92-pages-GUIDELINES-FOR-SECONDARY-SCHOOLS-All-Streams-and-Sections

Indirect LLS, which "do not directly involve the subject matter itself, but are essential to language learning
nonetheless." Each of these two broad types of LLS is further divided into LLS groups. Three main types of
direct LLS, for example, outlined: (i) Memory strategies "aid in entering information into long-term memory
and retrieving information when needed for communication"; (ii) Cognitive LLS "are used for forming and
revising internal mental models and receiving and producing messages in the target language"; and (iii)
Compensation LLS "are needed to overcome any gaps in knowledge of the language" (p. 71). Oxford (1990a,
1990b) also delineates three types of indirect LLS: (i) meta-cognitive strategies "help learners exercise
'executive control' through planning, arranging, focusing, and evaluating their own learning"; (ii) affective LLS
"enable learners to control feelings, motivations, and attitudes related to language learning". Finally, (iii) social
strategies "facilitate interaction with others, often in a discourse situation" (Oxford, 1990b, p. 71). A more
detailed overview of these six main types of LLS is found in Oxford (1990a, pp. 18-21), where they are further
divided into 19 strategy groups and 62 subsets. Meta-cognitive strategies; for instance, include “centering your
learning”, “arranging and planning your learning”, and “evaluating your learning”. The affective
strategies involve , on the other hand, “lowering your anxiety”, “encouraging yourself”, and “taking your
emotional temperature”, while social LLS include: asking questions, co-operating with others, and empathizing
with others (1990a, p. 21). These strategies will be at the heart of any explicit strategy training proceedure.
Practical tips for strategy training
Strategy training should not be a marginal task to use whenever it is necessary or when time allows for it.
Learner training can only be achievable if an effective and well-organized instruction is undertaken on a daily
basis. There has never been any doubt that the teacher plays an important role in that instruction. One way of
organizing strategy training for autonomy might revolve around the following practical steps:
• Evaluate the existing repertoire of strategies learners are aware and make use of. The teacher starts from
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the familiar zone to move to the new or unfamiliar later;
• Invite learners to perform a task or a series of tasks, and then highlight the benefits of using any of the
strategies specified (centering one’s learning, inferencing, rehearsing, encouraging oneself, etc);
• Build on a follow-up discussion to introduce an alternative strategy to use in a meaningful context and
with a realistic task. Provide reasons for its use, and indicate how learners might benefit from its use;
• Present one or a few alternatives at a time, because overwhelming learners with a lot of strategies might
be inhibiting and might run against the goal of teaching;
• Set goals and time-limit for the recognition and practice of these strategies, and consider individual
style differences;
• Model these strategies and guide learners throughout the various paths of learning; observation,
experimentation, and evaluation;
• Find ways of convincing learners to transfer the learnt strategies to other learning contexts, or other
subject-matters (e.g. French, Arabic, history and geography, etc);
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