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Doctoral thesis for the degree <strong>of</strong> Doctor <strong>of</strong> Philosophy<br />
Report 34<br />
DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL-SCALE<br />
INTERMODAL FREIGHT TRANSPORTATION<br />
IN A SYSTEMS CONTEXT<br />
by<br />
Johan Woxenius<br />
Submitted to the<br />
School <strong>of</strong> Technology Management and Economics,<br />
Chalmers University <strong>of</strong> Technology,<br />
<strong>in</strong> partial fulfilment <strong>of</strong> the requirements for the<br />
degree <strong>of</strong> Doctor <strong>of</strong> Philosophy<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Transportation and Logistics<br />
Chalmers University <strong>of</strong> Technology<br />
S-412 96 Göteborg, Sweden<br />
Göteborg 1998
Report 34<br />
DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL-SCALE INTERMODAL FREIGHT<br />
TRANSPORTATION IN A SYSTEMS CONTEXT<br />
© Johan Woxenius<br />
ISBN: 91-7197-630-2<br />
ISSN: 0283-3611<br />
ISSN: 0346-718X<br />
Published by:<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Transportation and Logistics<br />
Chalmers University <strong>of</strong> Technology<br />
S-412 96 Göteborg, Sweden<br />
Bibliotekets Reproservice CTHB, Göteborg 1998
DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL-SCALE INTERMODAL<br />
FREIGHT TRANSPORTATION IN A SYSTEMS CONTEXT<br />
Johan WOXENIUS<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Transportation and Logistics<br />
Chalmers University <strong>of</strong> Technology, S-412 96 Göteborg, Sweden.<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
An <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>freight</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system is characterised by the subsequent use <strong>of</strong> different<br />
<strong>transportation</strong> modes for mov<strong>in</strong>g goods stowed <strong>in</strong>to unit loads from the consignor to<br />
the consignee. Typically, it <strong>in</strong>volves a wide variety <strong>of</strong> activities, actors and resources,<br />
which implies a certa<strong>in</strong> degree <strong>of</strong> technological as well as organisational complexity. Other<br />
dist<strong>in</strong>ctive features are dependency on surround<strong>in</strong>g systems and a general lack <strong>of</strong> formal<br />
systems management as well as <strong>of</strong> objectives shared among all actors.<br />
This dissertation focuses the need for a renewal <strong>of</strong> the European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
system that has not yet been able to fulfil the high expectations from society. Most <strong>of</strong> the<br />
commercial problems are directly or <strong>in</strong>directly related to the complexity <strong>of</strong> the system and<br />
the <strong>scale</strong> <strong>in</strong> which the services are produced <strong>in</strong>. The solution foreseen and advocated <strong>in</strong> this<br />
dissertation is to divide the operations between the layers direct shuttle tra<strong>in</strong>s, corridor<br />
tra<strong>in</strong>s and locally adapted <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> network modules, <strong>of</strong> which the latter layer is especially<br />
treated. Special attention is paid to the issue <strong>of</strong> connect<strong>in</strong>g the layers as well as the<br />
different network modules.<br />
An outspoken systems approach is applied and a framework model is chiselled out from<br />
theories on general systems, <strong>transportation</strong> systems as well as on <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
systems. The object <strong>of</strong> study is successively narrowed, focus<strong>in</strong>g technical matters and<br />
<strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> operations on lower system levels.<br />
The complexity and lack <strong>of</strong> systems management implies that implement<strong>in</strong>g new technical<br />
resources <strong>in</strong>volves dist<strong>in</strong>ctive barriers that are described and classified. Approaches for reduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the effects <strong>of</strong> barriers <strong>in</strong>clude to conform to standards, to create closed systems and<br />
to implement new resources gradually.<br />
Another issue addressed is the suitability <strong>of</strong> transshipment technologies for different network<br />
operation pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and national preconditions. Small-<strong>scale</strong> transshipment technologies<br />
– all <strong>of</strong> which are described <strong>in</strong> a detached appendix – are evaluated aga<strong>in</strong>st an outl<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
list <strong>of</strong> requirements. The argumentation is f<strong>in</strong>ally applied to the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>freight</strong> system<br />
that received the highest score <strong>in</strong> the evaluation – Swedish State Railways’ Light-combi<br />
project.<br />
Key words: Barrier, Comb<strong>in</strong>ed Transport, Conceptual Modell<strong>in</strong>g, Gateway Term<strong>in</strong>al, Intermodal<br />
Freight Transportation, Technology Implementation, Transport Cha<strong>in</strong>, Transport Network, Transportation<br />
system, Transshipment Technology.<br />
i
”Like all young men I set out to be a genius,<br />
but mercifully laughter <strong>in</strong>tervened”<br />
Lawrence Durrell, Clea, 1960<br />
i
DISSERTATION<br />
This dissertation – Development <strong>of</strong> Small-<strong>scale</strong> Intermodal Freight Transportation <strong>in</strong> a<br />
Systems Context – is based upon the <strong>in</strong>tegrated text presented <strong>in</strong> this b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g (referred to as<br />
this dissertation) with its detached appendix 1 named Intermodal Transshipment Technologies<br />
– An Overview (referred to as the detached appendix) and the licentiate thesis named<br />
Modell<strong>in</strong>g European Comb<strong>in</strong>ed Transport as an Industrial System (referred to as the licentiate<br />
thesis). The doctoral work also <strong>in</strong>cludes a number <strong>of</strong> own reports and articles listed <strong>in</strong><br />
the reference list. The three reports and the articles are available <strong>in</strong> separate b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs from<br />
the Department <strong>of</strong> Transportation and Logistics 2 at Chalmers University <strong>of</strong> Technology<br />
1 The detached appendix <strong>of</strong> descriptions <strong>of</strong> a large number <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transshipment technologies, which<br />
are roughly the same as those presented <strong>in</strong> chapter 4 <strong>of</strong> the report: WOXENIUS, J. (1998) Inventory <strong>of</strong> Transshipment<br />
Technologies <strong>in</strong> Intermodal Transport, Study for the International Road Transport Union (IRU), Geneva.<br />
Hence, also that report can serve the purpose <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g a technical reference to this dissertation.<br />
2 Department <strong>of</strong> Transportation and Logistics, Chalmers University <strong>of</strong> Technology, S-412 96 Göteborg,<br />
Sweden. Tel: +46-31-772 1324, Fax: +46-31-772 1337, E-mail: transport@mot.chalmers.se.<br />
i
PREFACE<br />
This dissertation should be read together with its detached appendix called Intermodal<br />
Transshipment Technologies – An Overview and preferably also with the licentiate thesis<br />
called Modell<strong>in</strong>g European Comb<strong>in</strong>ed Transport as an Industrial System, both available <strong>in</strong><br />
separate b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs from the Department <strong>of</strong> Transportation and Logistics. Numerous references<br />
to the reports and to other own articles make it possible for the <strong>in</strong>terested reader to<br />
deepen the understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the research field, yet avoid<strong>in</strong>g a “brick-sized” report.<br />
The reports are written for readers experienced <strong>in</strong> the <strong>transportation</strong> field mean<strong>in</strong>g that<br />
terms and technical matters are not expla<strong>in</strong>ed on the “beg<strong>in</strong>ner’s level”. The reader that<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ds himself unfamiliar with terms and abbreviations <strong>in</strong> the text is recommended to first<br />
consult the term<strong>in</strong>ology and abbreviation sections and then the reference list for basic read<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Literature advice for certa<strong>in</strong> subjects is given <strong>in</strong> footnotes throughout the report.<br />
A fellow researcher <strong>in</strong> the field is for obvious reasons recommended to read the three reports<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g the references while a researcher <strong>in</strong>terested purely <strong>in</strong> the academic implications<br />
could limit the read<strong>in</strong>g to the text <strong>in</strong> this b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g. I s<strong>in</strong>cerely hope that my work can<br />
contribute also to the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> world outside the universities. Readers represent<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrial or political sphere might, however, f<strong>in</strong>d the first three or four chapters bor<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
can consult the Contents section for <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g topics. A reader experienced <strong>in</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport field that wants an overview or facts about new technologies is recommended<br />
to start with the detached appendix and then read the two analyses <strong>in</strong> chapter 7.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, it should be stated that this is obviously not an eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g effort <strong>in</strong>tended to solve<br />
all problems perceived by <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> operators. It is, however, my hope that the produced<br />
knowledge can trigger some good ideas on how the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system can be<br />
changed <strong>in</strong> order to challenge all-road <strong>transportation</strong> better <strong>in</strong> the future.<br />
Göteborg, April 1998<br />
Johan Woxenius<br />
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />
There are a lot <strong>of</strong> people that have helped me to f<strong>in</strong>ish my PhD studies with a dissertation<br />
rather than with a desertion. First, I am grateful to Swedish State Railways for generously<br />
fund<strong>in</strong>g my research project. Contributions from the Curt NICOLIN CN70-foundation and<br />
the International Road Transport Union (IRU) also made the writ<strong>in</strong>g process easier for<br />
which I am truly grateful.<br />
Moreover, I want to express my deepest thanks to pr<strong>of</strong>essor Lars SJÖSTEDT who has<br />
acted as head supervisor for my research. The supervision and all the late night discussions<br />
on the subject <strong>of</strong> this dissertation as well as on other subjects have been very fruitful to me,<br />
primarily as a researcher but also as a human be<strong>in</strong>g. I am also grateful to pr<strong>of</strong>essor Dag<br />
BJÖRNLAND and Dr. Anna DUBOIS for giv<strong>in</strong>g k<strong>in</strong>d remarks and suggestions for improvement.<br />
Dag and Lars are also the orig<strong>in</strong>ators <strong>of</strong> the research project as such.<br />
I am also s<strong>in</strong>cerely grateful to lectur<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>of</strong>essor Kenth LUMSDEN for mak<strong>in</strong>g the practical<br />
matters easier dur<strong>in</strong>g my time as doctoral student, but also for <strong>in</strong>spiration and for be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a friend and fellow traveller. Kenth’s th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g on barriers (or thresholds as he wants to call<br />
them) is the seed to chapter 5 that is worked up from articles written together with Kenth.<br />
Also the analysis <strong>of</strong> requirements for new <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> technologies <strong>in</strong> section 7.1 was orig<strong>in</strong>ally<br />
developed together with Kenth. Co-authors <strong>of</strong> other material used <strong>in</strong> the dissertation<br />
are acknowledged throughout the report.<br />
A special “thank you” goes to Dr. Stefan SJÖGREN at School <strong>of</strong> Economics and Commercial<br />
Law at the University <strong>of</strong> Göteborg for enjoyable co-operation and for <strong>in</strong>formal lessons<br />
on how to pick up women. My gratitude also extends to the <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>of</strong>ficials that have endured<br />
my questions and also supplied <strong>in</strong>telligent answers and material for the study. I am<br />
especially greatful to Jan-Ola WEDE at Swedish State Railways who let me study “his”<br />
Light-combi project from the <strong>in</strong>side.<br />
I would also like to thank Per Ol<strong>of</strong> ARNÄS for scann<strong>in</strong>g and edit<strong>in</strong>g the numerous pictures<br />
<strong>in</strong> the detached appendix, and for help<strong>in</strong>g me out when the mysteries <strong>of</strong> the computer world<br />
became too frustrat<strong>in</strong>g. I am also grateful to his mother Lille-Mor who <strong>in</strong>defatigably has<br />
corrected the language despite the tight schedule. All l<strong>in</strong>guistic errors rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g are caused<br />
by late changes from my keyboard.<br />
A university department is dynamic place <strong>of</strong> work. Doctoral candidates come and go. Now<br />
it’s my turn to choose whether to stay or to try my fortune outside the walls <strong>of</strong> the university.<br />
If I choose to stay it is thanks to all the k<strong>in</strong>d colleagues and the nice atmosphere at<br />
work. Thanks for these years and let’s add some more!<br />
iii
Traditionally, and pathetically, I f<strong>in</strong>ally like to thank my beloved wife Anna and our fat cat<br />
Elsa for be<strong>in</strong>g such a support dur<strong>in</strong>g my agony <strong>of</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g the dissertation.<br />
Johan<br />
iv
CONTENTS<br />
ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................................... I<br />
DISSERTATION................................................................................................................................. III<br />
PREFACE ............................................................................................................................................ I<br />
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.................................................................................................................. III<br />
CONTENTS.............................................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.<br />
TABLE OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................................XV<br />
TABLE OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................XVII<br />
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.............................................................................................................VIX<br />
1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................ 1<br />
1.1 BACKGROUND .......................................................................................................................... 1<br />
1.1.1 What is <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>freight</strong> transport? ........................................................................... 1<br />
1.1.2 Why study<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport? ............................................................................ 6<br />
1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEMS .............................................................................................................. 8<br />
1.2.1 The cradle <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport ............................................................................... 8<br />
1.2.2 Current operational pr<strong>in</strong>ciples.................................................................................... 13<br />
1.2.3 The chang<strong>in</strong>g environment ........................................................................................ 16<br />
1.2.4 Small is beautiful? ..................................................................................................... 18<br />
1.2.5 The ma<strong>in</strong> research theme.......................................................................................... 20<br />
1.3 RESEARCH PROCESS AND PURPOSES ...................................................................................... 21<br />
1.4 METHOD................................................................................................................................. 23<br />
1.4.1 General research approach ....................................................................................... 23<br />
1.4.2 Data and <strong>in</strong>formation gather<strong>in</strong>g.................................................................................. 27<br />
1.5 TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS.............................................................................................. 29<br />
1.6 READER’S GUIDE .................................................................................................................... 34<br />
1.6.1 Dissertation outl<strong>in</strong>e.................................................................................................... 34<br />
1.6.2 A hierarchical system model show<strong>in</strong>g the outl<strong>in</strong>e....................................................... 35<br />
1.6.3 Writ<strong>in</strong>g style............................................................................................................... 37<br />
1.6.4 Cross-references ....................................................................................................... 37<br />
1.6.5 Read<strong>in</strong>g suggestions ................................................................................................. 39<br />
1.6.6 The reference and note system ................................................................................. 39<br />
v
2 SYSTEMS .................................................................................................................................... 41<br />
2.1 GENERAL SYSTEMS THEORY.................................................................................................... 42<br />
2.2 THE TECHNICAL CHARACTER OF SYSTEMS ................................................................................ 44<br />
2.2.1 Tools for systems design........................................................................................... 45<br />
2.2.2 Descriptive and analytical tools ................................................................................. 47<br />
2.3 THE NETWORK CHARACTER OF SYSTEMS.................................................................................. 50<br />
2.3.1 Large technical systems – LTS.................................................................................. 51<br />
2.3.2 The Network Approach accord<strong>in</strong>g to the Uppsala school <strong>of</strong> thought.......................... 53<br />
2.4 CHANNELS AND CHAINS IN A SYSTEMS CONTEXT ....................................................................... 56<br />
2.4.1 Market<strong>in</strong>g and distribution channels .......................................................................... 57<br />
2.4.2 Supply cha<strong>in</strong> management ........................................................................................ 58<br />
2.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION..................................................................................... 60<br />
3 TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS ................................................................................................. 63<br />
3.1 THE SCIENTIFIC FIELD OF TRANSPORTATION ............................................................................. 63<br />
3.2 TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS FROM A TECHNICAL PERSPECTIVE.................................................. 65<br />
3.3 TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS FROM A NETWORK PERSPECTIVE ................................................... 67<br />
3.3.1 Networks <strong>of</strong> l<strong>in</strong>ks and nodes...................................................................................... 67<br />
3.3.2 Transportation systems as actor networks ................................................................ 70<br />
3.4 TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS FROM A CHANNEL OR CHAIN PERSPECTIVE ..................................... 72<br />
3.4.1 Flows <strong>of</strong> goods, system resources, <strong>in</strong>formation and capital...................................... 73<br />
3.4.2 The pipel<strong>in</strong>e concept ................................................................................................. 74<br />
3.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION..................................................................................... 76<br />
4 INTERMODAL TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS ........................................................................ 78<br />
4.1 THE TECHNICAL PERSPECTIVE ................................................................................................. 79<br />
4.1.1 Divid<strong>in</strong>g between adm<strong>in</strong>istrative and physical system ............................................... 79<br />
4.1.2 CHURCHMAN’s systems approach applied to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport.......................... 81<br />
4.1.3 Functions <strong>in</strong> the production system ........................................................................... 85<br />
4.2 INTERMODAL TRANSPORT NETWORKS ...................................................................................... 86<br />
4.2.1 A model <strong>of</strong> network operation pr<strong>in</strong>ciples .................................................................... 87<br />
4.2.2 The model <strong>of</strong> elements, processes and actors applied to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport.......... 90<br />
4.2.3 The network approach applied to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport .............................................. 91<br />
4.3 INTERMODAL TRANSPORT CHAINS ............................................................................................ 93<br />
4.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION..................................................................................... 95<br />
vi
5 RESOURCES IN INTERMODAL TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS............................................ 97<br />
5.1 BARRIERS FOR IMPLEMENTING NEW RESOURCES ...................................................................... 97<br />
5.1.1 Regulative barriers .................................................................................................. 100<br />
5.1.2 Technological barriers ............................................................................................. 104<br />
5.1.3 System oriented barriers.......................................................................................... 107<br />
5.1.4 Commercial barriers ................................................................................................ 112<br />
5.2 APPROACHES FOR OVERCOMING THE EFFECTS OF BARRIERS .................................................. 113<br />
5.2.1 To conform firmly to regulations, standards and prevail<strong>in</strong>g technologies ................ 113<br />
5.2.2 To change the barriers or to obta<strong>in</strong> exemptions....................................................... 114<br />
5.2.3 To create closed systems........................................................................................ 115<br />
5.2.4 To control the transport cha<strong>in</strong> under one management............................................ 116<br />
5.2.5 To change technology <strong>in</strong> course <strong>of</strong> time dur<strong>in</strong>g the system’s <strong>in</strong>vestment cycle....... 116<br />
5.2.6 To optimise sets <strong>of</strong> resources together.................................................................... 117<br />
5.2.7 To design one resource to make another superfluous ............................................. 118<br />
5.2.8 To implement an <strong>in</strong>terface between system resources ............................................ 118<br />
5.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION................................................................................... 120<br />
6 TRANSSHIPMENT TECHNOLOGY IN INTERMODAL TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS....... 123<br />
6.1 THERE ARE TRANSSHIPMENT TECHNOLOGIES FOR ALTERNATIVE NETWORK DESIGNS! ............... 124<br />
6.1.1 Term<strong>in</strong>als for direct connections.............................................................................. 125<br />
6.1.2 Term<strong>in</strong>als for corridors............................................................................................. 127<br />
6.1.3 Term<strong>in</strong>als for hub-and-spoke designs...................................................................... 127<br />
6.1.4 Term<strong>in</strong>als for fixed routes ........................................................................................ 128<br />
6.1.5 Term<strong>in</strong>als for flexible routes..................................................................................... 129<br />
6.2 THERE ARE TECHNOLOGIES CONFORMING TO NATIONAL REQUIREMENTS!................................. 129<br />
6.2.1 The analysis reference model.................................................................................. 130<br />
6.2.2 Norway .................................................................................................................... 131<br />
6.2.3 F<strong>in</strong>land..................................................................................................................... 132<br />
6.2.4 Sweden ................................................................................................................... 133<br />
6.2.5 Denmark.................................................................................................................. 135<br />
6.2.6 Germany.................................................................................................................. 136<br />
6.2.7 Benelux ................................................................................................................... 138<br />
6.2.8 The UK .................................................................................................................... 139<br />
6.2.9 France ..................................................................................................................... 141<br />
6.2.10 Switzerland and Austria........................................................................................... 142<br />
6.2.11 Italy.......................................................................................................................... 143<br />
6.2.12 The European level ................................................................................................. 144<br />
6.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION................................................................................... 148<br />
vii
7 SMALL-SCALE TRANSSHIPMENT TECHNOLOGY IN INTERMODAL TRANSPORTATION<br />
SYSTEMS ................................................................................................................................... 150<br />
7.1 REQUIREMENTS FOR SMALL-SCALE TRANSSHIPMENT TECHNOLOGIES....................................... 151<br />
7.1.1 System requirements............................................................................................... 152<br />
7.1.2 Functional requirements .......................................................................................... 153<br />
7.2 WHICH NEW TRANSSHIPMENT TECHNOLOGIES ARE SUITABLE FOR SMALL-SCALE OPERATIONS? . 155<br />
7.2.1 Def<strong>in</strong>e the conditions <strong>of</strong> the evaluation situation...................................................... 156<br />
7.2.2 Make lists <strong>of</strong> demands and criteria .......................................................................... 157<br />
7.2.3 List the alternative solutions .................................................................................... 158<br />
7.2.4 Weight the criteria aga<strong>in</strong>st each other ..................................................................... 161<br />
7.2.5 Evaluate the alternatives accord<strong>in</strong>g to the def<strong>in</strong>ed criteria....................................... 161<br />
7.2.6 F<strong>in</strong>al evaluation and decision .................................................................................. 163<br />
7.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION................................................................................... 163<br />
8 A PARTICULAR SMALL-SCALE CONCEPT........................................................................... 167<br />
8.1 THE LIGHT-COMBI CONCEPT .................................................................................................. 167<br />
8.2 PROJECT OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................... 170<br />
8.3 AN IMPLEMENTATION SCENARIO............................................................................................. 172<br />
