Friend Influence on Prosocial Behavior: The Role of Motivational ...
Friend Influence on Prosocial Behavior: The Role of Motivational ...
Friend Influence on Prosocial Behavior: The Role of Motivational ...
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154<br />
It is likely that these significant relati<strong>on</strong>s partly reflect the fact<br />
that adolescents who dem<strong>on</strong>strate <strong>on</strong>e type <strong>of</strong> social competence<br />
(i.e., making friends) <strong>of</strong>ten display other types as well. Of additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
interest, however, is whether these relati<strong>on</strong>s also reflect a<br />
process <strong>of</strong> friend influence (Berndt, 1999; Hartup, 1996). As noted<br />
by Hartup and Stevens (1997), theoretical models to explain the<br />
process <strong>of</strong> friend influence are scant. However, some scholars<br />
(e.g., Berndt, 1999; Wentzel et al., 2004) have adopted a sociallearning<br />
perspective to explain this process. For instance, individuals<br />
might develop specific behavioral styles or interests because<br />
these are c<strong>on</strong>sidered to be desirable characteristics <strong>of</strong> their close<br />
friends (Bukowski & Hoza, 1989; Hartup, 1996; Hartup &<br />
Stevens, 1997). Specifically, the tenets <strong>of</strong> observati<strong>on</strong>al learning<br />
(e.g., Bandura, 1986) support the noti<strong>on</strong> that if a friend models<br />
certain types <strong>of</strong> behavior, an individual is likely to behave like the<br />
friend subsequently, because exposure to modeled behavior is<br />
frequent and affectively charged.<br />
Adolescents report greater frequency in observing their friends’<br />
behavior than their n<strong>on</strong>friends’ behavior (Crockett et al., 1984).<br />
Moreover, friendships typically are characterized by str<strong>on</strong>g emoti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
b<strong>on</strong>ds, thereby increasing the likelihood that friends will<br />
imitate each other’s behavior (Berndt & Perry, 1986). Given the<br />
str<strong>on</strong>g emoti<strong>on</strong>al b<strong>on</strong>ds between friends (Berndt & Perry, 1986),<br />
especially during adolescence, it is plausible that friends might<br />
mimic each other’s behavior. <strong>The</strong>refore, friend influence by way<br />
<strong>of</strong> observati<strong>on</strong>al learning is most likely to occur when (a) the<br />
affective quality <strong>of</strong> a friendship is high, such that a friend provides<br />
an important source <strong>of</strong> nurturance to the individual, and (b) the<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong> frequency and friendship stability between an individual<br />
and a friend is high, such that they spend a significant amount<br />
<strong>of</strong> time together.<br />
Bandura (1986) further argued that although behavior can be<br />
learned by observing others, it is likely to be enacted to the extent<br />
that an individual is motivated to do so. <strong>The</strong>refore, an individual’s<br />
behavior might become more similar to a friend’s behavior because<br />
<strong>of</strong> a change in underlying motivati<strong>on</strong>al processes, such as<br />
goals and values. In the current study, therefore, we predicted that<br />
the affective quality, interacti<strong>on</strong> frequency, and stability <strong>of</strong> a<br />
friendship would moderate the relati<strong>on</strong> between a friend’s prosocial<br />
behavior and an individual’s goal pursuit. In turn, an individual’s<br />
prosocial goal pursuit was predicted to relate to an individual’s<br />
prosocial behavior, thereby providing a pathway between<br />
friends’ and individuals’ prosocial behavior. A prosocial goal was<br />
defined as a cognitive representati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> the extent to which an<br />
individual would like to display prosocial behavior in a given<br />
situati<strong>on</strong> (Ford, 1992; Wentzel, 1994); goal pursuit marks the<br />
frequency with which individuals see themselves as trying to<br />
achieve the goal. Pers<strong>on</strong>al goals are <strong>on</strong>e comp<strong>on</strong>ent <strong>of</strong> a larger<br />
system <strong>of</strong> motivati<strong>on</strong> that includes the directi<strong>on</strong> (pers<strong>on</strong>al goals),<br />
energizati<strong>on</strong> (emoti<strong>on</strong>al arousal), and regulati<strong>on</strong> (pers<strong>on</strong>al agency)<br />
