primijenjenog kod analiza i optimizacije parametara u logisti~kom sustavu
(LS) velikih razmjera u metalurgiji. Prvi dio rada opisuje metode i korake kod dizajniranja simulacijskog modela.
Drugi dio opisuje analize kompliciranih logisti~kih sustava. Razlike kod dizajniranja razli~itih simulacijskih
modela su uglavnom na prikupljanju podataka za pojedine elemente modela. Svaki element unutar logisti~kog
sustava ima vrlo kompliciranu strukturu operacija (visoke pe}i, skladi{ta sirovine, prijevoz izme|u rudnika i metalur{kih
sustava). Za prikupljanje podataka potrebno je izvr{iti detaljne analize i istra`ivanje pojedina~nih elemenata.
Klju~ne rije~i: simulacijski model, projektiranje LS, optimizacija LS, LS velikih metalur{kih sustava, simulacijska metodologija
D. Malind`ák, M. Straka, BERG Faculty, Technical University of
Ko{ice, Ko{ice, Slovakia
P. Helo, J. Takala, Department of Engineering Science and Industrial
Management, University of Vaasa, Vaasa, Finland
ISSN 0543-5846
METABK 49(4) 348-352 (2010)
UDC – UDK 669.005.71:519.876.5:005.51=111
tion obtaining about each elements is necessary their
depth analyses.
“This large system – originating its material flow
from raw materials and moving towards end – customers
we can understand as a logistics system or supply
demand network” 1.
To obtain the data for the simulation model design
and experimentation, it was necessary to analyze all processes
in the chain as well as all divisions participating
in the LS. The present research study describes case
studies and models to analyze processes of mining, materials
processing, metallurgical, transport, warehousing,
maintenance, e.g. The result of case studies are data
for the simulation model design, and input data file for
the simulation model experimentation 2.
THE METHODOLOGY FOR LARGE LS
SIMULATION MODEL DESIGN
The system can be analyzed and explored 3:
a) on a real object
b) on a physical model
c) on a mathematical model
d) on a simulation model.
348 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 348-352

D. MALIND@ÁK et al.: THE METHODOLOGY FOR THE LOGISTICS SYSTEM SIMULATION MODEL DESIGN
The simulation is analysis and synthesis method,
where the designed LS is replaced by its simulation
model. On this simulation model are carried out experiments
with the aim to achieve parameters that are later
applied back on the examined and designed LS 4-5.
The simulation of a large LS is one of the latest and
most expensive alternatives for the LS optimization.
From the point of complexity, stochastic characters of
operations the simulation is unique approach for the LS
synthesis. “Specific problem areas in steel production
planning and scheduling include inventory management,
slab, plate and cast design and melting shop, hot
strip mill and finishing-line scheduling. Optimizing of
each problem area independently can result in savings
for a steel manufacturer. However, even greater gains
can be achieved by simultaneously optimizing all of
these interrelated areas.” 6.
Simulation models are functional models which simulate
the functions, activities and processes of the real
LS. In our case we are not modelling the real factory
parts but its functions and processes, e.g. ore exploitation,
storing, transport from underground, transportation
of raw materials etc. The creation of a simulation model
requires a specific analysis described during the simulation
model creation 7.
In our case a large LS consists of discrete (transport
of slabs, manipulation with coils, slabs) and continuous
processes (iron and steel production, continue casting)
2. For these types of the LS it is better to apply simulation
systems which are able to model discrete and continuous
processes, e.g. EXTEND.
STEPS OF SIMULATION MODEL
SYNTHESIS
1. The problem definition is e.g. wrong function fulfilment;
low performance of a shipping system, long
waiting time at the crossings, violation of delivery
dates, and overload of intermediate operation stores,
etc. The problem definition is e.g. to find the optimal
length of the green light at the crossing, the right
place of allocation and the layout of the manufacturing
system, the design of the optimal capacity of
intermediate operation buffers, etc.
2. If the object (a company, crossing, conveyance system)
exists, we have to define the system on this object,
which we would like to optimize e.g.: a topology,
element parameters, transmittance, and capacity
utilization and to define the variables: time, position,
and capacity. If a real system doesn’t exist, we
have to conclude it from its project and design. The
meaning of the simulation model assumes the existence
of projected system in a real or project form
4.
3. The definition of variables for the simulated model
and capture of data, which described particular LS
(operational time, transport time, waiting time,
transmittance, capacity, etc). Provision of data for
simulation model appears from results of analyses
of each works in metallurgy factory.
4. The transformation of the defined LS into a bulk service
system respectively or other formalized models
which are in the form useful for modelling by a particular
simulation tool (a simulation language or
system).