8.3.1 Customer pilot: “Dalkullan”....................................................................................... 173<br />
8.3.2 Start<strong>in</strong>g with closed loops........................................................................................ 175<br />
8.3.3 Establish<strong>in</strong>g a basic network ................................................................................... 176<br />
8.3.4 Extend<strong>in</strong>g the basic network.................................................................................... 178<br />
8.3.5 Connect<strong>in</strong>g Light-combi to conventional <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport.................................. 179<br />
8.3.6 Export<strong>in</strong>g the concept.............................................................................................. 183<br />
8.4 WHAT TO LEARN FROM THE LIGHT-COMBI PROJECT?............................................................... 184<br />
8.4.1 Light-combi – a technical system, a network or a cha<strong>in</strong>?......................................... 184<br />
8.4.2 How does Light-combi comply with the requirements for <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport?............................................................................................................................. 185<br />
8.4.3 How are barrier effects treated? .............................................................................. 186<br />
8.5 CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................................................... 187<br />
9 A CONCLUDING SCENARIO ................................................................................................... 188<br />
9.1 A SCENARIO FOR FUTURE EUROPEAN INTERMODALISM............................................................ 188<br />
9.1.1 Long and heavy direct tra<strong>in</strong>s for large flows............................................................. 189<br />
9.1.2 Corridor tra<strong>in</strong>s cross<strong>in</strong>g Europe ............................................................................... 190<br />
9.1.3 Regional solutions for the short, <strong>small</strong> and dispersed flows..................................... 192<br />
9.1.4 Ro-Ro services for overcom<strong>in</strong>g geographical and <strong>in</strong>frastructural hurdles ............... 194<br />
9.1.5 Summary <strong>of</strong> the scenario......................................................................................... 195<br />
9.2 ARE THERE PROSPECTS FOR THE SCENARIO?......................................................................... 196<br />
viii
9.2.1 Transport policy and market conditions ................................................................... 197<br />
9.2.2 Who is likely to take the <strong>in</strong>itiative? ........................................................................... 200<br />
REFERENCES................................................................................................................................ 204<br />
PUBLISHED REFERENCES............................................................................................................... 204<br />
OTHER REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 220<br />
Brochures, newsletters, blue pr<strong>in</strong>ts, other market<strong>in</strong>g material and annual reports: ............... 220<br />
World Wide Web sites and CD ROMs: ................................................................................. 220<br />
Interviews and oral presentations:........................................................................................ 221<br />
Letters, faxes, E-mail messages and personal notes: .......................................................... 221<br />
APPENDIX A: ....INTERMODAL TRANSSHIPMENT TECHNOLOGIES DEVELOPED IN EUROPE<br />
APPENDIX B: THE WEIGHT CRITERION METHOD<br />
DEFINE THE CONDITIONS OF THE EVALUATION SITUATION<br />
MAKE LISTS OF DEMANDS AND CRITERIA<br />
LIST THE ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS<br />
WEIGHT THE CRITERIA AGAINST EACH OTHER<br />
EVALUATE THE ALTERNATIVES ACCORDING TO THE DEFINED CRITERIA<br />
FINAL EVALUATION AND DECISION<br />
ix
TABLE OF FIGURES<br />
FIGURE 1-1 A CONTAINER, A SWAP BODY AND A SEMI-TRAILER.............................................................. 3<br />
FIGURE 1-2 RAILWAY WAGONS FOR INTERMODAL TRANSPORT.. ............................................................ 3<br />
FIGURE 1-3 LORRIES FOR INTERMODAL TRANSPORT............................................................................. 4<br />
FIGURE 1-4 A REACH-STACKER AND A GANTRY CRANE. ........................................................................ 4<br />
FIGURE 1-5 EARLY USE OF A GANTRY CRANE ..................................................................................... 10<br />
FIGURE 1-6 GERMAN PIGGYBACK-TRANSPORT SHORTLY AFTER WORLD WAR II................................... 11<br />
FIGURE 1-7 THE TRANSPORT OF GOODS BY ROAD IN THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY IN 1986. ................. 19<br />
FIGURE 1-8 THE INFORMATION VALUE CHAIN...................................................................................... 28<br />
FIGURE 1-9 A HIERARCHICAL SYSTEM MODEL GUIDING THE OUTLINE OF THE DISSERTATION.................. 36<br />
FIGURE 2-1 SYSTEMS ENGINEERING PROCESS PARADIGM. ................................................................. 47<br />
FIGURE 2-2 THE NETWORK MODEL. ................................................................................................... 55<br />
FIGURE 2-3 A MODEL SHOWING THAT SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT COVERS THE FLOW OF GOODS........ 59<br />
FIGURE 3-1 THE TRANSPORT DIAGONAL SEPARATING TRANSPORTATION AND LOGISTICS. ..................... 64<br />
FIGURE 3-2 A FREIGHT VERSION OF SJÖSTEDT’S MODEL................................................................. 66<br />
FIGURE 3-3 A TRANSPORT NETWORK AND A TRANSPORT RELATION..................................................... 68<br />
FIGURE 3-4 A TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM .......................................................................................... 69<br />
FIGURE 3-5 A NETWORK OF FACILITIES.............................................................................................. 69<br />
FIGURE 3-6 TRANSPORTATION NETWORK DEFINITIONS ....................................................................... 70<br />
FIGURE 3-7 SJÖSTEDT’S ACTOR NETWORK MODEL.......................................................................... 71<br />
FIGURE 3-8 ILLUSTRATION OF A NET OF TRANSPORT COMPANIES. ....................................................... 72<br />
FIGURE 3-9 FOUR FLOWS RELATED TO A TRANSPORT COMMISSION. .................................................... 74<br />
FIGURE 3-10 PIPELINE SEGMENTS AND MEASURING POINTS.................................................................. 75<br />
FIGURE 3-11 AN EXAMPLE OF A “PIPELINE”. ......................................................................................... 75<br />
FIGURE 3-12 DEFINITIONS OF BUSINESS AND PRODUCTION LINES.......................................................... 76<br />
FIGURE 4-1 JENSEN’S INTERMODAL TRANSPORT MODEL. ................................................................. 81<br />
FIGURE 4-2 A SYSTEMS ANALYSIS USING CHURCHMAN’S SYSTEMS APPROACH. ............................... 85<br />
FIGURE 4-3 A MODEL OF AN INTERMODAL SYSTEM BASED UPON FUNCTIONS. ....................................... 86<br />
FIGURE 4-4 FIVE DIFFERENT TRAFFIC PATTERNS FOR TRANSPORT FROM A TO B.................................. 88<br />
FIGURE 4-5 SJÖSTEDT’S ACTOR NETWORK MODEL APPLIED TO INTERMODAL TRANSPORT. ................ 90<br />
FIGURE 4-6 RESULTS OF A STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS USING THE NETWORK APPROACH. .......................... 92<br />
FIGURE 4-7 FLOW UNIFICATION......................................................................................................... 93<br />
FIGURE 4-8 A MODEL OF AN INTEGRATED TRANSPORT CHAIN. ............................................................. 94<br />
FIGURE 4-9 INTEGRATION OF ACTIVITIES SEEN WITH A CHAIN AND TECHNICAL PERSPECTIVE ................. 94<br />
FIGURE 4-10 A REFERENCE MODEL SYNTHESISED FROM MODELS TAKING CLASSIC/TECHNICAL,<br />
NETWORK AND CHANNEL/CHAIN PERSPECTIVES............................................................................. 96<br />
FIGURE 5-1 THE RAIL LOADING PROFILES OF SOME EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. ...................................... 101<br />
xi
FIGURE 5-2 THE INTERMDODAL RAILWAY BASKET CAR. ................................................................... 119<br />
FIGURE 6-1 INTERRELATIONS BETWEEN THE FACTORS INFLUENCING TRAFFIC AND TERMINAL DESIGN.. 125<br />
FIGURE 6-2 THE REFERENCE MODEL GUIDING THE ANALYSIS. ........................................................... 131<br />
FIGURE 8-1 AN ARTIST’S IMPRESSION OF A LIGHT-COMBI TERMINAL .................................................. 169<br />
FIGURE 8-2 THE POTENTIAL MARKET OF LIGHT-COMBI...................................................................... 172<br />
FIGURE 8-3 LOADING THE FORKLIFT TRUCK ONTO THE LIGHT-COMBI TRAIN OVER THE RAMP. .............. 174<br />
FIGURE 8-4 THE CUSTOMER PILOT “DALKULLAN”.............................................................................. 175<br />
FIGURE 8-5 AN IMPRESSION OF HOW A CARGOSPRINTER TRAIN IN A LIGHT-COMBI SERVICE. .............. 177<br />
FIGURE 8-6 OPERATIONS OF THE BASIC LIGHT-COMBI NETWORK....................................................... 177<br />
FIGURE 8-7 THREE STEPS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LIGHT-COMBI NETWORK. ............................. 178<br />
FIGURE 8-8 SHORT-COUPLED, LIGHTWEIGHT RAILWAY WAGON.......................................................... 179<br />
FIGURE 8-9 NETWORK MODULES FOR HEAVY-COMBI AND LIGHT-COMBI............................................. 180<br />
FIGURE 8-10 CONNECTIONS BETWEEN HEAVY-COMBI, LIGHT-COMBI AND OTHER NETWORK MODULES .. 181<br />
FIGURE 8-11 CONNECTING SCANDINAVIAN AND CONTINENTAL INTERMODAL FLOWS............................. 183<br />
FIGURE 9-1 EXAMPLE OF A CORRIDOR WITH INTERMEDIATE TERMINALS............................................. 191<br />
FIGURE 9-2 EXAMPLES OF GATEWAYS BETWEEN NATIONAL/REGIONAL NETWORK MODULES<br />
IN A FUTURE EUROPEAN INTERMODAL TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM................................................ 194<br />
xii
TABLE OF TABLES<br />
TABLE 4-1 CONCLUSION OF THE APPLICATION OF CHURCHMAN’S SYSTEMS APPROACH .................. 84<br />
TABLE 4-2 EXAMPLES OF THE DIFFERENT TRAFFIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES.............................................. 89<br />
TABLE 5-1 WIDTH, LENGTH AND WEIGHT ALLOWED IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES .................................. 101<br />
TABLE 5-2 HAULIERS AND LORRIES OPERATED FOR HIRE OR REWARD ............................................. 108<br />
TABLE 5-3 NUMBER OF NEWLY REGISTERED SEMI-TRAILER TRACTORS AND ARTICULATED LORRIES ... 111<br />
TABLE 6-1 EU FUNDING OF PROGRAMMES AND THEMES RELATED TO INTERMODAL TRANSPORT. ....... 146<br />
TABLE 7-1 VIOLATION OF DEMANDS THUS EXCLUDING TECHNOLOGIES FROM FURTHER EVALUATION.. 159<br />
TABLE 7-2 WEIGHT CRITERION MATRIX .......................................................................................... 161<br />
TABLE 7-3 GRADING OF FULFILMENT OF CRITERIA. ......................................................................... 162<br />
TABLE 7-4 RESULT OF THE EVALUATION......................................................................................... 164<br />
xiii
xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS<br />
This list covers the abbreviations used <strong>in</strong> this document only, another abbreviation list is found <strong>in</strong><br />
the attached appendix. Abbreviations used <strong>in</strong> only one section and for the sake <strong>of</strong> convenience are<br />
not listed.<br />
ACTS<br />
BR<br />
CNC<br />
DB AG<br />
DSB<br />
ECMT<br />
EFTA<br />
EU<br />
ICF<br />
IRU<br />
ISO<br />
ITU<br />
NS<br />
PACT<br />
RSS<br />
RTD<br />
SJ<br />
SME<br />
SNCF<br />
TENs<br />
TEU<br />
UIC<br />
UIRR<br />
VR<br />
Abroll Conta<strong>in</strong>er Transport System<br />
British Rail<br />
Compagnie Nouvelle de Cadres – French <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> operator<br />
Deutsche Bahn AG – German State Railways<br />
Danske Statsbaner – Danish State Railways<br />
European Conference <strong>of</strong> M<strong>in</strong>isters <strong>of</strong> Transport<br />
European Free Trade Association<br />
The European Union (as a political or geographical unit)<br />
Interconta<strong>in</strong>er-Interfrigo – Intermodal operator<br />
International Road Transport Union<br />
International Standardization Organisation<br />
Intermodal Transport Unit (here compris<strong>in</strong>g ISO and domestic conta<strong>in</strong>ers, swap bodies<br />
and semi-trailers)<br />
N.V. Nederlandse Spoorwegen – National Railways <strong>of</strong> the Netherlands<br />
Pilot Actions for Comb<strong>in</strong>ed Transport (European Commission programme)<br />
Roland System Schiene-Strasse<br />
Research, Technological <strong>development</strong> and Demonstration<br />
Statens Järnvägar – Swedish State Railways<br />
Small- or Medium sized Enterprise (by the European Commission def<strong>in</strong>ed as a company<br />
with less than 250 employees, annual turnover less than ECU 40 million and a balance<br />
sheet below ECU 27 million)<br />
Société Nationale des Chem<strong>in</strong>s de fer Francais – French State Railways<br />
Trans-European Networks<br />
Twenty foot Equvivalent Unit (measurement for conta<strong>in</strong>er transport)<br />
The International Union <strong>of</strong> Railways<br />
Union Internationale des sociétés de transport comb<strong>in</strong>é Rail-Route – <strong>in</strong>ternational union <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> operators<br />
Valtion Rautatiet – F<strong>in</strong>nish State Railways<br />
xv
1 INTRODUCTION<br />
This ma<strong>in</strong> document (referred to as the dissertation) should be read together with its detached<br />
appendix 3 named Intermodal Transshipment Technologies – An Overview and preferably<br />
also with the licentiate thesis named Modell<strong>in</strong>g European Comb<strong>in</strong>ed Transport as an<br />
Industrial System, both available <strong>in</strong> separate b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs from the Department <strong>of</strong> Transportation<br />
and Logistics 4 .<br />
This <strong>in</strong>troductory chapter conta<strong>in</strong>s a background description <strong>of</strong> what <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>freight</strong><br />
transport is, why it is used and why it is <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g to study as a research object. Then the<br />
ma<strong>in</strong> research problems and purposes guid<strong>in</strong>g the research are presented and briefly discussed.<br />
Method is discussed <strong>in</strong> general terms together with the used sources <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
and how the research issues have been verified. However, follow<strong>in</strong>g the thoughts beh<strong>in</strong>d<br />
the outl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> the dissertation, each detailed research problem and applicable method is<br />
identified, justified and described <strong>in</strong> detail only when they appear <strong>in</strong> their proper system<br />
context. In the f<strong>in</strong>al part <strong>of</strong> this chapter, some words about the term<strong>in</strong>ology and def<strong>in</strong>itions<br />
used are presented together with some read<strong>in</strong>g advice.<br />
1.1 BACKGROUND<br />
In this section, the research object is briefly described together with the reasons for its significance<br />
to science, to society and to <strong>in</strong>dustry. The description and conceptual modell<strong>in</strong>g 5<br />
<strong>of</strong> the current European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport system is gradually deepened throughout the<br />
dissertation and its believed future is presented <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>of</strong> chapters 6 and 7 as<br />
well as <strong>in</strong> the conclud<strong>in</strong>g chapter.<br />
1.1.1 What is <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>freight</strong> transport?<br />
The suitability <strong>of</strong> rail transport for the substantial transport market for high-valued goods is<br />
limited by, among other th<strong>in</strong>gs, the extension <strong>of</strong> the railway network and the high costs <strong>of</strong><br />
shunt<strong>in</strong>g wagons <strong>in</strong>to private sid<strong>in</strong>gs. The high fixed term<strong>in</strong>al costs and the low variable<br />
3 The detached appendix consists <strong>of</strong> descriptions <strong>of</strong> a large number <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transshipment technologies,<br />
which are roughly the same as those presented <strong>in</strong> chapter 4 <strong>of</strong> the report: WOXENIUS, J. (1998) Inventory <strong>of</strong><br />
Transshipment Technologies <strong>in</strong> Intermodal Transport, Study for the International Road Transport Union (IRU),<br />
Geneva. Hence, also that report can serve the purpose <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g a technical reference to this dissertation.<br />
4 Department <strong>of</strong> Transportation and Logistics, Chalmers University <strong>of</strong> Technology, S-412 96 Göteborg, Sweden.<br />
Tel: +46-31-772 1324, Fax: +46-31-772 1337, E-mail: transport@mot.chalmers.se.<br />
5 A conceptual model is here def<strong>in</strong>ed as a graphic depiction <strong>of</strong> a real system presented for the purpose <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the real system or for def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g which part <strong>of</strong> the system that is under study. A model<br />
allow<strong>in</strong>g to be manipulated, normally <strong>in</strong> a computer environment, is called a work<strong>in</strong>g model. If not specified differently,<br />
by model <strong>in</strong> this dissertation is meant a conceptual model.<br />
1
haulage costs make railways particularly suitable for large-<strong>scale</strong> transport <strong>of</strong> heavy goods<br />
over long distances.<br />
Road transport, on the other hand, <strong>of</strong>fers accessibility with ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed economy for <strong>small</strong>er<br />
shipments over short distances. Along with all the advantages <strong>of</strong> road transport, however,<br />
there are also disadvantages <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> pollution, noise, traffic accidents as well as excessive<br />
use <strong>of</strong> energy and land – normally referred to as external effects 6 . For the road transport<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustry, there are also risks <strong>of</strong> longer transport times, bad tim<strong>in</strong>g and limited growth<br />
possibilities due to <strong>in</strong>creased road congestion 7 .<br />
Consequently, a comb<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> road and rail is a logical step for ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g flexibility yet<br />
decreas<strong>in</strong>g the external effects. However, manual transshipment <strong>of</strong> part-loads and general<br />
cargo between traditional lorries and rail wagons is costly, time-consum<strong>in</strong>g and <strong>in</strong>volves a<br />
high risk <strong>of</strong> damage to the cargo. One way to decrease these problems is to load the goods<br />
<strong>in</strong> strictly standardised Intermodal Transport Units (ITUs), also referred to as unit loads,<br />
e.g. conta<strong>in</strong>ers, semi-trailers or swap bodies, and then transport these units unbroken for as<br />
large a part <strong>of</strong> the distance as possible. This method is called the pr<strong>in</strong>ciple <strong>of</strong> unit loads 8<br />
and the transport arrangement is commonly referred to as <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. Anyone<br />
hav<strong>in</strong>g experiences from mov<strong>in</strong>g knows the benefits <strong>of</strong> handl<strong>in</strong>g boxes marked “Chiquita”<br />
and “Multi-copy” <strong>in</strong>stead <strong>of</strong> s<strong>in</strong>gle household utensils.<br />
A normal conta<strong>in</strong>er is simply a steel box with standardised measures, construction strength<br />
and fasten<strong>in</strong>g devices. A swap body is a detachable lorry superstructure equipped with support-legs<br />
and a semi-trailer is a lorry trailer with rear wheel axles while the front part is to<br />
be hung onto a semi-trailer tractor. By load<strong>in</strong>g the cargo <strong>in</strong> ITUs, vehicles and vessels can<br />
be used more efficiently through fast transshipment and the cargo can be protected from<br />
theft and damage. Shippers, shipp<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>in</strong>es, railways, <strong>freight</strong> forwarders and hauliers choose<br />
type <strong>of</strong> ITU consider<strong>in</strong>g type <strong>of</strong> cargo, dest<strong>in</strong>ation and the organisation <strong>of</strong> the transport assignment.<br />
6 In a <strong>transportation</strong> perspective, the term external effects denotes effects caused by an activity, which cannot<br />
be priced <strong>in</strong> a normal bus<strong>in</strong>ess relationship. The term is commonly used for describ<strong>in</strong>g the effects caused by<br />
road transport which the society or other road-users suffer from.<br />
7 For basic read<strong>in</strong>g about the positive aspects <strong>of</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g road transport, ABERLE (1993) is suggested, and<br />
HANSSON (1996 and 1997) and Kommunikationskommittén (1997) are recommended for read<strong>in</strong>g about the<br />
negative aspects.<br />
8 The pr<strong>in</strong>ciple <strong>of</strong> unit loads is def<strong>in</strong>ed by LUMSDEN (1989, freely translated):<br />
“If possible, goods should be kept together <strong>in</strong> form <strong>of</strong> a transport unit adapted to all present vehicles and handl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
equipment. This transport unit should be formed as early as possible <strong>in</strong> the material flow, preferably at the<br />
consignor’s, and be broken as late as possible, preferably at the consignee’s.”<br />
2
Conta<strong>in</strong>er Swap body Semi-trailer<br />
Figure 1-1<br />
A conta<strong>in</strong>er, a swap body and a semi-trailer.<br />
Wagons carry<strong>in</strong>g conta<strong>in</strong>ers and swap bodies are <strong>of</strong> a relatively simple flatbed design,<br />
while wagons carry<strong>in</strong>g semi-trailers are more complicated <strong>in</strong> order to keep the comb<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
well underneath bridges and the overhead contact l<strong>in</strong>es.<br />
Flatwagon for ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers<br />
and swap bodies<br />
Pocket wagon for semi-trailers<br />
Figure 1-2<br />
Railway wagons for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. (Source: SJ Gods, <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
package, p. 54 and 89).<br />
Conta<strong>in</strong>ers can be carried on most lorries with flatbed chassis, while swap bodies demand<br />
some device to lower the chassis <strong>in</strong> order to drive under the swap body and lift it, allow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the support-legs to be folded. Semi-trailers are pulled by relatively simple semi-trailer tractors.<br />
3
Articulated lorry comb<strong>in</strong>ation for swap bodies<br />
Side-loader for ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers<br />
Semi-trailer tractor<br />
Figure 1-3<br />
Lorries for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport.<br />
A large number <strong>of</strong> transshipment technologies have been developed over the last 30 years.<br />
Despite this extensive <strong>development</strong>, the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als look rather much the same<br />
throughout the world – a gantry crane overreach<strong>in</strong>g some railway tracks and lorry driv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
lanes complemented with large counter-balanced trucks. Large and complicated term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
are needed if they are to handle many different types <strong>of</strong> ITUs and the costs must be distributed<br />
between a large number <strong>of</strong> transshipments.<br />
Figure 1-4 A reach-stacker and a gantry crane. (Source: UIRR, brochure 1995, p. 6).<br />
In contrast to traditional wagonload rail transport, wagons carry<strong>in</strong>g ITUs are not shunted to<br />
private sid<strong>in</strong>gs. Sometimes, <strong>in</strong>dividual wagons are marshalled between wagonload tra<strong>in</strong>s,<br />
but wherever there is enough demand, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> tra<strong>in</strong>s operate directly between trans-<br />
4
shipment term<strong>in</strong>als. The aim is to avoid marshall<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>in</strong>volves waste <strong>of</strong> time and money<br />
as well as an <strong>in</strong>creased risk <strong>of</strong> damage.<br />
Roll<strong>in</strong>g highway is a particular form <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport where complete lorry comb<strong>in</strong>ations<br />
are driven on board low-built railway wagons. The arrangement is today used for<br />
overcom<strong>in</strong>g physical barriers such as the Alps and the English Channel, but as many <strong>of</strong> the<br />
costs – such as capital costs for the lorry and salary for the driver – rema<strong>in</strong> to be borne by<br />
the hauliers, it is not regarded as a large-<strong>scale</strong> future solution for European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong>ism.<br />
The low net to tare weight ratio is another restra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g factor.<br />
The comb<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> modes <strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport implies that many actors<br />
are <strong>in</strong>volved. The European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> market is traditionally divided between companies<br />
based upon rail and road transport respectively. Consider<strong>in</strong>g regulated monopolies and the<br />
historic scope <strong>of</strong> concessions, the borderl<strong>in</strong>es between market segments have been drawn<br />
accord<strong>in</strong>g to types <strong>of</strong> ITU and geographical markets. Due to transport policy deregulation<br />
<strong>in</strong> the European Union (EU), this practice is now dim<strong>in</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
The classic role <strong>of</strong> the railway companies has been to sell rail haulage between the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transshipment term<strong>in</strong>als. They also operate term<strong>in</strong>als and supply rail wagons. In addition,<br />
the railway companies have owner <strong>in</strong>terests <strong>in</strong> many <strong>of</strong> the other companies needed<br />
for produc<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport services.<br />
When the conta<strong>in</strong>er was <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> shipp<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g the 1960’s the railway companies<br />
founded conta<strong>in</strong>er transport companies <strong>in</strong> order to <strong>of</strong>fer complement<strong>in</strong>g land transport. Interconta<strong>in</strong>er<br />
(now Interconta<strong>in</strong>er-Interfrigo, ICF) was founded for <strong>in</strong>ternational transport<br />
and companies like German Transfracht and French Compagnie Nouvelle de Cadres (CNC)<br />
were founded for domestic transport. Swedish State Railways (SJ) formed a special bus<strong>in</strong>ess<br />
unit with<strong>in</strong> its <strong>freight</strong> division that has later been transformed <strong>in</strong>to the limited company<br />
Rail Combi AB. Today, Rail Combi AB is the pr<strong>in</strong>cipal <strong>of</strong> all <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als <strong>in</strong> Sweden<br />
and <strong>of</strong>fers a wide range <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport services us<strong>in</strong>g its own rail wagons. International<br />
transport is <strong>of</strong>fered <strong>in</strong> co-operation with other companies.<br />
Forwarders and hauliers have formed own national <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport companies such as<br />
Kombiverkehr <strong>in</strong> Germany, Novatrans <strong>in</strong> France and Swe-Kombi <strong>in</strong> Sweden. The orig<strong>in</strong>al<br />
purpose <strong>of</strong> the organisations was to organise the transport services that the road-based<br />
transport companies had concessions for. Now <strong>in</strong> the post-regulation days, they still arrange<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> services but their role as a strong counterpart to the railways <strong>in</strong> negotiations 9 is<br />
9 S<strong>in</strong>ce most hauliers and forwarders are Small- or Medium sized Enterprises (SMEs), they have perceived<br />
that need to jo<strong>in</strong> forces before approach<strong>in</strong>g the large national railways.<br />
5
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly important. The companies co-ord<strong>in</strong>ate their <strong>in</strong>ternational operations through<br />
the organisation UIRR 10 .<br />
Generally speak<strong>in</strong>g, the ICF and the UIRR companies take a wholesaler role while the national<br />
conta<strong>in</strong>er companies <strong>of</strong>fer door-to-door services. The <strong>in</strong>dustrial organisation, however,<br />
