use of tumor markers in testicular, prostate, colorectal, breast, and ...

16 Use of Tumor Markers in Testicular, Prostate, Colorectal, Breast, and Ovarian Cancers
Table 6. NACB Recommendations for the Clinical Use of PSA Serum Markers in the Management of Prostate Cancer
NACB Recommendations Strength of
Marker Application (2008) LOE* Recommendation** Reference
PSA Early detection (with DRE) Yes III B (136, 183, 521, 522)
Early Detection: Age-specific No Expert B (146)
reference ranges opinion
Staging/prognosis Yes III B (193, 201, 205, 206,
523-526)
Surveillance/monitoring Yes III B (527, 528)
% fPSA Differentiation of prostate Yes III B (160, 529)
cancer from benign
prostatic disease when
total PSA is between
2-10 g/L
Abbreviations: NACB, National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry; PSA, prostate-specific antigen; LOE, level of evidence; DRE, digital
rectal examination; %fPSA, percent free prostate-specific antigen.
*LOE (120): level 1, evidence from a single, high-powered, prospective, controlled study that is specifically designed to test the marker, or
evidence from a meta-analysis, pooled analysis or overview of level II or III studies; level II evidence from a study in which marker data
are determined in relationship to prospective therapeutic trial that is performed to test therapeutic hypothesis but not specifically designed
to test marker utility; level III, evidence from large prospective studies; level IV, evidence from small retrospective studies; level V, evidence
from small pilot studies.
**Strength of recommendation (520): A = High [Further research is very unlikely to change the Panel’s confidence in the estimate of
effect]; B = Moderate [Further research is likely to have an important impact on the Panel’s confidence in the estimate of effect and
is likely to change the estimate; C = Low [Further research is very likely to have an important effect of the Panel’s confidence in the
estimate of effect and is likely to change the estimate; D = Very low [Any estimate of effect is very uncertain.].
outcome of prostate cancer (126-130). Also, the lack in specificity
of the PSA test is less critical in monitoring patients with
a prostate cancer diagnosis for whom PSA is the most important
marker in evaluating response to therapeutic interventions
and in detecting tumor relapse. Although potentially valuable
as part of multivariate panels to identify aggressive cancers
and/or cancer recurrence, measurement of prostatic acid phosphatase
alone does not provide any clinically useful information
additional to PSA measurement (131, 132), and therefore
is not recommended by the NACB.
NACB Prostate Cancer Panel Recommendation 1:
Choice of Tumor Marker for Treatment of Patients With
Prostate Cancer
PSA is currently the most useful serum tumor marker in
treatment of prostate cancer patients and is required in all
states of the disease [LOE, III; SOR, A].
Population-based median levels are lower than 0.6 g/L for
men 50 years, the vast majority of whom have yet to develop
any signs or symptoms of prostate cancer or benign enlargement
of the gland (130, 133, 134). The 80th centile is close to 1 g/L
and the 90th centile is about 1.25 g/L (130). An upper limit of
normal according to the 95th percentile for men 50 years has
never been implemented in clinical practice, but would correspond
to a PSA level of about 1.5 g/L. A modest increase in
PSA levels in older men reflects a higher frequency of benign
prostate conditions at higher age. Population-based demographics
of PSA levels for 50 to 70-year-old men show that 8% to
9% of these men have PSA levels 4.0 g/L, while 11% to
12% have PSA levels 3.0 g/L, and as many as 20% of all
men have serum PSA levels 2.0 g/L (135).
In men who present with modestly elevated levels of PSA
in serum (ie, 4 to 10 g/L), there is extensive evidence showing
that histopathologic examination of tissue harvested by systematic
prostate biopsies confirms presence of prostate cancer
in 25% to 35% of these men (136, 137). When serum PSA levels
rise above 10 g/L, the cancer-specificity of the test is 40%
to 50% or higher. Current recommendations in the United
States suggest that most men older than 50 years should have
annual prostate cancer screening with PSA and digital rectal
examination (DRE), and that men should be advised to have
biopsies when the DRE is abnormal or when the PSA level in
serum is 4.0 g/L (138). The NICE guidelines conclude that
the serum PSA level alone is a poor predictor of the presence
of prostate cancer and should not automatically lead to a
prostate biopsy, particularly as many cancers diagnosed on this
basis alone will be of low risk, causing little or no impact on
life expectancy (121, 139).
These recommendations all have some limitations, as has
recently been discussed (140). The PSA cut-off of 4.0 g/L
represents a clinical decision limit that was introduced on the
basis of a single report evaluating the optimal combination of
sensitivity and specificity of the PSA test in a study cohort, and
the distribution of values observed in this original study may
no longer apply (141). It is debatable whether a PSA cut-point
lower than 4 g/L should be recommended. Also debatable is
whether decisions to recommend prostate biopsy should be
based solely on a single PSA cut-point value (eg, 4 g/L).