5. The selection of a simulation tool – a system for the
model creation. It can be – the universal language,
e.g. Pascal, C++, however a creation of the simulation
model is more complicated, or it could be one of
block-oriented simulation languages e.g. GPSS,
SIMAN, or one of iconic languages SIM-
FACTORY, EXTEND, which are necessary for the
model creation. In these special simulation languages
the model creation is significantly easier.
There is the only disadvantage of the simulation
model synthesis, the designer must be skilled in at
least in one of the simulation languages or some
other tools.
6. The creation of the general simulation model – is a
concept of the simulation model and it defines
which element of a real system will be modelled by
which elements or tool of the simulation language,
e.g. arrival of cars to the crossing will be modelled
by generating random numbers in GPSS represented
by the GENERATE block, in SIMANE by
the CREATE block; the machine operation will be
modelled in GPSS by orders:
SEIZE A
ADVANCE T1, T2
RELEASE A
(A-name of machine, T1-processing time, T2-processing
time dispersion).
Such modelling will be carried out by different
blocks in SIMFACTORY, and different blocks in
SIMAN, EXTEND, etc. Steps 5 and 6 are the most
creative. They are the core of the synthesis and require
concise and creative way of thinking, knowledge
of the object programming philosophy.
7. The creation of models of the elementary processes
and the definition of parameters, functions and
blocks:
The parts of the model consist from elementary
components – inputs, queue, machines, buffers, dividing,
gathering, quality control, etc. Other parts of
the model are:
– the generation of random numbers (modelling of
inputs, orders),
– the process synchronization,
– the time control in a simulation model (TIMER),
– the gathering of the simulation results,
– the output definitions – variables and their charts.
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8. Transcribing of the model to simulation model using
the language command – the creation of a simulation
model (according to language type).
9. The verification of a simulation model:
a) From a logistic point of view – if processes in the
real system are performed in the same way as in
the model, if model truly reproduces the behaviour
and functions of the real system,
b) From the formal point of view – if the syntax of
the used language is ensured.
While the logistical correctness must be controlled
by particular controlling steps (e.g. model flows
control, their directions and capacity), the formal
point of view is controlled by a selected language
compiler – simulation system.
10. The simulation time is the time that passes during
model experiments. The essential question is how
long it is required to simulate a real system so that
results (executed statistically) can be approved as
valid for a designed LS. Due to the complexity of LS
relations, very often there is no possibility to define
a simulation time. But the more precise results we
want to achieve, the longer simulation time is required.
There is one simple rule: the simulation is
performed tillxi xi n p.
This means, that the difference of variable xi values
during i experiments and i+nexperiments is less
than or equal to the defined precision – p. If the required
precision is achieved during experiments, the
simulation can be finalized.
11. The evaluation and result calculation. From the results
which offer the standard of simulation systems
we can calculate some cumulative variables, e.g. total
cost, calculation of multicriterial optimization.
12. Experiment iteration with another variant. One of
the big advantages the synthesis by the simulation
model is a possibility to simulate many variants.
13. Variant evaluation and selection of optimal solution.
By some multicriterial evaluation of variants the
optimal solution of the system is calculated. Simulation
model makes possible to change input parameters
as variation of parallel working equipments, variation
of processing time. Variations of results are
subject of multicriterial classifications. Target is to
select optimal solution at clearly defined data.
14. Application of a solution to a real system.
THE TRANSFORMATION OF
THE REAL LOGISTICS
SYSTEM TO FORMALIZED MODEL
For the simulation model design of the LS we have to
transform the real manufacturing, transport and storing
processes to a formalized model as described above in
the steps sequence of the simulation model synthesis 2.
This paper presents the case study (from the Slovak
industry) and a formalized model of the LS from the
Mine Siderit Ni`ná Slaná, s.r.o. (Figures 1, 2) processing
division Ni`ná Slaná production of Fe pellets
Ni`ná Slaná transport to metallurgical company reloading
of raw materials and storing inputs, material
stores Fe production in three blast furnaces Fe
transport to steel works continue casting works of the
slabs repairing hall and storing in the cold store
modelling of charging into the push furnaces rolling
on the wide hot rolling mill and creation the tin coins
cutting workshop. Outputs of these processes are
branches to three directions:
– customers,
– cutting division customers,
– cold roll mill division.
Within the frame of the Mine Siderit Ni`ná Slaná research
we concentrated on the balance model design of
the production process and on the multicriterial optimization
of applying reengineering methods.
For the purpose of production process analysis has to
be created the next models within the frame of a metallurgical
company it was mainly:
– the raw material discharging model,
– the layout of raw material optimization in the input
raw materials stores,
– the blast furnaces charging model,
– the planning and scheduling models for individual
aggregates,
– the models for indirect measurements,
– the products sequence optimization models for individual
aggregates,
– the capacity models for the definition of the bottle
neck of the metallurgical process.
Figure 1 and 2 displays a chart diagram of the formalized
model LS in mine and metallurgy manufacturing
processes described above.