varies significantly between the European countries.<br />
Together with national conta<strong>in</strong>er companies, shipp<strong>in</strong>g agencies and forwarders control the<br />
very important contacts with shippers. In <strong>in</strong>ternational transport, the forwarders decide<br />
whether <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport should be used but the hauliers take a stronger role <strong>in</strong> domestic<br />
transport. Generally, the shippers don’t specifically demand a special <strong>transportation</strong><br />
mode (STONE, 1997, p. 3) but companies with an environmental image prefer rail to a<br />
greater extent (SJÖGREN and WOXENIUS, 1994, p. 14) 11 .<br />
1.1.2 Why study<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport?<br />
Although it is up to every s<strong>in</strong>gle researcher to decide what to study, this section aims at motivat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the choice <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport as a research object. The ma<strong>in</strong> purpose is to def<strong>in</strong>e<br />
why it is <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g to the scientific world but arguments for its significance to the society<br />
and to the transport <strong>in</strong>dustry are also forwarded.<br />
From my po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view, research on <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport must be motivated beyond its<br />
share <strong>of</strong> today’s transport market. Such research can be useful for tackl<strong>in</strong>g a wide variety <strong>of</strong><br />
academic and pedagogical issues concern<strong>in</strong>g <strong>transportation</strong>. Although it is no aim <strong>of</strong> this<br />
study to generate a general theory 12 , theories and conceptual models tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport <strong>in</strong>to account are <strong>of</strong>ten also suitable for analys<strong>in</strong>g simpler transport arrangements.<br />
Hence, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is useful as a “worst case” as it <strong>in</strong>cludes a multiplicity <strong>of</strong> activities,<br />
actors, resources and relationships that have to be co-ord<strong>in</strong>ated.<br />
From a general systems analysis po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems represent<br />
phenomena that are regularly treated as systems whereas they are not fulfill<strong>in</strong>g the usual<br />
demands <strong>of</strong> hav<strong>in</strong>g a systems management, a common goal <strong>of</strong> all components, resources<br />
clearly allocated to one component and a clearly def<strong>in</strong>ed system border (see for <strong>in</strong>stance<br />
CHURCHMAN, 1979). Study<strong>in</strong>g the dynamics <strong>of</strong> such systems should be <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g also<br />
10 Union Internationale des sociétés de transport comb<strong>in</strong>é Rail-Route <strong>in</strong> French, International Union <strong>of</strong> Intermodal<br />
Operators <strong>in</strong> English.<br />
11 For further read<strong>in</strong>g about the organisation <strong>of</strong> European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>in</strong>dustry, see BUKOLD (1993/a<br />
and 1996), STONE (1998) and chapter 4 <strong>in</strong> the licentiate thesis.<br />
12 The systems approach applied here <strong>in</strong>cludes a basic assumption that all systems are unique and the f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
from study<strong>in</strong>g one system cannot necessarily be generalised to be valid for other systems. Other researchers,<br />
however, can hopefully use parts <strong>of</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> this research and apply them to their own research<br />
objects.<br />
6
<strong>in</strong> a general systems theory context. The technical and organisational complexity <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
<strong>transportation</strong> systems also justifies studies from a general po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view.<br />
From the viewpo<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> society, the European Commission is very clear <strong>in</strong> its judgement <strong>of</strong><br />
the significance <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> research for support<strong>in</strong>g the political ambitions <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
several <strong>transportation</strong> modes, or more precisely, to utilise environmentally friendly modes<br />
to a greater extent 13 . I share the Commission’s op<strong>in</strong>ion <strong>of</strong> the need for apply<strong>in</strong>g a systems<br />
approach. The Commission identifies:<br />
“… the need for new and <strong>in</strong>novative solutions to improve the performance and limit<br />
the harmful economic, social and environmental impact <strong>of</strong> the Union’s present transport<br />
system. It is no longer possible nor acceptable that the problems <strong>of</strong> tomorrow are<br />
tackled today by the solutions we used yesterday. (…) Fragmented, unimodal solutions<br />
no longer <strong>of</strong>fer scope to solve exist<strong>in</strong>g bottlenecks. A holistic and system approach is<br />
needed.”<br />
(European Commission, 1997/c, p. 29)<br />
The statement is especially important s<strong>in</strong>ce the European Commission plays a decisive role<br />
for the <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, for policy as well as for research fund<strong>in</strong>g reasons.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, as consultants and non-academic research <strong>in</strong>stitutes are accountable for most <strong>of</strong> the<br />
present <strong>in</strong>vestigations on <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, there is a general risk that the <strong>in</strong>vestigations<br />
are biased regard<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>terests <strong>of</strong> the consultants and their clients, although the <strong>in</strong>vestigations<br />
are given an objective touch. Under such circumstances it is important that the academic<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutions also forward reflections and analyses <strong>in</strong> the field. It could be argued that<br />
also this research effort could be biased due to the fact that SJ has f<strong>in</strong>anced most <strong>of</strong> the<br />
studies and that there is no such th<strong>in</strong>g as totally <strong>in</strong>dependent researchers. Nevertheless,<br />
parts <strong>of</strong> the research has been f<strong>in</strong>anced by road transport 14 and shipper 15 <strong>in</strong>terests. For obvious<br />
reasons, I have endeavoured to make my research as objective and unbiased as possible.<br />
13 Roughly, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> policies dur<strong>in</strong>g the 1980’s aimed at sav<strong>in</strong>g the collaps<strong>in</strong>g rail <strong>freight</strong> sector and at susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />
mobility while the policies <strong>of</strong> the 1990’s focus the productivity and quality benefits <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrat<strong>in</strong>g transport<br />
modes (BUKOLD, 1997, p. 3).<br />
14 The International Road Transport Union (IRU) has f<strong>in</strong>anced the descriptive detached appendix, but also the<br />
evaluation <strong>of</strong> <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> transshipment technologies.<br />
15 The Curt Nicol<strong>in</strong> CN70 foundation adm<strong>in</strong>istrated by the International Chamber <strong>of</strong> Commerce has contributed<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ancially to the analysis on barriers for implement<strong>in</strong>g new pieces <strong>of</strong> technology <strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport systems.<br />
7
1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEMS<br />
The European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system suffers from a wide range <strong>of</strong> problems,<br />
most <strong>of</strong> which are directly or <strong>in</strong>directly related to the complexity <strong>of</strong> the system and the<br />
large <strong>scale</strong> <strong>in</strong> which the services are produced <strong>in</strong>. The current set <strong>of</strong> problems is a fruit <strong>of</strong><br />
the political, commercial and technical history <strong>of</strong> the system as well as <strong>of</strong> its current status<br />
and ongo<strong>in</strong>g changes <strong>in</strong> the system environment. Hence, the ma<strong>in</strong> research problem is here<br />
def<strong>in</strong>ed and further described based upon the system’s history, the current operational practice<br />
and the chang<strong>in</strong>g environment <strong>of</strong> the system. The render<strong>in</strong>g is quite extensive <strong>in</strong> order<br />
to build the foundation for modell<strong>in</strong>g and analytic efforts <strong>in</strong> com<strong>in</strong>g chapters.<br />
Problems affect<strong>in</strong>g the production system are emphasised and the perspective is taken from<br />
the “<strong>in</strong>side” <strong>of</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>in</strong>dustry. The need for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport as such<br />
is here regarded as a postulation given by political bodies frequently ask<strong>in</strong>g for an efficient<br />
and susta<strong>in</strong>able <strong>transportation</strong> system. S<strong>in</strong>ce the outl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> this dissertation is based upon<br />
the hierarchy <strong>of</strong> system levels (see section 1.6.1), further and narrower research problems<br />
are def<strong>in</strong>ed and addressed throughout the dissertation.<br />
1.2.1 The cradle <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the 1950’s and 1960’s, the transport <strong>in</strong>dustry went through sweep<strong>in</strong>g changes on a<br />
global <strong>scale</strong>. From the demand part, the <strong>development</strong> was ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong>duced by the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
circumstances 16 :<br />
• International trade <strong>in</strong>creased to such an extent that the world’s ma<strong>in</strong> ports would not be<br />
able to cope with the huge demand.<br />
• Trade had changed from ma<strong>in</strong>ly consist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> raw materials to f<strong>in</strong>ished or semif<strong>in</strong>ished<br />
products with higher value with demand for packag<strong>in</strong>g, gentle and thief-pro<strong>of</strong><br />
handl<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
• As trade became less dom<strong>in</strong>ated by raw material, port access became less important as<br />
localisation factor.<br />
• An <strong>in</strong>creased consciousness <strong>of</strong> capital costs <strong>in</strong>duced demand for faster <strong>transportation</strong><br />
due to the <strong>in</strong>creased amount <strong>of</strong> semi-f<strong>in</strong>ished and f<strong>in</strong>ished goods.<br />
• NATO was a very important shipper with large demand for rational transport across the<br />
North Atlantic. Besides transport <strong>of</strong> household utensils for mov<strong>in</strong>g personnel, capacity<br />
for large-<strong>scale</strong> deployment <strong>of</strong> military equipment was needed <strong>in</strong> case <strong>of</strong> a crisis <strong>in</strong><br />
16 This part <strong>of</strong> the retrospect on conta<strong>in</strong>er shipp<strong>in</strong>g is the conclusions <strong>of</strong> a study <strong>of</strong> the history <strong>of</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>erised<br />
<strong>transportation</strong> (WOXENIUS, 1992).<br />
8
Europe.<br />
…and from the supply part:<br />
• The ports were situated <strong>in</strong> city centres and could not be expanded to meet the <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
demand on the current sites. The ports <strong>of</strong> the future also needed easy access to large<strong>scale</strong><br />
land <strong>in</strong>frastructure.<br />
• The <strong>in</strong>creased consciousness <strong>of</strong> capital costs also affected the shipp<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>in</strong>es as the<br />
ships became larger and more expensive.<br />
• The manual stevedor<strong>in</strong>g operations <strong>in</strong> ports had become so costly that mechanical<br />
equipment was a prerequisite for expansion. Also transshipment to land modes had to<br />
be made more efficient.<br />
• Temporary engagements <strong>of</strong> many stevedores became troublesome with frequent strikes<br />
etc. The ports also had to compete for workers – a scarcity <strong>in</strong> those days – by <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g<br />
full-time employment with job security.<br />
• Transport technology had reached such a high level as to the facilitation <strong>of</strong> a technological<br />
shift.<br />
• Ships could simply not be built larger with preserved transshipment technology – the<br />
load<strong>in</strong>g-unload<strong>in</strong>g operation <strong>in</strong> the port was a bottleneck and the portion <strong>of</strong> the ships’<br />
stays <strong>in</strong> port would <strong>in</strong>crease. Faster ships would also imply larger part <strong>of</strong> the time spent<br />
<strong>in</strong> ports.<br />
The maritime conta<strong>in</strong>er was found to be the solution to meet the qualitative and quantitative<br />
change <strong>in</strong> transport demand. It was implemented at a fast pace follow<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>in</strong><br />
the 1950’s by Sea-Land under Malcom MCLEAN’s management. With his first generation<br />
<strong>of</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>er ships – modified World War II tankers <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> 1956 – only a restricted<br />
number <strong>of</strong> ports were called and conventional cranes made the conta<strong>in</strong>er handl<strong>in</strong>g an arduous<br />
task. The second generation – <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> 1957 – employed on-board cranes, add<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to cost and limit<strong>in</strong>g stack<strong>in</strong>g volume on deck, but facilitated calls at all ports with equipment<br />
for mov<strong>in</strong>g the conta<strong>in</strong>ers on the quay. First when many ports had <strong>in</strong>vested <strong>in</strong> gantry<br />
cranes <strong>in</strong> the late 1960’s the time was ready to <strong>in</strong>troduce conta<strong>in</strong>er ships as we know them<br />
today.<br />
9
The actors <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational trade, transport companies as well as shippers, saw such great<br />
advantages with the conta<strong>in</strong>er that they, however after long negotiations (KOZMA, <strong>in</strong>terview,<br />
1993), could agree upon a conta<strong>in</strong>er standard and apply it globally 17 .<br />
Although he was the first to implement it widely, the conta<strong>in</strong>er was not an <strong>in</strong>vention <strong>of</strong><br />
Malcom MCLEAN. The concept <strong>of</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>freight</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>ers dates from Roman times but<br />
conta<strong>in</strong>er transport by rail was <strong>in</strong>troduced by the Liverpool & Manchester Railway that<br />
used RoRo-conta<strong>in</strong>ers for the haul<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> coal back <strong>in</strong> 1830. An early form <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport was <strong>in</strong>troduced by the Birm<strong>in</strong>gham & Darby Railway when transferr<strong>in</strong>g conta<strong>in</strong>ers<br />
between rail wagons and horse carriages <strong>in</strong> 1839. The figure below shows an early <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transshipment.<br />
Figure 1-5<br />
Early use <strong>of</strong> a gantry crane for transshipment between <strong>transportation</strong><br />
modes. (Source: DEBOER, 1992, p. 4).<br />
Even the French were early users <strong>of</strong> the pr<strong>in</strong>ciple <strong>of</strong> unit loads with their “porte-wagons”,<br />
UFR (Union fer Route) and Kangourou systems (BUKOLD, 1996, pp. 207-208).<br />
Commercial <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> road-rail transport started comparatively late <strong>in</strong> Germany although<br />
lorries and tanks were moved by rail dur<strong>in</strong>g World War II as shown <strong>in</strong> the figure below.<br />
However, Germany soon became the lead<strong>in</strong>g European country for develop<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport.<br />
17 For further read<strong>in</strong>g about conta<strong>in</strong>er history, see: MULLER (1995), The TT Club (1996) and WOXENIUS<br />
(1992).<br />
10
Figure 1-6<br />
German piggyback-transport (Huckepack-Verkehr <strong>in</strong> German) shortly after<br />
World War II. (Source: Kombiverkehr, market<strong>in</strong>g brochure, 1991, p. 4).<br />
The greater part <strong>of</strong> the term<strong>in</strong>al network <strong>in</strong> former West Germany was built over a short<br />
period <strong>of</strong> time <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e with an ambitious plan launched <strong>in</strong> September 1967 by Georg<br />
LEBER, then the M<strong>in</strong>ister <strong>of</strong> Transport, and thereby referred to as the Leber plan. The total<br />
fund<strong>in</strong>g was DM 1 billion (ECU 500 million) <strong>of</strong> which DM 250 million (ECU 125 million)<br />
were made available for <strong>in</strong>vestments <strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport technology (BUKOLD, 1996,<br />
pp. 258-263). A second political <strong>in</strong>itiative was presented by the German Government <strong>in</strong><br />
1978, that declared that the amount <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport must be <strong>in</strong>creased threefold by<br />
1985 as a consequence <strong>of</strong> the energy crisis (BAYLISS, 1988). Investment programmes issued<br />
by the government <strong>in</strong>cluded DM 980 million (ECU 500 million) 1979-85 and DM 560<br />
million (ECU 290 million) 1986-90.<br />
Furthermore, the German government has been very active <strong>in</strong> technology <strong>development</strong><br />
schemes. In the late 1970’s, one such scheme helped the emergence <strong>of</strong> more or less successful<br />
technologies such as the Umschlagfahrzeug Lässig Schwanhäusser (ULS), the<br />
R<strong>in</strong>ger System, LogMan’s Conta<strong>in</strong>er FTS, the Hochste<strong>in</strong> System, the Wieskötter System,<br />
the DEMAG System and the System Aachen 18 .<br />
In Sweden, handl<strong>in</strong>g equipment for some 40 term<strong>in</strong>als was bought <strong>in</strong> the late 1960’s. The<br />
13 largest term<strong>in</strong>als were equipped with gantry cranes capable <strong>of</strong> lift<strong>in</strong>g all types <strong>of</strong> ITUs<br />
up to a weight <strong>of</strong> 30 metric tons. Smaller term<strong>in</strong>als were equipped with fork lift trucks,<br />
side-load<strong>in</strong>g trailers 19 or <strong>small</strong>er cranes that limited the term<strong>in</strong>als to <strong>small</strong>er load units or<br />
18 The systems mentioned are all described <strong>in</strong> the detached appendix.<br />
19 A side-load<strong>in</strong>g trailer is a transfer equipment mounted on a lorry or semi-trailer which is capable <strong>of</strong> lift<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
conta<strong>in</strong>er from the ground as well as transferr<strong>in</strong>g the conta<strong>in</strong>er to a rail wagon. For further details, see the detached<br />
appendix.<br />
11
load units with fork entries. In addition, four harbour term<strong>in</strong>als for transshipment <strong>of</strong> semitrailers<br />
and ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers 20 between rail and shipp<strong>in</strong>g were built.<br />
On a Europe-wide <strong>scale</strong>, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport has only been used commercially s<strong>in</strong>ce the<br />
late 1960’s. The conta<strong>in</strong>erisation <strong>of</strong> deep sea shipp<strong>in</strong>g was very rapid and the railways had<br />
to meet a quickly emerged demand for <strong>in</strong>land transport <strong>of</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>ers. This demand<br />
stemmed from the changed <strong>in</strong>dustrial localisation pattern, as well as from the fact that<br />
fewer ports were called at by the larger and faster ships. Furthermore, all European ports<br />
did not <strong>in</strong>vest <strong>in</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>er cranes immediately upon demand. The railways met the new<br />
demand by form<strong>in</strong>g national conta<strong>in</strong>er companies and a jo<strong>in</strong>tly owned company for pan-<br />
European rail transport <strong>of</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>ers: Interconta<strong>in</strong>er. Interconta<strong>in</strong>er has later merged with a<br />
similarly organised company, Interfrigo, giv<strong>in</strong>g the new name Interconta<strong>in</strong>er-Interfrigo<br />
(ICF) with head <strong>of</strong>fice <strong>in</strong> Basle.<br />
Despite the rapid start <strong>of</strong> rail traffic with maritime conta<strong>in</strong>ers, the use <strong>of</strong> ITUs <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>land<br />
transport has proved to be more problematic. Compared to road transport, the rail mode can<br />
be characterised by its economies <strong>of</strong> <strong>scale</strong>. Consequently, the production system for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport services was built to exploit these. Through extensive national <strong>in</strong>vestment<br />
schemes like the Leber plan, a basic European net <strong>of</strong> large term<strong>in</strong>als was established over a<br />
few years <strong>in</strong> the late 1960’s and the early 1970’s. The provided transport services, however,<br />
have never been able to attract a substantial amount <strong>of</strong> <strong>freight</strong>.<br />
A major reason for the bad competitiveness <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport are the problems <strong>of</strong><br />
adapt<strong>in</strong>g to the cont<strong>in</strong>uous change <strong>in</strong> demand. After World War II, road transport has been<br />
able to adapt to – and actually facilitate – sweep<strong>in</strong>g changes <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>dustrial localisation<br />
pattern as well as <strong>in</strong> the demand for transport quality. The railways as well as political bodies<br />
have hoped for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport to be able to challenge road transport and keep<br />
some <strong>freight</strong> on the tracks, but the rigidity <strong>of</strong> the production system – and thus the service<br />
<strong>of</strong>fer – has implied an ever decreas<strong>in</strong>g competitiveness despite far-reach<strong>in</strong>g subventions<br />
and to some extent favourable legislation.<br />
Another major reason for the <strong>in</strong>ferior competitiveness is related to the organisational complexity<br />
(A.T. Kearney, unpublished consultant report, 1989 and the licentiate thesis) that<br />
has emerged through political decisions on national monopolies and concessions rather than<br />
by evolution through market forces (DE LEIJER, 1992). This has created an <strong>in</strong>dustry where<br />
conflicts arise between different <strong>in</strong>terest groups (BUKOLD, 1996; WOXENIUS, 1995/b<br />
and the licentiate thesis). The large forwarders, who usually have been committed to transport<br />
by road, and the national railway adm<strong>in</strong>istrations <strong>of</strong>ten have disagree<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terests concern<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. The different actors have tried to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> their positions and<br />
20 International Standardization Organisation.<br />
12
prioritised their s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode operations before <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> ones. All this has created a complicated<br />
network <strong>of</strong> actors with bus<strong>in</strong>ess and ownership relations that is analysed with a historical<br />
perspective <strong>in</strong> chapter 4 <strong>of</strong> the licentiate thesis 21 .<br />
Start<strong>in</strong>g with the ambitious Leber plan and correspond<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>itiatives <strong>in</strong> other countries,<br />
politicians have frequently turned their eyes to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport seek<strong>in</strong>g the solutions <strong>of</strong><br />
general problems related to road as well as rail <strong>transportation</strong>. Nevertheless, apart from the<br />
success <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>in</strong> conjunction with transocean conta<strong>in</strong>er shipp<strong>in</strong>g, it is<br />
quite clear that <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport has not fulfilled the high expectations. Some 30 million<br />
conta<strong>in</strong>ers pass the European ports annually and 4 million <strong>of</strong> them are moved by rail to<br />
and from the h<strong>in</strong>terland. An additional 6 million ITUs move <strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> road-rail services<br />
with<strong>in</strong> Europe each year (STONE, 1997, p. 2 and 1998, p. 30). The positive th<strong>in</strong>g is<br />
that politicians do not seem to have been discouraged by the weak results.<br />
1.2.2 Current operational pr<strong>in</strong>ciples<br />
This section conta<strong>in</strong>s a description <strong>of</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> production system with a European 22<br />
perspective, which is deeper than the <strong>in</strong>troductory description presented <strong>in</strong> section 1.1.1.<br />
The render<strong>in</strong>g is partly practical and partly theoretical <strong>in</strong> character and the outl<strong>in</strong>e is based<br />
upon the basic functions <strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems, that is the load-carry<strong>in</strong>g<br />
function, the transport function and the transshipment function 23 . This view upon the system<br />
is further deepened <strong>in</strong> a conceptual model presented <strong>in</strong> section 4.1.3.<br />
Today, the load-carry<strong>in</strong>g function <strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems is heavily dom<strong>in</strong>ated<br />
by ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers, swap bodies and semi-trailers, although <strong>small</strong>er units have been<br />
implemented on a <strong>small</strong> <strong>scale</strong> 24 .<br />
The ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>er is by far the most common ITU and the world conta<strong>in</strong>er fleet is <strong>in</strong> the<br />
range <strong>of</strong> 10 million TEUs 25 (Conta<strong>in</strong>erisation International, 1996). Due to the global<br />
agreement to encompass ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers <strong>in</strong> the <strong>transportation</strong> systems, such conta<strong>in</strong>ers are<br />
the obvious choice when shipp<strong>in</strong>g semi-manufactured and manufactured goods between<br />
21 For further read<strong>in</strong>g about <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport history, see: BUKOLD (1996), DEBOER (1992) and MULLER<br />
(1995).<br />
22 A more detailed description <strong>of</strong> the production system for Swedish domestic <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is found <strong>in</strong><br />
an article appended to the licentiate thesis (WOXENIUS, 1994/a). For a Scand<strong>in</strong>avian perspective to the production<br />
system, see WOXENIUS, 1995/a. For read<strong>in</strong>g about the adm<strong>in</strong>istrative system, see WOXENIUS<br />
(1997/a) and chapter 4 <strong>in</strong> the licentiate thesis.<br />
23 In addition to these basic functions the operations obviously require a set <strong>of</strong> complement<strong>in</strong>g adm<strong>in</strong>istrative<br />
functions such as management and <strong>in</strong>formation handl<strong>in</strong>g, but these are not explicitly treated here.<br />
24 Unit load types are comprehensively described and analysed <strong>in</strong> their system context <strong>in</strong> WOXENIUS, et al.<br />
(1995/b). For a pure technical render<strong>in</strong>g, see EURET (1994).<br />
25 Twenty foot Equivalent Unit – a volume measurement used, e.g., for describ<strong>in</strong>g the capacity <strong>of</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>er<br />
ships and for conta<strong>in</strong>er transport statistics.<br />
13
cont<strong>in</strong>ents. Among the shortcom<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>er is its non-compatibility with<br />
Euro-pallets and its lack <strong>of</strong> flexibility to RoRo-port operations. ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers are today<br />
manufactured <strong>in</strong> large quantities <strong>in</strong> newly <strong>in</strong>dustrialised countries and sold at very low<br />
prices.<br />
The swap body is well suited for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> road-rail transport between two fixed locations<br />
but when it comes to short reposition<strong>in</strong>g over the road and port operations, its <strong>in</strong>flexibility<br />
