CHAPTER 1 1.0 Introduction - DSpace@UM - University of Malaya

1.0 Introduction 

CHAPTER 1 

Malaysia is a multi-ethnic and multi-lingual nation. In October 2007, Malaysia’s 

population was 27.3 million according to the department of statistics Malaysia. More 

than 22 million people live in Peninsular Malaysia; 5 million live in East Malaysia. 

The Malay’s and other indigenous group’s form (66 per cent) of the total population; 

ethnic Chinese (25 per cent) and ethnic Indians (7.5 per cent). The predominant 

religion in Malaysia is Sunni Islam. The other religions are Budhism, Hinduism and 

Christianity. 

The national and official language of Malaysia is Bahasa Melayu (Malay language) 

but English is the most important second language. 

Malaysia’s most prominent sociolinguists Asmah, gives the ethnic and nationalistic 

reasons for the selection of the national language. Asmah (1987:65): 

“To the Malays and the bumiputera people, that the choice 

fell on Malay was the most natural thing. It is the language of 

the soil. Of all bumiputeras or indigenous languages, Malay 

is the most advanced in terms of its function as language of 

administration, high culture, literary knowledge and 

religion.” 

Malaysia is a multi-ethnic nation; so many languages and dialects are spoken mixed 

with the English language. The ethnic Chinese speak various Chinese dialects such as 

Cantonese, Hakka, Teochew and Hainanese. The ethnic Indians speak Tamil, Telegu, 

Malayam, Punjabi, Hindi, Gujerati and Urdu. In Sabah and Sarawak, many 

indigenous languages are being spoken thus a considerably high percentage of 

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Malaysians are multilinguals if not bilinguals. This is because Malaysia has been a 

nation of immigrants from time immemorial. So, it is not suprising that code- 

switching is a common phenomenon in Malaysia. 

The former Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad announced that 

science and mathematics would be taught in English not only at tertiary levels but also 

at the first year of schooling. The science and mathematics subjects were taught in 

English in the year 2003 at primary level. The new programme covered all schools 

throughout Malaysia. The Malay language is used as a medium of instruction in 

national schools, whereas in the national-type schools a vernacular language is used 

as a medium of instruction. 

The Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia Dato’ Sri Najib Tun Razak has stressed on 

the importance of mastering English in the globalised world. 

“If not, we will be jaguh kampong, and not a hero in the 

international arena, he said in his speech at the closing of the 

Johor Umno Convention”. (Star 7 th November 2006) 

The Deputy Prime Minister also stated that, 

“Now we, provide some flexibility by using Bahasa Melayu 

and English in teaching Science and maths, so lessons are not 

entirely in English.” (Star 7 th November 2006) 

The researcher feels that code-switching is a universal phenomenon and we cannot go 

against the world trend. Poor English skills are better than no English skills, after all 

the students are learning a foreign language and not nuclear science or brain surgery. 

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Jacobson and Safiah (1987) stated that this gradual transition to Bahasa Melayu as the 

medium of instruction in schools has brought about a situation where Malay students 

are no longer as proficient in English as the earlier generation who received their 

education in English. To understand code-switching in a multilingual and complex 

society, it is pertinent that we understand the historical background of the educational 

system in Malaysia. 

1.1 Background Information of Research 

The researcher conducted the research among two bilingual educators teaching the 

science subject in a tution centre in Bandar Country Homes Rawang. Since it is a 

micro study, it is necessary to understand the background of the education system in 

Malaysia. 

1.1.1 History of Education in Malaysia. 

History has played an important role in shaping our educational system. It is more 

convenient to say that three different periods have influenced our educational system: 

i. Pre-British before (1824) 

ii. During the British rule 

iii. After Independence 

iv. Present educational system 

The Pre- British period starts before 1824. The Malaysian educational system has a 

humble beginning; education was generally informal and the main objective was to 

teach Quran reading, because the society emphasised good behaviour. Martial arts 

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were also taught for self-defence and for sports. The Malays depended mainly on 

farming, fishing and hunting for their livelihood. Therefore, the indigenous people 

had to learn these subjects in the schools. Handicrafts were also taught so that they 

could become good skilled craftsmen to build houses and boats. The inhabitants were 

seafarers, fishermen, hunters and subsistence farmers; they lived along the coast and 

river valleys and they received basic education for survival. Religion played an 

important part in the society so the ulamak (Islamic religious scholars) established 

pondok (hut) formal schools. They studied in Madrasah (religious schools) and stayed 

in huts around the schools. 

It is interesting to note that these schools still exist in certain states but they are better 

organised and well maintained. Malay language was a lingua franca in the Malay 

archipelago at that time, so the medium of instruction was Malay. The researcher feels 

that they received optimum education based on economic and social conditions of the 

society at that period. 

1.1.2 During The British Rule 

The British played an important role in introducing and propagating western system 

of education in Malaya. They are partly responsible for creating a diverse and 

complex system of education in a multi-ethnic community: Malay education, English 

education, Chinese Education and Tamil education. Different systems of education 

were introduced for various reasons and motives and not all were of intrinsic in 

nature. Perhaps it satisfied their divide and rule policy. 

Before the British intervention, the Malay parents sent their children to religious 

schools. Malay schools were assisted by the British East India Company; later these 

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schools were taken over by the British administration which provided financial aid to 

manage the schools. There were 788 aided schools in the Straits Settlements and the 

Federated Malay States. The main objective of education was to provide 3Rs and 

some vocational skills so that they could become either farmers or fishermen. 

Training of Malay teachers started in the year 1884 in Teluk Belanga, Singapore. To 

meet the demand for qualified Malay school teachers, Sultan Idris Training College 

was established in Tanjong Malim in the year 1922. In 1935, Melaka Malay Women’s 

Training College was setup up to train Malay women teachers. However, the British 

Administration did not take the initative to set up secondary Malay medium schools. 

The British government and the Christian missionaries introduced English education 

to Malaya. Curriculum and syllabus followed the grammar schools in Great Britian. 

Teachers came from England and they taught in the government and Christian 

missionary schools. 

The first English school is the Penang Free School established in 1816 and the first 

government English school was built in Kuala Lumpur in 1890. By 1938, there were 

56 government aided, 59 and 106 private English schools throughout Peninsular 

Malaya. English schools were established in the urban areas; (MCKK) Malay College 

in Kuala Kangsar was established in 1905 to train administrators for the Malayan civil 

service. There were few teacher training programmes during the British rule. The first 

normal teacher training programme was started in Kuala Lumpur in 1905 and Penang 

in 1907. Raffles College started a Diploma in Education programme in the year 1905. 

University Malaya was establishedn in Singapore in 1949. 

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The Christian missionaries played a very important role in spreading western system 

of secondary schools all over Malaya at that time. In all fairness, it must be stated that 

these missionary schools like the Convent, ACS (Anglo Chinese Schools), MHS 

(Methodist High School), Saint Michael, La, Salle and MGS (Methodist Girls School) 

still exist today all over Malaysia and these are reputable schools of world class 

standard. Nevertheless, it must be pointed out at this juncture that the British 

administration or the Christian missionaries did not provide universal English 

education for all. 

At the beginning of the 19 th century a large number of Chinese immigrants came to 

Malaya to work in tin mines. They brought Chinese system of education; curriculum 

and textbooks were China oriented. In the earlier period, the education was totally 

organised and managed by the Chinese community. In the 1920’s the British 

administration took control of the Chinese schools and also introduced laws to prevent 

alienation. The British government gave grants to some Chinese schools. By 1938 

there were 323 fully assisted Chinese schools 18 managed by Christian missionaries 

and 305 by private Chinese organisations. 

At present Chinese parents send their children to the Chinese schools, and few Malay 

and Indian parents too send their children to Chinese schools. The medium of 

instruction from primary to senior middle level three is Mandarin. Bahasa Malaysia 

and English are compulsory subjects. The exams are set by the Chinese Guild. Some 

foreign Universities accept Senior Middle Level Three Pass as an entry qualification. 

In summary, it may be said that Chinese education has become an integral part of our 

educational system. 

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In the 19 th century, a large number of Tamils came from south India as indentured 

labourers under the “Kangani” system to work in the estates. The management 

provided basic necessities such as the temple, nursery, toddy shop and Tamil schools 

to satisfy their basic needs. Curriculum and teaching were India oriented. These 

schools still exist but they are better organised; they have trained teachers, and the 

schools follow Malaysian education syllabus. The first Tamil school was started in 

1834 as a branch school attached to the Penang Free School. By 1930, there were 13 

government, 511 estate 233 missionary and 60 Tamil schools throughout Peninsular 

Malaya. 

In summary, it may be stated that the Tamil education has come long way from its 

humble beginning. Now candidates can offer Tamil language as a subject for the SPM 

or STPM examinations. Further more candidates can even pursue a degree in Tamil 

language up to Ph.D. level at the University of Malaya. It might not be out of place to 

state here that the first world Tamil language Conference was held in Malaya in 1967. 

The Japanese military occupied Malaya from 1941 to 1946. Their occupation sounded 

the death knell for all our hopes for the progress of the Malayan education system. 

They abolished Chinese and English medium schools and secondary school education 

was discontinued. However, the Japanese set up vernacular schools for Malays and 

Indians. The Japanese military administration established Nippon Go (Japanese 

language) to substitute Chinese and English schools. Moreover, the emphasis was 

given for the teaching of Nippon Go, Japanese folk songs and their way of life. They 

established technical schools and colleges to teach telecommunication, fishery and 

agriculture. Clubs and associations too conducted classes in various fields for adults. 

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To sum up, the researcher feels that the Japanese did not contribute anything to the 

progress of the education system in Malaya. No Japanese words were assimilated into 

the Malay language, perhaps it is because the people suffered alot during the Japanese 

occupation. Fortunately, the Japanese occupation caused only a temporary set back in 

our educational system. With determination and resolute we marched forward to 

create a world class educational system in Malaya. 

1.1.3 After Independence 

Educational revolution in Malaysia took place from 1950s to the1980s (a short period 

of four decades). Many educational reports and reviews were made and implemented. 

The first committee on Malay education was formed in 1950 under L.J. Barnes to 

improve the educational system for the Malays. The committee proposed to set up an 

inter-racial bilingual national school with either English or Malay as the medium of 

instruction. However, the report was not accepted by other communities. So, the 

Colonial Administration appointed a Chinese educational committee in 1951 under 

Dr. Fenn and Dr. Wu to prepare a report on Chinese schools in Malaya. The Fenn-Wu 

report recommended preserving and improving Chinese schools; but this suggestion 

was not accepted by the Malays. Therefore, central advisory committee of education 

was formed to reconcile recommendations proposed by Barnes and Fenn-Wu reports. 

The findings of the committee became the basis of education Ordinance, 1952. The 

main features were 

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(i) to promote a national school system by the gradual introduction of 

bilingualism in Malay vernacular schools and trilingualism in Chinese and 

Tamil vernacular schools through the introduction of national language 

classes. 

(ii) to maintain the existing English medium to national-type schools. 

(iii) to develop vocational secondary schools. 

The Federation of Malaya had its first elected government on 31 August 1957. To 

fulfill the election pledge on reviewing the education policy, a special committee 

under the chairmanship of Datuk Razak Hussein (first Education Minister) was set up 

to: 

(i) to examine the present education policy of Federated Malaya and to 

recommend any alterations or adaptations necessary to establish national 

education system. 

(ii) to examine the educational structure of the country including provisions for 

the educational Ordinance, 1952. The education committee 1956 commonly 

known as Razak report, made a total of 17 recommendations and the main 

objective was to establish a national system of education for all using the 

national language as the main medium of instruction. 

(iii) The principles and proposals of the report were duly enacted as the education 

Ordinance 1957 that laid the foundations for the National Education Policy. 

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After 1957, the schools syllabus was reviewed to make science as an important 

subject. Geography and history of Malaya also became important subjects. 

A review of the national education policy was carried out by a review committee led 

by Abdul Rahman Talib. The major recommendations were incorporated into the 

Education Act, 1961. The recommendations were accepted by the public. 

The most important aspect of the recommendations of the review committee led by 

Abdul Rahman Talib is universal free primary education and automatic promotion to 

Form Three. The researcher feels that these recommendations may be considered as 

gifts to the nation. 

1.1.4 Present Educational System 

In 1982 Primary School new Curiculum (KBSR) was introduced. The main emphasis 

was given to the acquisition of basic skills such as reading, writing and arithmetic. 

The aim of the KBSR is to enrich a child’s knowledge and inculcate in him positive 

values, attitudes and practices, with emphasis on social and moral development. 

(Narayanasamy 1995:1) 

The Ministry of Education conducts Ujian Pencapaian Sekolah Rendah (UPSR) – 

Primary School Assesment Test examinations at the end of the six years of primary 

education. The students are tested in the core subjects such as Malay and English 

languages and Mathematics. Pupils from the Chinese and Tamil medium schools sit 

for the Mandarian and Tamil papers respectively. The remove class is for pupils from 

the national-type primary schools. Pupils who do very well in the UPSR examinations 

can go straight to Form 1 class. These pupils are given an extra year to study before 

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joining Form 1 classes. The curriculum for remove classes ensures continuity with the 

KBSR and prepares pupils for the intergrated secondary school (Kurikulum 

Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah or KBSM). The remove class is considered as a 

foundation class and prepares the students to join the Form 1 class in the following 

year. The pupils study all the core subjects such as Bahasa Malaysia, English, 

mathematics and science. 