The results of the analysis and case studies are data
files for the design of a simulation model and experimental
data for the simulation model of the LS.
Results of the analysis are the summary and aggregate
data described in the chart diagram of the logistics
system on Figure 1 and 2. The logistics system is described
on the principle input output for each elements
of the complex modelled chain from raw material
resources though individual technological, manufacturing,
transport and storing processes to consumers.
The paper describes the result of research PROJECT
NO RFSR - ST -2005 - 00046 SIMUSTEEL which is realized
by the research team from the Logistics institute
of production and transport of the F BERG TU Ko{ice
and the research team from the Production Department
of the Faculty of Technology at University of Vaasa.
Data which contain formalized model are obtained from
case studies 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12.
350 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 348-352

CONCLUSION
D. MALIND@ÁK et al.: THE METHODOLOGY FOR THE LOGISTICS SYSTEM SIMULATION MODEL DESIGN
Figure 1 Formalized model LS, input parameters for simulation
model of LS, part 1 2
The present paper describes the methodology of the
creation of the simulation model which is in many cases
only one way of analysing and designing the large scale
LS. This methodology has been applied under the condition
of the mining and metallurgy manufacturing 2,
13, 15-24. The paper describes a formalized model
and data which are necessary for the simulation model
design and to perform the experiments with this model.
Described methodology was applied in many factories
for example VS@ – USS Ko{ice, the Mine Ni`ná
Figure 2 Formalized model LS, input parameters for simulation
model of LS, part 2 2
Slaná, the Mine Lubeník, Steelworks Podbrezová, the
Mine Nováky, the Mine Ve¾ký Krtí{.
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Planning and Control in Steel Supply Chain, Vaasan
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METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 348-352 351

D. MALIND@ÁK et al.: THE METHODOLOGY FOR THE LOGISTICS SYSTEM SIMULATION MODEL DESIGN
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and simulation, Academic Press, USA, 2000, 510.
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alfa-omega matice. In: Strojárstvo, 2007, 83-85.
5 P. Vegenerová, M. Botek, Vyu`ití simula~ních programù pøi
øízení výroby, konference Teoretické aspekty prierezových
ekonomík II, Slovensko, 2004, 65.
6 A. Mian, M. Pieskä, Y.Kristanto, Overview on steel supply
chain, Vaasan Yliopiston Julkaisuja, 2008, 6-15.
7 V. Cibulka, Aktívne mana`ovanie zefektívòovania logistických
systémov, Slovenská Technická Univerzita v Bratislave,
2008, 152.
8 J. Takala, D. Malind`ák, M. Straka a kol., Manufacturing
Strategy – Applying the Logistics Models, Vaasan yliopisto,
Finland, 2007, 206.
9 M. Laciak, M. Truchlý, K. Kostúr, The models for indirect
measurement of the surface temperatures in the indirect measurement
system of massive charge, Proceedings of 8th
International Carpathian Control Conference, [trbské Pleso,
Slovak Republic, 2007, 397-400.
10 M. Botek, Stimulative Tools in Firm´s Management,
Mana`ment v teórii a praxi, Slovensko, 2005, 34-40.
11 P. Helo, S. Bulcsu, Logistics information systems, an analysis
of software solutions for supply chain co-ordination,
Industrial Management and Data Systems, EMERALD,
United Kingdom, 105 (1), 2005, 5-18.
12 A.Rosová, M.Balog, Logistický model analýzy nákladù,
LOMAN, Logistika v praxi, Praktická pøíru~ka mana`era
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Siderit Ni`ná Slaná, Závere~ná správa HZ 9/98, Slovensko,
2000, 35.
14 A. Kuffnerová, Rein`iniering ako nástroj podnikovej stratégie,
Management pro 21. století, Teorie a praxe v chemickém
a potravinárskem prùmyslu, ^eská republika, 2002,
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zavá`ania rudísk Oce¾, s.r.o., Slovensko, 1994, 45.
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in Ko{ice.
352 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 348-352

R. WIESZA£A, B. GAJDZIK
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN
A METALLURGICAL COMPANY’S SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
Metallurgical companies, driven by the need to meet
market demands and the quickly changing environment,
carry out actions that enable them to reduce their negative
environmental impact. The environmental management
systems increasingly become an integral part of a
company management. The systems introduced by metallurgical
companies are based not only on the
ISO14001 standard principles but also on EMAS regulations
as well as on the international Cleaner Production
programme. The environmental management system
is based on the assumption that environment management
is crucial for the improvement of both the environment
and the company’s profit. The implementation
of environmental management system ideas in metallurgical
companies requires a modification of manufacturing
processes management and auxiliary functions. The
achievement of environment-related goals consists in
the identification and elimination of negative environmental
impact or their systematic reduction. The environmental
management systems necessitate the application
of the best available technique (BAT). The tech-
Received – Prispjelo: 2009-01-30
Accepted – Prihva}eno: 2009-12-25
Review Paper – Pregledni rad
In the article metallurgy enterprises are being characterised, taking into account, in particular, the environmental
management systems as well as the effects of their introduction, on the example of Ferrum SA. In the first
part of the article the environmental management system and the applied production technologies in metallurgy
enterprises are characterised. In the second part the effects of environmental management systems introduction
are presented, based on the published environment reports of the enterprise in the years 1990-2007.