due to rather expensive lorries and too weak support-legs is evident. Furthermore, few swap<br />
bodies are stackable today. It is also a considerably more expensive unit than the ISOconta<strong>in</strong>er,<br />
the reason for which is ma<strong>in</strong>ly the lack <strong>of</strong> standardisation that has hampered<br />
large-<strong>scale</strong> production. However, <strong>in</strong>expensive swap bodies are now be<strong>in</strong>g produced <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Baltic states (HENRIKSSON, <strong>in</strong>terview, 1996) and the prices are thus believed to decrease.<br />
The semi-trailer <strong>of</strong>fers an unsurpassed flexibility <strong>in</strong> all-road transport and short sea shipp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(RoRo), but it is nationally registered as an <strong>in</strong>dividual vehicle. Furthermore, the chassis<br />
are expensive and br<strong>in</strong>gs dead weight <strong>in</strong>to the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system, giv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
disadvantages <strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> road-rail transport and deep sea shipp<strong>in</strong>g. The large and heavy<br />
semi-trailers also require the use <strong>of</strong> large cranes, counter-balanced trucks or other large<strong>scale</strong><br />
vertical transshipment technologies. Radical technical improvements <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
systems are thus hampered by the fact that semi-trailers are difficult to transship horizontally<br />
underneath the overhead contact l<strong>in</strong>e. Moreover, tra<strong>in</strong>s densely loaded with conta<strong>in</strong>ers<br />
and swap bodies show much better aerodynamics than those loaded with semi-trailers. The<br />
latter is especially important <strong>in</strong> Europe with fast tra<strong>in</strong>s travell<strong>in</strong>g at up to 160 kilometres<br />
per hour, also imply<strong>in</strong>g problems with curta<strong>in</strong>-sided units. Hence, the different load units<br />
show different suitability <strong>in</strong> the three <strong>transportation</strong> modes road, rail and sea <strong>transportation</strong>.<br />
Depend<strong>in</strong>g on geographical conditions, the transport function <strong>of</strong> European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> roadrail<br />
transport <strong>in</strong>volves two or three different activities; local road haulage, rail haulage and<br />
ferry cross<strong>in</strong>g. Air <strong>freight</strong> and <strong>in</strong>land waterways are also used for mov<strong>in</strong>g ITUs, but so far<br />
on a <strong>small</strong>er <strong>scale</strong>.<br />
Local road haulage is a short delivery or pick-up transport dur<strong>in</strong>g which the ITU is unbroken<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, as it is def<strong>in</strong>ed here, stops at the po<strong>in</strong>t where the ITU is<br />
stripped. The maximum economic road haulage distance differs vastly accord<strong>in</strong>g to, e.g.<br />
type <strong>of</strong> goods, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> and general cargo term<strong>in</strong>al locations, rail haulage distance and <strong>in</strong><br />
what direction the haulage is headed 26 . Typical maximum distances are 50 kilometres for<br />
domestic <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport and 200 kilometres for border-cross<strong>in</strong>g ditto (the licentiate<br />
26 The local road haulage part <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport systems is elaborated by, e.g. MORLOK et al. (1992),<br />
MORLOK and SPASOVIC (1994) and NIERAT (1987 and 1995/b).<br />
14
thesis, p. 16). With overnight rail haulage, road distribution takes place <strong>in</strong> the early morn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and loaded ITUs are picked up <strong>in</strong> the late afternoon and even<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
A lead<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>in</strong>ciple <strong>of</strong> European railways is to operate passenger tra<strong>in</strong>s dur<strong>in</strong>g the day and<br />
<strong>freight</strong> tra<strong>in</strong>s at night. With<strong>in</strong> reasonable distances, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> rail haulage is thus an overnight<br />
bus<strong>in</strong>ess and the wagons stay available for load<strong>in</strong>g at term<strong>in</strong>als dur<strong>in</strong>g the day. The<br />
prioritised traffic design (see section 4.2.1) is direct connection, but secondary flows are<br />
handled with<strong>in</strong> the normal wagonload system with its <strong>in</strong>termediate marshall<strong>in</strong>g operations.<br />
If rail haulage can not be arranged overnight, the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport normally takes an<br />
additional 24 hours <strong>in</strong>to account. The UIRR – which organises the dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport companies – reported an average transport distance (term<strong>in</strong>al to term<strong>in</strong>al) <strong>of</strong> 660<br />
kilometres <strong>in</strong> domestic traffic and 760 kilometres <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational traffic 27 . For 1994, ICF –<br />
traditionally active <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational bus<strong>in</strong>ess – reports an average distance <strong>of</strong> 834 kilometres<br />
for seaport traffic and 1192 kilometres for cont<strong>in</strong>ental traffi. Once aga<strong>in</strong>, the average distances<br />
rose <strong>in</strong> 1994 – by 4.8% and 3.8% respectively (ICF, 1995, p. 17). This is obviously<br />
alarm<strong>in</strong>g, although ICF underl<strong>in</strong>es that the <strong>in</strong>creases emphasise the competitiveness over<br />
longer distances rather than market shares be<strong>in</strong>g lost to lorries.<br />
Intermodal transport is <strong>of</strong>ten referred to as be<strong>in</strong>g more successful <strong>in</strong> the USA than <strong>in</strong><br />
Europe, but it should be kept <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d that this is not only to be attributed to the efficiency<br />
and private ownership <strong>of</strong> the American railroads. Double-stack tra<strong>in</strong>s 28 <strong>of</strong> Union Pacific<br />
Railroad Company <strong>in</strong> the USA have the capacity <strong>of</strong> 280 pieces <strong>of</strong> 40-foot conta<strong>in</strong>ers<br />
(HILL, <strong>in</strong>terview, 1993) compared to about 40 <strong>in</strong> Europe, but the tra<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> the USA are<br />
generally pulled by more than one eng<strong>in</strong>e and at a considerably gentler pace. Moreover, the<br />
geographic and demographic conditions favour American railroads more than the European<br />
railways. The American services are very successful over long distances, but the problems<br />
with compet<strong>in</strong>g over shorter distances are perhaps worse than <strong>in</strong> Europe. The shortest competitive<br />
distance for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> services is <strong>of</strong>ten stated as 500 miles (800 kilometres) <strong>in</strong> the<br />
USA compared to 500 kilometres <strong>in</strong> Europe 29 . The American <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustry, however,<br />
is now fight<strong>in</strong>g to re-enter the “below 500 mile market” (GELLMAN, 1994).<br />
From the road transport company’s po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view, a ferry cross<strong>in</strong>g is normally regarded as a<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the railway service. For certa<strong>in</strong> transport relations, however, the ferry cross<strong>in</strong>g is<br />
better performed without rail wagons, usually referred to as broken traffic where semi-<br />
27 The figures are notably equal and actually converg<strong>in</strong>g. The reasons are the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g use <strong>of</strong> long-distance<br />
domestic transport <strong>in</strong> Italy and short-distance – yet <strong>in</strong>ternational – roll<strong>in</strong>g highway services (UIRR, 1997, p. 9).<br />
28 The very generous load<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>in</strong> the USA facilitates that conta<strong>in</strong>ers can be stacked two high on rail wagons.<br />
29 The shortest distance over which <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> is competitive depends on a truly wide range <strong>of</strong><br />
factors, e.g. the demanded transport volumes and transport quality, road and rail <strong>in</strong>frastructure, general operation<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and transshipment costs. A firm distance can thus only be calculated <strong>in</strong> a particular case, but the<br />
given figures are the most mentioned ones.<br />
15
trailers are lifted <strong>of</strong>f rail wagons <strong>in</strong> the port and are transported on rubber wheels onto the<br />
ferry. Furthermore, ferry l<strong>in</strong>es play a significant role for the plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> timetables.<br />
When <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is discussed, a lot <strong>of</strong> attention is paid to the transshipment function.<br />
Any change <strong>of</strong> address <strong>of</strong> goods is not carried out, but as technology for the loadcarry<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and transport function is relatively mature, much <strong>of</strong> the Research, Technological<br />
<strong>development</strong> and Demonstration (RTD) <strong>in</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport area is focused on<br />
transshipment technology. The transshipment function is also the dist<strong>in</strong>guish<strong>in</strong>g activity<br />
between <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport and s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode <strong>transportation</strong> and thus term<strong>in</strong>al equipment<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten used for symbolis<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport.<br />
Today, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transshipment is carried out <strong>in</strong> a homogeneous manner. As is shown <strong>in</strong><br />
the detached appendix, technological <strong>development</strong> is <strong>in</strong>tense, but still the vertical handl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciple dom<strong>in</strong>ates at the term<strong>in</strong>als and it will so do for some years to come. The pieces <strong>of</strong><br />
equipment used are gantry cranes and counter-balanced trucks, chiefly reach-stackers,<br />
which are capable <strong>of</strong> handl<strong>in</strong>g all types <strong>of</strong> standardised ITUs 30 . Comb<strong>in</strong>ation spreaders are<br />
used as flexible <strong>in</strong>terfaces <strong>in</strong> order to grip different types <strong>of</strong> ITUs. Fortuitous ITU <strong>in</strong> a tra<strong>in</strong><br />
set can be handled and storage space for ITUs are normally provided, although stor<strong>in</strong>g is<br />
normally not needed s<strong>in</strong>ce tra<strong>in</strong>s are available for load<strong>in</strong>g throughout the day. As most conventional<br />
term<strong>in</strong>als have a limited track capacity and as gantry cranes and reach-stackers<br />
cannot work under the overhead contact l<strong>in</strong>e, diesel-powered locomotives are required for<br />
shunt<strong>in</strong>g 31 .<br />
Today, there are hundreds <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transshipment term<strong>in</strong>als throughout Western<br />
Europe. An extensive expansion <strong>of</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als <strong>in</strong> the former Eastern bloc is foreseen for the<br />
com<strong>in</strong>g decades but <strong>in</strong> Western Europe there is a trend towards concentration to fewer term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
<strong>in</strong> order to achieve larger economies <strong>of</strong> <strong>scale</strong>. Current term<strong>in</strong>al <strong>in</strong>vestments are still<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ly focused on classic transshipment technologies 32 .<br />
1.2.3 The chang<strong>in</strong>g environment<br />
Demand for transport services with<strong>in</strong> the EU is clearly <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g due to a higher economic<br />
activity, global sourc<strong>in</strong>g and free trade with<strong>in</strong> the EU. In addition, many <strong>in</strong>dustrial companies<br />
outsource their transport activities to the transport market. This favours <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
30 For <strong>in</strong>formation on conventional <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transshipment equipment, see, e.g. DANIELSSON et al. (1991),<br />
EURET (1995), MULLER (1995) and SCHREYER (1996).<br />
31 For research on organisation <strong>of</strong> operations at term<strong>in</strong>als, see, e.g. BÜHRER (1994), KONDRATOWICZ<br />
(1993), RUTTEN (1995), SJÖGREN (1996) and VOGES et al. (1994).<br />
32 As an example, Kalmar LMV, the lead<strong>in</strong>g supplier <strong>of</strong> reach-stackers, delivered its 1000 th mach<strong>in</strong>e by the end<br />
<strong>of</strong> 1997. The first 500 mach<strong>in</strong>es took 10 years to sell while the rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 500 were sold <strong>in</strong> only two years<br />
(Cargo Systems, 1997/f, p. 10).<br />
16
transport s<strong>in</strong>ce forwarders and hauliers have better possibilities <strong>of</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> services<br />
than the <strong>in</strong>dustries’ <strong>in</strong>-house transport departments. The ma<strong>in</strong> reasons are that pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
transport companies most <strong>of</strong>ten operate on a larger <strong>scale</strong> and that they are more<br />
likely to possess the needed expertise.<br />
Furthermore, if <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport can <strong>in</strong>crease its quality or decrease the price level,<br />
large new markets may open up. Increased environmental awareness <strong>of</strong> consumers can <strong>in</strong>duce<br />
a substantial lift if the price level is <strong>in</strong> the same range as for all-road transport. In l<strong>in</strong>e<br />
with saturation on the roads and <strong>in</strong> the air, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> road-rail transport can also take on a<br />
role as the prime alternative for fast transport. Growth <strong>in</strong> this market niche, however, requires<br />
a significant <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> service level and organisation, but it also facilitates potentially<br />
high revenues.<br />
Road <strong>transportation</strong> is currently very competitive with<strong>in</strong> the EU. Prices are down, service<br />
levels are up and deregulation is ahead <strong>of</strong> rail <strong>transportation</strong> (STONE, 1997, p. 5). However,<br />
hauliers face problems due to congestion, which <strong>in</strong>duces costs and problems to keep<br />
agreed service levels, new legislation for the <strong>in</strong>ternalisation <strong>of</strong> external costs and a price<br />
level that is not likely to be persistent. Turn<strong>in</strong>g to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is a viable way <strong>of</strong><br />
address<strong>in</strong>g these problems.<br />
Also the railways face problems. EU directive 91/440 on competition and revitalisation <strong>of</strong><br />
railways (The Official Journal, 1991) forces them to be pr<strong>of</strong>itable also <strong>in</strong> bus<strong>in</strong>ess economic<br />
terms. The presently bad pr<strong>of</strong>itability keeps new actors away from enter<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />
on a large <strong>scale</strong>, but “pearls” have been picked, which has caused the national railways<br />
to concentrate on the pr<strong>of</strong>itable l<strong>in</strong>es, hence giv<strong>in</strong>g up old objectives concern<strong>in</strong>g spatial<br />
coverage. Wagonload traffic is seriously problematic. On the one hand cancellation <strong>of</strong><br />
wagonload services means that <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport can w<strong>in</strong> transport volumes, but on the<br />
other hand it means that s<strong>in</strong>gle <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> wagons cannot be moved by wagonload services<br />
on low-flow transport relations. Moreover, <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> flows at wagonload’s expense<br />
33 does not fulfil the political goals for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport and the predatory behaviour<br />
causes frictions with<strong>in</strong> the railways.<br />
Moreover, pressure for better productivity will force the operators to utilise the equipment<br />
for more hours each day. In order to realise this, the current operations based upon nightleaps<br />
have to be modified. Fortunately, two trends po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> the direction <strong>of</strong> better track access<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g daytime for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> tra<strong>in</strong>s. Firstly, as <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport competes with<br />
rapid road haulage, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> tra<strong>in</strong>s have enjoyed higher priority on the railway l<strong>in</strong>es dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the past few years. Secondly, the extension <strong>of</strong> the European tra<strong>in</strong> network with dedi-<br />
33 BUKOLD (1997, p. 2) asserts that subsidies for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> services have caused this “cannibalism-effect”,<br />
but it does not appear <strong>in</strong> the statistics due to lack <strong>of</strong> data.<br />
17
cated high-speed tracks will leave more space on exist<strong>in</strong>g tracks for <strong>freight</strong> tra<strong>in</strong>s dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
day.<br />
New <strong>in</strong>formation systems br<strong>in</strong>g about both opportunities and threats. The opportunities lie<br />
<strong>in</strong> decreas<strong>in</strong>g the friction costs <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>transportation</strong> modes and <strong>in</strong> the fact<br />
that shippers can be made aware <strong>of</strong> how their cargo is actually moved as well as the environmental<br />
consequences it implies. Extensive <strong>in</strong>formation support will also facilitate dynamic<br />
tra<strong>in</strong> plans, which is important for close adaptations to a chang<strong>in</strong>g market 34 . A threat<br />
is that powerful <strong>in</strong>formation systems might enable the actors with<strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>dustry to identify<br />
the customers <strong>of</strong> other actors and <strong>of</strong>fer s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode <strong>transportation</strong> to these. This might<br />
cause actors to refra<strong>in</strong> from <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g other actors <strong>in</strong> the operations, i.e. they arrange their<br />
own door-to-door s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode services. The <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> efficient multi-actor <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
systems is vital to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, but it is here only specifically treated <strong>in</strong><br />
WOXENIUS (1997/a).<br />
1.2.4 Small is beautiful?<br />
As stated above, many <strong>of</strong> the problems that the European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system<br />
suffers from are directly or <strong>in</strong>directly caused by the complexity <strong>of</strong> the system and the <strong>scale</strong><br />
the services are produced on. Researchers, consultants, actors and authorities have made a<br />
tremendous effort to identify the problems – perhaps even more than to solve them. This<br />
analysis <strong>of</strong> current <strong>in</strong>dustrial problems is based upon personal experience and a truly wide<br />
variety <strong>of</strong> sources, <strong>of</strong> which the most prom<strong>in</strong>ent are European Commission (1996/a and<br />
1997/e) and STONE (1997 and 1998).<br />
Intermodal transport is currently competitive and pr<strong>of</strong>itable ma<strong>in</strong>ly for transport <strong>of</strong> ISOconta<strong>in</strong>ers<br />
to and from the ma<strong>in</strong> ports and at certa<strong>in</strong> niche markets over very long distances<br />
(1000 to 1200 kilometres), for specialised or concentrated flows and for overcom<strong>in</strong>g special<br />
geographic difficulties such as the Alps (STONE, 1997, p. 2). The strive towards efficiency<br />
has caused the clos<strong>in</strong>g down <strong>of</strong> many <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als and the former networks are today<br />
merely restricted to a set <strong>of</strong> direct connections between large term<strong>in</strong>als. Turn<strong>in</strong>g to operations<br />
at direct connections drastically decreases the complexity <strong>of</strong> the system, but still<br />
more fragmentation is not a viable solution to the problems <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. It will<br />
<strong>in</strong>evitably decrease the potential market and take <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport even further <strong>in</strong>to the<br />
niche role it plays today. A fragmented <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system will also ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
capture transport volumes, already held by the railways. When total volumes are concerned<br />
– <strong>small</strong> is not beautiful!<br />
34 So far, the driv<strong>in</strong>g forces for dynamic tra<strong>in</strong> plans have been weak. A major reason for this is that the passenger<br />
traffic that dom<strong>in</strong>ates the national railways requires fixed tra<strong>in</strong> tables s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>in</strong>form<strong>in</strong>g passengers about<br />
dynamic departure times is still virtually impossible.<br />
18
The competitiveness <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is cont<strong>in</strong>uously transferred onto even longer<br />
distances, which means <strong>in</strong>creased significance <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational transport. The UIRR companies<br />
report (UIRR, 1997, p. 9) that <strong>in</strong>ternational traffic has <strong>in</strong>creased from 7 to 20 billion<br />
tonkilometre from 1987 to 1996 while domestic traffic has been stable at 7 to 8 billion<br />
tonkilometre over the same period. Yet, the demand for transport services is greatest over<br />
short domestic distances.<br />
As is obvious from the figure below, the currently addressed market above 500 kilometres<br />
is not satisfactory for a substantial modal split from road to rail. The very short distances<br />
are not relevant for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, but if systems competitive from, say, 200 kilometres<br />
are <strong>in</strong>troduced, the potential market for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport will almost be quadrupled.<br />
Approach<strong>in</strong>g this market is the only way <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport can fulfil the high expectations<br />
from railway companies and society.<br />
Figure 1-7<br />
The transport <strong>of</strong> goods by road (domestic and <strong>in</strong>ternational) <strong>in</strong> the European<br />
Community <strong>in</strong> 1986. (Source: NEA, 1992, p. 47).<br />
The all-pervad<strong>in</strong>g problem is thus that <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is not competitive over short<br />
and medium distances where the truly large transport volumes are present. If <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport can be made competitive over shorter distances, it can also be given a larger spatial<br />
coverage and the potential market <strong>of</strong> the system can be dramatically <strong>in</strong>creased. When it<br />
comes to distances – <strong>small</strong> is beautiful!<br />
The ambitious Leber plan with the follow<strong>in</strong>g rapid <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> the European term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
network is today both a problem and a possibility. The problem lies <strong>in</strong> the fact that the system<br />
is technologically rigid and uniform rather than flexible and locally adapted. BUKOLD<br />
formulates this <strong>in</strong> cost terms as:<br />
19
“Over-sized ‘d<strong>in</strong>osaur’ term<strong>in</strong>als – f<strong>in</strong>anced by taxpayers’ money – have been built<br />
based on unrealistic market <strong>in</strong>formation; their high fixed costs now hamper efficient<br />
network operation.”<br />
BUKOLD (1997, p. 2)<br />
The possibility given by the Leber plan is that the rapid <strong>development</strong> meant large <strong>in</strong>stant<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestments <strong>in</strong> transshipment equipment that now has to be replaced over a relatively short<br />
period <strong>of</strong> time. It is thus a good opportunity for reth<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g and redesign<strong>in</strong>g the European<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system.<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> the problems concern<strong>in</strong>g actor co-operation, legislation and pure bus<strong>in</strong>ess hamper<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>development</strong> po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> the same direction: the system is too complex and<br />
rigid. This set <strong>of</strong> problems is not specifically treated <strong>in</strong> this dissertation 35 , but they are recognised<br />
<strong>in</strong> the separate analyses to the extent that they <strong>in</strong>fluence the <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> technologies<br />
and operational pr<strong>in</strong>ciples.<br />
It is quite obvious that the technology, the operational pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and the <strong>in</strong>dustrial organisation<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems have reached a bl<strong>in</strong>d alley. In order to compete<br />
with s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode road <strong>transportation</strong>, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport must be able to adapt to the local<br />
and regional demand. This might seem contradictory due to the economies <strong>of</strong> <strong>scale</strong> so<br />
prevalent <strong>in</strong> rail <strong>transportation</strong>, but the trick is to design and implement locally adapted –<br />
yet <strong>in</strong>teroperable – network modules. When the <strong>scale</strong> <strong>of</strong> operations and complexity <strong>of</strong> the<br />
system is concerned – <strong>small</strong> is def<strong>in</strong>itely beautiful!<br />
1.2.5 The ma<strong>in</strong> research theme<br />
It appears quite clear that <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport must be made competitive over shorter distances<br />
than today. The ma<strong>in</strong> theme to address <strong>in</strong> this dissertation is therefore chosen to be:<br />
How can the European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system be<br />
developed <strong>in</strong> order to compete with lorries over medium distances <strong>of</strong> 200 –<br />
500 kilometres?<br />
However, before address<strong>in</strong>g this overrid<strong>in</strong>g theme, a more fundamental and theoretical issue<br />
must be approached. S<strong>in</strong>ce the technical and bus<strong>in</strong>ess complexity is identified as the<br />
major problem, tools suitable for understand<strong>in</strong>g and expla<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g these complexities must be<br />
sought. The complicated <strong>in</strong>terrelations between elements and the technical orientation <strong>of</strong><br />
35 The licentiate thesis, however, is dedicated to problems related to the <strong>in</strong>dustry structure and political <strong>in</strong>terventions.<br />
20
the dissertation <strong>in</strong>dicate that a systems approach is an appropriate po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> departure.<br />
Hence, the question lead<strong>in</strong>g the presentation <strong>in</strong> chapter 2 is: What does systems theory – <strong>in</strong><br />
a wide sense – <strong>of</strong>fer to the understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the complexity <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
systems?<br />
1.3 RESEARCH PROCESS AND PURPOSES<br />
Due to the <strong>in</strong>dustrial fund<strong>in</strong>g, an <strong>of</strong>ficial ma<strong>in</strong> purpose <strong>of</strong> the present research project was<br />
def<strong>in</strong>ed already before I entered the scene. The title <strong>of</strong> the project – Product <strong>development</strong><br />
with<strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport regard<strong>in</strong>g unit loads, rail wagons and transshipment equipment<br />
– implies a rather narrow technical orientation. The employed technology is, however,<br />
only a <strong>small</strong> part <strong>of</strong> the complex transport arrangement denoted <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport and it<br />
was clear to me that it had to be studied <strong>in</strong> a wider context.<br />