The cabinet committee recommended the secondary school curriculum should also be 

reviewed. The committee recommended that the lower secondary school curriculum 

from Form 1 to Form 3 should be an extension of the primary school curriculum. It 

further recommended the committee meet the dual objectives of preparing students 

for further studies and for the job market. The KBSM curriculum was introduced in 

Form 1 in 1988. The KBSM has been implemented in stages by year by year up to 

Form 5 in 1992. (Narayanasamy 1995:10-11) 

The main feature of this curriculum is integrated approach. The objective of the 

KBSM is to ensure a holistic, balanced and integrated development of an individual’s 

potential; intellectual, spiritual, emotional and physical aspect. This would create 

balanced and harmonious human beings with high moral standards. The KBSM 

maintains the national examinations at Form Three and Form Five levels. The lower 

certificate of education examination (Sijil Rendah Pelajaran) or SRP has been 

replaced by the Lower Secondary Evaluation (Penilaian Menengah Rendah) 

examination. 

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The cabinet committee recommended that the Malaysian Certificate of Education 

(Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia) or SPM to be continued. With SPM qualification, a 

candidate can enter higher institutes of learning for certificate, Dilpoma or Higher 

Diploma courses. They can apply for jobs in the private or public sector. The Form 6 

level involves two years of education in government or private institution; they sit for 

the STPM (Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia). With STPM qualification candidates can 

pursue professional courses at the local, public or private Universities. The STPM 

qualification is accepted by foreign Universities. 

The researcher feels that the Malaysian Educational system has made tremendous 

progress from its humble beginning. Malaysia has become the educational hub 

because we have world status colleges and Universities. Students come from all over 

the world to pursue professional courses. We can proudly compare our educational 

system to that of a developed nation. 

1.2 Statement of Problem 

Since 2003, science and mathematics have been taught in English but all along the 

medium of instruction from primary to secondary schools has been Malay. The 

teachers as well as students are facing problems because they are not proficient in the 

English language either in the speaking or writing skills. Therefore, teachers will be 

forced to code-switch to make the pupils understand the subject matter. 

The researcher is interested to investigate how code-switched utterances are going to 

affect the teaching and learning process especially in the rural areas. Besides that, the 

researcher will further investigate if code-switching is a sign of language interference, 

reasons and factors which cause code-switching. 

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1.3 The Significance of the study 

Code-switching is going to be a permanent feature of our educational system because 

the students come from different ethnic and linguistic background. The findings may 

help how code-switching can maintain discipline and promote cordial relationship 

with the educators. 

The findings will be informative, instructive and will help the educators, Parent 

Teachers Association (PTA) and District Education Officers (DEO) concerned. 

Information pertaining of actual function to code-switching during the period 

observed may be useful for education planning and Research Division and the teacher 

training colleges. 

The study will also find out to what extent code-switching is necessary in the 

Malaysian context. Besides that, the study will contribute more information about 

code-switching; the multilingual society will accept it as a communication strategy. 

Code-switching should be considered as an integral part of our education system. 

1.4 Specific Objectives 

The objective of the study is to examine to what extent code-switching from English 

to Malay helps in the teaching and learning process. The study will also find out how 

the pupils react to code-switching in the classroom, and the type of code-switching 

used in the classroom by bilingual educators. Based on linguistic and sociolinguistic 

point of view this study specifically aims: 

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1.4.1 to identify English-Malay code-switching and the borrowing of English words 

in Malay when teaching the science subject. 

1.4.2 to present a detailed analysis of code-switching among bilingual educators in 

the teaching of the science subject. 

1.4.3 to discover the reasons for code-switching by the bilingual educators. 

1.4.4 to compare the patterns of code-switching when the English and the Malay 

languages are employed as the matrix languages. 

1.4.5 to detect the frequency count of code switches between the word, phrase, clause 

and sentence levels. The aims are to examine any salient differences or similarities 

when these languages are used while teaching the science subject. 

1.5 The Limitation of the study 

The problem the researcher faced during the course of the study was primarily 

technical and time. Technical problems include difficulty of transcribing classroom 

interaction because of poor sound quality. Some parts of the recording were not clear 

causing difficulty in transcribing the data. It took the researcher a long time to record 

and transcribe the data. 

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The study was conducted in a private tuition centre for Form 1 and 2 classes. So the 

findings of this study may not reflect the teaching of science subject in government 

schools at large. On the contrary, the researcher observed the teachers are from 

government schools. They are trained teachers and have professional and academic 

qualifications with teaching experience. Teachers in urban schools have similar 

qualification and experience and the pupils too come from multi-etchnic and linguistic 

background. The researcher feels that the study carried in a tution centre may even 

reflect the teaching of science in government schools at large. The methodology used 

to teach science in a tution centre, in a rural National school, or in an urban National 

school is the same. The findings of this study may even reflect the teaching of science 

in government schools at large. 

1.6 Definition of the terms 

Linguists have different definitions for code-switching. They study code-switching 

from linguistic, sociolinguistic, pragmatic, psycholinguistic and grammatical 

perspectives. Code-switching is the use of two languages in a conversation. Code- 

switching takes place in a bilingual and in a multi-lingual society; code-switching 

takes place only at boundaries between both languages. 

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Asmah (1982), who did a study on verbal communication among Malaysians 

observes: 

“… bilinguals are on the increase. The role of Malay … as the 

National and official language, contributes to the presence of 

bilingualism among individuals in Malaysia. Coupled with 

this,the English language which …at the moment remains as 

thesecond most important language in Malaysia, has also 

broughtabout the rise of bilinguals of Malay-English, Cantonese- 

English, Tamil-English and so on”. (Asmah: 1992: 119) 

Code-switching is a common phenomena in Malaysia and it is accepted by the society 

and embedded in the culture. Code-switching also takes place from standard Malay to 

Malay dialects. 

Studies done by Valdes Fallis (1978) reveal that the term “codeswitching” is also 

known as “code alternation”. Code-switching refers to the alternation of two 

languages at the word, phrase, clause or sentence level. It involves introducing into 

the context of one language, stretches of speech that exhibit the other language 

phonological features. 

On the other hand, Gumperz says, 

“Codeswitching is the juxtaposition within the same speech 

exchange of passages of speech belonging to two different 

grammatical systems or subsystems”. (Gumperz 1982:59). 

Poplack has a dfferent definition for code-switching: 

“Code-switching refers to the alternate use of two codes in a 

fully grammatical way, in the same discourse, and even in the 

same sentence”. (Poplack 1988:238) 

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The researcher feels it is a bit difficult to accept Poplack’s definition for code- 

switching, because the code-switched utterances do not necessarily follow the 

grammatical rule of the guest language. The bilinguals code-switch impulsively; and 

they are not aware of what they are saying! 

Myers-Scotton and William Ury gives a simple definition for code-switching as: 

“… the use of two or more linguistic varieties in the same 

conversation or interaction. The varieties may be anything from 

genetically unrelated languages to two styles of the same 

language”. (Scotton & Ury 1977:5) 

However, after seventeen years of further research, Scotton gives a rather complex 

and lengthy definition for code-switching. Myers-Scotton (1993): 

“Codeswitching is selection by bilinguals or multilingual of 

form from an embedded language (or languages) in utterances 

of a matrix language during the same conversation. The matrix 

language is the main language in code-switching utterances in a 

number of ways, while the embedded language has the lesser 

role… The general argument is that code-switching is not 

qualitatively different from other naturally occurring language 

data. It differs only in being subject to the added constraints of 

the matrix language”. (Cited in Malarvizhi 2006:36) 

There are many definitions for code-switching. Code-switching can be studied from 

linguistic, sociolinguistic, pragmatics, psycholinguistic and grammatical perspectives. 

Code-switching is a dynamic phenomenon of language use and therefore, the 

definitions of code-switching have changed with time. 

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1.7 Stages of Code-Switching 

Code-switching takes place at word, phrase, clause and sentence levels. The 

researcher will attempt to give examples from his own data. The definitions are taken 

from Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (1991). 

1.7.1 Word Level 

A word is a sound or combination of sounds that expresses a meaning and forms an 

independent unit of the grammar or vocabulary of a language. 

Example: 

1.7.2 Clause Level 

U7 R : convection/ ok convection in bahasa what do we call? / 

U8 SS : perolakan/ 

(T1U7U8) 

A group of words that includes a subject and a verb, forming a sentence or part of a 

sentence. 

Example: 

U46 R : the word comes from/ radiate dalam bahasa di 

panggil apa?/ 

U47 SS : sinaran/ 

(T1U46U47) 

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1.7.3 Phrase Level 

A group of words without a verb especially one that forms part of a sentence. 

Example: 

U10 S : gunung berapi/ 

U11 R : yes volcanic eruptions lets try these questions on the 

importance of science/ mengapa sains itu sangat 

penting?/ 

(T3U10U11) 

A group of words that includes a subject and a verb, forming a sentence or part of a 

sentence. 

Example: 

1.7.4 Sentence Level 

U46 R : the word comes from/ radiate dalam bahasa di 

panggil apa?/ 

U47 SS : sinaran/ (T1U46U47) 

It is the largest unit of a grammar, usually containing a subject, a verb an object and 

expressing a statement, question or command. 

Example: 

U1 R : can anyone tell me what is science?/ 

U2 S : sains ilmu mengkaji/ (T3U1U2) 

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1.8 Conclusion 

The researcher briefly traced the history of education in Malaysia from Pre-British 

period to the present time. The researcher made an indepth study of the progress and 

development of Malay education, English education, Chinese education and Tamil 

education. All together, there were five reports that brought about changes to the 

syllabus, curriculum and pedagogy. These changes were inevitable because the world 

is undergoing knowledge explosion in various fields; science and technology, 

Information technology, medicine, engineering and space exploration. 

The syllabus and curriculum have been changed several times to provide holistic 

education - KBSR (Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Rendah) and KBSM (Kurikulum 

Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah). 

The researcher tries to find out why code-switching takes place in a classroom setting 

where science is taught in English. It further explains the reasons and justifications for 

this universal phenomenon of code-switching. 

This chapter discusses on the statement of problem, objective of research, the 

limitation of the study, the significance of research and the definition of terms. The 

researcher hopes that this chapter has provided an indepth view on the various 

functions of code-switching that takes place in Malaysian schools. 

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2.0 Introduction 


Literature Review 

It is interesting to note, there are three ways of spelling code-switching: code- 

switching codeswitching and code switching. This may be because, many scholars are 

involved in studying code-switching: linguists, pscycholinguists, sociolinguists, 

philosophers and even anthropologists. The researcher will spell it as code-switching. 

This chapter contains a review of previous studies of code-switching. The study of 

code-switching has prompted considerable interest among linguists and sociolinguists 

since the year 1972; they have made studies on linguistics from sociolinguistic and 

psycholinguistic point of view. Linguistics is concerned with the structure of 

languages used in code switched discourse. The sociolinguists study how socio- 

cultural factors affect language functions. Psycholinguists study how the subconscious 

mind influences code-switching; the mind acts impulsively and the conscious mind is 

not aware of it. 

Linguists have made numerous indepth studies on code-switching in Malaysia and the 

rest of the English speaking world: English-Tamil, English-Tagalog, English- 

Taiwanese and English-Spanish. The linguists provide important and interesting 

findings even if they differ in their views. However, the linguists still need to do 

further research to find out why code-switching takes place in formal and informal 

situations to formulate a universal theory. 

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In this chapter, the researcher attempts to study code-switching from the following 

perspectives: code-switching from linguistic perspectives, socio-linguistic, situational 

and metaphorical, functional, reasons and studies of code-switching in Asia. 

The researcher has cited articles and thesis written by the following researchers: 

Scotton (1988), Ozog (1996 b), Poplack (1978, 1980), Nartey (1982), McClure and 

McClure (1988), Kamwangamalu (1989), Noor Azlina Abdullah (1975), Gumperz 

(1986), Lim Soh Lan (2003), Robert R. Heredia and Jeffry M. Brown (1997), Vogt 

(1954), Scotton and Ceri (1975), Malarvizhi (2006), Bloom and Gumperz (1972), 

Heller (1988), Ong Kin Suan (1990), Rayfield (1970), Pascasiq (1978), Karen Kow 

Yip Cheng (2003), Richard Skiba (1997), Zuraidah Mohd. Don (2003), Jariah Mohd. 

Jan (2003), Maya Khelmani David (2003), Farid (1987), Gumperz (1958), Tan Peck 

Tung (1988), Mary Tay (1993), Chin Jit Ngo (1993), Anne Pakir Pakir (1989), Murni 

(1996) and Maya Khelmani David (1995). 

2.1 Linguistic Studies On Code- Switching 

According to Wikepedia’s definition, code-switching is a term in linguistics referring 

to using more than one language or dialect in conversation. Code-switching can occur 

between sentences, intersentential or within a single sentence intrasentential.Code 

switching is now considered to be a normal interaction between the bilingual 

speakers. 

Examples of intersentential: (i) “Kulitnya sensitif”.(Skin is sensitive) 

(ii) “Kamu sentuh asid”. (You touch the acid) 

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(iii) What must you do? 

Examples of intrasentential: (i) “What is kulit?” 

(ii) “What is the meaning of sentuh?” 

(iii) “What is gerhana matahari” 

(Own examples) 

(Own examples) 

Some researchers like Scotton (1988) feel there is no need to use two sub-categories 

intersentential and intrasentential to denote code-switching because code-switching 

covers both. On the other hand, some researchers have suggested that code-switching 

is generally considered inter-sentential while code-mixing is intra-sentential. They are 

of the opinion that this distinction is necessary because the two processes involve 

different linguistic and psycholinguistic features (Sridhar and Sridhar, 1980). 

Ozog (1996 b) made a study of language use in Peninsular Malaysia and Negara 

Brunei. He says that there are two factors that affect code-switching: the 

extralinguistic and the linguistic. The extralinguistic deals with factors affecting 

language choice, among them are participants, setting,language competency and 

language policy. 

