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Analgesia Guide Pain, in the sense of physical pain, is a typical sensory experience that may be described as the unpleasant awareness of a noxious stimulus or bodily harm. For scientific and clinical purposes, pain is defined by the International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP) as “an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage”. Pain is part of the body’s defense system, triggering a reflex reaction to retract from a painful stimulus, and helps adjust behavior to increase avoidance of that particular harmful situation in the future. Given its significance, physical pain is also linked to various cultural, religious, philosophical, or social issues. The word “pain” does not equate with nociception, which is a preconscious neural activity that is normally necessary, but not sufficient, for pain. The term nociception was coined by Charles Scott Sherrington to make clear the difference between the physiological nature of nervous activity signaling tissue damage and the psychological response of pain to this physiological event. In animal models, we have to speak of “nociceptive transmission” instead of “pain transmission” since pain per se cannot be communicated. Nociception is the afferent activity produced in the peripheral and central nervous system by stimuli that have the potential to damage tissue. This activity is initiated by nociceptors that can detect mechanical, thermal or chemical changes, above a certain threshold. All nociceptors are free nerve endings of fastconducting myelinated A delta fibers or slow conducting unmyelinated C fibers, respectively responsible for fast, localized, sharp pain and slow, poorly localized, dull pain. Once stimulated, the nociceptors transmit signals that travel along the spinal cord and within the brain. Brain areas that are particularly studied in relation with pain include the somatosensory cortex which mostly accounts for the sensory discriminative dimension of pain, and the limbic system, of which the thalamus and the anterior cingulated cortex are said to be especially involved in the affective dimension. Nociception, even in the absence of pain, may trigger withdrawal reflexes and a variety of autonomic responses. The control of nociceptive transmission is complex and involves numerous peripheral and central mechanisms. In this pathological manifestation, pain is a major symptom in many medical conditions, significantly interfering with a person’s quality of life and general functioning. Diagnosis is based on characterizing pain in various ways, according to duration, intensity, type (dull, burning or stabbing), source, or location in body. Among the most frequent technical terms for referring to abnormal perturbations in pain experiences, there are: allodynia (pain due to a stimulus which does not normally provoke pain) hyperalgesia (an increase response to a stimulus which is normally painful) and hypoalgesia (diminished pain in response to a normally painful stimulus). As an example, allodynia is a clinical feature of many painful conditions, such as neuropathies, posttherapeutic neuralgia, fibromyalgia, and migraine. Usually pain stops without treatment or responds to simple measures such as resting or taking an analgesic, and it is then called “acute” pain. However, it may become intractable and develop into a condition called chronic pain, in which pain is no longer considered a symptom but an illness by itself. 31
Analgesia Guide Behavioral Test Tail Flick Test The Tail Flick Test, also known as the D’Armour and Smith Test, is a nociceptive assay based on the measured latency to avoid thermal stimulus in rodents. A thermal stimulus is applied on the tail; when the animal feels discomfort, it retracts by a sudden tail’s movement or flick. The tail flick time is then measured and used as an index of animal pain sensitivity. Reasons for Choosing This Test ➤ Thermal pain sensitivity (analgesia and hyperalgesia) ➤ Objective measurement: automated detection of animal reaction time ➤ Widely used in literature ➤ Sensitive for both mice and rats ➤ Allows multiple measurements in the same animal Reasons for Not Choosing This Test ➤ ➤ ➤ Mainly spinal response Animal habituation critical for obtaining reliable data Restrainer recommended for inexperienced users Related Human Disease/Applications ➤ ➤ Analgesic Drug Screening Basal Pain Sensitivity Phenotyping Behavioral Test Hot Plate Test The Hot-Plate Test evaluates thermal pain reflexes due to footpad contact with a heated surface. During the experiments, the animal is in a removable clear acrylic cylinder where the latency time to the first hind paw and/or jumping responses are measured. Reasons for Choosing This Test ➤ Thermal pain sensitivity (analgesia and hyperalgesia) ➤ Evaluates responses with both spinal (licking) or surpraspinal components (jumping) ➤ Widely used in literature ➤ No need for a restrainer ➤ Sensitive for both mice rats Reasons for Not Choosing This Test ➤ ➤ Subjective movement; visual detection of animal reaction time Allows only one evaluation per animal when jumping is measured Related Human Disease/Applications ➤ ➤ Analgesic Drug Screening Basal Pain Sensitivity Phenotyping 32 Harvard Apparatus • phone 508.893.8999 • toll free U.S. 800.272.2775 • fax 508.429.5732 • www.harvardapparatus.com Panlab | Harvard Apparatus • Spain +34934190709 • International +34834750697 • fax +34934750699 • www.panlab.com
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Page 7 and 8: Video Tracking SMART Video-Tracking
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Page 19 and 20: Sensory Motor & Coordination Guide
Page 23 and 24: Sensory & Motor Rota Rod for Motor
Page 25 and 26: Sensory & Motor Grip-Strength Meter
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Page 29 and 30: Sensory & Motor Small Animal Treadm
Page 31: Sensory & Motor HSE-HA Rodent Shock
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Page 37 and 38: Analgesia Tail Flick Meter BH2 52-9
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Page 53 and 54: Analgesia Pressure Application Meas
Page 55 and 56: Learning & Memory Guide Behavioral
Page 63 and 64: Attention Guide Behavioral Test 5/9
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Anxiety Guide Anxiety is the most c
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Anxiety Guide Behavioral Test Black
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Depression Guide The term “depres
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Anxiety & Depression Elevated Plus
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Anxiety & Depression Open Field Box
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Anxiety & Depression Black and Whit
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Anxiety & Depression Tail Suspensio
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Reward & Addiction Guide Behavioral
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Reward & Addiction Place Preference
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Reward & Addiction PPCWIN Software
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Food and Drink/Metabolism Guide Met
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Food and Drink/Metabolism Guide Beh
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Food & Drink/Metabolism Metabolism
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