HULTÉN (1997, pp. 15-18) had a similar experience when study<strong>in</strong>g conta<strong>in</strong>er management.<br />
He found that his research problem required an <strong>in</strong>ductive research process <strong>in</strong>stead <strong>of</strong><br />
the conventional deductive process <strong>in</strong> which the research efforts are described as planned <strong>in</strong><br />
detail already from the start. As argued by HELLEVIK (1984, p. 67), the traditionally<br />
higher prestige <strong>of</strong> a deductive approach <strong>of</strong>ten tempts researchers to claim a deductive research<br />
process although the actually applied <strong>in</strong>ductive one is <strong>of</strong>ten equally good or even<br />
better. The risk, however, is to attract criticism for be<strong>in</strong>g what CHALMERS (1982, pp. 2-5)<br />
denotes a “naïve <strong>in</strong>ductivist” who tries to generalise from s<strong>in</strong>gle observations. His criticism<br />
stems from his view upon scientific knowledge:<br />
“The laws and theories that make up scientific knowledge all make general assertions<br />
(…), and such statements are called universal statements.”<br />
(CHALMERS, 1982, p. 3)<br />
This leads to the question: Do we really need to generalise <strong>in</strong> order to ga<strong>in</strong> “scientific<br />
knowledge”? Well, with a systems approach 36 , there is generally no such aim, but still most<br />
systems theorists claim to possess scientific knowledge and systems theory is generally accepted<br />
as a paradigm <strong>in</strong> its own right.<br />
This research project has a lot <strong>in</strong> common with HULTÉN’s and has likewise followed a<br />
rather w<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g road. Yet, the research set out with a clear perspective <strong>in</strong> collaboration with<br />
Stefan SJÖGREN from the School <strong>of</strong> Economics and Commercial Law, University <strong>of</strong><br />
Göteborg. Jo<strong>in</strong>tly we collected very detailed data on a wide variety <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> issues.<br />
The data collection was based upon four transport relations between Swedish and cont<strong>in</strong>en-<br />
36 This work starts out from a strong systems approach, which is briefly commented upon <strong>in</strong> the general research<br />
approach section but more comprehensively described <strong>in</strong> the next chapter.<br />
21
tal cities. In the midst <strong>of</strong> the data collection period, however, the Swedish currency was depreciated<br />
imply<strong>in</strong>g a severe rise <strong>in</strong> price for <strong>in</strong>ternational <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transports that were to<br />
be paid <strong>in</strong> ECUs. Hauliers and forwarders then started to split their transport arrangements<br />
<strong>in</strong>to one domestic Swedish part, paid <strong>in</strong> SEKs, and one cont<strong>in</strong>ental part. Hence, the flows<br />
could not be traced accord<strong>in</strong>g to our <strong>in</strong>ternational transport relations and, accord<strong>in</strong>gly, the<br />
study had to be term<strong>in</strong>ated. From that po<strong>in</strong>t onwards, my data collection methods and general<br />
approach have been much more complex and less narrowly focused.<br />
Nevertheless, my research is ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong>fluenced by the <strong>in</strong>ductive approach when it comes to<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g relevant research questions and not when carry<strong>in</strong>g out the actual research. In the<br />
demarcated analyses, I mix an <strong>in</strong>ductive and a deductive research process. In Denmark,<br />
such an approach is referred to as abductive, but theory on the topic has not been found<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g this study.<br />
After a number <strong>of</strong> studies with disparate aims and methods, many <strong>of</strong> which are dedicated to<br />
purely management and <strong>in</strong>dustrial organisation issues, I am now back to where I was supposed<br />
to start – at the <strong>development</strong>, implementation and assessment <strong>of</strong> technical resources<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems. Actual product <strong>development</strong> is not a part <strong>of</strong> our department’s<br />
tradition and thus I have concentrated on analys<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>novations presented by<br />
others.<br />
Nevertheless, I th<strong>in</strong>k the travails <strong>of</strong> the researcher is <strong>of</strong> limited <strong>in</strong>terest to most readers and<br />
I restrict the render<strong>in</strong>g on the actual research process to a m<strong>in</strong>imum. Moreover, the character<br />
<strong>of</strong> this research makes it unattractive and very difficult to reproduce for verification<br />
purposes, which also limits the need for detailed descriptions <strong>of</strong> the actual research path<br />
followed.<br />
The ultimate theoretical purpose <strong>of</strong> the present dissertation is to contribute to the understand<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
conceptual modell<strong>in</strong>g and description <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport at different system<br />
levels. The conceptual models presented <strong>in</strong> chapter 4 can be seen as <strong>in</strong>termediate research<br />
steps to be used by me or other researchers <strong>in</strong> more detailed analyses (BRUNSSON, 1982,<br />
p. 108). The ultimate theoretical purpose is limited to be explorative and descriptive, which<br />
is justified by the lack <strong>of</strong> rigid academic foundation 37 and by the fact that normative statements<br />
are possible to give only for very specific and demarcated cases. On lower system<br />
levels, the technical parts <strong>of</strong> the system are focused, although the case study <strong>in</strong> chapter 8 is<br />
quite wide <strong>in</strong> its scope.<br />
37 The shortage <strong>of</strong> relevant academic literature will be further analysed at each system level.<br />
22
The ultimate empirical purpose is to contribute to the understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> how the current<br />
large-<strong>scale</strong> and complex <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system can be transformed <strong>in</strong>to a simpler<br />
and more flexible system that can be better adapted to local and regional conditions.<br />
In addition, various and partly disparate analytic and even predict<strong>in</strong>g purposes are fulfilled<br />
through demarcated studies at different system levels. With the demarcations comes a<br />
stronger empirical element <strong>in</strong> the studies, which adds to the fulfilment <strong>of</strong> the ultimate descriptive<br />
purpose. The choice <strong>of</strong> different purposes – which also entails different research<br />
questions and methods – on different system levels is justified by the fact that a purpose<br />
relevant at one system level might be impossible to fulfil at a higher system level while it<br />
might well be absolutely trivial at a lower level.<br />
The licentiate thesis serves a method <strong>development</strong> purpose, a descriptive purpose as well as<br />
a method verification purpose. The detached appendix ma<strong>in</strong>ly fulfils a descriptive purpose,<br />
but the advantages and disadvantages <strong>of</strong> the technologies are briefly analysed and the technologies<br />
are classified. F<strong>in</strong>ally, other own reports and articles referred to – that also should<br />
be considered as part <strong>of</strong> the doctoral work – generally serve rather narrow and specific analytic<br />
purposes.<br />
For obvious reasons, the theoretical and empirical advances have come hand-<strong>in</strong>-hand dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the course <strong>of</strong> the PhD studies.<br />
1.4 METHOD<br />
In this section, my general view upon research methods is forwarded. The purpose is not to<br />
prove that I have read the right method books, but to help the reader to understand my<br />
methodological choices throughout the dissertation. As for the purposes and research questions,<br />
each method or technique is identified, justified and described <strong>in</strong> detail only when<br />
they appear <strong>in</strong> the text <strong>in</strong> their proper context. F<strong>in</strong>ally, the section <strong>in</strong>cludes a discussion on<br />
the data and <strong>in</strong>formation sources used.<br />
1.4.1 General research approach<br />
My ma<strong>in</strong> po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> this section is that PERSSON (1979, p. 2) is absolutely right <strong>in</strong> his argu<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that the choice <strong>of</strong> methods <strong>in</strong> applied science always has to be subord<strong>in</strong>ate to the research<br />
problems. Although it should be obvious, he goes on by stipulat<strong>in</strong>g that all research<br />
aims at either solv<strong>in</strong>g relevant problems or elaborat<strong>in</strong>g on them, not at demonstrat<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
ability to use certa<strong>in</strong> methods. As is pla<strong>in</strong> from my sometimes disparate choices <strong>of</strong> methods<br />
at different system levels, I s<strong>in</strong>cerely value that po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view. It is my firm belief that start<strong>in</strong>g<br />
out from the field <strong>of</strong> application without prejudice concern<strong>in</strong>g methods is a strength that<br />
allows me to identify and address more relevant research questions. Furthermore, the value<br />
23
<strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g able to talk the technical language <strong>of</strong> a practically oriented <strong>in</strong>dustry should not be<br />
underestimated as means <strong>of</strong> arriv<strong>in</strong>g at reliable research f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs. It could thus be argued<br />
that a pure method specialist might face problems concern<strong>in</strong>g validity as well as reliability<br />
without be<strong>in</strong>g able to even notice it 38 .<br />
My conviction that the choice <strong>of</strong> methods is subord<strong>in</strong>ate to the choice <strong>of</strong> research problems<br />
should not be mistaken for a conviction that method is not important. Us<strong>in</strong>g methods consciously<br />
is vitally important <strong>in</strong> the search for reliable results, which is the ma<strong>in</strong> basis for<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g accepted as a researcher. I do not, however, agree with those researchers ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
that only quantitative methods count 39 . For natural reasons, however, qualitative research at<br />
a university <strong>of</strong> technology easily attracts <strong>in</strong>ternal criticism. Nevertheless, I believe that it is<br />
better to persist than try<strong>in</strong>g to adapt to a futile research ideal as is expressed by<br />
CHALMERS:<br />
“An <strong>in</strong>scription on the façade <strong>of</strong> the Social Science Research Build<strong>in</strong>g at the University<br />
<strong>of</strong> Chicago reads, “If you cannot measure, your knowledge is meagre and unsatisfactory”.<br />
No doubt, many <strong>of</strong> its <strong>in</strong>habitants, imprisoned <strong>in</strong> their modern laboratories, scrut<strong>in</strong>ise<br />
the world through the iron bars <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>tegers, fail<strong>in</strong>g to realise that the method<br />
that they endeavour to follow is not only necessarily barren and unfruitful but also is<br />
not the method to which the success <strong>of</strong> physics is to be attributed.”<br />
(CHALMERS, 1982, p. xvi)<br />
Also CHURCHMAN (1979, pp. 16-27) objects to the quantitative orientation <strong>of</strong> solv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
also complex and system-oriented problems, although he bases his criticism upon the risk<br />
<strong>of</strong> suboptimisation, which is further dealt with <strong>in</strong> the proceed<strong>in</strong>g chapter.<br />
A question that has arisen several times dur<strong>in</strong>g my PhD-studies is: Should also a PhD student<br />
be allowed to be a generalist or is this a privilege <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essors that have already<br />
proven to master narrow methods? PERSSON (1979, p. 1) means that although narrowfocused<br />
topics and well def<strong>in</strong>ed research problems make it easier to reach precise results,<br />
the PhD student should not always avoid relevant but diffuse problems that might be hard<br />
to analyse. Well, I arrive at the conclusion that if it is not allowed to draw on the generalist<br />
competence, there is no po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> pursu<strong>in</strong>g PhD studies <strong>in</strong> new or applied sciences 40 . If one<br />
38 One strik<strong>in</strong>g example is LÖFSTEN (1995) who starts out from a method perspective and claims to describe<br />
“the Swedish transport <strong>in</strong>dustry” while what he actually describes is forwarders <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g general cargo <strong>transportation</strong>,<br />
i.e. companies controll<strong>in</strong>g only a <strong>small</strong> part <strong>of</strong> the total <strong>freight</strong> transport <strong>in</strong>dustry. For a good verbal description<br />
<strong>of</strong> the transport <strong>in</strong>dustry, however with a European focus, see HERTZ (1993, pp. 20-23 and Appendix<br />
2) <strong>in</strong>stead.<br />
39 Among others, pr<strong>of</strong>essor Theodore M. PORTER (1995) who has dedicated a whole book – Trust <strong>in</strong> Numbers<br />
– to defend<strong>in</strong>g this conception.<br />
40 ACKOFF (1972, pp. 13-14) means that it is very difficult to precise the difference between basic and applied<br />
research respectively. He argues that basic and applied research represent po<strong>in</strong>ts along a <strong>scale</strong> that is hard to<br />
divide. The <strong>scale</strong> might represent whoever benefits from the research: other researchers with<strong>in</strong> the field (or<br />
24
is judged accord<strong>in</strong>g to the ideals <strong>of</strong> basic and narrow scientific fields, then one should also<br />
pursue the studies at a correspond<strong>in</strong>g department and, as <strong>in</strong> this case, use <strong>transportation</strong><br />
merely as one <strong>of</strong> many fields on to which one’s narrow method should be applied! As a<br />
metaphor, PICASSO proved to be a superb realistic pa<strong>in</strong>ter before becom<strong>in</strong>g a surrealistic<br />
one, but today young artists are accepted for their fresh and novel modern art rather than for<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g able to reproduce photographs. Furthermore, <strong>in</strong> the field <strong>of</strong> medic<strong>in</strong>e it is actually an<br />
acknowledged speciality to be a general practitioner!<br />
From this dissertation, it should be quite obvious that I am educated to be a generalist – I<br />
have followed the study programme <strong>of</strong> natural science <strong>in</strong> the gymnasium and that <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />
eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g at Chalmers. The latter programme is marketed as a programme tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
students to bridge the differences between the pr<strong>of</strong>essional languages and scientific cultures<br />
<strong>of</strong> economists and eng<strong>in</strong>eers. Thus it is natural for me to adopt BRUNSSON’s (1982) conceptualis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
ideal <strong>in</strong> my research. The pr<strong>in</strong>ciples beh<strong>in</strong>d the ideal, however, were identified<br />
long ago by ENGELS:<br />
“In science, each new po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view calls forth a revolution <strong>in</strong> nomenclature.”<br />
(Friedrich ENGELS, cited by CASTI, 1994, p. 43)<br />
This ideal has also attracted attention <strong>in</strong> my research environment, for <strong>in</strong>stance applied by<br />
DUBOIS (1994) and HULTÉN (1997). The conceptualis<strong>in</strong>g ideal is by ARBNOR and<br />
BJERKE (1994, p. 147) considered as obvious to system researchers when they note that<br />
renew<strong>in</strong>g the system language is one <strong>of</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong> objectives <strong>of</strong> system research. Both ideals<br />
state that it is no primary task to generalise own theories, but rather to express them and let<br />
other researchers judge whether the new thoughts are useful. As a consequence, more attention<br />
could be paid to generat<strong>in</strong>g theories than to verify<strong>in</strong>g them, a po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view that, <strong>in</strong><br />
fact, also POPPER supported:<br />
“POPPER allowed that experimentation could falsify theories, but held that the real<br />
work was done when the theory was adequately articulated.”<br />
(PORTER, 1995, p. vii)<br />
There are clear parallels between the conceptualis<strong>in</strong>g ideal and the pr<strong>in</strong>ciples beh<strong>in</strong>d the<br />
World Wide Web where truly extensive <strong>in</strong>formation is made available. Yet it is up to the<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual to search for and – not to forget – to evaluate the usefulness <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>formation.<br />
Us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustrial production term<strong>in</strong>ology, it can be put as that <strong>in</strong>formation is now pulled <strong>in</strong>stead<br />
<strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g pushed by authors. Nevertheless, the 4.0 version <strong>of</strong> Micros<strong>of</strong>t’s Explorer<br />
“science”) or people represent<strong>in</strong>g the studied phenomenon. SAMUELSSON (1997, p. 4) argues that the scientific<br />
world would benefit from replac<strong>in</strong>g the terms basic and applied research with discipl<strong>in</strong>ary and transdiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary<br />
research or long-term and short-term research.<br />
25
web browser s<strong>of</strong>tware will come with “push technology” that allows subscription <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation,<br />
but obviously also distribution <strong>of</strong> showy advertis<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
In this dissertation, I focus on present<strong>in</strong>g conceptual models us<strong>in</strong>g a systematic and descriptive<br />
language (<strong>in</strong> a wide sense) rather than analys<strong>in</strong>g and demonstrat<strong>in</strong>g the usefulness <strong>of</strong><br />
the models. In the licentiate thesis, however, I tested the proposed method by apply<strong>in</strong>g it to<br />
the European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>in</strong>dustry.<br />
Be<strong>in</strong>g a generalist also implies the use <strong>of</strong> a multiplicity <strong>of</strong> methods from other schools <strong>of</strong><br />
thought. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to STOCK (1995) it is natural that researchers <strong>in</strong> new discipl<strong>in</strong>es borrow<br />
methods from older and mature discipl<strong>in</strong>es. This is especially true <strong>in</strong> multidiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary<br />
41 fields such as logistics (as is treated by STOCK) and <strong>transportation</strong>. Intermodal<br />
transport is clearly no exception. In his dissertation on the historical <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong>ism, BUKOLD argues that:<br />
“Complex systems such as comb<strong>in</strong>ed transport consist <strong>of</strong> a multiplicity <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terwoven<br />
elements which cannot be grasped with the tools <strong>of</strong> any s<strong>in</strong>gle specialist discipl<strong>in</strong>e such<br />
as technology studies, microeconomics or macroeconomics. As a result <strong>of</strong> this deficiency,<br />
two conflict<strong>in</strong>g options rema<strong>in</strong>. Either a mono-discipl<strong>in</strong>ary approach is nevertheless<br />
adopted, with the knowledge that many relevant factors will have to be excluded<br />
from the <strong>in</strong>vestigation but, <strong>in</strong> exchange, it will not be necessary to depart from<br />
well-trodden methodological paths. Or a multi-discipl<strong>in</strong>ary approach is sought, which<br />
allows the <strong>in</strong>clusion <strong>of</strong> relevant factors from a variety <strong>of</strong> discipl<strong>in</strong>es. Such an approach<br />
can claim to have taken <strong>in</strong>to consideration the majority <strong>of</strong> the relevant determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g factors<br />
– albeit at the cost <strong>of</strong> dim<strong>in</strong>ished methodological unity.”<br />
(BUKOLD, 1996, p. 19, translated by himself <strong>in</strong> E-mail message, 1997)<br />
BUKOLD chooses the second option and develops a trajectory 42 approach analys<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
<strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport along certa<strong>in</strong> paths. BUKOLD bases his approach<br />
upon technology orig<strong>in</strong> research, evolutionary economics, the Large Technical Systems<br />
approach 43 and cha<strong>in</strong> research. Also RUTTEN (1995) – although not stat<strong>in</strong>g it explicitly<br />
– applies a multi-discipl<strong>in</strong>ary approach to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport research as he uses a<br />
large number and wide variety <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation sources. Hence, despite BUKOLD is an<br />
41 The <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g importance <strong>of</strong> multi-discipl<strong>in</strong>ary research is elaborated by the chancellor <strong>of</strong> University <strong>of</strong><br />
Göteborg Bo SAMUELSSON (1997, p. 4), who argues that problems and phenomena <strong>in</strong> society are <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
characterised by the need for knowledge from different departments as well as faculties.<br />
42 Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Nationalencykloped<strong>in</strong> (1995/b), the word trajectory is descended from the lat<strong>in</strong> “traiectus” for<br />
passage or transfer. With<strong>in</strong> meteorology, trajectory is used for denot<strong>in</strong>g a curve on a map show<strong>in</strong>g the path <strong>of</strong> a<br />
particle that follows the w<strong>in</strong>d. S<strong>in</strong>ce currents change <strong>in</strong> course <strong>of</strong> time, a trajectory is normally not congruent<br />
with a current l<strong>in</strong>e. Also MANHEIM (1979, p. 170) uses trajectories for denot<strong>in</strong>g the path <strong>of</strong> a vehicle through a<br />
system.<br />
43 The LTS approach is multi-discipl<strong>in</strong>ary itself as is described <strong>in</strong> section 2.3.1.<br />
26
economist, his and RUTTEN’s research follow the eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g approach that HULTÉN<br />
(1997, p. 20) f<strong>in</strong>ds suitable for applied fields <strong>of</strong> research with a strong multi-discipl<strong>in</strong>ary<br />
element. HULTÉN presents the approach <strong>in</strong> his recently published dissertation on conta<strong>in</strong>er<br />
management:<br />
“… an eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g approach to science would be to first work as a natural scientist and<br />
analyse the complex system under study to obta<strong>in</strong> a thorough understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> it and<br />
then search for f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs from other (more basic) sciences and as an eng<strong>in</strong>eer synthesise<br />
these f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs and apply them to the complex system under study.”<br />
(HULTÉN, 1997, p. 20)<br />
Although this was not expressed until the ma<strong>in</strong> part <strong>of</strong> my research was carried out, it is<br />
considered as a good description <strong>of</strong> what I have actually done as well as <strong>of</strong> the research tradition<br />
generally applied at our department. Nevertheless, if this was to be a pure eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g<br />
effort, the work would be carried out follow<strong>in</strong>g a strict path to the solution <strong>of</strong> the ultimate<br />
task <strong>of</strong> implement<strong>in</strong>g new <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems. Here – as <strong>in</strong><br />
all research – an additional objective <strong>of</strong> produc<strong>in</strong>g knowledge is fulfilled.<br />
In short, I confess to the systems approach and the conceptualis<strong>in</strong>g ideal when I present<br />
conceptual system models and descriptions open for use by other researchers. With an eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g<br />
approach I attack some more specific issues further down <strong>in</strong> the systems hierarchy.<br />
My op<strong>in</strong>ion is that the choice <strong>of</strong> methods is subord<strong>in</strong>ate to the research questions,<br />
which are identified <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>ductive manner. The choices <strong>of</strong> specific and narrower methods<br />
at lower system levels are described and justified as they appear <strong>in</strong> the text.<br />
1.4.2 Data and <strong>in</strong>formation gather<strong>in</strong>g<br />
In this dissertation, the framework <strong>of</strong> data, <strong>in</strong>formation and knowledge as presented by<br />
POLEWA et al. (1997, p. 158) is used. The conceptual model <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>formation value<br />
cha<strong>in</strong>, as shown <strong>in</strong> the figure below, <strong>in</strong>cludes data as the raw material, <strong>in</strong>formation as the<br />
structured and communicable semi-manufactured product <strong>of</strong> data process<strong>in</strong>g and knowledge<br />
as the f<strong>in</strong>ished product where <strong>in</strong>formation has been transformed <strong>in</strong>to a mean<strong>in</strong>gful<br />
form by use <strong>of</strong> analysis, <strong>in</strong>terpretation based upon earlier experience as well as modell<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
27
Structure<br />
Transformation through:<br />
- Analysis<br />
-Interpretation<br />
-Modell<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Data Information Knowledge<br />
Figure 1-8<br />
The <strong>in</strong>formation value cha<strong>in</strong>. (Source: worked up from POLEWA et al.,<br />
1997, p. 158).<br />
In basic and mature research fields, there is normally a well-trodden path made up <strong>of</strong> textbooks<br />
and articles <strong>in</strong> scientific journals to follow for a comparatively fast advance to the<br />
research frontier – a frontier that is normally collegially well def<strong>in</strong>ed. In a young and multidiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary<br />
research field such as <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, though, there is normally no s<strong>in</strong>gle<br />
set <strong>of</strong> literature to consult for approach<strong>in</strong>g the research frontier – if the frontier can be identified<br />
at all.<br />
A metaphor found useful is that <strong>of</strong> the knowledge wall where the bricks represent pieces <strong>of</strong><br />
scientifically proven facts and theories. The knowledge wall <strong>of</strong> basic and mature research<br />
fields is then a well bricked and massive one, where neat and well-shaped bricks might be<br />
miss<strong>in</strong>g at the top. In the young and multi-discipl<strong>in</strong>ary fields, however, neither the wall nor<br />
the bricks are that well def<strong>in</strong>ed. The foundation might not even be called knowledge but<br />
merely <strong>in</strong>formation. A better illustration would be an <strong>in</strong>formation fence or pile <strong>of</strong> irregularly<br />
shaped stones. You might try to climb it, but its strength does not allow you to stand<br />
on it and what you add to the top might fall <strong>in</strong> the autumn gale. So what to do about it? Despair<br />
or persist?<br />
Well, after the despair follow<strong>in</strong>g the early negative experience with the study along transport<br />
relations (see section 1.2), I have persisted <strong>in</strong> approach<strong>in</strong>g the research frontier apply<strong>in</strong>g<br />
an evolutionary process. I reached parts <strong>of</strong> the frontier some years ago, but <strong>in</strong> order to<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease my understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the complex phenomenon <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, I have been<br />
forced to walk along the frontier <strong>in</strong> order to widen my scope and enhance my understand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> the complex phenomenon. I have consulted a wide variety <strong>of</strong> secondary sources such as<br />
textbooks, research and <strong>in</strong>vestigation reports, articles <strong>in</strong> academic and bus<strong>in</strong>ess journals,<br />
speeches at and proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> conferences, statistical publications, annual reports, pamphlets,<br />
etc. Also primary sources such as structured and open-ended <strong>in</strong>terviews, surveys,<br />