Poplack proposes grammatical model suggesting that code-switching is governed by 

two linguistic constraints. The first is the free morpheme, which predicts that code- 

switching may not take place between a bound morpheme and a lexical form unless 

the lexical form has already been phonologically integrated into the language of the 

morpheme. So for Spanish-English bilingual speech “eatiendo” for “eating” would 

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not be possible because “eat” has not been intergrated into Spanish (Poplack, 1980: 

586). 

The second constraint is the equivalence constraint (Poplack, 1978, 1980) observed 

that the code-switching is such that virtually no instances of language one and 

language two occur. He further says that switching takes place only at boundaries 

common with both languages. The researcher gives English to Malay code-switching 

examples. According to Malay grammar rule, the adjective comes after noun wheres 

in English grammar the adjective comes before the noun. Example: 

English: Clever boy 

Malay: Pandai budak 

(Own Examples) 

Code-switching is not acceptable here because it does not follow the Malay grammar 

rule. 

However, Nartey’s study (1982) on code-switching among educated Ghanians found 

that both constraints did not work for Ghanian Languages in general. He says social 

factors are more important than structural factors (p188). His observations on code- 

swithing further indicate that code-switches follow certain guidelines like the nature 

of the topic, the audience, the emotions versus the aspiration level and age. 

To sum up, there are many factors that affect code-switching are internal linguistic 

structure, culture and the sub-conseious mind. 

24

2.2 Sociolinguistic Studies on Code-Switching 

Socio-linguists investigate the functions and motivations for code-switching from 

socio-linguistic perspective. Socio-linguists determine who code-switches with 

whom, when and for what reasons. The factors that influence choice of language use 

are locations, formality, intimacy, and seriousness of situation. The most important 

determiner for code-switching is situation; several studies done in Singapore show 

that situation is the most important determiner which affects code-switching. R. Ward 

Haugh (1986: 100) says that a typical Chinese tend to speak Hokkien with parents and 

informal Singapore English with siblings; they converse with friends in Hokkien or 

informal Singapore English. The language of education will be formal variety of 

Singapore English and certainly Mandarin. Any religious practices will be conducted 

in the formal variety of Singapore English, if the family is Christian but Hokkien if 

Buddhist or Taoist. In the U.S. bilinguals, tend to use Spanish at home and among 

friends or family members. They use English at home or at work. 

McClure and McClure (1988:40-41) made a study on Vingard Saxon. Vingard Saxons 

code-switched for the purpose of “role identification”. The speakers used a few 

lexical items from German to mark themselves as more educated, urbane or 

sophisticated. 

Kamwangamalu (1989: 32) says that code-switching is used by bilinguals to express 

modernization. He gives an example of code-switching in English and vernacular 

Tanzania to show modernization. The Tanzanian-English bilinguals code-mix so they 

appear to be modern and at the same time members of the community. 

25

Noor Azlina Abdullah (1975) made a study of code-switching among 24 bilingual 

Malays in England from a socio-linguistic point of view. She says that they code- 

switch to express greetings to Malays and non-Malays as a mark of respect. These 

greetings include introduction, invitations and farewells. The ethnic Malay bilinguals 

in Brunei code-switch to English when they talk to senior government officers Ozog 

(1996). 

However, Gumperz (1986: 61) does not seem to agree with the findings of the above 

researchers. He says that a speaker chooses a language quickly and automatically 

without being aware of the determiners of language choice. Nevertheless, it can be 

said that locations, formality, intimacy, and seriousness of situation do play a 

significant role in code-switching from socio-linguistic point of view. It is pertinent to 

point out at this juncture, that inspite of numerous studies socio-linguists have yet to 

formulate a consensus general theory on how sociology affects code-switching. 

2.3 Code Switching From Psycholinguistic Perspective 

There is not much research available on code-switching from a psycholinguistic 

perspective especially in the Malaysian context. This is because psychology is an 

intricate and complex field and it is difficult to unravel the mysteries of the mind 

especially the sub-conscious mind. Vast information is stored up in the sub-conscious 

mind; once in a while information leaks and comes to the conscious mind- 

sublimation theory. Code-switching may even be considered as an impulsive act. 

26

It is evident that the sub-consicious mind does play a part in code-switching. The 

bilinguals in Malaysia do code-switch from English to Malay to clarify a point. The 

question is why does code-switching take place at that particular point only and not 

anywhere else? 

Lim Soh Lan (2003-115.3) says that, 

“why the switch was made to clarify at that point……… it falls 

short of identifying the underlying socio-psychological 

motivation for a linguistic choice to fulfill a particular 

function”. 

A study done by Texas A & M International University (1997) shows that when 

bilinguals decipher code-switched utterances they switch off their mind and only use 

one language to comprehend the sentence. 

“Thus, for a Spanish-English bilingual speaking English, the 

English linguistic system is turned on, whereas the 

SpanishEnglish system remains off. However, if during the 

course of comprehending a sentence, a Spanish code-switched 

word is encountred, the mental switch must disable the English 

linguisticsystem, and enable the Spanish linguistic system”. 

Research done by the same university shows bilinguals understand code-switched 

words quickly if there is a phonological overlap between the two languages. Other 

factors that influence the recognition of code-switch words are context, phonetics, 

homophonic and homographic words overlaping between the two languages. 

Furthermore, language dominance plays an important role in code-switching. In the 

U.S.A, Spanish-English bilinguals code-switch more, when they communicate in 

Spanish which is the first language. They code-switch little when they communicate 

in English which is their second language. Psycholinguists say that bilinguals retrieve 

English code-switched utterances faster than monolingual utterances when they listen 

to Spanish sentences. On the other hand, they are slower to retrieve Spanish code- 

switched words when they listen to English utterances. 

27

Vogt’s (1954: 368) article states that: 

“Code-switching in itself is perhaps not a linguistic 

phenomenon, but rather a psychological one, and its causes are 

obviously extra-linguistic”. 

The researcher feels that the subconcious mind’s ‘on and off role’ plays a significant 

role in code-switching. Perhaps the conscious mind is not aware of it. 

2.4 Situational and Metaphorical Code-Switching. 

According to Scotton and Ceri (1975:48-49) as cited in Malarvizhi (2006:32-33) 

situational code-switching is also known as diaglosia. Different types of situations are 

home, office and school. Whereas, Bloom and Gumperz (1972) defines situational 

code-switching as: 

“They Bloom and Gumperz (1972) proposed a basic type of 

code-switching, situational codeswitching, which is rooted in a 

socialseparation of activities (and associated role relationships), 

each of which is conventionally linked to the use of one of the 

languages or varieties in the community repertoire”. 

Bloom and Gumperz (1972) describes a situation where a local and a clerk conducted 

business transaction using code-switching between the standard language and the 

dialect. 

This they call it metaphorical switching. At the end of the interaction, the local asked 

the clerk by using the local dialect to discuss another matter. Blom and Gumperz refer 

this as a situational shift. Some scholars do not seem to agree to the classification of 

switching as either as situational or metaphorical. Gumperz himself by 1982, prefer to 

28

call it conversational code-switching because it is difficult to differenciate between 

the situational and the metaphorical code-switching. 

In summary it must be said that it is not easy to differenciate between situational and 

metaphorical code-switching. They may be grouped together as conversational code- 

switching. 

2.5 Conversational code-switching 

Gumperz in his research, which he did in collaboration with Hernandez (1971), on the 

social meaning or the significance of code-switching among Slovenian-German, 

Spanish-English and Hindi-English illustrated six conversational functions. Gumperz 

and Hernandez (1971) as cited in Ong Kin Suan (1990:115:3) 

Gumperz argues that code-switching passages are identifiable either as direct 

quotations or as reported speech…… to mark an interjection, to repeat a message in 

either literal or in modified form. Whereas, Rayfield (1970) says that the most 

important function of switching is its use as a rhetorical device. Rayfield classified the 

functions under five categories: 

(i) to emphasise the contrast between two clauses, whereby the second is often 

put in the other language. 

(ii) to emphasise a statement which the hearer might not expect. 

(iii) to avoid saying unpleasant or slightly indelicate matter in the language of the 

speaker. 

29

(iv) to emphasise by repeating a statement in two languages. 

(v) to make a parenthetic remark. 

On the other hand, Pascasiq (1978) for the conversational function of code-switching 

he identified eight functions based on Gumperz’s classification, with slight 

modification. The functions are quotation, addresse specification, interjection, 

repetition, message qualification, personalization versus objectivization, inquiry 

versus giving information and the expression of politeness. 

In summary it may be said that linguists have different views on conversational code- 

switching. 

2.6 Functions and strategies of code-switching 

Karen Kow Yip Cheng (2003:59-77) made a study of 60 Malaysian Pre-school 

children. In this study, code-switching is seen as a strategy employed by the students 

for a purpose; this study sets out to explore the functions fulfilled by Malaysian Pre- 

school children. The respondents were given three tasks. The first task was to listen to 

the reading of nursery rhyme “Humpty Dumpty” the second task was to recite the 

rhyme to the researcher. They were later required to answer questions based on the 

nursery rhyme. The second task was to listen to a story entitled “The Greedy Dog”. 

The respondents were required to retell the story and finally to answer questions 

based on the story. The third task is to tell their favourite story. Her findings show that 

Malaysian children are creative and they utilized their mother tongue to answer 

questions, which shows that Malaysian pre-school children practise bilingualism. The 

30

esearcher feels that the children are aided by innate universal language structures as 

proposed by Chomsky (1972; 1975; 1979). 

According to Richard Skiba in his article titled “Code Switching as a countenance of 

Language Interference” that was suggested by Crystal (1987). Code-switching is used 

as a socio-linguistic tool by bilingual society and it can also be used as a foundation 

for the development of the second language reciprocal language teaching. He asserts 

that students alternate between two languages and exchange the roles of student and 

teacher. 

2.7 Reasons for code-switching 

Zuraidah Mohd. Don (2003:21-38) a local researcher conducted a study of code- 

switching from standard Malay to Kelantanese dialect Malay among Malay 

undergraduate students. She examined the social functions of code-switching. She 

studied Kelantanese Malay educated speech pattern in terms of a standard variety of 

Malay and a non-standard variety that is the Kelantan dialect. The undergraduates use 

Kelantanese dialect when they communicate amongst themselves and with non 

Kelantanese-Malays, they use standard Malay to communicate. Zuraidah noted that 

non-Kelantanese speakers would use a phrase of Kelantanese dialect to show 

scarcasm because of isolation from a group of Kelantanese. They code-switch from 

standard Malay to Kelantanese dialect to show regional identity and group solidarity 

and to a non-Kelantanese they switch to a standard Malay as a mark of respect. 

31

Jariah Mohd. Jan (2003:41-56) conducted a study how code-switching wielded power 

to the superior (Headmaster). She noted that English language was used as a power 

instrument to show authority to the subordinates. 

Maya Khelmani David (2003:5-20) conducted a study on role and functions of code- 

switching in Malaysian courtrooms. Her objective was to investigate the reasons for 

code-switching used by legal officers and witnesses. She identified twelve reasons as 

to why code-switching took place in a courtroom situation. 

(i) Habitual use of code-switching 

(ii) Language choice with different interlocuters 

(iii) Code-switch for technical terms 

(iv) Code-switch for culturally alien terms 

(v) Code-switch due to limited proficiency 

(vi) Code-switch for emphasis 

(vii) Code-switch to coerce witness 

(viii) Code-switch for sarcasm 

(ix) Code-switch to quote 

(x) Non-reciprocal language choice 

(xi) Code-switch to drive home a point 

(xii) Code-switch as a strategy to attain professional goals 

32

The analysis of the data shows that there are many reasons for such mixed discourse 

in a Malaysian courtroom setting. The switches are for situational factors, like who is 

speaking to whom, metaphorical and pragmatic reasons. Other reasons include to 

issue a directive, to quote someone, to emphasise a point made, to achieve the legal 

communicative tasks at hand and to coerce the witness into providing the answers 

required. 

2.8 Studies of Code-switching In the Asian Context 

Farid (1987) carried out a study in a rural environment in a small village in Kedah, 

which is close to Thailand. People in this village speak a variety of Thai dialects apart 

from their mother tongue Malay. The study shows that many factors affect code- 

switching in the border states (Thailand and Kedah): social factors, age, sex, 

education, position in the family and situation. The findings indicate that male 

population in the 20-39 age group code-switch more often because they are more 

mobile and often travel to towns in southern Thailand to trade. It is not suprising that 

code-switching takes place even in rural setting. 

Gumperz (1958), made a similiar study in Northern India on Hindi language and its 

range of dialects. He noticed there are three levels – village dialects, regional dialects 

and standard Hindi. Gumperz says most men who travel a lot speak both the village 

and the regional dialects. The village dialect is used at home and other local people; 

they use regional dialect to communicate with the outside community. 

33

Ong Kin Suan (1990) made a study on code-switching among Malay bilingual 

students in a form Four class in a Malaysian secondary school. She studied code- 

switching from a socio-linguistic and linguistic point of view. She investigates the 

conversational function of code-switching applied by Gumperz, Rayfield, Jacobson 

and Safiah. These functions are quotation, addressee specification, interjection, 

reiteration, message qualification, personalization versus objectivization, hesitation, 

number, proper name, parenthesis, emphasis to signify contrast, emphasis of a 

statement not heard by the addressee, facility of expression,, soliciting answers or 

confirmation from interlocutors, expression to signify politeness, transfer of 

subconscious markers, expressions to indicate an Islamic term, and expressions to 

signify a change of topic. 