In the last part the attention was turned to the future aspects connected with the development of environmental
management systems. The issue was summarised in the end.
Key words: cleaner production strategy, environmental management system, metallurgical company
Djelotvornost upravljanja okoli{em kod odr`ivog razvoja metalur{ke tvrtke. U ~lanku se navode
zna~ajke metalur{kog poduze}a, posebice uzimaju}i u obzir, sustave upravljanjem okoli{em, kao i posljedice
uvo|enja sustava za{tite okoli{a, na primjeru poduze}a Ferrum SA. U prvom dijelu ~lanka navode se zna~ajke
sustava za{tite okoli{a i primijenjene tehnologije proizvodnje u metalur{kom poduze}u. U drugom dijelu ~lanka
su prikazani u~inci uvo|enja sustava upravljanja okoli{em, a temeljem objavljenih izvje{}a o utjecaju na okoli{
poduze}a u razdoblju 1990-2007. U posljednjem dijelu pozornost je okrenuta prema aspektima u budu}nosti
vezane uz razvoj sustava upravljanjem okoli{em. Na kraju je dan zaklju~ak provedene analize.
Klju~ne rije~i: strategije ~iste proizvodnje, sustav upravljanja okoli{em, metalur{ka tvrtka
R. Wiesza³a, The Silesian University of Technology, Faculty of Transport,
Poland
B. Gajdzik, The Silesian University of Technology, Faculty of Materials
Science and Metallurgy Poland
ISSN 0543-5846
METABK 49(4) 353-356 (2010)
UDC – UDK 65.012.2:669.013.5.004.8/65.01:669.013.5.009.04.502.5=111
nique makes it possible to use the environment in a rational
manner and leads to cleaner production 1. The
EMAS system, ISO 14001 standard and the international
Cleaner Production programme are all different
means of applying the corporate sustainable development
concept. In general, sustainable development ensures
a balance between a company’s economical and
environmental and social targets. The concept is realized
through a number of strategic and operational activities
such as the Cleaner Production strategy, rational resources
and space management, waste reduction procedures,
product eco design and the economical and environmental
effectiveness assessment procedures. The
sustainable development concept is about the creation of
conditions for a gradual elimination of processes and actions
that are harmful to the environment and people’s
health and promoting environment friendly management
methods 1, 2.
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN THE
MANUFACTURER OF WELDED STEEL PIPES
Ferrum SA was a pioneer in the Polish steel sector in
terms of the Cleaner Production (CP) strategy implementation.
At the beginning of 1990s, in order to meet
the free market demands, the company implemented an
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 353-356 353

R. WIESZA£A et al.: THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN A METALLURGICAL COMPANY’S...
industrial production management strategy based on
economic principles and respect for environmental resources.
By adopting the CP concept the company
emphasises the need to reduce pollution “at the source”
i.e. at the time and place of its generation. It does not exclude
treatment (purification) but it is treated as a last resort,
a solution that must be applied to waste that cannot
be eliminated 3.
The CP strategy covers both the product manufacturing
process and the services rendered throughout the
whole life cycle of a product i.e. from the moment the
need for a product appears until the product’s recycling
after the end of its working life (LCA). The integrated
approach principle, which is the basis of sustainable development,
means that the company needs to search for
such solutions that would prevent the occurrence of any
significant impact or threat to the environment and
would lead to their reduction. The integrated approach
required equal treatment of all three elements necessary
for the performance of manufacturing processes: land
(resources and waste), water (use and waste water) and
air (demand for oxygen and the emission of gases).
The company signed the Cleaner Production declaration
in 1992. In 1993 it joined a CP school. Three
years later i.e. in 1996 Ferrum received the CP certificate.
Since the beginning of 1990s Ferrum SA has been
working towards the reduction of discharges to the environment
and the achievement of environmental effectiveness.
Already in 1990 the company started investments
related to the application of methane from the
Staszic Coal Mine in its boiler rooms. The investment
led to the reduction of coal consumption by 50 %. In
1993 4 Mm 3 of methane were used. In the years that followed
the amount of methane used was on the increase
reaching 7,8 Mm 3 . The subsequent investments and
modernization resulted in the reduction of waste, reduction
of electricity, heat and water consumption in the
technological processes. As a consequence of those investments
and technology-related changes the company
succeeded in creating products that meet international
standards and are manufactured with the use of energy
efficient technologies and eliminate pollution at the
source. A consistent transformation of the company’s
management, based on the best available technique enabled
it to receive the Cleaner Production Prize in 1996.
