Pacific Islands Environment Outlook - UNEP

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MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT 13 Atolls suffer from minimal surface water storage and limited exploitable groundwater resources. Freshwater lenses are governed by the interaction of rainfall volume and periodicity, tidal fluctuations, seepage, hydraulic conductivity, and abstraction rates. Once the lens, which is in a dynamic state of equilibrium, is contaminated (by saltwater intrusion, for example), the delicate balance between fresh and salt water may take years to re-establish in certain situations. If the contamination is from a land-based source (pesticides or leachate, for example), the problem may persist much longer. There is a growing consensus that global warming may lead to increased energy in the hydrological cycle and consequent greater intensity and frequency of extreme events (drought and flood). This, together with sea-level rise and, on limited land masses, increasing population pressure on the carrying capacity, is likely to further exacerbate the problem. In urban areas, fast-growing settlements without appropriate water supply and sanitation are not simply the inevitable result of rapid and uncontrolled population growth; they also suggest inadequate government investment in urban services as well as in the rural sectors. Urban centres have an increasingly high demand for water usage. In Tonga, demand for water has risen because of the higher standard of living and on Tongatapu it is estimated that potable water consumption increased almost tenfold over the 1970s–1980s, with the average daily consumption in Nuku’alofa now about 80 litres per person (Thistlethwaite, Sheppard and Prescott 1993). Tonga has highlighted the need for public education on conservation of water and promotes a roof water catchment and rainwater storage programme. Tonga has also embarked on a programme to reduce water loss in the reticulation system. In Guam, residential waste disposal by septic tank systems adds to nitrates in groundwater. Nitrates can reach unhealthy levels if urbanization is not served by central sewage treatment and disposal (Loerzel 1998b). In Fiji, though no data exist, there is a potential problem of diminishing groundwater and river water quality caused by the longterm use of fertilizers and pesticides in the many sugar cane farms. The impact on groundwater recharge and storage caused by the introduction of non-indigenous agriculture (pine forests, for example) is another activity whose impact has not been fully assessed. Industrial use of water, though limited in the Pacific, may provide a bigger concern through the waste it generates rather than the quantity consumed. Beer making, soft drink manufacture, fish processing and sugar refining are some of the larger users of water, as are activities associated with the tourism industry. Water is also used for hydroelectric power in some countries, such as Fiji, Samoa, PNG and Vanuatu, but this is not, in general, a competing or consumptive use. In some PICs there is a growing number of light industries and commercial agricultural practices, placing further demands on water supplies. In Fiji water bottling and hydroponics are two new users. Conclusion Water and sanitation as foundations of economic growth, social development and, in some cases, basic survival are vital. The protection and conservation of the supply and quality of water is expected to become an increasingly important issue in the Pacific of the future, especially if global climate change results in increasing rainfall variability in the region. Population growth, urbanization and damage to water catchments as a result of rampant deforestation, inappropriate agricultural activities and inadequate waste disposal are all likely to have an increasing impact on water supplies throughout the region. Improvement in water resource management is fundamental and will require a coordinated effort across many sectors, including: improvements in watershed management; reductions in deforestation rates; raising public awareness of wise water use and management; controls over agricultural activities, and improvements in waste disposal, especially sewage disposal facilities. In many of the PICs management of the resources that exist is a greater challenge than identifying new sources. A management structure or regime is often difficult to put in place when there is a policy vacuum, outdated legislation, insufficient budgetary provisions, an absence of technical capacity and the perennial problem of land ownership. Marine and coastal environment Developments over the past 100 years There are very few data on the historical pressures on the marine and coastal environment in the Pacific. However, it should be noted that an extensive database for offshore fisheries in the Pacific has been developed over the past few decades. There is evidence that, since the vast majority of Pacific islanders (excluding PNG) live in the coastal zone, there was considerable pressure on coastal and marine resources, which occasionally led to resource shortages. Local shortages