Her findings show that students code-switch for communicative purposes. While 

students with a low degree English profiency code-switch to continue the 

conversation. The other students code-switch as a rhetorical device (Ong 1990: 131) 

Tan Peck Tung (1988) looked at code-mixing and switching at a multilingual society 

at a household in Singapore. She studied factors such as social motivations 

established by Gumperz and the uses of the various languages involved in code- 

switching and the linguistic constraints. The linguistic constraint that she noted 

included phrasal length, semantic free morpheme and equivalence constraints. She 

also noted in her research that social factors play an important role to determine the 

choice of code. Code-switching is motivated by the functions established by 

Gumperz. 

34

Mary Tay’s (1993) research is based on texts representing spontaneous conversations 

of fluent, bilingual university graduates in Singapore. She noted that both equivalence 

and free morpheme constraints do not apply in her data because of instances in her 

data where code-mixed examples violate the structure of both host and the guest 

language. The switches contain bound morphemes in English, which have been 

attached to Hokkien and Malay languages. Tay noted that code-switching must be 

seen as “a communicative device in which the bilingual’s creativity is put to 

advantage” (p.134). Tay explains that Singapore is a multi-ethnic country; they have a 

variety of languages, so the interlocutors can choose a variety of words to 

communicate. 

Chin Jit Ngo’s (1993) study is based on spontaneous conversations of six Malay 

bilinguals living in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Chin establishing Gumperz framework 

noted that speakers generally code-switched with a purpose in mind although it is 

difficult to determine the real motivation for every switch. According to Chin, the 

Malay bilinguals code-switch to change topics and emphasize in order to signify 

contrast and code-switch for role and register identification. Chin concludes that code- 

switching is “neither random nor whimsical” and certainly not “the results of 

individual idiosyncratic speech behaviour” (p.81). 

Anne Pakir’s (1989) work entitled “Linguistic Alternants and Code Selection in Baba 

Malay” deals with code-switching in Baba Malay society. She says that the 

conversational functions of code-switching follow code-switching identified by 

Gumperz (1982) which include functions of quotation, addressee specification, 

interjection, message qualification and reiteration. The most common function of the 

speaker was reiteration. She also said that code-swiching does not follow randomly 

35

ut follows a Hokkien-Malay ordering. Pakir believes that code-switching is used to 

“negotiate a collective social identity of the Baba speech community” (p.382). 

Murni (1996) studied how teacher and pupils negotiate meaning in approaching 

vocabulary. She targeted science and geography subjects in two upper primary 

classrooms in Brunei and her objective was to examine the different strategies used by 

teachers and pupils to negotiate meaning. She concluded that code-switching is 

practised by primary school teachers who teach English medium subjects. One of the 

aims of code switching is to negotiate meaning. She asked questions based on 

diagrams and real objects. The pupils answer the teacher’s questions in Malay or in 

English or they remain silent; they code-switch to negotiate meaning in a bilingual 

classroom. She notes that code-switching by teachers help the pupils understand the 

subject content better and it also encourages the pupils to learn. 

Maya Khemlani David (1996) made a study of code-switching from the perspective of 

language shift. She studied code-switching between the older and the younger 

generation. She mentioned code-switching when Sindhi lexical items are included in 

English dominated discourse when English terms are not available they use Sindhi 

lexical terms. She studied conversational code-switching of three generations. 

Generation one uses Sindhi with some English words; generation two speaks English 

but code-switches using Sindhi; the third generation speaks more English mixed with 

Sindhi or Malay. She says that language shift affects the role of the Sindhi language. 

The Malaysian bilingual researchers have made many studies on code-switching from 

linguistic, socio-linguistic and psycholinguistics point of view. They have contributed 

a great deal on the understanding of code-switching in Malaysia. 

36


Many local and foreign linguists have written research papers on code-switching. 

Code-switching is viewed from three perspectives from linguistic, socio-linguistic and 

psycholinguistic point of view. More studies have been made from linguistic and 

socio-linguistic point of view than from psycholinguistic. The researcher feels that 

further studies need to be done from psycholinguistic point of view because the 

subconscious mind can exert a great pressure on the choice of words for code- 

switching. 

Code-switching phenomenon has been studied under formal and informal settings. 

This chapter discussed the various aspects of code-switching: situational code- 

switching, conversational code-switching, functions of code-switching and reasons for 

code-switching. 

Code-switching is not considered as a countenance of language interference. It may 

even enhance the learning of the second language-English language; most of the 

scientific words in the Malay language are borrowed from the English language. Even 

if code-switching is a countenance of language interference, it may be considered 

negiligible. The advantages of code-switching are more than the disadvantages as far 

as language learning is concerned. 

Code-switching helps the students to master two languages; mathematics and science 

terminology are explained in Malay or in the student’s mother tongue. Students who 

are weak in the English language will have the fear of learning science and 

37

mathematics in English language. The mind can simultaneously accept and store two 

languages because there is plenty of storage room in the mind. 

38



METHODOLOGY 

The phenomenon of code-switching is a common scenario in a multilingual country 

like Malaysia. To understand code-switching, a pilot study was carried out to note the 

factors affecting the interlocutor’s choice of code. During the pilot study, the 

researcher used audio recording technique to identify the teaching and learning 

process in two science classrooms. The researcher recorded the teaching of science by 

two educators in Form 1 and 2 science classes in Pusat Tuisyen Jaguh Gemilang in 

Bandar Country Homes, Rawang, Selangor Darul Ehsan. 

These classes were conducted during the school holidays because the parents did not 

want their children to waste time by doing nothing; they would be preoccupied with 

their studies. Infact, the students were preparing for the PMR exam in the following 

year. 

The researcher noted that this was a good idea to give tution especially to the weaker 

students so they would be more confident, motivated and be prepared to sit for the 

exams. 

In this chapter the researcher will discuss how the pilot study was conducted and the 

limitation the researcher faced while conducting the research. The background 

39

information of the samples and the data collection procedures will be discussed in the 

later part of the chapter. 

3.1 Research Questions 

The research was based on specific objectives that were discussed in chapter One. To 

achieve the objectives the following research questions were formulated and 

designed. 

3.1.1 What strategies did the bilingual educators use in the phenomenon of 

code-switching in the teaching and learning process? 

3.1.2 What factors affect code-switching? 

3.1.3 Which pattern is commonly used by the bilingual educators? Is it at the 

word, phrase, clause or sentence level? 

This is an empirical study and the researcher formulated these questions to understand 

why and for what reasons the educators code-switched. 

40

3.2 Procedure of Research 

Before the research was conducted, the researcher had to get approval from the 

Faculty of Languages and Linguistics, University of Malaya. Besides that a letter of 

approval to conduct the research was given to the management of Pusat Tuisyen 

Jaguh Gemilang. The management of the tution centre informed the educators 

teaching the science subjects the purpose of the research. The researcher was then 

given the timetable slot of the educators teaching the subjects. The timetable slot was 

later analysed for the appropriate dates of the classes that were going to be conducted 

by the bilingual educators. The researcher had to give one-week notice before he 

could do the audio recording and observation. 

The educators were later informed that their lessons were going to be recorded by the 

researcher. The educators were not informed of the specific objective of the research 

so as to obtain genuine and natural data in the teaching and learning process. The 

objective of the research was only revealed to the educators after the data was 

collected. 

The researcher with questionnaires conducted an interview session with the educators 

to obtain feed back from the educators. The management and the educators of Pusat 

Tution Jaguh Gemilang gave their full support to collect the data. 

41

3.3 Location 

The research was conducted at Pusat Tuisyen Jaguh Gemilang that is located in 

Bandar Country Homes Rawang in the district of Selangor. Bandar Country Homes is 

situated at the outskirts of Kuala Lumpur city and at the interchange of the North 

South Highway just, thirty-three kilometres from Kuala Lumpur city. It takes an 

additional three kilometres to go to Bandar Country Homes from Rawang town. 

Bandar Country Homes has 730 acres of land and is an established township. There 

are many new housing developments in Bandar Country Homes. The over population 

and traffic congestation in Rawang town had forced the people to migrate to Bandar 

Country Homes. Over the years, the population in Bandar Country Homes increased 

due to new housing projects, factories and job opportunities. The cost of living in 

Bandar Country Homes is much lower compared to Rawang town. Students who 

study in Pusat Tuisyen Jaguh Gemilang come from schools around the Kuala 

Selangor area. 

In Pusat Tuisyen Jaguh Gemilang there are 14 teachers teaching primary and 

secondary school subjects. Pusat Tuition Jaguh Gemilang was chosen for the study as 

the tuition centre is located at the outskirts of Kuala Lumpur. The researcher chose a 

tution centre because he could not get permission from any Goverment school to 

record the teaching. So, the researcher opted to have the recordings in a tuition centre. 

The students who study in this tution centre come from various social backgrounds. 

Some students come from lower income group hence many parents have poor 

educational background. 

42

The researcher opted to collect the data at Pusat Tuisyen Jaguh Gemilang because the 

researcher felt that there should be more research done in rural schools. Further more 

the respondents cooperated well with the researcher for the data collection procedure. 

3.4 Subjects of Research 

The subjects of the research involve two bilingual educators teaching science subjects 

in lower secondary 1 and 2 in Pusat Tuisyen Bandar Country Homes Rawang in the 

district of Selangor Darul Ehsan. 

The researcher considers the educators as bilingual. They may be trilingual or even 

multilingual, but when they teach they use only English or Malay. On the other hand, 

both the educators are of Tamil descendant and they are proficient in the Tamil 

language. The educators did not code-switch in Tamil language while teaching. 

The subjects of this study comprise two bilingual educators aged between 38 to 43 

years. They are code named R and L, and they are of Tamil descents. Both educators 

are proficient in English and Malay and were trained at the teacher training college 

and possess qualified teaching certificates. 

Bilingual educator R has a degree in Science and Technology and he is currently 

persuing his Masters in the same field. Bilingual educator L on the other hand has a 

bachelor’s degree and a Masters in Science and Technology. Bilingual educator L is 

currently persuing his Ph.D. in the same field. Both educators are qualified teachers to 

43

teach the science subjects. The educators are also secondary school teachers teaching 

the same subject in their school. Lower secondary 1 and 2 students were chosen for 

the study because they were the first batch to learn science in English medium. 

3.5 Pilot Study 

A week before the study a pilot study was done by the researcher by providing the 

educators with questionnaires. The pilot study was conducted among two educators 

teaching the same subject. The significance of the pilot study was to guide the 

researcher to design logical and practical questions. From the response obtained from 

the questionnaires, the researcher had to do minor adjustments in the design of the 

questionnaires. 

3.6 Instruments of Research 

In the process of collecting the data, the researcher used several instruments in the 

data analysis procedures. The instruments include: 

(i) audio recording 

(ii) questionnaires 

(iii) interview session with the bilingual educators. 

44

3.6.1 Audio Recording 

The data that was analysed in this study consisted of taped formal teaching of the 

bilingual educators. The researcher used an Aiwa audio recorder and a 60-minute 

Sony tape to gather relevant data for this study. The researcher made 31 recordings 

(see Appendix C) of teaching in a private tuition centre called Pusat Tuition Jaguh 

Gemilang. Each lesson consists of 60 minutes of recording. Ethnographers rely on 

detailed description and analyses of the code switched utterances of the bilingual 

educators. The researcher did not transcribe the utterances especially interjections like 

Oh! Hurray! and Manglish lah! because the researcher was only interested in code- 

switched utterances. There were some recordings that lacked clarity hence causing the 

researcher to take a long time to transcribe the data. 

Extracts 1 to 15 are episodes of extracts of code-switching taken from bilingual 

educator code named R from lower secondary One and Two. While extracts 16 to 31 

are episodes of code-switching of bilingual educator code named L. The researcher 

took six months for the data collection and analysis because November and December 

were examination months and no classes were conducted in the tution centre. 

3.6.2 Questionnaires 

Besides audio recording, a questionnaire was given to the subjects to collect relevant 

data to substantiate the study. The format of questionnaires was obtained and 

modified from Gan Kheng Leng (2000) as cited in Malarvizhi (2006). The 

45

questionnaire was then distributed to the educators. The questionnaire was used by the 

researcher to identify the reasons for code-switching by the educators. 

The questionnaire that was distributed to the educators has two main parts. Appendix 

Part A is a Survey Questionnaire for Pilot Study while Appendix B is simply Survey 

Questionnaire. Appendix Part B includes language in use, and Appendix Part C and D 

consist of Interview and Transcription of the data. 

3.6.3 Interview 

Further more, the researcher conducted an interview session with the educators to 

determine the various reasons why code-swtching occurred in teaching. These 

questions were asked after the recording of 31 tapes. The researcher also interviewed 

other teachers who taught mathematics in the lower secondary schools. The researcher 

wanted to know if other educators were facing the same problems when teaching the 

subjects in the English language. 

3.7 Data Analysis 

The steps below indicate the way the research was carried out for the analysis: 

The data was examined for instances of code-switching by the bilingual educators - 

when a Malay language unit be it a word, a phrase, a clause or even a sentence was 

unintentionally inserted into an English utterance while teaching the science subject. 

46

Each switch was counted as an instance of code-switching. The researcher adopted 

Malarvizhi 2006 methodology of dividing the data. 

The switches were then examined for the possible reasons and motivation for 

switching. 

i. to calculate the frequency counts and percentages of switched utterances. 

ii. to compare the switched utterances of the bilingual educators. 

iii. to determine which level the bilingual educators preferred. 

The researcher does not use any theoretical framework as expounded by other 

researchers such as Gumperz (1986), Poplack(1978, 1980) and Myers-Scotton (1988). 