direct observations and data supplied by actors have been used <strong>in</strong> the research. The basic<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciple has been what YIN (1994, p. 93) denotes “convergence <strong>of</strong> multiple sources <strong>of</strong> evidence”.<br />
For the academic part <strong>of</strong> the sources, the Citation Index has been used <strong>in</strong> the search<br />
process, however not too successfully.<br />
28
The wide variety <strong>of</strong> purposes and orig<strong>in</strong>ators <strong>of</strong> the sources – as well as their character <strong>of</strong><br />
data, <strong>in</strong>formation or knowledge – implies a decisive importance <strong>of</strong> mak<strong>in</strong>g a critical stand<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st them. Thus it is <strong>of</strong> utmost importance to know much about the <strong>in</strong>dustry and the objectives<br />
<strong>of</strong> the actors. Only then it is possible to see through the actual word<strong>in</strong>gs and put the<br />
render<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a larger perspective. Especially the work by consultants must be used carefully,<br />
particularly due to the significant importance <strong>of</strong> political decisions and the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
element <strong>of</strong> lobby<strong>in</strong>g activities. Also academic textbooks can be decisive s<strong>in</strong>ce authors use<br />
<strong>in</strong>tellectual property that is regarded as commonplace th<strong>in</strong>gs, without referr<strong>in</strong>g to the orig<strong>in</strong>al<br />
author. Yet, the compilation and distribution <strong>of</strong> thoughts to a wider audience is not less<br />
important.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce I have pursued my rather wide studies ma<strong>in</strong>ly on my own, I may not have been able<br />
to keep up with the research frontier or <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>development</strong> <strong>in</strong> all relevant aspects. The<br />
organisation <strong>of</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>in</strong>dustry, for <strong>in</strong>stance, has changed considerably<br />
after I presented my licentiate thesis, ma<strong>in</strong>ly through deregulation <strong>in</strong>itiatives by the European<br />
Commission. I have no <strong>in</strong>tention <strong>of</strong> updat<strong>in</strong>g it to today’s conditions 44 and, <strong>in</strong> fact, I<br />
th<strong>in</strong>k I was lucky to publish it before the big reform. The method developed and the basic<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> that study, however, should still be valid.<br />
My most comprehensive and narrowly focused data gather<strong>in</strong>g is related to the detached appendix.<br />
It was basically <strong>in</strong>tended to be a desk study compilation <strong>of</strong> data and <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
collected dur<strong>in</strong>g my six years <strong>of</strong> research <strong>in</strong> the field, but <strong>in</strong> the end I realised that most <strong>of</strong><br />
the <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>in</strong> the report was unknown to me before the study. New technologies were<br />
searched for <strong>in</strong> reports from conferences and exhibitions, <strong>in</strong> trade journals, <strong>in</strong> academic and<br />
practical reports as well as through personal contacts. The world wide web was also used as<br />
a source <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation. Beside the secondary <strong>in</strong>formation sources mentioned above, telephone<br />
and personal <strong>in</strong>terviews were carried out and more than 120 fax <strong>in</strong>quiries were sent<br />
to the ma<strong>in</strong> suppliers/manufacturers for updat<strong>in</strong>g purposes. In total, 160 published references,<br />
100 brochures and similar pieces <strong>of</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g materials, 17 <strong>in</strong>terviews, 6 market<strong>in</strong>g<br />
video tapes, 7 www-sites and 25 letter, faxes and E-mail messages were compiled <strong>in</strong> the<br />
writ<strong>in</strong>g process.<br />
1.5 TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS<br />
We live <strong>in</strong> an era <strong>of</strong> rapid consumption <strong>of</strong> terms. New concepts, primarily those abbreviated<br />
with three letters, are <strong>of</strong>ten def<strong>in</strong>ed by researchers or other th<strong>in</strong>kers, used <strong>in</strong> a little different<br />
sense by consultants and then <strong>in</strong>sipid by the mass to make them useless for researchers tak-<br />
44 For a short but updated description <strong>of</strong> current trends concern<strong>in</strong>g the organisation <strong>of</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />
<strong>in</strong> Europe, see STONE (1998).<br />
29
<strong>in</strong>g a pride <strong>in</strong> clear term<strong>in</strong>ology. The research field treated <strong>in</strong> this dissertation is somewhat<br />
characterised by vague conceptions, a phenomenon formulated by REILLY:<br />
“In reality, words such as requirements, management, top-down, logistics support,<br />
work breakdown structure, and systems eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g have surpris<strong>in</strong>gly diverse mean<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
to most people who rout<strong>in</strong>ely use them. While we don’t seem to have the same<br />
problem with words like mass, acceleration, or sphere, there is evidently a very real<br />
need to decide upon the precise mean<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> words used by ‘systems eng<strong>in</strong>eers’.”<br />
(REILLY, 1993, p. 1)<br />
In the <strong>transportation</strong> field, JIT (Just-In-Time) and third-party logistics are good examples <strong>of</strong><br />
vague terms. Logistics itself is another such term that literary has a different mean<strong>in</strong>g for<br />
each person. In this report, the central terms transport and traffic are used as def<strong>in</strong>ed by<br />
SJÖSTEDT et al.:<br />
“Transport is a change <strong>of</strong> position vis-à-vis some human territory, i.e., a change <strong>of</strong> address,<br />
while traffic is the physical movements needed to carry out this change <strong>of</strong> address.”<br />
(SJÖSTEDT et al., 1997/a, p. 3)<br />
Compared to logistics, transport is the lay-man notion “the conveyance <strong>of</strong> people or property<br />
from one place to another” (Micros<strong>of</strong>t, CD ROM, 1996) from a transport operator’s<br />
perspective while logistics, is used as the correspond<strong>in</strong>g, but slightly wider 45 , term from a<br />
shipper’s perspective. A clear transport perspective is taken <strong>in</strong> this dissertation. Transportation<br />
is here used for denot<strong>in</strong>g the activity to transport, hence encompass<strong>in</strong>g both transport<br />
and traffic. Nevertheless, transport and <strong>transportation</strong> is <strong>in</strong> some sections <strong>of</strong> the dissertation,<br />
and <strong>in</strong> the other publications mak<strong>in</strong>g up the doctoral work, used somewhat<br />
<strong>in</strong>terchangeably. For further discussion on the basic term<strong>in</strong>ology, see the models <strong>in</strong> sections<br />
3.1 and 3.2.<br />
Intermodal transport is a field attract<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terest from many actors <strong>of</strong> widely different character,<br />
e.g. transport operators, politicians, eng<strong>in</strong>eers and researchers. Hence, it is very important<br />
to postulate clear def<strong>in</strong>itions before go<strong>in</strong>g deeper <strong>in</strong>to descriptions, conceptual<br />
model build<strong>in</strong>g and analyses. Here, ma<strong>in</strong>ly the used def<strong>in</strong>itions are presented, the <strong>in</strong>terested<br />
reader is recommended to read section 1.5 <strong>of</strong> the licentiate thesis, BUKOLD (1997) and<br />
SJÖGREN (1991) that all conta<strong>in</strong> detailed analyses <strong>of</strong> different def<strong>in</strong>itions. In this study, a<br />
transport satisfy<strong>in</strong>g the demands below is def<strong>in</strong>ed as an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport:<br />
45 For <strong>in</strong>stance, logistics <strong>in</strong>cludes the costs related to the capital tied <strong>in</strong> the transported goods, while <strong>transportation</strong><br />
is <strong>in</strong>fluenced merely by the derived demand for fast transport services.<br />
30
1 The goods shall be transported <strong>in</strong> unbroken ITUs from send<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t to receiv<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t<br />
2 ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers, swap bodies, semi-trailers and specially designed <strong>freight</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>ers <strong>of</strong><br />
correspond<strong>in</strong>g size are regarded as ITUs<br />
3 The ITUs must change between <strong>transportation</strong> modes at least once between send<strong>in</strong>g<br />
po<strong>in</strong>t and receiv<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t<br />
This def<strong>in</strong>ition is <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e with the very open one currently used by the European Commission<br />
46 for policy purposes:<br />
“Intermodality is a characteristic <strong>of</strong> a transport system, whereby at least two different<br />
modes can be used <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>tegrated manner <strong>in</strong> a door-to-door transport cha<strong>in</strong>.”<br />
(European Commission, 1997/e, p. 1)<br />
…and with the def<strong>in</strong>ition issued by the European Conference <strong>of</strong> M<strong>in</strong>isters <strong>of</strong> Transport<br />
(ECMT) that has published its view upon <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>ology that (despite some lack <strong>of</strong><br />
consistency) is frequently used <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>dustry:<br />
"The movement <strong>of</strong> goods <strong>in</strong> one and the same load<strong>in</strong>g unit or vehicle which uses successively<br />
several modes <strong>of</strong> transport without handl<strong>in</strong>g the goods themselves <strong>in</strong> chang<strong>in</strong>g<br />
modes."<br />
(ECMT, 1993/a, p. 3)<br />
Intermodal transport is here used for any comb<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> modes, but if noth<strong>in</strong>g else is stated<br />
it is meant the road-rail comb<strong>in</strong>ation that conta<strong>in</strong>s a pick up service with a short road haulage<br />
at the place <strong>of</strong> dispatch, transshipment to a rail wagon, long distance rail haulage, another<br />
transshipment and a delivery road haulage. Comb<strong>in</strong>ed transport is used somewhat<br />
<strong>in</strong>terchangeably but only for the road-rail comb<strong>in</strong>ation.<br />
The term multimodal transport is used here to denote a <strong>transportation</strong> system for ITUs tak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>to account the special requirements <strong>of</strong> sea, road and rail transport, i.e. more than two<br />
modes. Bimodal systems here denotes various technical systems where semi-trailers are<br />
ma<strong>in</strong> components <strong>in</strong> road as well as rail operations, best illustrated by the hybrid Road-<br />
Railer equipment – a semi-trailer with both rubber and steel wheels. Thus it should not be<br />
used for any comb<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> two modes <strong>of</strong> transport.<br />
46 The language used by the staff <strong>of</strong> the European Commission tends to be def<strong>in</strong>ed by fashion and current<br />
policy rather than consistency. Hence, knowledge about the hot lead words is a vital skill for communicat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
with Brussels.<br />
31
When emphasis<strong>in</strong>g the successive transfer <strong>of</strong> goods between actors rather than the actual<br />
transshipments, the concept <strong>in</strong>tegrated transport cha<strong>in</strong> has been found useful, especially <strong>in</strong><br />
an article about <strong>in</strong>formation systems (WOXENIUS, 1997/a).<br />
Unit loads and Intermodal Transport Units (ITUs), are used <strong>in</strong>terchangeably, and are here<br />
def<strong>in</strong>ed as all load units designed to cover the goods and facilitate easy transshipment between<br />
<strong>transportation</strong> modes. From the transport operators’ po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view there is no great<br />
difference between the transport <strong>of</strong> a loaded box and the reposition<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> an empty one, and<br />
it is thus not crucial to the def<strong>in</strong>ition if the term denotes the device or the device with its<br />
content. In this dissertation it should be possible for the reader to judge what is meant <strong>in</strong><br />
each s<strong>in</strong>gle case.<br />
The most common ITUs are ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers, swap bodies and semi-trailers but also <strong>small</strong>er<br />
specially designed <strong>freight</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>ers like German State Railways’ (DB AG) Logistikbox<br />
are <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the def<strong>in</strong>ition. However, the load unit must conform to size and construction<br />
strength standards and be equipped with devices allow<strong>in</strong>g transfer between <strong>transportation</strong><br />
modes with standardised transshipment equipment. In this report, Euro-pallets 47 are not regarded<br />
as ITUs. Carrier or load carrier have been suggested (among others by<br />
ADJADJIHOUE, 1995, p. 127 and by JENSEN, 1990, p. 3), as synonymous to ITU and<br />
unit load. This might be an appropriate name, even used <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustry and by myself<br />
(WOXENIUS et al., 1994), but it is not unequivocal s<strong>in</strong>ce carrier is also used for denot<strong>in</strong>g<br />
vehicles (e.g. by SJÖHOLM and SJÖSTEDT, 1992) as well as the companies perform<strong>in</strong>g<br />
transport services (e.g. by SJÖSTEDT et al., 1992) and should thus be avoided.<br />
Overhead contact l<strong>in</strong>e denotes the catenary or electric wires used for supply<strong>in</strong>g electricity<br />
to the rail eng<strong>in</strong>es.<br />
Transshipment and transfer are here regarded as synonymous terms describ<strong>in</strong>g the activity<br />
<strong>of</strong> shift<strong>in</strong>g goods between vehicles or <strong>transportation</strong> modes. The term gateway denotes a<br />
term<strong>in</strong>al used for rail-rail transshipment <strong>in</strong> order to connect two network modules without<br />
mix<strong>in</strong>g the rail wagons used <strong>in</strong> each <strong>of</strong> the two modules. Horizontal transfer means that<br />
only a very <strong>small</strong> vertical lift is needed, e.g. to lift a conta<strong>in</strong>er above the conta<strong>in</strong>er lock pivots<br />
or a swap body <strong>in</strong> order to make the support-legs possible to fold. The possibility to<br />
transship ITUs under the overhead contact l<strong>in</strong>e could obviously be the base for an alternative<br />
def<strong>in</strong>ition, but the degree <strong>of</strong> vertical lift is used for classify<strong>in</strong>g technologies <strong>in</strong> this dissertation<br />
as well as <strong>in</strong> the detached appendix.<br />
Activities, actors and resources are other conceptions central to this study. In the context <strong>of</strong><br />
the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> production system, activity is any action taken <strong>in</strong> order to move ITUs from<br />
47 The Euro-pallet is a standardised, normally wooden, pallet with the dimensions 800 x 1200 mm.<br />
32
the consignor to the consignee, e.g. local road haulage, transshipment and rail haulage. In a<br />
wide sense, actor denotes <strong>in</strong>dividuals, groups <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals, departments <strong>in</strong> a company,<br />
whole companies or groups <strong>of</strong> companies (HÅKANSSON, 1989). In this dissertation,<br />
unless otherwise is stated, actor is used synonymously with an organisation as a juridical<br />
person. In practice, the traditional names on actor groups such as shippers, hauliers, forwarders<br />
and railway adm<strong>in</strong>istrations, is becom<strong>in</strong>g less useful due to the rapid change <strong>of</strong><br />
roles with<strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>dustry. A custom <strong>of</strong> mix<strong>in</strong>g European and American actor group names<br />
causes even more confusion. Hence, the actors should ideally be def<strong>in</strong>ed accord<strong>in</strong>g to their<br />
performed activities <strong>in</strong> every s<strong>in</strong>gle case. For reasons <strong>of</strong> convenience, however, and if noth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
else is stated, the use here is congruent with the description <strong>of</strong> actor groups <strong>in</strong> chapter 4<br />
<strong>of</strong> the licentiate thesis. By resource, f<strong>in</strong>ally, is meant any physical device or human be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
used by the actors to perform the activities. In <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport the term ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong>cludes<br />
ITUs, vehicles, vessels and transshipment equipment, and <strong>in</strong> a wider perspective<br />
also <strong>in</strong>frastructure, energy, employees, expertise and capital.<br />
Geographically, <strong>in</strong>ternational and border-cross<strong>in</strong>g transport are used <strong>in</strong>terchangeably. If<br />
noth<strong>in</strong>g else is stated, the implied mean<strong>in</strong>g is a transport between two countries <strong>in</strong> Western<br />
Europe, here def<strong>in</strong>ed as the countries <strong>in</strong> the European Union (EU) and <strong>in</strong> the European Free<br />
Trade Association (EFTA), however exclud<strong>in</strong>g Iceland. For shipp<strong>in</strong>g, a ferry cross<strong>in</strong>g is<br />
used for denot<strong>in</strong>g a short passage where geography calls for it, short sea shipp<strong>in</strong>g for sail<strong>in</strong>g<br />
over slightly longer distances with<strong>in</strong> Europe while deep sea shipp<strong>in</strong>g, and its synonym<br />
trans-ocean shipp<strong>in</strong>g, regards sail<strong>in</strong>g between cont<strong>in</strong>ents.<br />
There is a wide difference between the technical language <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> used <strong>in</strong> Europe<br />
and that used <strong>in</strong> the USA. This is especially evident <strong>in</strong> the case <strong>of</strong> actor names due to the<br />
different <strong>in</strong>dustrial and regulative histories. In many publications (e.g. ADJADJIHOUE,<br />
1995) a mix <strong>of</strong> the two sets <strong>of</strong> term<strong>in</strong>ology is used caus<strong>in</strong>g confusion for readers. A parable<br />
is that it is not appropriate to describe the British constitution us<strong>in</strong>g the terms president,<br />
senate and congress. In this study, I use European term<strong>in</strong>ology and British English as far as<br />
my knowledge <strong>of</strong> the difference allows.<br />
Terms ma<strong>in</strong>ly used <strong>in</strong> a specific section <strong>of</strong> chapter are <strong>in</strong>troduced and def<strong>in</strong>ed first as they<br />
appear. The terms barrier, technological openness and commercial openness, for <strong>in</strong>stance,<br />
are central to chapter 5 and, accord<strong>in</strong>gly, def<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> section 5.1.<br />
33
1.6 READER’S GUIDE<br />
As mentioned, this ma<strong>in</strong> document (referred to as the dissertation) should be read together<br />
with its detached appendix 48 named Intermodal Transshipment Technologies – An Overview<br />
and preferably also with the licentiate thesis named Modell<strong>in</strong>g European Comb<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
Transport as an Industrial System, both available <strong>in</strong> separate b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs. The purpose <strong>of</strong> this<br />
section is obviously to make the read<strong>in</strong>g and understand<strong>in</strong>g easier. Beside the presentation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the outl<strong>in</strong>e and a hierarchical model used for outl<strong>in</strong>e navigation purposes, it is mostly the<br />
deviations from the prevalent way <strong>of</strong> writ<strong>in</strong>g dissertations that are commented upon.<br />
1.6.1 Dissertation outl<strong>in</strong>e<br />
The report outl<strong>in</strong>e is hierarchically designed start<strong>in</strong>g out from general systems successively<br />
narrow<strong>in</strong>g the focus to a particular <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> transshipment technology. The hierarchy is<br />
based upon sub-sets rather than upon formal system hierarchies. For example, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
<strong>transportation</strong> systems is a sub-set <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems due to the narrower def<strong>in</strong>ition<br />
demand<strong>in</strong>g use <strong>of</strong> at least two <strong>transportation</strong> modes.<br />
Chapters 2 and 3 on the two highest levels, systems and <strong>transportation</strong> systems, are <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />
here mostly to place the present research <strong>in</strong> a wider context and for present<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
framework <strong>of</strong> theories and approaches applied. As mentioned, an outspoken systems approach<br />
is applied with implications concern<strong>in</strong>g choice <strong>of</strong> research questions and methods as<br />
well as generalisation objectives. I do not <strong>in</strong>tend to contribute substantially to the theory <strong>of</strong><br />
general systems or even to that <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems, but follow<strong>in</strong>g the pr<strong>in</strong>ciples <strong>of</strong> the<br />
systems approach, some <strong>of</strong> my f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs might be useful to researchers active at these system<br />
levels.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport systems level is regarded as the one constitut<strong>in</strong>g the research<br />
field, special attention is paid to the conceptual modell<strong>in</strong>g at this level. The render<strong>in</strong>g on<br />
published research is also more comprehensive at this level than at the others. Own analyses<br />
at this level are ma<strong>in</strong>ly found <strong>in</strong> the licentiate thesis and <strong>in</strong> other own reports and articles,<br />
but to some extent also deepened <strong>in</strong> this chapter. The chapter is concluded by synthesis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
different modell<strong>in</strong>g perspectives <strong>in</strong>to one reference model.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce this dissertation is ma<strong>in</strong>ly aimed at technical issues, chapter 5 on resources <strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
<strong>transportation</strong> systems is also rather extensive. From here on, the empirical content<br />
appears more clearly and less effort is aimed at conceptual modell<strong>in</strong>g that can appear rather<br />
48 The detached appendix is made up <strong>of</strong> descriptions <strong>of</strong> a large number <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transshipment technologies,<br />
which are roughly the same as those presented <strong>in</strong> chapter 4 <strong>of</strong> WOXENIUS (1998) Inventory <strong>of</strong> Transshipment<br />
Technologies <strong>in</strong> Intermodal Transport, Study for the International Road Transport Union (IRU), Geneva.<br />
Hence, also that report can serve the purpose <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g a technical reference to this dissertation.<br />
34
lunt at low system levels. The chapter is <strong>in</strong>troduced with an analysis <strong>of</strong> the barriers imped<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the actors to implement new technical resources, followed by an analysis <strong>of</strong> the approaches<br />
that the transport operators can apply <strong>in</strong> order to decrease the barrier effects.<br />
After a brief <strong>in</strong>itial discussion whether new transshipment systems are actually needed,<br />
chapter 6 on transshipment technology <strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems conta<strong>in</strong>s two<br />
analyses. The first one relates the transshipment technology to different network operation<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciples while the second one <strong>in</strong>vestigates whether national demands or demands common<br />
with<strong>in</strong> the EU have <strong>in</strong>fluenced the <strong>in</strong>novations <strong>of</strong> transshipment equipment. For descriptions<br />
<strong>of</strong> specific technologies, references are given to the detached appendix on <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transshipment technologies.<br />
Com<strong>in</strong>g fairly low <strong>in</strong> the system hierarchy, chapter 7 on <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> transshipment technology<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems <strong>in</strong>cludes an analysis <strong>of</strong> the requirements for new<br />
<strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> transshipment technologies and an evaluation <strong>of</strong> which new technologies that<br />
are suitable for <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> operations, also with reference to the detached appendix.<br />
As the chapter head<strong>in</strong>g a particular <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> concept <strong>in</strong>dicates, chapter 8 is dedicated to<br />
a case study on one particular <strong>development</strong> project. Although at the far bottom <strong>of</strong> the hierarchy,<br />
the scope <strong>of</strong> the case study is somewhat wider with frequent comments relat<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
higher system levels. Special attention is paid at describ<strong>in</strong>g and analys<strong>in</strong>g the implementation<br />
scheme, and a selection <strong>of</strong> the implementation phases are modelled, us<strong>in</strong>g the synthesised<br />
model from chapter 4. S<strong>in</strong>ce the implementation is still <strong>in</strong> an early stage, parts <strong>of</strong> the<br />
case study can be denoted a scenario. The aim is to relate the earlier f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs to a specific<br />
<strong>development</strong> project and prepare for the conclud<strong>in</strong>g chapter.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce this dissertation addresses the complexity <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport and a major purpose<br />
<strong>of</strong> the work is to model and describe the system produc<strong>in</strong>g the transport services, the<br />
conclusions cannot be written as just one or two pages summ<strong>in</strong>g up the results <strong>of</strong> some detailed<br />
analyses and putt<strong>in</strong>g them <strong>in</strong>to a wider context. Instead, the f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs from the systems<br />
analyses and also the different, more specific, analyses are <strong>in</strong> chapter 9 synthesised<br />
<strong>in</strong>to a scenario on the <strong>development</strong> trends <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>in</strong> Europe. The prospects<br />
and sensitivity <strong>of</strong> this scenario and the scenario presented <strong>in</strong> chapter 8 are f<strong>in</strong>ally discussed.<br />
The chapter treats the research object <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport rather than the research process.<br />
1.6.2 A hierarchical system model show<strong>in</strong>g the outl<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Throughout the dissertation a conceptual system model is used for def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g which system<br />
level the current render<strong>in</strong>g is focused upon. In addition, and for various purposes, different<br />
conceptual models are developed throughout the report, some <strong>of</strong> which are more detailed<br />
versions <strong>of</strong> this general model while other models are rather different, serv<strong>in</strong>g specific purposes<br />
<strong>in</strong> descriptions or analyses.<br />
35
The general system model is hierarchically designed start<strong>in</strong>g out from general systems successively<br />
narrow<strong>in</strong>g the focus to <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> transshipment technologies. At the most detailed<br />
level – a particular case – the scope is somewhat widened referr<strong>in</strong>g up to other system<br />
levels. The hierarchy is based upon set theory rather than upon formal system hierarchies.<br />
Systems (2)<br />
Transportation systems (3)<br />
Intermodal <strong>transportation</strong> systems (4)<br />
Actors Activities Resources (5)<br />
Transshipment<br />
technologies (6)<br />
Small-<strong>scale</strong><br />
transshipment<br />
technologies (7)<br />
A particular <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> concept (8)<br />
Figure 1-9<br />