14 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT of marine resources were perhaps partly responsible for the development of traditional fisheries protection strategies such as closed seasons and areas, gear restrictions, and restrictions on species that could be caught and who could catch them (Johannes 1982). However, in most cases the pressure on marine and coastal resources is not considered to have been a serious issue until relatively recently (Baines 1984). Developments over the past 10 years As coastal areas are home to most of the region’s population, and the entire populations of the smaller low-lying islands, changes in population density, combined with new technology and changing development priorities, have had a particular impact on coastal environments. Uses of the coastal zone, or activities that take place within it, may be aquatic or terrestrial in PICs and typically include the following: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● fishing; coastal shipping; port and harbour development; water-based recreation, such as diving and other tourism-related activities; coastal construction – building of houses, hotels, commercial and industrial premises; infrastructure development – building of roads, installation of power and water supplies; sewage treatment and disposal; rubbish dumping, discharge of factory effluent and other forms of waste disposal; coastal protection – construction of sea walls or other forms of shoreline stabilization; agriculture; logging; mining of various types, including petrochemical extraction; modification of watercourses (dams, etc.). Imminent threats to marine and coastal resources resulting from these developments over the past ten years have been outlined in the Strategic Action Programme for International Waters in the Pacific Islands Region (SPREP 1999b). These include: ● ● ● nutrients derived from sewage, soil erosion and agricultural fertilizers; eutrophication; solid waste disposal, particularly in urban areas; sedimentation resulting from land clearance and increased erosion; ● ● physical alterations caused by destruction of fringing reefs, beaches, wetlands and mangroves for coastal development and by sand extraction; overexploitation of coastal food fisheries, particularly through destructive fishing methods. Specifically, increasing urbanization, dredging and landfill have caused erosion and sedimentation of reefs, sewage discharge has reduced water quality, reef fish are starting to be overexploited due to fishing pressure, rubbish is being dumped along the foreshore and nesting sea turtles have been eliminated from the area (Bryant et al. 1998; SPREP 1996). Land reclamation and natural erosion as a result of wave action is also regarded as an imminent threat to the marine environment by Cook Islands, Samoa and America Samoa (SPREP 1998a). Marine invasive species have been identified as an issue in some ports and coastal habitats. There is also a need to address ship-sourced marine pollution in the region (SPREP 1998a). Whilst not a serious problem in PICs, it is a concern and the threat is likely to increase as trade and economies develop further. The role of transit shipping and foreign fishing fleets in this issue should be highlighted. It should be noted that imminent threats to international (deep) waters and offshore areas are encouraging the Pacific island countries to control and fully utilize their EEZs. The coastal zone is extremely vulnerable and the irreversible nature of many impacts (such as the destruction of seagrasses, mangroves and reef habitats) make it an ideal indicator of the state of the environment in the Pacific. The information gaps are, however, once again serious, as illustrated by the international waters document (SPREP 1997a), which lists across three pages topics for which data are nonexistent or seriously deficient. Whilst land-based and coastal zone environmental issues are a recognized priority in the region, it is also important to appreciate the significance of the oceanic environment. By far the greatest area in the western and central Pacific is deep ocean. This supports, amongst other things, the world’s largest tuna fishery, which, with the exception of one species (Bigeye), is in relatively good health. Clearly fisheries resources represent a major focus for long-term economic development in the region. This has the capacity to finance consolidated revenue, with flow-on benefits for environmental areas not currently receiving attention. The challenge facing the region in terms of the oceanic environment is to
Page 1 and 2: PACIFIC ISLANDS ENVIRONMENT OUTLOOK
Page 3 and 4: Pacific Islands Environment Outlook
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Page 9 and 10: xi Introduction The Pacific islands
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Page 47 and 48: 36 POLICY RESPONSES sector reform p
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Page 71 and 72: 62 ACRONYMS Acronyms ACP ADB ALC AO
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Global Environment Outlook The Paci
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Pacific Islands Environment Outlook - UNEP

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