This is because the researcher is not trying to validate or refute their theories. The 

study is mainly concerned in identifying the reasons for code-switching in the 

teaching and learning process; and to what extent code-switching helps the students 

understand the subject content. In addition to that, the researcher is trying to find out 

if code-switching is a sign of language interference. 

The diagram of transcription of symbols was introduced by Schenkein (1978) as cited 

in Malarvizhi (2006: 59). The researcher made some minor adjustments of the 

symbols. 

47

Table 3.1: Transcription of Symbols 

Symbols Interpretations 

/ Pause 

// Stop 

(( )) Laughter 

3.7.1 Quantitative Approach 

In this approach, the researcher clustered all the switch utterances within stage (word, 

phrase, clause and sentence). The researcher then totaled the utterances to obtain the 

percentage of frequency counts within each stage. 

The researcher compared the switch pattern of the educators to find out which pattern 

was commonly used: word, phrase, and clause or at sentence levels. 

It is significant to study the code-switched utterances at word, phrase, clause and 

sentence level. When the educator only uses one word to explain, we can assume that 

the pupils are more proficient in the English language. On the other hand, if the 

educators have to explain the science lessons at sentence level we can assume that the 

pupils are not so proficient in the English language. So, the educators have to code- 

switch according to the language proficiency of the pupils. 

48

3.7.2 Qualitative Approach 

The qualitative approach was used to understand the factors and reasons for code- 

switching of the bilingual educators. The researcher also gathered information from 

other sociolinguists from various countries that have been discussed in chapter 2. 

3.8 Other Resources 

The researcher gathered information and literature reviews from books, dissertations 

related journals, articles, newspapers, forums and even web pages to understand the 

phenomenon of code-switching especially in a formal setting in a classroom 

environment. 


It is an empirical and quantitative study. Quantitative approach was used to calculate 

the frequency of code-switches at word, phrase, clause and sentence level. Further 

more quantitave approach was also used to find out samples’ opinion towards code- 

switching; it was an objective approach. Other methods used include pilot study, 

audio recording, interview with the educators and questionnaires. This analysis of the 

data gathered is provided in the following chapters. 

49



ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 

This chapter attempts to analyse the code switch utterances made by the bilingual 

educators in the teaching of science in lower secondary form One and Two classes. 

The questionnaires that were answered by the educators were further analysed by the 

researcher. The researcher discussed the reasons for code-switching in chapter two in 

the literature review. The researcher classified the conversational utterances into 

groupings of word, phrase, clause and sentence level. The data was gathered through 

audio recording and was later transcribed and analysed for switch patterns of the 

bilingual educators. Frequency count of switch pattern was calculated and clustered 

into diagrams to view the comparison between the educators. 

The utterances that are transcribed and taped are included in Appendix C. A total of 

31 tapes were collected and transcribed using regular English orthography. The 

utterance was later examined for code switched patterns. The researcher collected 

quantitave and qualitative data on the language ability of the subjects. 

50

4.1 Subjects 

The subjects of the study consist of transcription of lessons involving teachers and 

students from lower secondary One and Two science classes. A tuition centre was 

chosen by the researcher to conduct the research. Pusat Tuisyen Jaguh Gemilang is 

located in Bandar Country Homes Rawang in the district of Selangor Darul Ehsan. 

Pusat Tuisyen Jaguh Gemilang located in Bandar Country Homes has a total of 14 

teachers at the time of the study. Most of the teachers are qualified government school 

teachers. The teachers are part time tutors and teaching in the tuition centre which 

provides them with an extra income. 

Most of the classes are conducted after school hours depending on the students’ 

school session. The tuition classes are from morning till night because some students 

come from morning session schools and some from afternoon session schools. The 

tuition centre provides tuition for all levels from primary 1 up to secondary 5. All 

subjects are taught including science and arts subjects. There are a total of 450 

students at the time of the study. Most of the students come from schools in Kuala 

Selangor and Rawang. The students come from primary, secondary and vernacular 

type schools located in rural areas. 

In Pusat Tuisyen Jaguh Gemilang, each science class consists of 10 to 13 students. 

The classrooms were named after Universities. Form One students attended the UUM 

(University Utara Malaysia) room while the Form Two science lessons were 

conducted in the UPM (University Putra Malaysia) room. The researcher noted that 

51

the management of Pusat Tuisyen Jaguh Gemilang was trying to motivate students by 

providing classrooms with various names of local Universities. This creates a 

conducive and positive environment for teaching and learning. 

The researcher collected eight tapes from Form One science class and seven tapes 

from Form Two science class from bilingual educator code named R. On the other 

hand, nine tapes from Form One science class and seven tapes from Form Two 

science class were collected from bilingual educator code named L. A total of 31 

tapes were collected and transcribed using regular English orthography. The educators 

were assured that their identity would not be revealed. The researcher code named the 

educators with code names R and L to maintain confidentiality of the educators. It 

was noted by the researcher that both the educators taught science subject in their 

schools. Each educator has an avarage of 10 to 15 years of teaching experience and 

both of them are qualified teachers from the teacher training college. 

4.1.1 The Language Ability of Students 

The researcher observed that students attending the tution centre were deficient in the 

English language speaking and writing skills. The researcher gathered this 

information through an interview conducted with the educators and from students’ 

written work. Therefore, the educators had to code-switch in teaching to make the 

weaker students to understand the subject matter better. 

52

4.1.2 Background of Subjects 

The subjects’s educational background was gathered by the researcher through 

interview sessions and questionnaires answered by them. The table shows the 

educators’ academic and professional qualifications. 

Personal Information 

Table 4.1: Personal Information of Bilingual Educators 

Educators 

R L 

Gender M M 

Age 38 43 

Mother tongue T T 

Highest Qualification Degree In Bachelor of 

Science 

Currently doing Masters 

course 

Masters In Science 

Currently pursuing Ph.D. 

Teaching Certificate Cert. Cert. 

Language Qualification SPM English Grade: 

C4 

SPM Bahasa Melayu : C5 

SPM English Grade: 

A2 

SPM Bahasa Melayu: C4 

The table above shows that both the educators are males and are from Tamil descent. 

Educator code named R is 38 years old and educator code named L is 43 years old at 

the time of the study. Educator R has a Bachelors degree in Science from University 

Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi and is currently persuing his Masters in Science from 

Open University. On the other hand, educator L has a Masters degree in Science from 

University Science Malaysia Penang. Educator code named L is currently pursuing 

53

his Ph.D. in Science and Technology from University Sains Malaysia. Both the 

educators have credits in Malay and English language at SPM level. To get a place in 

the teacher training college, the candidates must have credits in Malay and English 

since language plays an important role in the teaching profession. 

Fluency of Language 

Malay Language 

Table 4.2: Language Acquisition of Educators 

Educators 

R L 

Oral F F 

Comprehension F F 

Written F NF 

English Language 

Oral NF F 

Comprehension F F 

Written NF F 

F = Fluent NF = Not Fluent 

Educator R is not very fluent in his oral and comprehension skills in the English 

language while Educator L is not very fluent in his written skills in the Malay 

language. 

54

4.1.3 Language Acquisition of Subjects 

The frequency count of language use among family members of the educators was 

obtained through questionnaires. The data shows important clues as to why the 

phenomenon of code-switching occurs in the teaching and learning process. 

Tables 4.3 and 4.4 show the frequency count of language use by the educators to greet 

family members in the same community. 

Table 4.3: Survey of Language Use With Family Members By Bilingual Educator L 

Family Members Malay Language English Language 

O S R O S R 

Parents L L 

Spouse L L 

Siblings L L 

Children L L 

Relations L L 

O= Often S=Seldom R=Rare 

55

Table 4.4: Survey of Language Use With Family Members By Bilingual Educator R 

Family Members Malay Language English Language 

O S R O S R 

Parents R R 

Spouse R R 

Siblings R R 

Children R R 

Relations R R 


Table 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4 reveal the educators’ choice of code-switching within the same 

community and family members. It was noted by the researcher that bilingual 

educator R often uses the Malay language while communicating with family 

members; while bilingual educator L seldom uses the Malay language to 

communicate with his parents. Further more, among spouse level, both the educators 

rarely communicate in Malay language. Within siblings and children both the 

educators seldom use the Malay language and within relations, they rarely use the 

Malay language. 

This is due to the fact that both the educators share the same mother tongue the Tamil 

language. Bilingual educator R seldom uses the English language to communicate 

with his parents, siblings and relations. Bilingual educator L often uses the English 

language with his siblings and relations because two of his brothers are language 

teachers. It has been a norm for him to use the English language with family 

members. 

56

Table 4.5: Survey of Language Use With The Outside Community By Bilingual 

Educator L 

Malay Language English Language 

O S R O S R 

Employer in school L L 

Administrators in Pusat 

Tution Jaguh Gemilang 

Parents of students in 

school 

L L 

L L 

Colleagues in school L L 


Table 4.6: Survey of Language Use With The Outside Community By Bilingual 

Educator R 

Malay Language English Language 

O S R O S R 

Employer in school R R 

Administrators in Pusat 

Tution Jaguh Gemilang 

Parents of students in 

school 

R R 

R R 

Colleagues in school R R 


The frequency count of language use with the outside community reveals that both 

educators tend to use the English language and the Malay language to communicate 

57

with their employer, administrators in the tution centre, parents of students and also 

colleagues in formal or informal situation. 

Bilingual educator R and L often use the English language to communicate with their 

employer in school. Both the educators seldom use the English language to 

communicate with each other. Both the educators use the Malay language to 

communicate with the Malay parents in the tuition centre because the parents can 

communicate better in the Malay language. 

4.1.4 Reasons for Code-Switching by the Subjects 

From the questionnaires the researcher identified a few reasons as to why the 

educators code-switch during teaching. The educators used innovative methods to 

teach the science subjects so as to make the students feel more comfortable and 

secure. During code-switching monotonous teaching suddenly becomes interesting; 

the change in the language attracts the attention of the students. The class is 

revitalized, charged and the educators become more motivated and they continue the 

lesson. 

The reasons for code-switching given by the educators include; 

(i) to emphasise and to explain scientific terminology, (ii) to confirm that the students 

have understood the subject matter, (iii) to encourage students to participate in the 

lessons, (iv) to establish relationship, humour and to have a conducive environment 

58

for teaching and learning (v) to save time, (vi) habitual reasons, (vii) the influence of 

other subjects like mathematics. 

4.1.5 Subjects’ Opinion towards the phenomenon on code-switching. 

There are various opinions by the educators towards the phenomenon of code- 

switching. The researcher provided a table (refer appendix B) to see the significant 

reasons as to why the educators code-switch during the science lessons. The 

educators’ answers are summarised in the tables 4.7 and 4.8. The researcher used a 

scale ranging from one to five to find out educators opinion towards the phenomenan 

of code-switching. The researcher did not use the ranking system because it is 

difficult to say which is the most important reason for code-switching or the least 

important reason. All the reasons provided are equally important. 

Table 4.7: Educators’ opinion towards code-switching from bilingual Educator R 

No Opinion Scale 

1 Code-Switching is a countenance (sign) of language 

interference. 

1 2 3 4 5 

2 Through the process of code switching students have a better 

understanding of the subject matter. 

1 2 3 4 5 

3 Bilingual educators should not alternate in other languages in 

the process of teaching and learning. 

1 2 3 4 5 

4 Bilingual educators should alternate between two languages if 

there is lack of vocabulary during explanation. 

1 2 3 4 5 

5 Science teachers in the secondary level should be proficient in 

both the Malay language and the English language to teach. 

1 2 3 4 5 

1- Strongly disagree 2-disagree 3-not sure 4-agree 5-strongly agree 

59

Table 4.8: Educators’ opinion towards code-switching from bilingual Educator L 

No Opinion Scale 

1 Code-Switching is a countenance (sign) of language 

interference. 

1 2 3 4 5 

2 Through the process of code-switching students have a better 

understanding of the subject matter. 

1 2 3 4 5 

3 Bilingual educators should not alternate in other languages in 

the process of teaching and learning. 

1 2 3 4 5 

4 Bilingual educators should alternate between two languages if 

there is lack of vocabulary during explanation. 

1 2 3 4 5 

5 Science teachers in the secondary level should be proficient in 

both the Malay language and the English language to teach. 

1 2 3 4 5 

1- Strongly disagree 2-disagree 3-not sure 4-agree 5-strongly agree 

From table 4.7 and 4.8 the researcher noted that the educators R and L favoured code 

switching during the lessons. Through code-switching the students understood the 

content level of the subject matter better. They also reveal the fact that code-switching 

should be done if the educator lacks the vocabulary in the English language to teach 

science. They agree that educators teaching the science subject have to be proficient 

both in the English language and the Malay language. 

4.2 Recording and Transcription 

The researcher used a 60 minute Sony tape to record. Bilingual educator R has been 

recorded on 8 tapes for the Form 1 and 7 tapes for the Form 2 lessons. On the other 

hand, bilingual educator L has been recorded on 9 tapes for the Form 1 and 7 tapes for 

the Form 2 science lessons. A total of 31 tapes were collected and transcribed by the 

researcher. 

60

Table 4.9: Audio Recordings 

Subjects Educators Transcription 

R L 

Form 1 Form 2 Form 1 Form 2 

Science 8 T1 – T8 



Science 7 T25– T31 

TOTAL T 31 

4.3 Language Choice 

The researcher noted that the samples used English language and the Malay language 

to teach science. Each language was used as an embedded language in the teaching 

and learning activities. The Malay language was used for various reasons as identified 

by the researcher. 