In 2000 an environmental management system, in compliance
with ISO 14001, was implemented by the company
and certified by an independent institution. The basic
principles of the environmental policy applied by the
company are based on the application of the best available
techniques in company development plans and reduction
of its negative impact on the environment in
terms of the air, waste management and resources and
space management 3.
In order to limit its negative impact on the environment
the company carried out modernization invest-
ments that included, among others, the technological
process of spirally welded steel pipes (1995), the thermal
cutting process in the production of welded structures
(1996), rail transportation on the site (1996), a line
for internal cement lining of pipes (1998), heat production
process (a concept from 1998), a line for high frequency
induction welded steel pipes (1999). Moreover,
the company’s energy balance was improved through
the installation of new, energy efficient compressors 3,
4.
TECHNOLOGICAL
INVESTMENTS IN FERRUM SA
Ferrum SA’s key investments included: the modernization
of the thermal cutting process in the welded structures
production and the investment of the high frequency
induction welded steel pipes line. The investment no 1
was realized as in Welding Department, now (2002) it is a
separated firm but in ZKS Ferrum SA. While carrying out
the former, an important stage of the programme was the
alteration of the half-finished product preparation work
station in the welding department. The manual operations
of laying, laying out and making structure elements were
replaced by micro-computer controlled automatic devices.
The welding shop is used to produce a wide assortment
of welded structures, pressure vessels, containers
for liquid fuels including environment-friendly containers
with a double-layer wall. The basic raw material for
the production of the particular products is carbon sheets
and low-alloyed sheets out of which the following are
cut: rollers, rings, flanges, brackets, core grids and others.
Manual production of the said elements led to the generation
of unnecessary waste in the amount of approx. 15 %
of the starting material. Moreover, manual laying out and
centre-punching was a source of noise that exceeded the
acceptable limits for a work station. It also needs to be
noted that the resulting products were of a relatively low
quality: the cuts on the surfaces were inaccurate and
therefore mechanical processing with the use of manual
grinders was applied. The development and modernization
and the thermal cutting technology resulted in a full
automation of the process. In every process, computer-controlled
devices were put to use to perform sheet
cutting by gas or plasma. They were capable of precise
and optimal cutting of the required elements of any shape
or in any number 5.
The subsequent technological investment concerned
the upgrading of the high frequency induction welded
steel pipes line. After investment Ferrum could manufacture
small diameter pipes. Besides after the investment
was complete the technology was replaced by high
frequency induction welding. The assortment of products
on offer was modified and the pipe expander, which
was the source of toxicity category 2 waste i.e. scale,
was removed 6.
354 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 353-356

R. WIESZA£A et al.: THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN A METALLURGICAL COMPANY’S...
Table 1 Environmental and economical effects of the CP system implementation in Ferrum SA 4
Detailed data Unit
1990 (to)
YEAR
1993 (t3) 1996 (t6)
Environ-mental
effect (to- t6)
Solid waste Mg /year 15 000 1260 1000 14000
Liquid waste and waste water m 3 /year 400 000 208 000 170 000 230 000
Water consumption m 3 /year 528 000 275 000 220 000 308 000
Gas and dust waste emission Mg / year 650+70 255+15,4 90+12 560+58
Electricity consumption GJ / year 73 663 66 916 68 400 5263,2
Thermal energy consumption GJ / year 233 900 229 000 250 000 16 100 *
Economical effects EUR /year - - 143 000 143 000
Legend: decrease , increase ; *- lack of environmental effect
EFFECTS OF THE CP
PROGRAMME IN FERRUM SA
For the purpose of this analysis, statistical data for
the years 1990-1996 were compared. The year 1990 was
the base (to) – the situation at the company prior to the
CP strategy implementation. Data regarding the company’s
discharges to the environment in 1990 were compared
with data from 1993 (the company joins the CP
school) and 1996 (the company is awarded the CP certificate).
The environmental effects are shown in Table 1.
The data presented in the table shows that the CP implementation
already in the first years after its commencement,
brought about environmental effects in a
significant reduction of the amount of generated waste,
waste water and air pollution. The company managed its
water and energy resources in a reasonable manner. As a
result, the CP strategy implementation contributes to
economical savings in the amount of EUR 143 thousand.
In the years that followed the amount significantly
increased. In 1997 it reached EUR 0,28 mln whereas in
1998 it increased five-fold to EUR 1,47 mln 4.
EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT IN COMPLIANCE
WITH ISO 14001 IN FERRUM SA
In November 2000 Ferrum was awarded the ISO
14001 certificate for the environmental management
Table 2 Environmental effects of environmental management in Ferrum SA 4
Detailed data Unit
system’s compliance with the standard. For the purpose
of this analysis the year 2000 was the base (to). As part of
the system several environmental programmes were
carried out. Environment-related expenses reached a
few million € Euro (in 1999 EUR 6.43 mln was spent,
in 2000 – EUR 54 thousand). Table 2 shows environmental
effects of environmental management in Ferrum
SA. 4, 7.
The implementation of environmental system and
investments has contributed to a reasonable waste management,
over 98% of generated waste is now recycled
and re-used. The water and waste water management
has improved significantly. In 2007 as compared with
2000 data, effectiveness reached 43% because the water
consumption for production purposes and the amount of
waste water was reduced. Data analysis also shows a decrease
in air pollution emissions. In 2007 electricity and
thermal energy consumption for production and service
purposes was also reduced. Moreover, in 2007 the company
generated 3 624 GJ of thermal energy for sale to
other consumers on the market 5, 8. For the purpose of
this analysis the rate of generated waste and waste water
as well as water and energy consumption rate per 1
Mg/products was calculated (Table 3). The calculations
indicate that both generated pollution and resources
consumption per 1 Mg of products systematically decreases.
It is evidence of the effectiveness of the company’s
operations towards environment protection and
sustainable development.
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 353-356 355
YEAR
2000 (to) 2005 (t5) 2007 (t7)
Environmental effect (to- t7)
Solid waste including recycled waste
Mg /year
Mg /year
8 300
6 900
3 756
3 676
4 897
4 816
3 403
share in total waste t7 =98,35%
Liquid waste and waste water m 3 /year 70 000 50 000 40 000 30 000
Water consumption m 3 /year 73 000 53 000 45 000 28 000
Gas and dust emissions (excluding CO2) Mg /year 32,1+4,4 31,05 +6,4 22,4 +3,2 9,7+1,2
Electricity consumption GJ/year 48 121 36 385 47 206 915
Thermal energy consumption GJ /year 118 791 70 400 65 340 53 451
Legend: decrease , increase ;

R. WIESZA£A et al.: THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN A METALLURGICAL COMPANY’S...
Table 3 Pollution emission and waste rate per
1Mg/products in Ferrum SA 5
YEAR
Detailed data Unit
2000 2005 2007
Production output Mg 68 544 78 552 76 400
Solid waste Mg / year 0,12 0,047 0,064
Waste water m 3 / year 1,021 0,636 0,523
Water m 3 / year 1,065 0,674 0,589
Electricity GJ / year 0,702 0,461 0,616
Thermal energy GJ / year 1,733 0,896 0,855
PROBLEMS WITH TRANSPORT
ASPECTS IN METALLURGY ENTERPRISES
A well functioning environment management system
should be constantly developed. One of the main elements
leading towards the development is a new identification
of the environmental aspects 9. The identification
of the environmental aspects connected exclusively
with the production process is not enough. In case of
metallurgical enterprises the problem of the pollution is
becoming more and more visible, these are the fumes,
dusts or noise connected with inner transport (movement
of the materials and migration of people connected
with organisation of production) as well as outer transport
(for example, delivery of the materials necessary
for functioning of the enterprise). Due to that fact new
environmental aspects occur, which will have to be included
in the environment management system in the
future.
CONCLUSION
The Cleaner Production (CP) strategy implemented
by Ferrum SA has contributed to the reduction of negative
environmental impact, reduction of air pollution
and waste products. The principles of reasonable natural
resources management were also developed. The company
in question operates in compliance with the sustainable
development concept which is corroborated by
the data presented above. The high environmental effects
are guaranteed by the Environmental Management
System (EMS) accordance to ISO 14001 and strategy of
CP.
The process of environmental management consists
in the search of possibilities of reducing the products’
negative environmental impact in all stages of its life
(design, production, use, after use processing). The rationalization
of metallurgical products is conducted
through, among others 8:
– reduction of energy consumed during manufacturing
processes by the introduction of new, less energy-consuming
manufacturing technologies,
– reduction of the amount of raw materials used by
the introduction of less material-consuming technologies,
– reduction of water consumption in manufacturing
processes (closed water cycles),
– reduction of the amount of waste water generated,
– reduction of the amount of waste at every stage of
the product’s life cycle (waste management, reduction
of hazardous waste),
– reduction of air pollution,
– modernization of the heating system (savings of
heat, renewable energy sources),
– modernization of the transportation system,
– improvement of work organization.
REFERENCES
1 L.Wicke, H. Haais, F. Schafhauser, W. Schulz: Betriebliche
Umweltokonomie. Eine praxisorientientierte Einführung,
Verlag Vahlen, München 1992, s. 395.
