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462 Pedro Luiz Peloso and Valdemir Pereira de Sousa FiguRe 1. Nephilengys cruentata predating on a Todirostrum cinereum captured on its web. (A) The Flycatcher hanging from the spider’s web and (B) detail of the spider actually consuming the bird. the bird at 20:00 h when we ceased observation. The bird was hanging only from its feet and had fallen to the ground when we checked the web early on the next day. We do not know whether the Flycatcher got trapped while gathering material for nest building, while feeding on insects trapped in the web, or by just flying through it. Lima et al. (2005) reported no spider webs on six nests of T. cinereum examined in detail so this hypothesis is weakened. Although the foraging and food habits of the Common Tody‑flycatcher need further study, we know that it is an insectivore and can catch flying insects. This behavior can lead the bird to get trapped when investing against an insect already trapped in a web or it can also lead it to get trapped in an unnoted web nearby a flying prey. Many reports of bird entrapment on Argiope and Nephila webs do exist but no actual bird consumption is reported (see Baird et al. 1905, Bent 1964, McCook 1889, Skutch 1973, Teixeira et al. 1991, Sick 1997 for examples). Teixeira et al. (1991) reported an actual attack of a Nephila species on an entrapped Sporophila caerulescens, but the bird escaped from the web after the spider bitted him, so no consumption was possible there (Teixeira et al. 1991). Graham (1997) men‑ tioned that the prey usually consumed by Nephila (see Ryps‑ tra 1985 and Higgins 1987 for Nephila food habits) are much smaller than a relative small hummingbird, and stated that “it is unlikely that Nephila prey on birds”. We still cannot con‑ firm that Nephila prey on birds, but, based on our observation on Nephilengys (closely related to Nephila according Kuntner (2007), we do think it is possible that Nephila also consume larger animals trapped in its webs. Our observation adds an important example of vertebrate consumption by a web building spider and confirms that orb‑ web spiders (Nephilengys) might actually consume birds acci‑ dentally trapped on their webs. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Antonio D. Brescovit, from Instituto Butantan, for aid in the identification of the spider and for comments on the manuscript. An anonymous referee made helpful sug‑ gestions. Rachel Montesinos helped in the fieldwork. João H. Brito and Carolina Fritzen (IEMA) provided full support for our work at Parque Estadual Paulo César Vinha. PLP thank the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tec‑ nológico for an undergraduate fellowship (PIBIC/CNPq).
Predation on Todirostrum cinereum (Tyrannidae) by the orb‑web spider Nephilegys cruentata (Aranae, nephilidae) 463 REFERENCES Baird. S. F., T. M. Brewer, and R. Ridgeway (1905) A history of North American birds, v. II, Land birds. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company. Bent, A. C. (1964) Life histories of North American cuckoos, goatsuckers, hummingbirds and their allies. Part II. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. Berland, L. (1932) Les arachnids. Paris: Paul Lechevailer et Fils. Bruce, M. J., A. M. Heiling and M. E. Herberstein (2005) Spider signals: are web decorations visible to birds and bees? Biol. Lett. 1:299‑302. Gallon, R. C. (2000) The Natural History of tarantula spiders. London: The British Tarantula Society. Gertsch, W. E. (1949) American spiders. New York: D. van Nostrand. Glegg, W. E. (1947) Des dangers que represent pour les ois‑ caux les araingnée et leurs toiles. Alauda 10:55‑67. Graham, D. L. (1997) Spider webs and windows as potentially important sources of hummingbird mortality. J. Field Ornithol. 68:98‑101. Haverschmidt, F. (1970) Les mygales se nourrissent‑elles dóiscaux? Alauda 38:274‑277. Higgins, L. E. (1987) Time budget and prey of Nephila clavipes (Linnaeus) (Araneae, Araneidae) in southern Texas. J. Arachnol. 15:401‑417. Kuntner, M. (2007) A monograph of Nephilengys, the pan‑ tropical ‘hermit spiders’ (Araneae, Nephilidae, Nephili‑ nae). Syst. Entom. 32:95‑135. Lima, P. C., S. S. dos Santos, B. G. Pita and D. C. Santos (2005) Reprodução de Todirostrum cinereum em área de cerrado noeste da Bahia, Brasil. Atual. Ornit. 124:1‑33. Lopes, L. E. and M. Â. Marini. (2005) Biologia reprodutiva de Suiriri affinis e S. islerorum (Aves: Tyrannidae) no Cer‑ rado do Brasil central. Pap. Avuls. Zool. 45:127‑141. McCook, M. C. (1889) American spiders and their spinningwork, v. 1. Philadelphia: Allen, Lane and Scott. Petit, L. J. and D. R. Petit (1988) Continuous feeding from a spider´s web by a prothonotary warbler. J. Field. Ornithol. 59:278‑279. Pianka, E. R. and L. J. Vitt (2003) Lizards: windows to the evolution of diversity, 1 ed. Berkeley: Academic Press. Rypstra, A. L. (1985) Aggregations of Nephila clavipes (L.) (Araneae, Araneidae) in relation to prey availability. J. Arachnol. 13:71‑78. Shear, W. A. (1986) Spiders. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Sick, H. (1997) Ornitologia brasileira. Rio de Janeiro: Nova Fronteira. Skutch, A. E. (1973) The life of the hummingbird. 1 ed. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc. Stiles, F. G. (1992) Effects of a severe drought on the pop‑ ulation biology of a tropical hummingbird. Ecology 73:1375‑1390. Stiles, F. G. (1995) Behavioral, ecological and morphological correlates of foraging for arthropods by the humming‑ birds of tropical wet forest. Condor 97:853‑878. Teixeira, D. M., G. Luigi and I. M. Schloemp (1991) Aves brasileiras como presas de artrópodes. Ararajuba 2:69‑74. Toledo, L. F. (2005) Predation of juvenile and adults anurans by invertebrates: current knowledge and perspectives. Herpetol. Rev. 36:395‑400. Waide, R. B. and J. P. Hailman. (1977) Birds of five families feeding from spider webs. Wilson Bull. 89:345‑346.
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