4.4 Reasons For Switching by Bilingual Educator R 

From questionnaires and interview session with the samples, the researcher 

understood why the educators code-switch. The researcher identified the following 

reasons as to why the process of code-switching took place. Educator R is not very 

proficient in Oral English. This too may be a reason for his frequent code-switching 

from English to entire sentences in Malay. 

61

4.4.1 To emphasise and to explain scientific terminology 

Bilingual educator R code-switches from the English language to the Malay language 

to emphasise and explain scientific terminology in the proses of teaching the Form 1 

and 2 science classes. 

Examples: 

R : ok/ look at the hot balloon/ after heating up with/ air/ what happens inside 

here/ once heated up?/ the air will be/ less adalah kurang tumpat kalau you 

padam api di sini apa akan terjadi?/ ( T1-U22- R) 

R : radiation is a transfer of heat energy/ from a heat source to its surrounding 

without the need for a medium for example/ conduction and convections 

require medium/ how are we going to differentiate with/ convection 

conduction and radiation?/ radiation does not require a medium to transfer 

the heat but convection and conduction requires/ for example gas particles 

or salt particles will be in liquid particles/ for radiation they do not require/ 

for example the heat from the sun/ the heat transfers from vacuum/ our earth 

has atmosphere/ ok look at the pictures in your book the sun and the the 

earth/ how can heat be transmitted here?/ from sun to earth through vacuum/ 

dalam bahasa dipanggil hampa gas/ ok heat which is transferred by 

radiations is called radiated heat/ radiated heat can be absorbed or/ reflected 

apa maksud reflect?/ pantul maksudnya lets say you throw a ball and the 

ball?/ ( TI-U48-R) 

R : because/ this part is/ transparent maksudnya/ lutsinar cahaya boleh tembus/ 

reflection of light you akan belajar dalam tingkatan dua nanti can anyone 

travel at the speed of light/ students what is the speed of light?/ 

( TI-U54- R) 

R : tanah runtuh/ hujan natural/ rainbow apa sahaja yang terjadi all of these is 

categorized as natural phenomena/ apa maksud eclipse?/ gerhana matahari/ 

62

formation of lightning/ kilat/ formation of rainbow/ volcanic eruptions/ 

( T3-U9 -R) 

R yes very good lagi/ banyak perkara berlaku dalam kehidupan kita bukan 

why is science useful/ teknologi kereta motor ada kapal semua benda ada so 

many things you know transportation? ( T3-U13- R) 

R : kadang-kala kita beli barang-barang di farmasi atau beli ubat ada simbol- 

simbol atau ambil X ray di hospital/ so you must understand these symbols 

there are very important/ ok we try these questions/ what is the meaning of 

solid?/ meaning pepejal/ volume meaning isipadu/ so go back home and try 

these questions/ thank you class// ( T5-U7- R) 

R : meaning campuran/ for example/ you campur garam/ gula/ like drinking 

coffee/ you mix/ campuran/ cork means gabus usually there are two types 

rubber or wood pernah tengok botol arak macam itu/ then we have the gas 

jar they have many types of gases/ gas yang paling ringan sekali apa?/ 

hydrogen is the lightest gas/ bila kita tengok belon kat majlis boleh naik/ 

melayang atas/spatula means sudu/ to transfer chemicals/ test tube holder/ 

penyepit digunakan it is made of wood/ tripod stand is used to support 

beaker or flask while heating/ wire gauze is to spread out the heat of flame 

evenly/ retort stand to hold the apparatus/ bunsen burner for heating pipette 

to measure a fixed volume/ kalau untuk minum ubat dan menyedut ubat/ 

burette to measure the volume of liquid/ macam paip/ pipette lagi tepat more 

accurate/ look at the symbols/ you kena tahu semua tanda-tanda/ kalau 

pergi petrol station unleaded petrol you can see the symbols/ kerosene means 

minyak tanah/ if you look at bombs/ Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 

destroyed Japan/ ok try these questions/ i will continue next class / 

( T6-U5- R) 

R : ok look at the topic on plants/ endoskeletons/ exoskeletons and hydrostatic 

skeletons exo meaning outer part/ endo inner part/ hydrostatic meaning 

supported by water/ air memberi sokongan kepada tumbuhan/ two 

weeks ago i have already given you the notes/ ada bawa tak nota minggu 

yang lalu/ woody bermaksud tumbuhan berkayu/ some examples of woody 

63

plants?/ yang ada batang yang keras dan tegak seperti pokok durian 

rambutan dan angasana/ xylem is the most important part/anda akan belajar 

xylem ini dalam tingkatan tiga xylem akan membawa air daripada akar ke 

daun/ to produce the process of photosynthesis/ this is the most important 

part/ secondary xylem it supports the plant/ kalau anda mengkopek kulit 

pada batang anda akan nampak bahagian yang ada cecair you can see a 

liquid form/ this is called xylem/ it not only supports it also gives the shape 

to the plant/ maksudnya adalah ketegakan sel kalau tumbuhan itu tak ada air 

apa akan jadi ia akan layu/ non woody plants adalah tanpa batang keras ia 

akan mencengkam pada tumbuhan itu/ the roots of mangrove tree pokok 

bakau yang biasa ada di kawasan paya ia macam jagung/ akarnya akan 

menambahkan lagi sokongan pada pokok/ to support/ can anyone tell me 

what is the longest roots in the world?/ it is about 120 meters/ lets look at 

the next point/ aquatic plants bermaksud tumbuhan yang hidup di air/ ok 

secondary xylem enables the plant or tree to stand upright and also gives the 

plant shape/ so xylem plays an important role tumbuhan yang boleh 

bergerak di air adalah hydrilla and water lily/ the rest i will continue later/ 

( T9-U1-R) 

R : can humans detect ultra violet/ warna unggu dan sebagainya?/ bees can 

detect the birds have good sensory organs/ lets look at grass hopers/ they use 

their antenna to detect/ di panggil mata tumpuan/ for example bats/ kelawar 

bila keluar dari gua/ they use their hearing system to detect/ different 

animals have different sensory organs/ faham ke boy?/ (T15-U3-R) 

In the examples provided above, the bilingual educator R code-switched to explain the 

scientific terminology and to emphasize salient points, as most of the students lack the 

ability to understand the concepts. Examples of scientific terms taken from T1-048-R are 

radiation, solid, and reflect. Educator R gave the meanings in the Malay language. 

The pupils did not understand the terms so the educator by code-switching explained the 

meaning in Malay; apa maksud eclipse? gerhana matahari. 

64

The examples taken from T1-U54-R are; transparent maksudnya lutsinar cahaya boleh 

tembus and from T5-U7-R what is the meaning of solid? meaning pepejal. volume 

meaning isipadu, T9-U1-R aquatic plants bermaksud tumbuhan yang hidup di air. The 

educator code-switched at word and phrase level. Code-switching served its purpose and 

the pupils understood the scientific terms. 

4.4.2 To confirm that the students have understood the subject matter 

The bilingual educator R switches for the students to understand the subject matter. 

R : 

R : 

R : 

A/ when a substance of heat/ the heat causes it temperature to rise/ betulkan 

( T2-U40-R) 

anda kena faham kalau ada benda yang ada tanda macam/ ini anda perlu 

berhati-hati/ I end the class here// ( T4-U5-R) 

mungkin ada chemical reactions/ so ini adalah mustahak untuk ikut kalau 

terkena bahan kimia we have to wash our hands with water/ this is very 

important do not throw anything into the sink hole/ because nanti tersumbat/ 

so you have to remember all of the instructions do you understand boy?/ 

peraturan ( T8-U5-R) 

From the examples provided above, getting feed back from students is essential to check 

whether the teaching objective is achieved. The teacher wanted to confirm if the students 

have understood the subject matter. Example T2-U40-R betulkan?. 

65

4.4.3 To encourage students to participate in the lessons 

Bilingual educator R code-switches to encourage students to participate in the lessons. 

R : 

R : 

R : 

R : 

R : 

R : 

ok/ the demonstration about the nitrogen gas/ siapa pernah tengok?/ siapa 

pernah pergi ke Pusat Sains Negara? ( TI-U26-R) 

the word comes from/ radiate dalam bahasa di panggil apa?/ ( TI-U46-R) 

the question is asking incorrect/ yang mana adalah salah?/ ( T2-U13-R) 

yes volcanic eruptions lets try these questions on the importance of science/ 

mengapa sains itu sangat penting?/ ( T3-U11-R) 

terdapat empat jenis receptor/ if you don’t feel pain something is wrong with 

your receptor/ all of this receptors are important for our human body/ the 

pressure receptor is also important/ apakah kepentingan receptor?/ 

( T15-U7-R) 

our skin is also water proof/ kalis air apakah yang keluar dari kulit kita?/ 

( T15-U9-R) 

The examples above illustrate that the students can participate in the lessons so; the 

teaching is pupil centred. The examples are; T1-U26-R: siapa pernah tengok? siapa 

pernah pergi ke Pusat Sains Negara? T1-U46-R: radiate dalam bahasa di panggil apa? 

T15-U7-R: apakah kepentingan receptor? 

The educator code-switches at sentence level to make sure that the pupils take part in the 

lessons. 

66

4.4.4 To establish relationship, humour and to have a conducive environment for 

teaching and learning 

The bilingual educator R code-switches to establish humour during the lessons and to 

provide a conducive learning environment. 

R : 

R : 

lapan kali/ kalau bergerak dengan laju macam ini you boleh 

memberhentikan pergerakan bumi/ begitu banyak kuasa yang kamu ada/ 

lebih berkuasa daripada superman/ tapi superman pakai underwear/ 

( TI-U58-R) 

let us look at the steps when using the science laboratory/ without the teacher 

do not enter the lab/ do not eat or drink dalam lab/ mengapa?/ sebab ada 

bahan- bahan kimia bahaya/ do not taste any chemicals/ do not smell any 

gasses unless instructed by the teacher/ kalau orang kentut pun jangan hidu// 

( T6-U1-R) 

The examples above show that humour plays an important part in teaching, the lessons 

become more interesting. The example is T1-U58-R tapi superman pakai underwear. 

Superman is a hero for the adolescents; and he exists in their fantasy. The students wished 

they could have his super power and the humour part of the word is superman and 

underwear. 

4.4.5 Time Constraint 

The bilingual educator code-switches by using acronyms. 

R : 

saya akan menggunakan dua bahasa untuk mengajar/ i will try to teach 

in two languages/ PMR is in bilingual dua bahasa/ so in exam the choice 

is yours either Bahasa or English/ in Science and Mathematics they have 

glossary/ ada dalam Bahasa Inggeris dan Melayu/ it is good if you have 

the book / try to get the book/ siapa tak suka ilmu matematik sebab 

susah/ for me saya paling benci sejarah/ all subjects are important/ i did 

not like history because i did not like my teacher/ ( T7-U1-R) 

67

R : 

is science important?/ yes it is/ look at MEASAT 3 paling tinggi di 

dunia/ where is it located?/ ( T7-U1-R) 

The bilingual educator used the acronym PMR and MEASAT without any explanation 

because the students are aware of the acronyms. The examples of acronyms are from T7- 

U1-RPMR and from T7-U1-R MEASAT 3. The students know the meanings of this 

acronym PMR (Penilaian Menengah Rendah) and MEASAT 3 (Malaysian East Asia 

Satelite). So, to save time the educator used acronyms. 

4.5 Reasons For Switching by Bilingual Educator L 

Educator L only code-switches at individual word level perhaps due to his lack of 

proficiency in Oral Malay. Teacher L himself is more comfortable speaking in 

English than Malay. 

4.5.1 To emphasise and to explain scientific terminology 

Bilingual educator L code-switches to explain scientific terminology as the students 

lack the ability to comprehend the form One and Two science lessons. The educator 

also emphasis important points and issues of the subject matter. 

L : what is combustion?/ pembakaran/ combustion meaning pembakaran/ ok 

pembakaran bahan api fossil fuel/ ( T16-U5-L) 

L : jisim is mass/ jirim is matter/ so what is matter? ( T16-U19-L) 

L : what is conduction in Bahasa Melayu?/ pengaliran/ conduction means 

pengaliran haba how does it mengalir for example this is a iron rod/ 

( T16-U23-L) 

68

L : metal in a liquid form/ mercury is a good conductor of heat/ slight rise in 

your body temperature can be shown in the reading/ ok copper is used to 

make metal non metals are good heat insulators/ what is meant of 

conductor?/ pengalir haba/ what are insulators?/ ( T17-U8-L) 

L : what is condensation in Bahasa Melayu?/ ( T17-U23-L) 

L : kondensasi changes gas to liquid/ ( T17-U25-L) 

L : luminous flame dalam bahasa nyala berkilau/ and non luminous flame nyala 

tak berkilau/ mana satu lebih panas?/ ( T19-U1-L) 

L : petroleum is crude oil minyak mentah/ ( T20-U3-L) 

L : it is all about accuracy/ all of this equipment is important in the science lab/ 

what is a filter funnel?/ corong penapis/ pour a mixture of solid and liquid/ 

example water mix with sand/ when you pour the sand will remain in the 

filter paper/ dekat rumah pun ada penapis correct or not/ like kelapa/ parut 

santan/ will come out the kelapa parut will remain here/ penapis/ understand 

try the questions below// ( T24-U9-L) 

L : the ear is divided in to three parts/ the outer ear/ inner ear and middle ear/ in 

outer ear we have the ear spina collect sound waves and directs sound waves 

to the ear drum/ cuping telinga/ the eardrum vibrates sound waves/ ear drum 

meaning gegendang/ in the middle ear you have your ossicles/ oval window 

and eustachian tube/ what does your drum do?/ ( T31-U1-L) 

The bilingual educator L code-switches between two languages to explain terminology to 

students and to emphasise important points. The examples are: T16-U5-L what is 

combustion? Pembakaran combustion meaning pembakaran; T16-U19-L jisim is mass 

jirim is matter; T17-U23-L what is condensation in Bahasa Melayu? T17-U25-L 

kondensasi changes gas to liquid; T31-U1-L ear drum meaning gegendang. 