2 International Programme CP Agency of Environmental
Protection - UNEP, International Declaration of Cleaner
Production, UNEP 1998.
3 Environmental policy – document of the enterprise Ferrum
SA, www.ferrum.pl
4 Environmental reports – document of Ferrum SA, Katowice,
1990-2007.
5 A. Niedbój, A. Mruga³a: The analyse of financial efficiency
the task: the modernization of the thermal cutting process in
the welded structures production, Ferrum SA, Katowice,
1995.
6 The analyse of environmental effects of the investment of
the high frequency induction welded steel pipes line,
Instytut Ekologii Terenów Uprzemys³owionych, Katowice,
1996.
7 B. Gajdzik: Economic waste, energy and water management
in steelworks plant, Gospodarka Materia³owa i Logistyka,
10(2008) 2-7 (PWE).
8 B. Gajdzik: Strategy of the sustainable development at the
metallurgical enterprise management, Hutnik-Wiadomosci
Hutnicze, 1(2008) 17.
9 R. Wieszala, B. Gajdzik: Some problems of identification of
environmental aspects in car service plant, Problemy Ekologii
1(73) 21-25.
Note: Translated at Niuans Translation Agency – Gliwice, Poland.
All information’s about the enterprise Ferrum SA was accepted by its
manager.
356 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 353-356

G. KOSEC, G. KOVA^I^, J. HODOLI^, B. KOSEC
CRACKING OF AN AIRCRAFT WHEEL
RIM MADE FROM AL-ALLOY 2014-T6
INTRODUCTION
Numerous cases of failures of different aircraft components
and parts with abundant data and in-depth analysis
of causes, development and manifestation of failures
can be found in the literature 1-4. The check-up of
the integrity of aircraft components is carried out by
trained and competent personnel. The regular inspection
of particular components is scheduled depending on the
number of flying hours, lifetime and priority as specified
by strict international regulations.
The inspection is carried out by the use of verified
testing methods. The most frequently used methods applied
are the non-destructive testing methods: penetrants,
replicas, ultrasound, magnetic powders, eddy
currents, and radiographic examination 5-7. If a failure
is detected, the corresponding part or component must
be repaired or replaced immediately. This paper deals
with a crack in the rim of an aircraft wheel made from
well known aluminium alloy 2014-T6 8-10 revealed
during routine inspection.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
Received – Prispjelo: 2009-11-06
Accepted – Prihva}eno: 2009-12-20
Professional Paper – Strukovni rad
Generally failures of different aircraft components and parts are revealed and examined by the use of non-destructive
examination methods. In further detailed explanation and interpretation of failures optical and scanning
electron microscopy are used. This paper deals with a problem of a crack on aircraft wheel rim made from
aluminium alloy 2014-T6.The crack was observed during regular control by the maintenance unit for non-destructive
examination of the Slovenian air carrier Adria Airways. The crack on the rim of an aircraft wheel investigated
was a typical fatigue crack. At same time a numerous pits were found which served as stress
concentrations on the rim surface.
Key words: Al-alloy, aircraft wheel, rim, cracks, fatigue
Pucanje naplatka avionskog kota~a izra|enog od Al-slitine 2014-T6. O{te}enja razli~itih dijelova i
komponenti aviona otkrivena su i ispitivana primjenom nedestruktivnih metoda ispitivanja. Za detaljna
obja{njavanja i interpretaciju o{te}enja kori{tene su metode opti~ke i pretra`ne elektronske mikroskopije. Ovaj
se ~lanak bavi problemom pukotine na naplatku avionskog kota~a izra|enog od aluminijeve slitine 2014-T6.
Pukotina je zapa`ena za vrijeme redovite kontrole od strane slovenskog zra~nog prijevoznika Adria Airways.
Ispitivanja su pokazala, da je zapa`ena pukotina na naplatku avionskog kota~a bila tipi~na umorna pukotina.
Tako|er je utvr|eno, da brojna o{te}enja u obliku rupica prona|ena na povr{ini naplatka djeluju kao koncentratori
naprezanja.
Klju~ne rije~i: aluminijeva legura, avionski kota~, naplatak, pukotine, umor
G. Kosec, Acroni d.o.o., Jesenice, Slovenia. J. Hodoli~, Faculty of Technical
Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia. G. Kova~i~, B.
Kosec, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of
Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
ISSN 0543-5846
METABK 49(4) 357-360 (2010)
UDC – UDK 669.14.018.298:669.18=111
The crack (Figure 1) was revealed in a regular check
up by the method of eddy currents. The crack was approximately
38 mm long and had propagated trough the
rim wall. Small pots over the entire rim/tire contact surface
were revealed. A small number of corrosion pits
were also observed by the naked eye. In the manufacture
of tires a strong textile fabric net is incorporated. In
worn-out tires the net is in direct contact with the rim
surface. Therefore, high pressures result in pits on the
rim surface.