A hierarchical system model guid<strong>in</strong>g the outl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> the dissertation. The<br />
numbers refer to the chapters.<br />
A hierarchical outl<strong>in</strong>e is also used by JOERGES (1988, pp. 17-22), when present<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
Large Technical Systems theory (see section 2.3.1). Both outl<strong>in</strong>es follow the “pr<strong>in</strong>ciple <strong>of</strong><br />
relativity for systems” that accord<strong>in</strong>g to ARBNOR and BJERKE reads:<br />
“Each component with<strong>in</strong> a system can be developed and constitute a new system. Each<br />
system is a potential component <strong>in</strong> a larger system.”<br />
(ARBNOR and BJERKE, 1994, p. 131 – freely translated)<br />
Also closed systems are parts <strong>of</strong> the world we live <strong>in</strong> and the citation can be understood <strong>in</strong><br />
the perspective <strong>of</strong> the philosophical question whether there is an end to universe or not.<br />
Besides be<strong>in</strong>g a guidel<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> the descriptive and analytic focus, the model is <strong>in</strong>tended to<br />
mirror different research traditions or schools <strong>of</strong> thought. The relevant research questions<br />
and applicable methods vary widely between the system levels focused. The technical side<br />
<strong>of</strong> the system is focused <strong>in</strong> this dissertation, whareas some other aspects have been studied<br />
<strong>in</strong> previous own work.<br />
36
1.6.3 Writ<strong>in</strong>g style<br />
The text is written for readers experienced <strong>in</strong> the <strong>transportation</strong> field mean<strong>in</strong>g that terms<br />
and technical matters are not expla<strong>in</strong>ed on the “beg<strong>in</strong>ner’s level”. The reader that f<strong>in</strong>ds<br />
himself unfamiliar with terms and abbreviations <strong>in</strong> the text is recommended to first consult<br />
the background section where some terms are described, then the term<strong>in</strong>ology and abbreviation<br />
sections and f<strong>in</strong>ally the reference list for basic read<strong>in</strong>g. Literature advice on certa<strong>in</strong><br />
subjects is given <strong>in</strong> footnotes throughout the report.<br />
This <strong>in</strong>troductory chapter, the <strong>in</strong>itial and conclud<strong>in</strong>g parts <strong>of</strong> each chapter as well as the<br />
conclud<strong>in</strong>g chapter as such are written <strong>in</strong> a “subjective” way us<strong>in</strong>g I and my. Other parts –<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ly the restricted analyses, the licentiate thesis, the detached appendix and other own<br />
reports and articles – are written <strong>in</strong> a more classic “objective” fashion.<br />
Costs <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestment schemes and certa<strong>in</strong> technologies are very dependent on the size <strong>of</strong><br />
manufactur<strong>in</strong>g series and thus <strong>of</strong>ten hard to estimate. Consequently, costs are only given if<br />
directly stated by manufacturers or other reliable sources. Throughout the dissertation and<br />
the detached appendix, costs <strong>in</strong> different currencies are also given <strong>in</strong> ECUs – calculated<br />
with an exchange rate from 4 April 1997 – with appropriate round<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong>f.<br />
Especially the detached appendix conta<strong>in</strong>s a large amount <strong>of</strong> measurements. For weights,<br />
kg and ton are used, the latter mean<strong>in</strong>g a metric ton = 1000 kg. For lengths m and cm are<br />
used, rather than the mm usually used <strong>in</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
1.6.4 Cross-references<br />
Numerous cross-references between the text <strong>in</strong>tegrated <strong>in</strong> this document, the detached appendix,<br />
the licentiate thesis and other own reports and articles make it possible for the <strong>in</strong>terested<br />
reader to follow my presentation <strong>of</strong> the research effort, yet avoid<strong>in</strong>g another<br />
“brick-sized” report. Previously written and published texts that are absolutely needed for<br />
the logical reason<strong>in</strong>g here are, however, cut and pasted <strong>in</strong>to this document.<br />
There is an ongo<strong>in</strong>g debate whether a traditional deductive (i.e. predest<strong>in</strong>ed) or an <strong>in</strong>ductive<br />
(i.e. explorative) approach is best suited for achiev<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g research results. Concern<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the <strong>in</strong>creased acceptance <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>ductive approach, my personal belief is that it, at least<br />
partly, stems from the use <strong>of</strong> word processors. I belong to a generation that learnt how to<br />
use a typewriter, but then have used noth<strong>in</strong>g but word processors. I assert that the latter<br />
have changed our research process considerably, at least <strong>in</strong> “report-<strong>in</strong>tensive” discipl<strong>in</strong>es.<br />
We can now outl<strong>in</strong>e an article or report roughly and then gradually ref<strong>in</strong>e it, reorganise it or<br />
distribute the focus differently between its parts – hence, similar to an <strong>in</strong>ductive research<br />
approach. With typewriters, the approach would rather be to plan the study carefully and<br />
37
write the text from A to Z – hence, a classic analytic or deductive approach – <strong>in</strong> order to<br />
limit own typ<strong>in</strong>g or the secretary’s frustration.<br />
Yet, this is only the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g. I am far from alone to foresee a more thorough change towards<br />
an <strong>in</strong>ductive way <strong>of</strong> acquir<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>formation and knowledge. In a future era when all<br />
scientific articles are publicly available <strong>in</strong> an electronic form, hyperl<strong>in</strong>ks will replace the<br />
current reference notes. This is much more demand<strong>in</strong>g for the reader’s discipl<strong>in</strong>e – the<br />
temptation is to start read<strong>in</strong>g another article and successively end up <strong>in</strong> quite another subject<br />
– but it opens up possibilities <strong>of</strong> an associative and much more efficient learn<strong>in</strong>g process.<br />
In such a process, the reader is <strong>in</strong> charge and decides the speed, the direction and the<br />
path <strong>of</strong> the knowledge trip.<br />
The careful and knowledgeable reader will notice that this dissertation is written <strong>in</strong> a style<br />
that allows a rather simple transition <strong>in</strong>to an html-format with frequent hyperl<strong>in</strong>ks between<br />
different parts <strong>of</strong> this dissertation and between the other documents mak<strong>in</strong>g up the doctoral<br />
work. Especially the references to the descriptive detached appendix are suitable for automatic<br />
hyperl<strong>in</strong>ks. It is thus my <strong>in</strong>tention to publish the doctoral work on the world wide<br />
web after orally defend<strong>in</strong>g it.<br />
A consequence <strong>of</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g for an html-format is that I have rel<strong>in</strong>quished the custom <strong>of</strong><br />
only referr<strong>in</strong>g to earlier render<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a report. By referr<strong>in</strong>g also to com<strong>in</strong>g parts, the text<br />
could be kept shorter and the reader who does not read the whole report, is helped <strong>in</strong> his or<br />
her manoeuvr<strong>in</strong>g. This is, however, obviously disturb<strong>in</strong>g the classic reader who is used to<br />
lean backwards and passively ride on a knowledge trip, s<strong>in</strong>ce the ma<strong>in</strong> theme might seem<br />
lost. But let’s confess: Who reads a scientific report from A to Z <strong>in</strong> this era <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
saturation? Who has the time to more than browse a publication on a subject, only slightly<br />
beside the core <strong>of</strong> the own research field?<br />
Another compromise that might disturb the classic reader is that it takes quite a while to<br />
come to the po<strong>in</strong>t. A comprehensive <strong>in</strong>troductory chapter with its reader’s guide is clearly<br />
needed, and the chapters and sections must be properly <strong>in</strong>troduced and sometimes <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
retrospective summaries and conclusions <strong>of</strong> earlier sections. To the “hyperl<strong>in</strong>k reader”,<br />
however, this is useful s<strong>in</strong>ce he or she is helped <strong>in</strong> pick<strong>in</strong>g up the ma<strong>in</strong> theme without hav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to read the whole report.<br />
I have decided to adapt this dissertation to the contemporary way <strong>of</strong> read<strong>in</strong>g research reports.<br />
The pros and cons <strong>of</strong> do<strong>in</strong>g so are evaluated above and I th<strong>in</strong>k it is worth to sacrifice<br />
the convenience <strong>of</strong> A to Z readers.<br />
38
1.6.5 Read<strong>in</strong>g suggestions<br />
A fellow researcher <strong>in</strong> the field is for obvious reasons recommended to read the three reports<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g the cross-references while a researcher, <strong>in</strong>terested purely <strong>in</strong> the academic<br />
implications could limit the read<strong>in</strong>g to the text <strong>in</strong> this b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g. However, I s<strong>in</strong>cerely hope<br />
that my work can contribute also to the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> world outside the universities, and readers<br />
represent<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>dustrial or political sphere might f<strong>in</strong>d some academic sections bor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and can consult the Contents section for <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g topics. A reader experienced <strong>in</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport field who wants an overview or facts about new technologies is recommended<br />
to start with the detached appendix and then read the analyses <strong>in</strong> chapter 7.<br />
1.6.6 The reference and note system<br />
In this ma<strong>in</strong> document and <strong>in</strong> the licentiate thesis, references are given <strong>in</strong>tegrated <strong>in</strong> the<br />
text, while footnotes are used <strong>in</strong> the detached appendix. The reason for the latter practice is<br />
that the appendix is more <strong>of</strong> a descriptive than analytic character and should attract readers<br />
from outside the academic world that might be disturbed by all the references <strong>in</strong> the text.<br />
The references used <strong>in</strong> the appendix are also more <strong>of</strong> sources <strong>of</strong> facts than <strong>of</strong> thoughts <strong>of</strong><br />
other researchers. Nevertheless, for the sake <strong>of</strong> readers’ convenience, suggestions for further<br />
read<strong>in</strong>g and longer references and comments are given <strong>in</strong> footnotes also <strong>in</strong> this ma<strong>in</strong><br />
document.<br />
The reader who has followed my work dur<strong>in</strong>g the last years will notice that I have reserved<br />
the privilege <strong>of</strong> cutt<strong>in</strong>g and past<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tellectual property from own previous publications<br />
<strong>in</strong>to this one. References are only given if the render<strong>in</strong>g is more detailed <strong>in</strong> the other documents<br />
or if co-authors ought to be credited.<br />
I have chosen to write family names <strong>in</strong> CAPITAL LETTERS throughout the dissertation.<br />
This habit is becom<strong>in</strong>g common <strong>in</strong>ternationally <strong>in</strong> order to help people to dist<strong>in</strong>guish between<br />
given and family names when different nationalities meet, but a more pragmatic reason<br />
for apply<strong>in</strong>g the fashion is that many readers will <strong>in</strong>evitably search for their own names<br />
<strong>in</strong> the dissertation to see that they are correctly cited or at least mentioned. As a further<br />
courtesy to those authors referred to, an author <strong>in</strong>dex is found <strong>in</strong> the end <strong>of</strong> the report.<br />
In the reference list, references are presented <strong>in</strong> a Harvard style, divided <strong>in</strong>to published and<br />
unpublished references. The unpublished references are further divided <strong>in</strong>to different types<br />
<strong>of</strong> sources.<br />
39
2 SYSTEMS<br />
Systems<br />
Transportation systems (3)<br />
Intermodal <strong>transportation</strong> systems (4)<br />
Actors Activities Resources (5)<br />
Transshipment<br />
technologies (6)<br />
Small-<strong>scale</strong><br />
transshipment<br />
technologies (7)<br />
A particular <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> concept (8)<br />
A serious problem when address<strong>in</strong>g research questions<br />
related to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is the complexity <strong>of</strong> the<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustry. Very specific research efforts are thus easily<br />
lead<strong>in</strong>g to suboptimisation s<strong>in</strong>ce a ceteris paribus<br />
approach 49 is not suitable for analys<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
components and resources. A wide systems approach<br />
and thorough knowledge about the transport <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />
are thus prerequisites for researchers who want to<br />
achieve scientifically reliable results or <strong>in</strong>fluence the <strong>in</strong>dustry directly or through public<br />
bodies. Consequently, the research must be started by thorough but wide studies <strong>in</strong> a systems<br />
context. In order to accomplish these consciously, it is def<strong>in</strong>itely required to establish<br />
a framework applicable to the particular research problem, but also to a wider class <strong>of</strong><br />
analogous eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g problems.<br />
The aim <strong>of</strong> this chapter is thus to lay the foundation for such wide studies and to provide a<br />
skeleton <strong>of</strong> general systems theories for further particularisation <strong>in</strong> studies <strong>of</strong> the phenomenon<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. The theories must facilitate a good understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the current<br />
complex system but also <strong>of</strong> the suggested <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> modular alternatives. A perceived<br />
problem is that systems theory does not provide a well def<strong>in</strong>ed “on the shelf” paradigm and<br />
many <strong>of</strong> the conceptions are vague. Hence, parts <strong>of</strong> the effort is to elucidate this confusion<br />
<strong>in</strong> the light <strong>of</strong> the needs <strong>in</strong> this study.<br />
Follow<strong>in</strong>g the hierarchical idea beh<strong>in</strong>d the outl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> this dissertation, a render<strong>in</strong>g about<br />
general systems theory is proceeded by the description <strong>of</strong> some methods or approaches for<br />
design<strong>in</strong>g and analys<strong>in</strong>g systems respectively, tak<strong>in</strong>g a technical perspective. One such approach<br />
tak<strong>in</strong>g a technical perspective to systems is described more <strong>in</strong> detail –<br />
CHURCHMAN’s systems approach.<br />
It can, however, be argued that the European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system could not be<br />
def<strong>in</strong>ed as a classic technical system characterised by a hierarchical composition <strong>of</strong> subsystems<br />
with an almighty systems management. Although system researchers are generally<br />
very humble before what is to be called a “system” – many def<strong>in</strong>itions encompass virtually<br />
anyth<strong>in</strong>g that consists <strong>of</strong> related parts mak<strong>in</strong>g up a whole – most systems analysis tools<br />
stipulate some “qualify<strong>in</strong>g demands” for systems. If the theories are developed to cover<br />
specific phenomena, they obviously have to be adapted or complemented for the studies <strong>of</strong><br />
49 In research, a ceteris paribus approach usually means that a phenomenon is detached from its context,<br />
analysed and possibly manipulated, and then pasted back to the context that is assumed not to have changed.<br />
41
other phenomena. In order to achieve a better understand<strong>in</strong>g and explanation <strong>of</strong> the complexity<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems, it is here found useful to complement the classic<br />
systems theories with systems theory branches more adapted to the network and cha<strong>in</strong><br />
characters <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems. Hence, system theories found suitable for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport studies are here presented from a classic technical, a network and a channel or<br />
cha<strong>in</strong> perspective respectively.<br />
A major po<strong>in</strong>t made is actually that there is no superior approach suitable for understand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and expla<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the complexity <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems, but rather a need for<br />
several complement<strong>in</strong>g approaches.<br />
2.1 GENERAL SYSTEMS THEORY<br />
Although CHURCHMAN (1979, p. 239) refers to PLATO’s Republic and AQUINAS’<br />
Summa Theologica as systems-science books, and PTOLEMY produced a model <strong>of</strong> the<br />
universe that reproduced observed planetary motion (WILSON, 1990, p. 22), systems theory<br />
is generally considered to have its cradle <strong>in</strong> the research carried out by the biologist<br />
Ludwig VON BARTALANFFY <strong>in</strong> the late 1940’s. The axiom <strong>of</strong> systems th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g is, contrary<br />
to an analytical approach, that the sum <strong>of</strong> the sub-systems does not completely expla<strong>in</strong><br />
the system. This is, accord<strong>in</strong>g to CASTI (1989), due to the fact that most systems consist <strong>of</strong><br />
many sub-systems <strong>in</strong>teract<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a complex way. SJÖSTEDT (Ed., 1994) argues that an<br />
analytical approach assumes that causal relations are well def<strong>in</strong>ed and act <strong>in</strong> one direction<br />
only. This ceteris paribus approach is not applicable to analyses <strong>of</strong> complex systems such<br />
as those found <strong>in</strong> the field <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong>. JACKSON formulates this as:<br />
“The systems model portrays the organisation as a complex system made up <strong>of</strong> parts<br />
exist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> close <strong>in</strong>terrelationship and <strong>in</strong>sists that this type <strong>of</strong> system can only be studied<br />
as a whole.”<br />
(JACKSON, 1985, p. 32)<br />
ARBNOR and BJERKE (1977) argue that analyses performed with a systems approach are<br />
not aimed at generalis<strong>in</strong>g but rather at describ<strong>in</strong>g the situation for one case. Analyses us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the systems approach also to a large extent depend on the analyst. In other words, there is<br />
no NEWTON tell<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>disputable truth <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems. CHURCHMAN<br />
(1979) seems a little pessimistic when he discusses the systems approach, although he<br />
clearly <strong>in</strong>dicates that the confusion and lack <strong>of</strong> absolute truths make systems research thrill<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
42
“On the one hand, we must recognize it to be the most critical problem we face today,<br />
the understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the systems <strong>in</strong> which we live. On the other hand, however, we<br />
must admit that the problem – the appropriate approach to systems – is not solved, but<br />
this is a very mild way <strong>of</strong> putt<strong>in</strong>g the matter. This is not an unsolved problem <strong>in</strong> the<br />
sense <strong>in</strong> which certa<strong>in</strong> famous mathematical problems are unsolved. It’s not as though<br />
we can expect that next year or a decade from now someone will f<strong>in</strong>d the correct systems<br />
approach and all deceptions will disappear. (…) The essence <strong>of</strong> the systems approach,<br />
therefore, is confusion as well as enlightenment.”<br />
(CHURCHMAN, 1979, p. 231)<br />
There is some conceptual confusion also about the very term system. CHECKLAND is <strong>of</strong><br />
the op<strong>in</strong>ion that VON BARTALANFFY should have <strong>in</strong>troduced a new term rather than the<br />
already used system, s<strong>in</strong>ce:<br />
“... considerable confusion is caused by the fact that the word is used not only as the<br />
name <strong>of</strong> an abstract concept which the observer tries to map onto perceived reality, but<br />
also as a label word for th<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> the world...”<br />
(CHECKLAND, 1988, p. 241)<br />
Nonetheless, <strong>in</strong> this dissertation system is used to denote the abstract model as well as the<br />
reality s<strong>in</strong>ce more useful term<strong>in</strong>ology has not been found. The reader should be able to determ<strong>in</strong>e<br />
what is meant from the context.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to CHECKLAND (1981) systems th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g is not a discipl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> itself and VON<br />
BARTALANFFY himself (1962, p. 1) states that the system concept has not rema<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong><br />
the theoretical sphere, but is central also <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> fields <strong>of</strong> applied science. The op<strong>in</strong>ion<br />
that results <strong>of</strong> systems th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g can be applicable to other scientific discipl<strong>in</strong>es is supported<br />
by YU:<br />
“The effective management <strong>of</strong> the systems approach requires the synthesis <strong>of</strong> contributions<br />
from the physical sciences and from social sciences as well. The <strong>in</strong>terdiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary<br />
approach is a necessity.”<br />
(YU, 1982, p. 3)<br />
CHECKLAND (1981) po<strong>in</strong>ts out the need for a basic language <strong>of</strong> system ideas that is<br />
“meta-discipl<strong>in</strong>ary” and an agreed view <strong>of</strong> the world <strong>in</strong> system terms. Nevertheless, the legitimacy<br />
<strong>of</strong> a general systems theory is defended by its founder VON BARTALANFFY<br />
who also notes its <strong>in</strong>terdiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary character:<br />
43
“... <strong>in</strong> spite <strong>of</strong> obvious limitations, different approaches and legitimate criticism, few<br />
would deny the legitimacy and fertility <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>terdiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary systems approach.”<br />
(VON BARTALANFFY, 1962, p. 1)<br />
Below, some more specific system theories are described <strong>in</strong> the context <strong>of</strong> suitable application<br />
fields. The render<strong>in</strong>g is based upon three different perspectives or characters <strong>of</strong> systems:<br />
• the classic technical character with centrally managed sub-systems<br />
• physical transport networks or actor networks<br />
• channels or cha<strong>in</strong>s with subsequent and co-ord<strong>in</strong>ated activities<br />
These are the perspectives found relevant for the purpose <strong>of</strong> this dissertation, for obvious<br />
reasons other perspectives on systems theory are also conceivable.<br />
2.2 THE TECHNICAL CHARACTER OF SYSTEMS<br />
Classic systems theory deals primarily with systems as centrally managed hierarchies <strong>of</strong><br />
sub-systems or components tak<strong>in</strong>g an eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g or biological perspective. This perspective<br />
is here called a technical perspective <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g the similarities to “dead” technical systems<br />
managed by human be<strong>in</strong>gs. However, also a strong “social eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g” tradition from<br />
the 1970’s has <strong>in</strong>fluenced systems theory. As mentioned <strong>in</strong> section 1.6.2, the “pr<strong>in</strong>ciple <strong>of</strong><br />
relativity for systems” says that all systems are part <strong>of</strong> larger systems and that they can be<br />
divided <strong>in</strong>to sub-systems. This implies that there is no use def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g someth<strong>in</strong>g as a subsystem<br />
without def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the higher level system first, although one has to start at some<br />
level s<strong>in</strong>ce we neither know if the universe has an end nor which is the <strong>small</strong>est physical<br />
particle.<br />
Two ma<strong>in</strong> applications <strong>of</strong> general systems theory can be identified. In the first application,<br />
systems theory is used as tools for systems design or eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g purposes. With a systems<br />
theory approach, complex technical systems that are to be developed can be broken down<br />
<strong>in</strong>to easily understandable sub-systems and components. A specification <strong>of</strong> functional requirements<br />
can be established for the system as a whole and then for each sub-system.<br />
Hence, it is a normative approach based upon logical deduction. This approach is used<br />
throughout this dissertation, most articulated <strong>in</strong> section 7.1 where the requirements for new<br />
<strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> systems are outl<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />
The second application developed by biologists such as VON BARTALANFFY, is the use<br />
as descriptive and analytical tools. It is thus an empirically based method with a clear <strong>in</strong>ductive<br />
touch. The empirical nature <strong>of</strong> the latter approach is stated by CASTI:<br />
44
“...the study <strong>of</strong> natural systems beg<strong>in</strong>s and ends with the specification <strong>of</strong> observables<br />
belong<strong>in</strong>g to such a system, and a characterization <strong>of</strong> the manner they are l<strong>in</strong>ked.”<br />
(CASTI, 1989, p. 2)<br />
This branch <strong>of</strong> systems theory is found <strong>in</strong>dispensable for comprehend<strong>in</strong>g the current complexity<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems as well as for analys<strong>in</strong>g and describ<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
<strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> transshipment technologies <strong>in</strong> the detached appendix.<br />
As argued for, both <strong>of</strong> the above applications are considered as useful to this dissertation,<br />
and thus presented <strong>in</strong> further details below. One particular approach – CHURCHMAN’s<br />
systems approach has earned special attention s<strong>in</strong>ce it is found especially useful, which is<br />
further elaborated <strong>in</strong> section 4.1.2 where it is formally applied to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport.<br />
2.2.1 Tools for systems design<br />
For a very long time, weapon systems have constituted the most advanced technical systems,<br />
although the armament <strong>in</strong>dustry is los<strong>in</strong>g ground due to budget cuts <strong>in</strong>duced by the<br />
fortunate end <strong>of</strong> the cold war. Supply<strong>in</strong>g widely spread armies with food and ammunition is<br />
a delicate task, and the term logistics was actually <strong>in</strong>troduced by the French army <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Napoleonic era (FARMER and PLOOS VAN AMSTEL, 1991, p. 3). As war was pursued<br />
<strong>in</strong> an ever <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>scale</strong>, a need for a systematic approach was identified by the US Department<br />
<strong>of</strong> Defence, (DoD), dur<strong>in</strong>g World War II. Hence, the armed forces and the armament<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustry lead the <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> this branch <strong>of</strong> the systems theory paradigm.<br />
Also the civil <strong>in</strong>dustry was motivated to undertake the <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> systems design<br />
methodologies because <strong>of</strong> four ma<strong>in</strong> characteristics that affected post-war <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />
(WILSON, 1990, p. 57):<br />
1 Technical systems were becom<strong>in</strong>g more complex.<br />
2 Market environments were becom<strong>in</strong>g highly competitive.<br />