69

4.5.2 To confirm that the students have understood the subject matter 

Bilingual educator L code-switches to confirm that the students have understood the 

subject matter. 

L : apa yang you faham dan apa yang you tak faham/ heat is something which 

you all have done in primary right?/ pernah buat?/ sekolah rendah you buat 

tak?/ how many years already mudah lupa/ all young students can forget so 

easily/ what is heat?/ apa itu heat?/ is haba heat?/ ( TI6-U1-L) 

L : what is sublimation?/ pernah dengar?/ ( TI7-U31-L) 

L : so what happens is after the heat flow the matter bimetallic strip will 

bengkok/ and it will connect the current to flow/ and your fire alarm will start 

ringing/ the tracks in the rail way track pernah belajar dulu?/ ( TI8-U1-L) 

L : sebab banyak bahan- bahan di makmal sains ada simbol ini/ flammable 

faham ke?/ ( T23-U1-L) 

L : kenal peralatan dan fungsi perlatan tersebut/ faham ke / the gas jar is to 

collect gas/ round bottom flask/ buntutnya bulat/ ( T24-U3-L) 

L : volume is isipadu/ pernah belajar sukatan?/ volume is measured through 

measuring sylinder/ understand or not?/ ( T24-U7-L) 

L : yes vibrates at the same frequency as the sound waves/ bergetar the 

eustachian tube balances the air pressure/ seimbang on both sides of the ear 

drum/ in the inner ear we have the cochlea auditory nerves and semicircular 

canal/ the cochlea converts sound vibrations to nerve impulses/ faham ke?/ 

( T31-U3L ) 

The examples show that code-switching is necessary to make the students understand the 

subject matter by asking questions: T16-U1-L apa yang you faham dan apa yang you tak 

faham; T17-U31-L what is sublimation? pernah dengar? and T24-U7-L volume is 

isipadu pernah belajar sukatan? The educator code-switched at clause and sentence 

levels. 

70

4.5.3 To encourage students to participate in the lessons 

Bilingual educator L encourages students to participate in the class lesson by code- 

switching. 

L : pendidihan/ usually you boil what?/ ( T17-U12-L ) 

L : pernah belajar evaporation?/ ( T17-U14-L ) 

L : penyejatan/ what happens during penyejatan?/ ( T17-U18-L ) 

L : the name comes from the shape/ what is volume in bahasa?/ 

( T24-U5-L ) 

L : mana yang ada lever system?/ ( T25-U12-L ) 

L : many students not in class/ kenapa cuti puasa?/ ( T25-U21-L ) 

L : apa kandungan udara?/ ( T30-U1-L) 

From the examples above, the researcher can deduce that by code-switching the educator 

is creating a two way interaction between teacher and student. It becomes a pupil centred 

lesson. The educator by asking questions make the students to participate in the lessons: 

T17-U12-L pendidihan usually you boil what, T17-U14-L pernah belajar evaporation?, 

T25-U12-L mana yang ada lever system and T30-U1-L apa kandungan udara? The 

educator code-switches at sentence level. 

71

4.5.4 To establish relationship, humour and to have a conducive environment for 

teaching and learning. 

Humour creates a positive learning atmosphere and closer relationship with the students. 

L : 

L : 

L : 

so night time you must wear/ black colour/ but then what is the disadvantage 

if you walk in the dark nobody can see you/ so stick some lights to your 

baju/ or show your teeth so remember dark and dull objects absorb heat 

better than white and shiny objects ( T18-U3-L) 

kalau murid dapat salah saya/ ketuk kepala awak ( T20-U1-L) 

if you see a girl you must know her name/ kalau tak kenal mana boleh tak 

cinta/ ( T24-U1-L ) 

L : load in the center/ third class/ semua pandai sekarang lepas kata saya cekik 

baru jadi pandai/ all this while sleeping/ once i kejutkan baru bangun jadi 

pandai/ masa periksa siapa nak kejutkan you kalau sudah tidur?/ 

( T25-U7-L ) 

L : if you are not grown mentally than i have to send you all to the mental 

hospital/ to get your brain tighten/ pergi ke tampoi dan tanjung rambutan 

dulu baru masuk kelas sains ini/ what is the meaning of equilibrium?/ tahap 

keseimbangan/ jangan takut dengan kiraan/ tengok calculation sajer sudah 

kembang dan kecut/ ( T26-U9-L ) 

L : please bring i need it because there are lots of loose nuts here/ after you 

finish your exams your results will be out/ i need the nut cracker/ to crack 

some students here ( T27-U5-L ) 

L : paper cutter/ the girls/ tertarik dengan nutcracker next class we will continue 

boleh balik sekarang// ( T27-U13-L ) 

72

The examples above show that the humour is important so that the students will not be 

bored of the lessons: T20-U1-L kalau murid dapat salah saya ketuk kepala awak, 

T24-U1-L if you see a girl you must know her name kalau tak kenal mana boleh tak cinta 

and T27-U13-L paper cutter the girls tertarik dengan nutcracker next class we will 

continue boleh balik sekarang. The educator code-switches at sentence level. 

4.5.5 Time Constraint 

Acronym was used by the bilingual educator L to save time. 

L : 

for your PMR examination you need to study 27 chapters/ questions can 

come out from any of the 27 chapters/ ( T20-U1-L ) 

The bilingual educator L used the acronym PMR because students already know the 

meaning of PMR. The example is PMR T20-U1-L. 

4.5.6 Habitual reasons 

Bilingual educator L code-switch because of habitual reasons. 

L : ayam makan mentah/ no need to cook/ you like to eat ikan yang mentah/ 

ayam yang mentah/ suka makan?/ ( T16-U7-L ) 

L : / so waktu siang sea breeze/ ( T17-U3-L ) 

L : during day time what colour baju you must wear?/ ( T18-U1-L ) 

L : the following week subjective paper/ before cuti Raya/ cuti Deepavali/ cuti 

sekolah / PMR/ esok mula/ ( T25-U1-L ) 

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The sample code-switches because of habitual reasons: 

T25-U1-L the following week subjective paper before cuti Raya cuti Deepavali cuti 

sekolah PMR esok mula. The educator code-switches at phrase level even though the 

switching has nothing to do with the lessons. This phenomenon is because of habitual 

reasons- teachers usually think of holidays. 

The researcher observed that two different educators code-switch for similar reasons. 

Some code-switching took place to explain the scientific terms in Malay; fortunately, 

there are Malay words to substitute the English words; in some cases there were no 

valid reason for code-switching other than socio-linguistic reasons. Code-switching is 

necessary because the students subconsiously think in the Malay language but the 

students learn the subject in English. The research shows the teachers have to be 

bilingual to teach the science subjects in English. 

4.6 Other reasons 

4.6.1 Content of subject matter 

The content of the subject matter is also another reason for code-switching by the 

bilingual educators. There are many scientific words in the English language that have 

been translated into the Malay language, for example, the words oxygen, carbon 

dioxide, gas and receptor. The spelling in the Malay language is different. The 

researcher noted the educator code-switched because the words have been translated 

into the Malay language but the spelling is different from the English language. This 

is because the Malay language spelling is phonetic, whereas English language spelling 

is not phonetic. 

74

4.6.2 Background of Students 

Furthermore, the students who come for classes are from rural schools in Rawang in 

the district of Selangor Darul Ehsan. The students are not exposed to English 

language.The bilingual educator has to code-switch to make the lessons as effective as 

possible. The influence of the students’ mother tongue forced the educators to code- 

switch. 

4.7 Stages of code-switching 

As discussed in chapter 1, there are four stages of code-switching: the word, phrase, 

clause and sentence level. Table 4.11 and Table 4.12 illustrate the stages of code- 

switching detected from the transcription from bilingual educators R and L in the 

teaching of Form 1 and 2 science lessons. 

75

Table 4.10: Stages of Code- Switching of Bilingual Educator R 

T1U2R perolakan 

T2U1R baca 

T2U39R salah 

T2U41R 

T4U3R 

T1U12R 

betulkan 

pengangkutan 

FORM 1 SCIENCE R 

WORD 

CLAUSE 

fume can be a gas or liquid boleh jadi sebagai cecair. 

T2U9R lets say light bulb mentol yang ada disitu kalau katakan anda sentuh 

T7U7R siaran langsung piala dunia those days you have to read the news 

paper 

T3U5R gunung berapi 

T3U29R bidang-bidang 

T4U3R kapal terbang 

T5U1R gerak balas 

T5U1R persatuan-persatuan 

PHRASE (COMPOUND WORDS 

76

T1U58R 

SENTENCE 

lapan kali/ kalau bergerak dengan laju macam ini you boleh 

memberhentikan pergerakan bumi begitu banyak kuasa yang kamu ada 

lebih berkuasa daripada superman tapi superman pakai underwear 

T3U23R apa maksud nature effectively? menguruskan keadaan persekitaran 

dengan keadaan yang lebih baik 

T4U3R tripod has to be used untuk bikar retort stand atau kaki retort glass tube 

is also used untuk menggacau bahan kimia atau cecair asid atau 

alcohol tapi jangan guna tangan dan kacau nanti tangan hangus 

T8U7R kalau anda ingin kacau bahan kimia jangan guna tangan guna glass rod 

T10U7R panjang 

T10U7R jelaga 

T13U1R Getaran 

T10U9R pembalakan secara haram 

T11U1R kawasan lemak 

FORM 2 SCIENCE R 

WORD 

PHRASE (COMPOUND WORDS) 

77

T10U9R breathe boleh bernafas 

CLAUSE 

T12U1R ini lebih sensitive meaning lebih peka pahit bitter manis sweet salty 

sour/ 

SENTENCE 

T9U1R ada bawa tak nota minggu yang lalu woody bermaksud tumbuhan 

T12U1R 

T18U3L baju 

T22U3L rajin 

berkayu some examples of woody plants? yang ada batang yang keras 

dan tegak seperti pokok durian rambutan dan angasana 

police use dogs to detect because dogs can mengesan bau 1000 times 

deria bau anjing lebih baik daripada manusia haiwan juga dapat 

mengesan gempa bumi katakan anjing anda sering menyalak 

Table 4.11: Stages of Code- Switching of Bilingual Educator L 

T23U1L peralatan 

T24U9L Penapis 

FORM 1 SCIENCE L 

WORD 

78

CLAUSE 

T19U3L non luminous is very hot compared to luminious this is 

warna kuning and non luminous warna biru 

T16U25L bayu laut bayu darat 

T17U8L pengalir haba 

T21U5L bidang-bidang 

T24U9L corong penapis 

T24U9L kelapa parut 


SENTENCE 

T18U5L so goyang kaki duduk depan TV tak nak prepare for your 

form 1 

T26U11L pembinaan 

T28U3L rasa 

T28U3L elak 

T31U3L bergetar 

FORM 2 SCIENCE L 

WORD 

79

CLAUSE 

T26U9L what is the meaning of equilibrium? tahap keseimbangan 

T25U14L jongkang- jongkit 

T28U3L tapak kaki 

T31U1L cuping telinga 

T26U9L 


SENTENCE 

to get your brain tighten pergi ke Tampoi dan Tanjung Rambutan dulu 

baru masuk kelas sains ini 

80

4.7.1 Bilingual Educator R1 Switch Pattern 

Pie graf 4.12 shows the switch pattern of bilingual educator R in teaching Form 1 

science. The utterances were converted into percentage. At the word level the 

educator has 5% of switches and at the phrase level the educator has 4% of switches. 

At the clause and sentence level, the educator switched 41% and 50% respectively. In 

the sentence level there was a high percentage of switches. 

81

4.7.2 Bilingual Educator R2 Switch Pattern 

Pie graf 4.13 shows bilingual educator R has 3% at the word and phrase level. For the 

clause and sentence level, educator R has 50% and 44% respectively. It was noted by 

the researcher that educator R has more switches in the clause level 50% compared to 

the sentence level. This is because Form 2 students are more familiar with the science 

terminology. 

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4.7.3 Bilingual Educator L1 Switch Pattern 

The data above shows the switch utterance of bilingual educator L in teaching Form 1 

science. At the word and phrase levels, the educator switched 12% and 7% 

respectively, while at the clause and sentence level the switch pattern was 65% and 

16% respectively. The data reaveals that at the clause level there was a high 

percentage of switches. 

83

4.7.4 Bilingual Educator L2 Switch Pattern 

The pie graf above shows the switch patterns of bilingual educator L in teaching Form 

2 science class.17% of switches were at the word level. At the phrase level, there were 

14% switches. At the clause and sentence level, there were 56% and 13% switches 

respectively. The highest percentage was at the clause level for bilingual educator L 2. 

84

4.8 Frequency of Language use in Code-Switching among the Educators 

From the graph above, the researcher noted that the bilingual educators had a high 

tendency to switch in the clause and sentence level compared to phrase and word 

level. For the Form One and Form Two science, bilingual educator R has 41% and 

50% of switches in the clause level. Bilingual educator L on the other hand, has 65% 

and 56% of switches in the Form One and Two science class. In comparison, bilingual 

educator L has more switches at the clause level. Bilingual educator R on the other 

hand has 50% and 44% of switches in the sentence level for the Form One and Two 

science. Bilingual educator L has 16% and 13% of switches for the sentence level in 

the Form One and Two science class. 