The examination of the rim surface in the vicinity of
the crack was carried out with a portable optical micro-
a) b)
Figure 1 An investigated aircraft wheel with a crack (a),
and the detail of crack in the rim (b).
METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 357-360 357

G. KOSEC et al: CRACKING OF AN AIRCRAFT WHEEL RIM MADE FROM AL-ALLOY 2014-T6
Figure 2 A branched crack (replica; OM) magnification
100x.
Figure 3 A corrosion pit on the rim surface
(SEM); magnification 300x.
Figure 4 Parallel cracks (OM); magnification 100x.
scope (OM). In some places of a branched crack, corrosion
spots as seen in Figure 2 were also observed. A
number of cracks were found, some of them merged into
a bigger one. Small corrosion pits visible only by the microscope
were found all over the rim surface. The morphology
of corrosion pits was examined by scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) (Figure 3).
First of all the ends of cracks were examined. Parallel
cracks were also found in one of the metallographic
samples investigated, as seen in Figure 4.
Figure 5 Fracture surface (SEM) analyzed by EDS; magnification
55x.
Figure 6 Qualitative chemical analysis of rim fracture
surface (gray area in Figure 5) (EDS).
The material on the fracture surface of the sample
presented in Figure 5 was chemically analyzed by energy
dispersive spectrometry (EDS). The results obtained
in different spots were different. The dark area in
Figure 5 contains C, O, Cu, Al, Si, S, Ca, Mn and Fe, the
gray area: C, O, Cu, Al, Si, S, Pb, Sn and Ca as seen in
Figure 6, while the white area contains C, O, Fe, Cu, Al,
Si, S and Mn. Typical elements in the fracture surface
were sulphur and carbon originating most probably
from tires.
A sample of quadratic shape for Crackronix was cut
from the rim wall to measure parameters of Paris`s
equation (1) 11,12 as well as to calculate the propagation
rate (da/dN) of the fatigue crack. The propagation
rate can be calculated utilizing the equation (1):
where:
da
m
C( K) , (1)
dN
358 METALURGIJA 49 (2010) 4, 357-360

a = crack length (mm)
N = number of cycles (-)
m =3,345 (-), and
C=2,17·10 -8 (K in MPa m) 13.
The ratio between the lowest and the highest stress
applied in testing was constant and equal 0,1. A diagram
of fracture toughness (KIC) vs. the exponent m can be
used to estimate the fracture toughness at known value
of the exponent (KIC =52MPa m) 13. At given crack
length (a = 38 mm) the critical stress (l) resulting in immediate
fracture can be calculated 14,15 from the
equation:
K IC
l 149,
7 MPa. (2)
a
An investigated sample was broken to observe the
boundary between ductile and fatigue fracture (Figure
7). Only immediate i.e. ductile fracture is seen in Figure
8.
It was determined that the crack of the rim investigated
was a typical fatigue crack 16. The crack was
branched, and its size was lower than the critical which
could cause immediate failure. It was not possible to determine
the site of crack initiation. The presence of carbon
and sulphur in the crack represents strong evidence
that the crack was a fatigue crack. Carbon and sulphur
deposited on the surfaces of the crack and the surroundings.
Probably during landing and slowing down when
the temperature of wheel rim and tire was sharply increased,
resulting in partial dissociation of the tire.
Consequently, carbon and sulphur gradually accumulated
in and around the crack. Numerous pits on the
rim surface were clearly seen. They were caused by the
influence of mechanical factors, surroundings and increased
temperature. The fatigue crack investigated
most probably started from on these pits.
G. KOSEC et al: CRACKING OF AN AIRCRAFT WHEEL RIM MADE FROM AL-ALLOY 2014-T6
Figure 7 Boundary between ductile and fatigue
fracture (SEM); magnification 500x. Figure 8 Ductile facture of rim over surface
pits (SEM) magnification 5000x.
CONCLUSIONS
Failures of aircraft components and parts have
mostly been detected by the use of non-destructive
methods. The result obtained can be supplemented with
metallographic examination which supplies additional
information on the condition of material and the nature
and origin of failures.
During landing and take off rims of aircraft wheels
are subjected to high mechanical stresses and atmospheric
influences. The crack in the rim investigated
was a typical fatigue crack. It was ramified. Its size was
lower than the critical size which at a sufficient load
could cause immediate collapse.
Numerous pits were found on the rim surface, and
the crack propagated over them. Therefore, it can be
concluded that pits served as stress concentrators on the
rim surface until one of them finally initiated the fatigue
crack.
Acknowledgement
The authors want to thank Prof. Ladislav Kosec (University
of Ljubljana) and Mr. Bogdan @nidar (Adria Airways)
for technical informations, instructions at SEM
and NDT analysis, and discussions.
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