Catalysis : an Integrated Approach to Homogeneous ...

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2 - CATALYTIC PROCESSES IN INDUSTRY 25 2.2.1 Catalytic Reforming The purpose of catalytic reforming is to boost the octane number by converting molecules with a low octane number into molecuIes with a high octane number (see Table 2.1). TABLE 2.1 Overview of octane number of different hydrocarbons Hydrocarbon Octane number Boiling point (K) n-pentane 2-methyl butane cyclopentane n-hexane 2-methyl pentane 2,2-&methylbutane 1 -hexene 2-hexene benzene c yclohexane n-octane 2-methylheptane 2,2,4trimethylpentane I-octene 2-octene 3-octene xylenes ethylbenzene 1,2-dimethylcyclohexane e thylcyclohexane methyl tert.-butyl-ether (MTBE) ethyl tert.-butyl-ether (ETBE) tert.-amyl methyl-ether (TAME) 62 90 85 26 73 93 63 81 >loo 77 0 13 100 35 56 68 >loo 98 79 41 118 118 115 309 301 322 342 333 323 337 341 353 354 399 391 372 395 398 396 - 410 403 403 328 345 359
26 2 - CATALYTIC PROCESSES IN INDUSTRY The capacity of catalytic reforming is very large. In the western world alone it amounts to over 1 million t/d. The major reactions occurring are: lsomerization c - C -C -C -C - C - C Aromatization 0-0 lsomerization and aromatization cG-O-O -C - 7 - C -C AH (298 K) = k-12 (KJhol) AH (298 K) = 206 (KJ/mol) AH (298 K) = 189.6 (KJlmol) Clearly, favourable reaction conditions are a high temperature and a low pressure. However, a low pressure is not possible because large carbon deposits are formed. Carbon deposition is lowered by increasing the hydrogen partial pressure. Typical practical conditions are 800 K and 30 bar. Under these conditions, catalyst activity is typically retained over a period of 3 to 6 months. Regeneration is performed by removing the carbon deposits by careful burning in diluted air. In practice catalytic reforming is usually carried out in fixed bed reactors (see Fig. 2.2). Because the reactions are endothermic, heat has to be introduced. A conven- tional scheme is based upon a series of three or four adiabatic fixed bed reactors with interstage heating. Part of the hydrogen produced is recycled to maintain high hydrogen partial pressures. The product mixture from the last reactor is cooled and separated into a gas phase and a liquid phase. The latter is purified by distillation. The catalyst is called ‘bifunctional’; both the carrier and the metallic particles dispersed over the carrier exhibit different catalytic functions. The carrier con- tains chlorine ions and, as a consequence, it has acid properties and exhibits isomerization and cyclization activities. The metal particles consist of alloys of, for example, Pt/Re which exhibit hydrogenation/dehydrogenation activity. 2.2.2 Catalytic Cracking The purpose of catalytic cracking is to increase the fraction of gasoline. Orig- inally cracking was performed thermally, but cracking in the presence of a catalyst predominates nowadays. Catalytic cracking is one of the largest applica- tions of catalysis: worldwide 500 million ton/y. Catalytic cracking was the first large-scale application of fluid beds. This explains the name ‘fluid catalytic cracking’ (FCC) which is still used, although the modern catalytic cracking reactor is an entrained flow reactor.
Page 2 and 3: Studies in Surface Science and Cata
Page 4 and 5: Studies in Surface Science and Cata
Page 6 and 7: Preface Catalysis is a fascinating
Page 8 and 9: industrial context of the features
Page 10 and 11: Contents Preface ..................
Page 12 and 13: 4.3.4 P-Elimination and Deinsertion
Page 14 and 15: 7.4.1 Scope .......................
Page 16 and 17: 12.3 Adsorption Isotherms .........
Page 18 and 19: List of contributors E.B.M. Doesbur
Page 20 and 21: Introductory section
Page 22 and 23: Chapter 1 History of catalysis 1.1
Page 24 and 25: 1 -HISTORY OF CATALYSIS 5 One of th
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Page 38 and 39: 1 - HISTORY OF CATALYSIS TABLE 1.2
Page 40 and 41: 1 -HISTORY OF CATALYSIS 21 1900 195
Page 42 and 43: Chapter 2 Catalytic processes in in
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Page 48 and 49: flue gaa t c t air Vacuum gas ol 2
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Fundamental catalysis
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Chapter 4 Bonding and elementary st
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Chapter 5 Heterogeneous catalysis 5
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5 -HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS 161 a. _
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5 -HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS 163 appr
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5 -HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS 165 In r
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5 - HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS 167 lit
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5 - HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS 169 An
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5 -HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS 171 A ma
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5 - HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS 173 2 L
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5 - HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS 175 (3)
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5 -HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS 183 Info
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5 -HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS 185 0 20
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5 - HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS 187 TAB
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5 -HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS 189 i)U
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5 -HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS 600 560
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5 -HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS 193 b H
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Chapter 6 Homogeneous catalysis wit
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6 -HOMOGENEOUS CATALYSIS WlTH TRANS
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6 - HOMOGENEOUS CATALYSIS WlTH TRAN
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6 -HOMOGENEOUS CATALYSIS WITH TRANS
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Applied catalysis
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Chapter 7 Catalytic reaction engine
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7 -CATALYTIC REACTION ENGINEERING 2
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Ca ta I ys t preparation
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Chapter 8 Preparation of catalyst s
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Chapter 9 Preparation of supported
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PREPARATION OF SUPPORTED CATALYSTS
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Chapter 10 Ca ta I yst characteriza
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Chapter 11 Temperature programmed r
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Chapter 12 The use of adsorption me
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12 -ADSORPTION METHODS 421 pairs of
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12 -ADSORPTION METHODS 425 son of t
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12 - ADSORPnON METHODS 427 equation
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12 - ADSOWON METHODS / Fig. 12.4. T
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12 - ADSOFSTION METHODS 431 - a i-
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12 -ADSORPTION METHODS 433 uptake o
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12 - ADSOlU'TION METHODS 435 gives
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Future trends
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Chapter 13 Future trends The large
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13 - FUTURE TRENDS 443 control of t
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13 -FUTURE TRENDS 445 the conversio
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Subject Index x-Acceptor Iigands, 2
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SUBJECT INDEX 449 - see also Extend
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SUBJECr INDEX 451 Ethane, 143 Ethen
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SUBJECT INDEX 453 Hydrogen peroxide
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SDJJTT INDEX 455 Octane number, 24,
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SUBJECT INDEX 457 RBS, 383 Reaction
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STUDIES IN SURFACE SCIENCE AND CATA
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Volume 35 Volume 36 Volume 37 Volum
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Volume 70 Volume 71 Volume 72 Volum
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