For the word level, bilingual educator R has 5% of switches in the Form One class 

and 3% in the Form Two classes. Bilingual educator L has 12% and 17% of switches 

85

in the Form One and Two class. At the phrase level bilingual educator R, has 4% of 

switches in the Form One class and 3% switches in the Form Two science class. 

Bilingual educator L on the other hand has 7% and 14% of switches in the Form One 

and Two classes. Both the educators have higher percentage of code switches at the 

clause and sentence levels compared to the word and phrase level. 

The graph reveals that educator L code-switches least at sentence level. On the other 

hand, educator R has greater percentage of code-switches at sentence level. At word 

level, educator R code-switches least while educator L has greater percentage of code- 

switches. This clearly shows that educator L is more proficient in the English 

language compared to educator R. 

This may reveal that there may be different patterns of code-switching among people 

with different levels of spoken fluency in each of the languages. It is also important to 

observe the differences as it may reveal that not all teachers teaching science at the 

Lower Secondary Level code-switch in the same way.The way in which they code- 

switch may depend upon relative proficiency in each of the two languages involved. 


The reseacher identified several reasons for code-switching by the bilingual educators 

in teaching of science in the form One and Two classes. The researcher classified the 

switch utterances at the word, phrase, clause and sentence levels based on 31 tapes. 

The frequency count was also analysed to compare the switch utterances made by the 

bilingual educators. 

86

In the study, the researcher identified six reasons for code-switching: (i) to emphasise 

and to explain scientific terminology (ii) to confirm the students have understood the 

subject matter (iii) to encourage students to participate in the lessons (iv) to establish 

relationship, humour and to have a conducive environment for teaching and learning 

(v) to save time (vi) habitual reasons. Other factors are (i) content of subject and (ii) 

language background of students. 

Code-switching will continue to play an important role in teaching science.The 

researcher noted that the two educators code-switched for similar reasons.The 

researcher feels that code-switching revitalizes, reinstates and remotivates the students 

to learn the science lessons. 

87



CONCLUSION 

In this chapter the researcher will discuss the findings based on the data given in 

chapter four. The researcher makes a detail analysis of the data from a series of code- 

switched utterances of the bilingual educators. The researcher shows how code- 

switching affect the teaching and learning process. The researcher feels that future 

research is needed in code-switching from socio-linguistic and psycholinguistic point 

of view. 

5.1 The Findings 

The research was conducted to analyse the code-switched utterances of two bilingual 

educators in the teaching of the science subjects in lower secondary One and Two in 

Bandar Country Homes Rawang. The main objective of this research is to identify the 

reasons for code-switching of the bilingual educators in the teaching and learning 

process in a formal setting. 

It was in the year 2003 that the conversion of medium of instruction teaching science 

subjects in English took place. Students in the rural schools find it a difficult task to 

comprehend the basic terminology of the science subjects. In the rural areas, there are 

few kindergarten schools; hence it maybe said that these students are not exposed to 

English words. So, the bilingual educators tend to use two languages - the Malay 

88

language and the English language to explain the scientific terminologies. Since 

science is an important subject - stepping-stone to various fields such as medicine, 

engineering and other professions, they have to learn science in the English language. 

English is a language of science and technology but students can learn science in 

English if the educators code-switch. The researcher has come to this conclusion 

based on the answers given by the educators. 

The bilingual educators code-switch from English to Malay for confirmation of the 

students understanding of the subject matter. The researcher noted that the students 

responded well when the subject matter was explained in the Malay language. 

It was noted by the researcher, that the bilingual educators code-switched to 

encourage students to participate in the lessons. Further more the educators used this 

strategy to create a fear free environment for the students because students who felt 

that they were weak in the English language and lacked confidence could answer in 

the Malay language. Here the choice to answer the question was given to the students 

and this was a motivation factor for the students to perform well in the science 

subject. 

The bilingual educators code-switch to establish a friendly relationship with the 

students and to create a conducive environment for teaching and learning. This 

strategy was used by the bilingual educators so that the students would look forward 

to the lessons and realise that science is a subject that was fun and interesting; code- 

switching does not create a boring environment for the students. The educators used 

creative methods such as humour to make learning interesting. Using two languages 

89

to teach the science subject is more effective since the students are very familiar with 

the Malay language. This conclusion is base from by listening to the tapes that were 

recorded by the researcher. 

Another reason for code-switching is to save time. The pupils have already mastered 

the basic principles of Malay language. There are Malay words for the scientific terms 

such as radiation, condensation reflection, eclipse and ear drum. The educators save 

time when they give the equivalents in Malay to substitute English words. Other wise, 

the educators have to give an elaborate and lengthy explanation in English to make 

the students comprehend the meanings. 

The bilingual educators also code switch because of habitual reasons. Since Malaysia 

is a multi-ethnic and a multi-lingual country, many languages are being spoken. It is a 

common norm or habitual to use more than one language in discourse. According to 

Maya Khemlani, “It is seen as a habitual reason to code-switch between a word or 

phrase level not because of the lack of vocabulary by the interlocutors but a 

accustomed and a habitual reason”. (Maya Khemlani 2003: 19) 

Besides habitual reasons, the bilingual educators also code switch because of 

influence of other subjects such as mathematics. Since 2003, science and mathematics 

are taught in the English language starting from primary One. The educators were 

sceptical about the effectiveness of teaching science and mathematics in the English 

language since the Malay language has been used as a medium of instruction teaching 

science since the year 1983. The students that the researcher observed started to learn 

science in the English language when they were in primary Five. 

90

Text books and revision books are written in the English language. Although the text 

books are provided with a glossary, giving definitions of scientific terms, students still 

require explanations of concepts in the Malay language. The bilingual educators were 

also more comfortable to explain these examples in the Malay language since both of 

these educators are familiar with the Malay language. Bandar Country Homes is 

located in the outskirts of Kuala Lumpur; many of these students are not exposed to 

the English language. The Educators felt that lack of exposure and communication 

skills in the English language had made the students stagnant in the field of science 

and technology. Students in rural schools are not able to understand basic terminology 

of scientific terms so, the educators have to clarify the meanings in the Malay 

language. Code-switching is also used as a teaching tool to make students understand 

the terminology. The researcher has come to this conclusion based on the answers 

given by the educators. 

The students themselves code-switch because of various reasons: lack of vocabulary, 

lack of confidence in speaking the English and lack of knowledge in science. The 

researcher has come to this conclusion from listening to the tapes and observing the 

lessons. 

The bilingual educators code switch for other reasons. In an interview conducted by 

the researcher, the researcher noted that there are four other reasons as to why the 

bilingual educators used the Malay language and the English language simultaneously 

to teach the science subjects. 

91

i. Social status 

The English language is known to be the world language. The tremendous 

expansion of English language is something of a phenomenon while no other 

language has a history of acceptance over such a diverse field. Through 

globalisation and education, the English language plays an important role in 

our society. One of the aspects of being knowledgeable is also being able to 

communicate and converse in the English language.It is a well known fact that 

English language is necessary to learn science and technology. 

ii. Implementation process 

Beginning in 2003, the government used English as a medium of teaching all 

science subjects in the primary and secondary schools. In January 2003, a mixed 

medium of instruction was introduced to year One students in primary schools, 

they learnt science and mathematics in the English language, other subjects are 

still being taught in the Malay language. Chinese and Tamil vernacular primary 

schools still conduct classes in Mandarin and Tamil respectively. Tamil schools 

have begun to use the English language to teach science and mathematics, while 

Chinese schools teach science and mathematics in both the English language 

and Mandarin. 

iii. Examination Board policies 

The Penilaian Menengah Rendah (PMR) or also known as the Lower Secondary 

Evaluation or formerly known as the Sijil Rendah Pelajaran (SRP) or Lower 

92

Certificate of Education (LCE) is an examination to select students to enter 

either the Science stream or Arts stream. Students attempting this examination 

either answer the Science and Mathematics paper in the English language or in 

the Malay language. Candidates are given a choice to choose between two 

languages when answering the question papers. Students sitting for the SPM 

exam can answer the mathematics and science subjects either in Malay or in 

English. The researcher makes a guess that the rural school candidates may be 

more inclined to answer the mathematics and science questions in Malay. 

iv. Educational Background of Educators 

In the past, the medium of instruction was in the Malay language. The educators 

have obtained their education in the national language in their primary and 

secondary schools. Even at the University level, the educators noted that most 

classes were conducted in the Malay language. The educators also use the Malay 

language to communicate with other teachers, and the administrators in Pusat 

Tuition Jaguh Gemilang, and to interact with parents and other tutors. 

The educators code-switch at word level, they code-switch at phrase level, they code- 

switch at clause level and they code-switch at sentence level. More code-switches 

took place at clause and sentence levels compared to the word and phrase levels. 

Malaysia is a multi-lingual, multi-ethnic and multi-cultural society. Multilingualism 

or bilingualism is practiced as a norm and embedded in our Malaysian education 

system. Code-switching is a way of life and is practised for functional, sociolinguistic 

93

and psycholinguistic reasons. Psycholinguistic reason may be considered as motivated 

by the subconscious mind. 

5.2 Conclusion and Suggestions 

It can be concluded that code-switching can be seen as a common scenario in the 

context of teaching and learning in the Malaysian education system only for science 

and maths hopefully and not for English language classes. The researcher feels that 

code-switching does not adversely affect the English language. The bilingual 

educators have to be proficient in both languages to teach the science subject. 

Analysis of the audio recording shows that, code-switching occurs at all levels but 

more frequently at the clause and sentence levels. The researcher also noted that the 

educators spent a lot of time to explain scientific terms to the students. 

It is sad to note that the students are not aware that the English language plays an 

important part to learn science and technology; consequently, they do not become 

proficient in the English language. As a result, the students are over dependent on the 

educators for explanations. Science textbooks that are provided by the Ministry of 

Education in Malaysia to government schools are free. Nevertheless, these books are 

only provided to students who can not afford to buy them. The text books have a 

glossary to help students to identify scientific terms; but the glossary provided in the 

text books is not sufficient. The syllabus has been designed for post UPSR (Ujian 

Pencapaian Sekolah Rendah) students to study the science subjects in English in form 

One and Two. The researcher suggest that the syllabus must include interesting 

activities, puzzles, games and experiments to make learning fun and informative for 

94

pupils. These activities should include useful word boxes providing English-Malay 

translations of common scientific terms to help pupils get used to the words in 

English. 

Schools should have more science books that have been translated from the English 

language to the Malay language. Teacher training colleges should also train teachers 

to teach the science subjects in two languages. Through bilingualism, teachers are 

able to provide knowledge to students in a systematic manner. The Ministry of 

Education should also conduct frequent workshops to teachers teaching the science 

subjects. 

By sharing information, teachers are able to identify the common problems faced by 

educators and students in this subject. Frequent workshops help teachers to develop a 

proper methodology. These steps have to be taken to ensure the quality of teaching 

and learning is maintained and further improved so that the future generation can 

compete with the globalised world. 

Both educators feel that code-switching is necessary to teach science in a multi-ethnic 

classroom. It must be stressed that code-switching is a universal phenomena which 

occurs at all levels of society, irrespective of race, religion, sex and age. Educators 

who code-switch help students to understand better, faster and make the students feel 

more comfortable to study the science subject. 

95

English Language 

Diagram 5.0: To Illustrate Varieties 

The diagram above illustrates the mixed varieties that were formed during the process 

of teaching by the bilingual educators. The mixed varieties include code-swiching at 

the word, phrase clause and sentence levels in the teaching of lower secondary 

science. The mixed varieties of two languages were used as a common teaching tool 

and aid for the students to understand the subject matter. The shaded part represents 

the language in contact where mutual change on different level takes place. Code- 

switching did not take place in the unshaded areas. New words can be coined, hence 

many scientific words in the English language have been borrowed into the Malay 

language, for example the words oxygen, carbon dioxide are spelt as oksigen and 

karbon dioksida in the Malay language. Translators have to be aware of this 

phenomenenon as students can make spelling mistakes while answering the science 

question papers in the English language. 

Varieties 

Malay Language 

96

5.3 For Further Investigations 

The study of socio-linguistics focuses on the relationship between language and 

society. The complexity of human society of linguistic codes and registers underline 

the fact that it is patterned, and it is embedded in the human social experience. In 

Malaysia, there is still a need to conduct further research from socio-linguistic and 

psycholinguistic point of view. 

The future research in the field of sociolinguistics should also focus on socio-cultural 

aspects that affect learning science in the English language. Future researchers should 

conduct research on how socio-economic backgrounds of bilingual educators affect 

code-switching. Besides that, family background, gender and education too play a 

vital role on why educators code-switch. Students’ social background affects the 

teachers teaching strategy. Besides that, ever-changing new educational policies have 

to be monitored at all times because it has a domino effect on the teachers and 

students. Implementors and planners have to conduct indepth research before coming 

up with a policy. Policy-makers have to foster greater multicultural values when a 

policy is implemented because the infrastructure of knowledge is not only based on 

the instructors but also the policy that they are heavily dependent upon. 

The psycholinguistic point of view also affects code-switching. Freudian slip says that 

an error in speech or physical action is believed to be caused by the “subconscious 

mind”. These thoughts are consciously repressed and then subconsciously released. 

The researcher feels that further research should be done on the working of the 

subconscious mind to find out to what extent the subconscious mind affects code- 

97

switching. Eventhough, this study is based from sociolinguistic point of view, and 

psycholinguistic do play an important role in code-switching. In some way 

psycholinguistic do have an influence on sociolinguistic. 

We are living in an ever-changing world, and the only thing that is constant is change. 

Therefore, we need to keep on doing research on pedagogy to create a knowledge- 

based nation, to achieve success in the globalised and competitive world. 

98

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