linguistic analysis - Professor Binkert's Webpage - Oakland University

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Copyright © The Langtech Corporation 2012 The Langtech Corporation 643 Hazy View Lane Milford, Michigan 48381-2159 All rights reserved, including those of translation into foreign languages. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purposes of criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.
PREFACE This book is not a traditional introductory textbook for linguistics. Although many of the traditional topics are discussed in the following chapters, the book does not aim at a comprehensive summary of the discipline. Rather, the intent is to present to the student a unified theory of human language which demonstrates specifically that the structure of human language is not arbitrary and that it derives directly from genetically determined faculties of human beings. The essential nature of human language is not a matter of choice, convention, or whim. Cultural diversity among different societies and linguistic diversity among different languages and dialects reflect superficial variations on this basic, biologically determined structure. The central theme of this text is quite simple: human language reflects the capacities and limitations of human beings. There are three facts supporting this theme. First, all normal human beings, regardless of the languages they speak and the cultures they represent, have the same basic biological makeup. Second, all children learn whatever language they are exposed to in whatever cultural setting; children are not predestined to learn specific languages. Third, language acquisition in all children proceeds in a uniform and predictable fashion despite widely varying environmental conditions. These facts clearly indicate that the structure of all languages must be based on the nature of human beings. This is not an original idea; indeed, much of the current work in linguistics in all theoretical frameworks proceeds from this position. For example, it is basic to Noam Chomsky’s concept of linguistic universals. Where this text differs from most introductory texts is in the manner in which the various subdivisions within linguistics are described. At every point possible, the development of our theme will be bolstered by specific arguments that have reference to human biology and psychology. All components of language will be related to each other, rather than presented as discrete units, so that elements of linguistic structure, change, and variation are integrated. Our discussion of different languages and different cultures will show how linguistic divergence is constrained by linguistic universals. Generally, linguistics departments on university campuses are grouped with the social sciences (psychology, sociology, anthropology, etc.) or humanities (philosophy, music, art, literature, etc.). In either of these contexts, linguistics is in a distinctive position to make contributions to the history of ideas. Linguistic argumentation, that is, the justification of grammars, is a highly developed methodology that can be used to make predictions about the nature of man and mind. Traditional justification of theoretical models in the natural and physical sciences derives from experimentation. The techniques of justification in biology and physics are familiar to every student. In linguistics also, it is possible to formulate hypotheses of considerable rigor and subject them to scientific scrutiny that leads directly to their verification or refutation. This book aims to show the introductory student how this is possible.
Page 1: LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS LECTURE NOTES A
Page 5 and 6: TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface. . . . .
Page 7 and 8: 3.3 Traditional and Structural Gram
Page 9 and 10: INTRODUCTION: LINGUISTICS AND THE J
Page 11 and 12: college and career readiness (The M
Page 13 and 14: (3) a. Should colleagues be discipl
Page 15 and 16: elationship between gas mileage and
Page 17 and 18: Several years ago, Ford Motor Compa
Page 19 and 20: Since the principles in (9) are obj
Page 21 and 22: Now notice that there are actually
Page 23 and 24: Since language is a product of huma
Page 25 and 26: Native speakers of English understa
Page 27 and 28: to introduce students to systematic
Page 29: Work for an advertising company: Co
Page 32 and 33: 24 Again, there is a specific princ
Page 34 and 35: 26 When people read the sentences i
Page 36 and 37: 28 1.2 THE BRANCHES OF GRAMMAR AND
Page 38 and 39: 30 (28) a. Mary fell... *under the
Page 40 and 41: 32 of the language gets into the ch
Page 42 and 43: 34 c. Time Three - about three mont
Page 44 and 45: 36 in all areas of development, inc
Page 46 and 47: 38 judgements about grammar, which
Page 48 and 49: 40 1.6 LINGUISTIC ARGUMENTATION Lin
Page 50 and 51: 42 The diagram in (37) is a proposa
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44 or, at least, readily clear afte
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46 1.7 UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR (UG) The d
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48 UG contains two types of univers
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50 While languages do have syntacti
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52 At the level of descriptive adeq
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54 verification for this distributi
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56 the p’s in tiptop). Therefore,
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58 (74) a. [Something] pleased the
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60 1.10 THE GENERALITY OF LINGUISTI
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62 As a third example of the genera
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64 As a fifth example of the genera
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66 c. Ungrammatical and Unacceptabl
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68 (98) RIGHT BRANCHING CONSTRUCTIO
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70 1.12 LANGUAGE VARIATION All huma
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72 Why not form direct questions in
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74 1.14 TYPES OF LANGUAGES It is na
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76 (116) AMBIGUITY (one sound, more
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78 Or consider which of the followi
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80 Neurological Changes Let us cons
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82 animals can do; therefore, it is
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84 We do not find such optimally ef
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86 thing, i.e., ambiguities like (1
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88 EXERCISES FOR CHAPTER ONE 1. Wha
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90 5. Find the words which express
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92 Can you think of other ways of d
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94 FIGURE ONE: THE VOCAL APPARATUS
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96 feature [±ROUND] to distinguish
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98 MANNER OF ARTICULATION STOP [-VO
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100 2.1.2.4 NASALS A fourth group o
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102 FIGURE SIX: DISTINCTIVE FEATURE
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104 articulation, but they are diff