<strong>of</strong> behavior (see Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Ford, 1992).<br />
In summary, although the similarity <strong>of</strong> friends’ behavior has<br />
been noted for some time (Kandel, 1978a, 1978b), the process by<br />
which friends influence <strong>on</strong>e another is less well understood. In the<br />
current study, we examined how friendship stability and the affective<br />
quality and interacti<strong>on</strong> frequency between friends increased<br />
the likelihood that a friend’s prosocial behavior would motivate an<br />
individual to behave prosocially. In turn, motivati<strong>on</strong> to behave<br />
prosocially was posited to be related directly to displays <strong>of</strong> proso-<br />
BARRY AND WENTZEL<br />
cial behavior (e.g., Wentzel, 1994), as shown in Figure 1. According<br />
to Kandel (1978a), the similar behavior exhibited by friends is<br />
likely the result <strong>of</strong> two distinct processes: selecti<strong>on</strong> and influence.<br />
Similarity am<strong>on</strong>g friends explains, in part, why individuals become<br />
friends (Hallinan & Williams, 1990); however, friends’<br />
characteristics explain change in adolescents’ behavior over time<br />
(Berndt & Keefe, 1995). Research designs typically have c<strong>on</strong>founded<br />
selecti<strong>on</strong> with influence by not accounting for the extent<br />
to which two friends are similar at the point <strong>of</strong> friendship formati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
<strong>The</strong>refore, to study influence, <strong>on</strong>e must c<strong>on</strong>trol for selecti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In the current l<strong>on</strong>gitudinal study, we did this by examining the<br />
extent to which friends’ behavior at Time 1 predicted individuals’<br />
behavior at Time 2 while taking into account individuals’ behavior<br />
at Time 1.<br />
Research Questi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
In the current study, we examined the processes by which a<br />
friend’s prosocial behavior is related to change in an individual’s<br />
prosocial behavior over 1 year. Two specific questi<strong>on</strong>s were<br />
addressed:<br />
1. Does prosocial goal pursuit provide a pathway that links a<br />
friend’s prosocial behavior and an individual’s (i.e., target’s)<br />
prosocial behavior? Target’s prosocial goal pursuit was believed to<br />
explain the associati<strong>on</strong> between a friend’s prosocial behavior at<br />
Time 1 and change in target’s prosocial behavior over 1 year.<br />
2. To what extent do friendship characteristics <strong>of</strong> affective<br />
quality, interacti<strong>on</strong> frequency, and friendship stability moderate<br />
the relati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> a friend’s prosocial behavior to an individual’s<br />
prosocial goal pursuit? <strong>The</strong>se relati<strong>on</strong>s (depicted in Figure 1) were<br />
examined while taking into account sex, grade, and ethnicity;<br />
research has documented that prosocial behavior varies as a functi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> these variables (Carlo, Hausmann, Christiansen, & Randall,<br />
2003; Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998; Fabes & Eisenberg, 1996 [as cited<br />
in Fabes, Carlo, Kupan<strong>of</strong>f, & Laible, 1999]).<br />
Participants<br />
Method<br />
Students attending a suburban public high school in the New York<br />
metropolitan area participated in the 2-year l<strong>on</strong>gitudinal study. <strong>The</strong> median<br />
annual household incomes for the two towns that comprised the high<br />
school student populati<strong>on</strong> were $106,208 and $101,991 (U.S. Bureau <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Census, 2000). <strong>The</strong> Time 1 sample c<strong>on</strong>sisted <strong>of</strong> 287 9th-grade (n 145)<br />
and 10th-grade (n 142) students, and the l<strong>on</strong>gitudinal sample c<strong>on</strong>sisted<br />
<strong>of</strong> 265 9th-grade (n 134) and 10th-grade (n 131) students. Data were<br />
collected in the spring <strong>of</strong> each c<strong>on</strong>secutive year. All students participated<br />
unless parental permissi<strong>on</strong> was denied (n 26), the students were absent<br />
Figure 1. Proposed c<strong>on</strong>ceptual model <strong>of</strong> friend influence.