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106 As these examples show, a sylla
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108 In examining English, phonologi
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110 [2] [+ASPIRATED] considerable b
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112 The necessity for both levels o
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114 2.3 PHONOTACTICS Further invest
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116 Morphemes have different phonet
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118 Notice that (30) involves a cha
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120 (32) a. The PST morpheme in Eng
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122 (45) a. If a suffix and the fin
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124 Vowels have many redundant feat
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126 Similarly, silent letters frequ
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128 VOWELS: SUMMARY OF ENGLISH SOUN
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EXERCISES FOR CHAPTER TWO 1. Transc
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132 2. Transcribe the following Eng
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134 runaway Saturday ricochet prot
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136 h. tense high front unrounded v
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138 b. Nontense vowels in the final
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140 12. Consider the following addi
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142 weird feared veered cared cord
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144 3. agree debris ennui Pawnee ma
Page 154 and 155:
146 APPENDIX B: PHONOLOGICAL RULES
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148 d. e. 8. a. Nasalize all vowels
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150 APPENDIX D: PHONOLOGY PROBLEM D
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152 APPENDIX F: ENGLISH VOWEL SHIFT
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154 (3) Root /fræg/ ‘break’: a
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156 about commands, people often as
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158 verified or falsified through a
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160 so the example is ambiguous. We
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162 3.2 ORDERING CONSTRAINTS With t
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164 OMISSION is the deletion of a p
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166 3.2.2 THREE OTHER DIAGNOSTICS T
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168 Given the reality of the chunk
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170 If AUX is part of the VERB PHRA
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172 (69) a. Generally the passenger
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174 (74) a. The new tenor from Ital
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176 Additional facts about tense th
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178 3.5 DETERMINERS AND THE INTERNA
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180 The grammar we are developing m
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182 In other words, determiners and
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184 constituents; braces indicate a
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186 3.6 THE ENDOCENTRICITY CONSTRAI
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188 3.7 THE LEXICON In order to gen
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190 (128) a. We made double the pro
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192 Astronomy is one of the oldest
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194 If we attempt to diagram the NP
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196 Note that each bracket on the l
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198 The data that we have observed
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200 Given these structures, we can
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202 The problem with the structures
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204 b. He decided on the boat. (on
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206 With this revision, we can diag
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208 With all the above revisions, i
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210 Summarizing, we have the follow
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212 The feature [+VBL] specifies th
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214 Within a particular kind of phr
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216 Since all categories on the X2
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218 (208) a. The school shows play
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220 The representations in (212) an
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222 Observe again that, by conventi
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224 In Japanese, a head final langu
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226 The complete RG morphosyntactic
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228 Given (231), we have solved the
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230 The need for three X levels abo
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232 The three level hypothesis for
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234 c. The boys made good models. [
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236 are two types of verbs in Engli
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238 3.14 NONTRANSFORMATIONAL GENERA
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240 The phrase “immediately C-com
Page 250 and 251:
242 3.16 EMPTY CATEGORIES As we hav
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244 (285) a. What i did the teacher
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246 Note that the matter is not sim
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248 (308) a. John pushed the door o
Page 258 and 259:
250 Returning to the main theme, su
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252 c. VOS. [ [ [ [ [ amat] ][ PRS]
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254 3.17.3 THE ORDERING OF V1 CONST
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256 This frame says that the order
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258 (352) a. He needs to give vent
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260 f. Further examples of particip
Page 270 and 271:
262 3.18.2 PROBLEMS WITH THE CLASSI
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264 This do must be distinguished f
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266 If we treat be as a main verb a
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268 The above analysis solves a mul
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270 (398) a. Have they done that? b
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272 Given (408), we see that all us
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274 3.18.5 PARSES ILLUSTRATING THE
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276 (422) Present Tense + Perfectiv
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278 (425) Conditional Tense + Perfe
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280 (427) Conditional Tense + Perfe
Page 290 and 291:
282 EXERCISES FOR CHAPTER THREE 1.
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284 Provide disambiguating diagrams
Page 294 and 295:
286 APPENDIX A: ANSWERS TO EXERCISE
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288 h. The boy could take the garba
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290 4. All of the following sentenc
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292 (2) = The man will look the str
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294 7. Draw RG diagrams for the fol
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296 h. The boy could take the garba
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298 c. They will probably read the
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300 b. Ron left the house messy. (1
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302 d. The prisoner of war spoke fo
Page 312 and 313:
304 APPENDIX B: LATIN SYNTAX Latin
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306 APPENDIX C: SUMMARY OF TREE STR
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308 7. Sentence with an intransitiv
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310 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS are used
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312 MORPHOLOGY Most grammars divide
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314 SUPPLEMENT TWO (PART I): TYPOLO
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316 GERMANIC: SUPPLEMENT THREE (PAR
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318 SUPPLEMENT FOUR (PART I): LANGU
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320 SUPPLEMENT FOUR (PART III): IND
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322 SUPPLEMENT FOUR (PART V): OTHER
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324 Luiseño [II] Luo [I] Maasai [I
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326
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328 (2) TRANSITIVE (DIRECT OBJECT C
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330 (4) COPULATIVE (PREDICATE COMPL
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332 (6) INTRANSITIVE WITH PREDICATE
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334 (8) TRANSITIVE (DIRECT OBJECT +
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336 b. TRANSITIVE (DIRECT OBJECT +
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338 (11) TRANSITIVE (DIRECT OBJECT
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340 (13) TRANSITIVE (DOUBLE OBJECT)
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342 (15) TRANSITIVE (SENTENTIAL COM
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344 The clause “I know that man i
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Page 358 and 359:
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356 (28) INTRANSITIVE (PREPOSITIONA
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358 (30) TRANSITIVE (PARTICLE + DIR
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Page 370 and 371:
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364 (36) TRANSITIVE (PREPOSITIONAL
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366 (2) The kitchen appliance facto
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368 (6) The soprano from a small to
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370 (2) We believe John to be compl
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372 SUPPLEMENT TEN: SAMPLE PARSES F
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374 (3) Gerundial Nominals (-ing) a
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Page 386 and 387:
Page 388 and 389:
380 The clause “I heard the tenor
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382 (4) Structural Representation:
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384 (9) Binding Relations: a. Chain
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386 k. The Subject Exclusion Condit
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388 (8) X3 elements are SPECIFIERS
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390 (11) TG (Transformational Gramm
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392 (13) RG (Residential Grammar) A
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394 MERGING FRAMES Merge 138 & 330
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396
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398 Bresnan, Joan. 1973. “The Syn
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400 Halle, Morris, Joan Bresnan, an
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402
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404 1. Evidence for cerebral latera
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406 11. A major defect of quantitat
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408 21. Which of the following is a
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410 32. When linguists attempt to r
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412 43. Pivot words are a. high in
Page 422 and 423:
SAMPLE TEST TWO LIN 180: LINGUISTIC
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416 5. Which of the following is th
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418 13. Which of the following is a
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420 21. Consider the following rule
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422 26. Which of the following rule
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424 30. The word indescribable has
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426 36. Which of the following is c
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428 43. Which of the following rule
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430 47. Which of the following feat
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SAMPLE TEST THREE LIN 180: LINGUIST
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3. Consider the following sentences
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8. In terms of all that we have dis
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12. Which of the following noun phr
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17. Which of the following sets of
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THE NEXT FOUR QUESTIONS (24 - 27) R
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30. If a sentence has the above str
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37. Which of the following is corre
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44. Which of the following sentence
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SAMPLE TEST FOUR LIN 180: LINGUISTI
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3. Consider the following sentences
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8. In terms of all that we have dis
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12. Which of the following sentence
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17. Which of the following sets of
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THE NEXT FOUR QUESTIONS (24 - 27) R
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30. If a sentence has the above str
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37. Which of the following nodes C-
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44. Which of the following is part
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INDEX Abstract Noun. . . . . . . .
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Exclamatory. . . . . . . . . . . .
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Natural Class. . . . . . . . . . .
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Release. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Page 484 and 485:
THE LANGTECH PARSER Enter a sentenc
Page 486:
478
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