3 New projects were <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly more expensive.<br />
4 Computer <strong>development</strong>s made complex calculations more feasible.<br />
Hence, both the <strong>in</strong>dustrial environment and the available tools <strong>in</strong>fluenced the <strong>development</strong>.<br />
One school <strong>of</strong> thought used for the structured design <strong>of</strong> technical systems is Systems Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
def<strong>in</strong>ed by the DoD as:<br />
45
“The application <strong>of</strong> scientific and eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g efforts to (a) transform an operational<br />
need <strong>in</strong>to a description <strong>of</strong> system performance parameters and a system configuration<br />
through the use <strong>of</strong> an iterative process <strong>of</strong> def<strong>in</strong>ition, synthesis, analysis, design, test,<br />
and evaluation; (b) <strong>in</strong>tegrate related technical parameters and ensure compatibility <strong>of</strong><br />
all physical, functional, and program <strong>in</strong>terfaces <strong>in</strong> a manner that optimizes the total<br />
system def<strong>in</strong>ition and design; and (c) <strong>in</strong>tegrate reliability, ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ability, safety, survivability,<br />
human, and other such factors <strong>in</strong>to the total eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g effort to meet cost,<br />
schedule, and technical performance objectives.”<br />
(BLANCHARD, 1992, p. 9)<br />
Hence, systems eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g focuses on a top-down approach to systems theory. Part (a) <strong>in</strong><br />
the citation above focuses on method and (b) and (c) on what the eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g process aims<br />
at. What is most <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g here is part (b) s<strong>in</strong>ce it is emphasis<strong>in</strong>g a system as consist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>tegrated parts that should be optimised to achieve a common goal. YU presents a similar<br />
def<strong>in</strong>ition <strong>of</strong> the systems approach, however purely bas<strong>in</strong>g it upon systems design methodology:<br />
“The systems approach is a process that is applied on a cont<strong>in</strong>uous basis and <strong>in</strong> a consistent<br />
way by the eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g and management functions <strong>in</strong> undertak<strong>in</strong>g the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
procedures: (a) identify<strong>in</strong>g the problem, (b) def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the goals and objectives <strong>in</strong>volved<br />
<strong>in</strong> solv<strong>in</strong>g the problem, (c) search<strong>in</strong>g for alternative methods <strong>of</strong> meet<strong>in</strong>g the requirement,<br />
(d) select<strong>in</strong>g the most effective alternative, (e) develop<strong>in</strong>g it <strong>in</strong> its entirety, and<br />
(f) then implement<strong>in</strong>g its operation or use.“<br />
(YU, 1982, p. 3)<br />
Although this is not a pure eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g effort, this approach describes the present research<br />
effort well. In the <strong>in</strong>troduction chapter, the problem is identified as the complexity <strong>of</strong> the<br />
current system and the goal as the implementation <strong>of</strong> locally adapted <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> network<br />
modules. In this and the follow<strong>in</strong>g two chapters, different systems approaches and own<br />
modell<strong>in</strong>g is used as tools for meet<strong>in</strong>g the requirements. The alternative solutions are described<br />
and evaluated <strong>in</strong> chapters 6 and 7 and an example <strong>of</strong> how a concept can be fully developed<br />
and implemented is presented <strong>in</strong> chapter 8. The traps and possibilities <strong>of</strong> implementation<br />
are presented <strong>in</strong> chapter 5. However, the research effort is aimed at produc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
knowledge around some identified research questions rather than just address<strong>in</strong>g the problems<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport as an eng<strong>in</strong>eer. A dissertation tak<strong>in</strong>g a more outspoken systems<br />
eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g perspective is presented by RUTTEN (1995).<br />
The early paradigm <strong>of</strong> systems eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g can be described simply as “Build it, Test it,<br />
Fix it” (REILLY, 1993, p. 7). In l<strong>in</strong>e with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly complex system <strong>development</strong> projects,<br />
the systems eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g process has been developed <strong>in</strong>to a rather detailed approach as<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicated by the figure below.<br />
46
Figure 2-1 Systems eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g process paradigm. (Source: REILLY, 1993, p. 8).<br />
Especially important is the cont<strong>in</strong>uous feedback and the iterative character <strong>of</strong> the process.<br />
This is the approach needed for develop<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems with strong<br />
<strong>in</strong>terdependencies between activities, actors and resources and a wide range <strong>of</strong> limit<strong>in</strong>g factors<br />
related to the technical and commercial complexity <strong>of</strong> the exist<strong>in</strong>g system. This will be<br />
further elaborated <strong>in</strong> section 5.2.<br />
Now <strong>in</strong> the post-cold-war period, the computer s<strong>of</strong>tware <strong>in</strong>dustry is the lead<strong>in</strong>g developer<br />
<strong>of</strong> systems design tools and this is also the field where most students get <strong>in</strong> touch with systems<br />
th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g. Nevertheless, as mentioned by YU (1982, p. 4), systems th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g is also applicable<br />
to management. The organisational structure <strong>of</strong> companies is largely a product <strong>of</strong><br />
systems th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g s<strong>in</strong>ce a structured approach is obviously needed to manage huge concerns<br />
and conglomerates with world-wide operations. Also BURNS and STALKER (1994, p. 97)<br />
use a systems approach for design<strong>in</strong>g management systems tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account the l<strong>in</strong>ks<br />
between employees and between companies <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial concerns. This approach is found<br />
suitable also for research on <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport with its <strong>in</strong>terl<strong>in</strong>ked technical and management<br />
issues and it has clearly <strong>in</strong>fluenced the normative parts <strong>of</strong> chapters 5, 6 and 7 <strong>of</strong><br />
this dissertation.<br />
2.2.2 Descriptive and analytical tools<br />
Build<strong>in</strong>g a conceptual model is a feasible po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> departure for understand<strong>in</strong>g and expla<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
complex systems. There has, however, been some criticism directed at such system<br />
models. JACKSON (1985), for <strong>in</strong>stance, states that the system model tends to “reify” organisations,<br />
to grant them the power <strong>of</strong> thought and action, as they almost magically adapt<br />
to the environment <strong>in</strong> the models. Furthermore, the system model sees survival rather than<br />
47
goal-atta<strong>in</strong>ment as the lead<strong>in</strong>g star <strong>of</strong> systems. Nevertheless, keep<strong>in</strong>g these hazards <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d,<br />
this section is aimed at def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the benefits <strong>of</strong> a particular systems approach for descriptive<br />
and analytical purposes, however with frequent references to related approaches.<br />
An analytical tool that has been judged as very useful is the systems approach as it is presented<br />
by CHURCHMAN (1979) who def<strong>in</strong>es five basic descriptive aspects <strong>of</strong> a system:<br />
the objective, the environment, the resources, the components and, f<strong>in</strong>ally, the management<br />
<strong>of</strong> the system. CHURCHMAN does not claim the <strong>in</strong>vention <strong>of</strong> the basic systems approach<br />
(he claims though; to have added the human parts <strong>of</strong> the approach), but it is still denoted as<br />
CHURCHMAN’s systems approach here, <strong>in</strong> order to avoid confusion with systems approaches<br />
presented by other th<strong>in</strong>kers. As the objective <strong>of</strong> the system is clearly <strong>in</strong> focus,<br />
JACKSON’s criticism does not apply to this systems approach.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to CHURCHMAN, the objective is <strong>in</strong> many systems formulated as represent<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the goal towards which the system is directed. It is called a real objective if the system<br />
really is be<strong>in</strong>g directed towards it, but there are <strong>of</strong>ten so called stated objectives where the<br />
uttered objective does not act as a guide for the parts <strong>of</strong> the system. CHURCHMAN also<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduces the concept <strong>of</strong> legitimate objectives, that are set up by the environment <strong>of</strong> the<br />
system. Examples <strong>of</strong> legitimate objectives may be laws and regulations or even antipollution<br />
or security objectives. For <strong>in</strong>stance, companies which pollute, as part <strong>of</strong> their production<br />
process, have <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>terviews stated a will<strong>in</strong>gness to use <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>in</strong> order<br />
to “compensate” the environment (SJÖGREN and WOXENIUS, 1994, p. 14). This is a<br />
good example <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluences created outside the system, although not through formal laws.<br />
Stated or legitimate objectives are <strong>of</strong>ten expressed by companies, but a company <strong>in</strong> a competitive<br />
position usually, and quite understandably, focuses on high, long-term return on<br />
work<strong>in</strong>g capital as the number one objective. Other objectives can be said to be stated or<br />
legitimate objectives.<br />
DAVIS (1974) further develops the concepts <strong>of</strong> CHURCHMAN and makes a dist<strong>in</strong>ction<br />
between goals, i.e. what the system should do, and objectives, i.e. the measurable results<br />
that should be atta<strong>in</strong>ed. Even CHURCHMAN stresses that the objective must be measurable<br />
on a <strong>scale</strong>. The perception <strong>of</strong> actors with<strong>in</strong> the system as units directed towards their<br />
own objectives, is supported by systems theory research performed s<strong>in</strong>ce the 1960’s where<br />
organisations are described as goal-seek<strong>in</strong>g mach<strong>in</strong>es (CHECKLAND, 1988). However, the<br />
goals <strong>of</strong> different companies <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>dustrial network are usually multiple and conflict<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
The goals <strong>of</strong> all participants are seldom achieved, either because means are not sufficient or<br />
achievement <strong>of</strong> all actors’ goals is logically impossible. The <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />
is clearly no exception <strong>in</strong> this case.<br />
The environment <strong>of</strong> the system refers to factors that <strong>in</strong>fluence the system but can not be <strong>in</strong>fluenced<br />
from the <strong>in</strong>side <strong>of</strong> the system. HUBKA and EDER (1988) po<strong>in</strong>t out that the objec-<br />
48
tive <strong>of</strong> the system is the guidel<strong>in</strong>e for def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the environment and only elements and<br />
components contribut<strong>in</strong>g to this objective are <strong>in</strong>cluded.<br />
The resources are also factors that <strong>in</strong>fluence the system but, <strong>in</strong> contrast to environmental<br />
factors, they can be <strong>in</strong>fluenced from the <strong>in</strong>side <strong>of</strong> the system. The def<strong>in</strong>ition <strong>of</strong> the environment<br />
and the delimitation between environment and resources is obviously a critical<br />
step <strong>in</strong> all systems analyses. Different analysts <strong>in</strong>vestigat<strong>in</strong>g the same system seldom make<br />
the same delimitation. The problem is especially apparent <strong>in</strong> life-cycle analyses where delimitation<br />
strongly determ<strong>in</strong>es the result, thus mak<strong>in</strong>g comparisons very difficult (BLINGE,<br />
1993).<br />
The components are closely associated to the resources <strong>of</strong> the system and a component has<br />
at least one resource while each resource belongs to a component. Sub-objectives are stated<br />
for each <strong>of</strong> the components. The term “the directed sub-system” is also used. DAVIS<br />
(1974) writes about sub-systems, which <strong>in</strong> CHURCHMAN’s terms <strong>in</strong>clude resources and<br />
components. The sum <strong>of</strong> DAVIS’ sub-systems is the whole system, whereas the components<br />
<strong>of</strong> CHURCHMAN are not completely able to describe the system. As previously<br />
mentioned, this is one <strong>of</strong> the cornerstones <strong>of</strong> the systems approach: the system does not<br />
equal the sum <strong>of</strong> its parts. HUBKA and EDER (1988) f<strong>in</strong>d the component structure the<br />
most concrete way <strong>of</strong> represent<strong>in</strong>g technical systems.<br />
All systems must be supervised if the overall objective <strong>of</strong> the system is to be accomplished.<br />
The task <strong>of</strong> the management is to allocate resources and designate the sub-objectives for<br />
each component as well as control the behaviour <strong>of</strong> the system. The lack <strong>of</strong> such a management<br />
function is a major short-com<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong>ism.<br />
The basic part <strong>of</strong> CHURCHMAN’s systems approach is summarised by BJERKE as follows:<br />
“There is a systems management that shall make the components use the resources <strong>in</strong><br />
such a way that the objective is accomplished with<strong>in</strong> the limits <strong>of</strong> environment.”<br />
(BJERKE, 1975 – freely translated)<br />
The above viewpo<strong>in</strong>ts may be satisfactory for a systems analysis from a technical po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong><br />
view, but aspects <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>in</strong> the system are needed for social and more<br />
thorough organisational analyses. CHURCHMAN therefore further develops the model by<br />
add<strong>in</strong>g (6) the customers, (7) the decision-makers and (8) the planners <strong>of</strong> the system, that is<br />
the people <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> social plann<strong>in</strong>g and processes <strong>of</strong> change. This extension is by<br />
CHURCHMAN considered as his major contribution to systems analysis. In conclusion,<br />
the descriptive and analytic aspects are:<br />
Objectives<br />
measurable goals<br />
49
Environment<br />
Resources<br />
Components<br />
Management<br />
Customers<br />
Managers<br />
Planners<br />
factors that <strong>in</strong>fluence the system but can not be <strong>in</strong>fluenced<br />
by the system<br />
factors that can be <strong>in</strong>fluenced by the system<br />
parts <strong>of</strong> the system that control the resources<br />
the control mechanism <strong>of</strong> the system<br />
users or buyers <strong>of</strong> the system’s output<br />
people responsible for management<br />
people responsible for the plans<br />
CHURCHMAN’s systems approach is regarded as very useful when analys<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
<strong>transportation</strong> systems, however only when accept<strong>in</strong>g the fact that the current European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
<strong>transportation</strong> system does not quite qualify for CHURCHMAN’s system def<strong>in</strong>ition.<br />
The follow<strong>in</strong>g four discrepancies should be kept <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d:<br />
• The goal <strong>of</strong> the system is not possible to def<strong>in</strong>e clearly s<strong>in</strong>ce the components/actors generally<br />
have differ<strong>in</strong>g goals and reasons for jo<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the system. A related problem is to def<strong>in</strong>e<br />
measurable objectives.<br />
• It is hard to def<strong>in</strong>e the environment <strong>of</strong> the system clearly due to the fact that the network<br />
is shared between actors and between <strong>transportation</strong> modes.<br />
• All resources are not possible to refer to any one component s<strong>in</strong>ce resources are shared<br />
with other systems, e.g. s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode <strong>transportation</strong> systems.<br />
• There is a general lack <strong>of</strong> management with executive power over all system components.<br />
Keep<strong>in</strong>g the po<strong>in</strong>ts above <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d – and be<strong>in</strong>g aware <strong>of</strong> its implications – it is possible to<br />
model <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport from a technical po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view, i.e. that the system is a closed<br />
one with components lack<strong>in</strong>g both own <strong>in</strong>tellect and will. The approach also provides a<br />
good help <strong>in</strong> understand<strong>in</strong>g the advocated <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> system modules, perhaps even better<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce the bus<strong>in</strong>ess structure and management situation might be less complex.<br />
CHURCHMAN’s systems approach is more formally applied to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>in</strong><br />
section 4.1.2. Moreover, the Large Technical Systems approach that also might be denoted<br />
as a descriptive and analytical tool is presented among the follow<strong>in</strong>g systems approaches<br />
with a network perspective.<br />
2.3 THE NETWORK CHARACTER OF SYSTEMS<br />
In this section, theories specifically tak<strong>in</strong>g a network perspective <strong>of</strong> systems are presented.<br />
These theories are regarded as especially appropriate for analyses <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport<br />
50
aim<strong>in</strong>g at the entire <strong>in</strong>dustry and the services the actors jo<strong>in</strong>tly <strong>of</strong>fer. Analyses <strong>of</strong> traffic<br />
patterns is another obvious application.<br />
The first part <strong>of</strong> the chapter emphasises technically networked systems. The presented large<br />
technical systems (LTS) approach, developed by historians and social scientists, deals with<br />
systems designed for the distribution <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation, energy or goods, e.g. networks for<br />
telecommunication, irrigation, power supply or railways. Hence, a clear flow dimension is<br />
present, mak<strong>in</strong>g it further useful to this dissertation.<br />
Theories aimed at the networks <strong>of</strong> actors mak<strong>in</strong>g up an <strong>in</strong>dustry structure are <strong>in</strong>vestigated<br />
<strong>in</strong> the second part. The Network Approach, as presented by the Uppsala school <strong>of</strong> thought,<br />
is chosen for further evaluation. The way the approach is adapted and used here – and was<br />
used <strong>in</strong> the licentiate thesis – is closely related to systems theory, which is the reason for<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g it <strong>in</strong> this chapter.<br />
2.3.1 Large technical systems – LTS<br />
As argued above, a special difficulty when analys<strong>in</strong>g the phenomenon <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport<br />
is that it does not perfectly fit <strong>in</strong>to system theories such as CHURCHMAN’s systems<br />
approach. An approach specifically developed for studies <strong>of</strong> complex and large systems<br />
with a network character could thus be a useful complement. As BUKOLD (1996) faced<br />
the same difficulty when writ<strong>in</strong>g his dissertation on the history <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, it is<br />
worthwhile to follow his path.<br />
In his trajectory approach (see section 1.4.1), BUKOLD is strongly <strong>in</strong>fluenced by the large<br />
technical systems (LTS) approach developed dur<strong>in</strong>g the 1980’s at the Scientific Centre Berl<strong>in</strong>,<br />
where the lead<strong>in</strong>g researchers were HUGHES, MAYNTZ and LAPORTE. In order to<br />
establish the paradigm and further <strong>in</strong>tegrate the work <strong>of</strong> historians and social scientists from<br />
France, Germany and the USA, a book edited by MAYNTZ and HUGHES was published<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1988.<br />
The LTS approach treats “spatially extended and functionally <strong>in</strong>tegrated socio-technical<br />
networks such as electrical power, railroad, and telephone systems” (MAYNTZ and<br />
HUGHES, 1988, <strong>in</strong> the foreword). BUKOLD’s def<strong>in</strong>ition also emphasises the network<br />
character <strong>of</strong> LTS:<br />
“...a by technology characterised network <strong>of</strong> widespread distribution <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation,<br />
energy or goods”<br />
51<br />
(BUKOLD, 1996, p. 63 – freely translated)<br />
The LTS approach was developed without a common term<strong>in</strong>ology. Instead, the researchers<br />
were humble enough to use the term<strong>in</strong>ologies used <strong>in</strong> the particular fields <strong>of</strong> application,
hence similar to the approach applied <strong>in</strong> this dissertation. The LTS approach can be regarded<br />
as somewhat vague, but it is also a strength to be able to adapt the method and the<br />
language to the object <strong>of</strong> study. In general it could be stated that it is not a common method<br />
or technique but rather common research problems that keep the group together.<br />
The LTS approach is judged to be useful to this study, especially as it takes <strong>in</strong>to account<br />
that the borders <strong>of</strong> large systems are hard to def<strong>in</strong>e and must be analysed <strong>in</strong> every s<strong>in</strong>gle<br />
case by ask<strong>in</strong>g practical questions (BUKOLD, 1996, p. 74). The def<strong>in</strong>ition <strong>of</strong> what is a<br />
large technical system is also hard to def<strong>in</strong>e and must, accord<strong>in</strong>g to JOERGES (1988, p.<br />
21) be analysed <strong>in</strong> a similar way. His example <strong>of</strong> the telephone system is strik<strong>in</strong>g as it<br />
might be perceived by lay users as quite <strong>small</strong> <strong>in</strong>deed, while it <strong>in</strong> fact might be the largest<br />
technical system yet <strong>in</strong>stalled <strong>in</strong> world society. The follow<strong>in</strong>g render<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> JOERGES <strong>in</strong>dicates<br />
that the LTS approach is very relevant to the present research effort:<br />
“…one may exam<strong>in</strong>e questions such as: Is the systems concept useful <strong>in</strong> b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g together<br />
the multi-layered phenomena identified by various partial approaches to the<br />
study <strong>of</strong> technology, <strong>in</strong> order to capture higher order <strong>in</strong>teractions? How does it relate to<br />
such concepts as “<strong>in</strong>terorganizational networks”, “Politikverflechtung [Political consolidation]”,<br />
“corporatistic arrangements”? Does it help us to model l<strong>in</strong>kages between<br />
complex mach<strong>in</strong>e systems and complex organizational/<strong>in</strong>stitutional systems? All these<br />
questions refer primarily to the <strong>in</strong>ner structure <strong>of</strong> pragmatically del<strong>in</strong>eated LTS.”<br />
(JOERGES, 1988, p. 17)<br />
LTS can hierarchically be divided <strong>in</strong>to LTS <strong>of</strong> the first or second order. In an LTS <strong>of</strong> the<br />
first order, all resources are controlled and clearly allocated to the system. An LTS <strong>of</strong> the<br />
second order <strong>in</strong>stead utilises resources <strong>of</strong> another system. An example <strong>of</strong> an LTS <strong>of</strong> the<br />
first order is the Transrapid planned to connect Hamburg and Berl<strong>in</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g dedicated<br />
guideways, vehicles and gateways (BUKOLD, 1996, p. 65). Intermodal transport represents<br />
a system <strong>of</strong> the second order as it utilises the resources <strong>of</strong> road and rail <strong>transportation</strong>.<br />
Systems <strong>of</strong> the second order are becom<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly important <strong>in</strong> the post-<strong>in</strong>dustrial society<br />
as they <strong>of</strong>fer new applications <strong>of</strong> the <strong>of</strong>ten mature systems <strong>of</strong> the first order. In this<br />
way, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>of</strong>fers new <strong>development</strong> opportunities to the rail network as well<br />
as to the saturated road network. Another trend is that it is becom<strong>in</strong>g more difficult to determ<strong>in</strong>e<br />
what is an LTS <strong>of</strong> the first order and what is one <strong>of</strong> the second order, when the systems<br />
that surround us become much more <strong>in</strong>terwoven and dependent upon each other. Perhaps<br />
can also LTS <strong>of</strong> the third order be def<strong>in</strong>ed, for <strong>in</strong>stance when wagons loaded with<br />
ITUs are transported <strong>in</strong> wagonload tra<strong>in</strong>s and when conta<strong>in</strong>ers are transported as part <strong>of</strong><br />
general cargo services.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce the LTS approach was developed by historians, a ma<strong>in</strong> theme is to track and expla<strong>in</strong><br />
historical changes. The network dynamics is dealt with by emphasis<strong>in</strong>g the relations be-<br />
52
tween different LTS or between elements with<strong>in</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>gle LTS. Horizontal relations are def<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
as complementary, substitutive, compet<strong>in</strong>g or confront<strong>in</strong>g (BUKOLD, 1996, p. 65). A<br />
relevant example is road transport that was first developed <strong>in</strong> order to support the dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g<br />
mode <strong>of</strong> rail, but soon became a substitutive and compet<strong>in</strong>g system and to some extent<br />
also a confront<strong>in</strong>g one.<br />
Also the character <strong>of</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>gle element affect the network dynamics. A reverse salient is a<br />
system element that by lagg<strong>in</strong>g beh<strong>in</strong>d <strong>in</strong> its <strong>development</strong> prevents the whole system from<br />
improv<strong>in</strong>g. Also an element, the improvement <strong>of</strong> which deteriorates other elements can be<br />
referred to as a reverse salient. In <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, many reverse salients can be identified,<br />
as will be further elaborated <strong>in</strong> section 5.1.3.<br />
2.3.2 The Network Approach accord<strong>in</strong>g to the Uppsala school<br />
<strong>of</strong> thought<br />
Connect<strong>in</strong>g the activities <strong>of</strong> different companies has always been a source <strong>of</strong> problems.<br />
With a negative attitude towards co-operation, productivity is ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong>creased by <strong>in</strong>ternal<br />
rationalisation with<strong>in</strong> each actor’s sphere or by <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the sphere through vertical or<br />
horizontal <strong>in</strong>tegration. However, technological <strong>development</strong> – primarily <strong>in</strong> the field <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
technology – has <strong>in</strong>creased the possibilities <strong>of</strong>, and the need for, l<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g different<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrial activities together, also across the company borders. This implies an important<br />
co-ord<strong>in</strong>ation mechanism that started to attract scientific <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> the late 1970’s and<br />
early 1980’s – the l<strong>in</strong>ks between companies. The logistics approach with a comprehensive<br />
view <strong>of</strong> the material flow <strong>in</strong> the ref<strong>in</strong>ement cha<strong>in</strong> is a result <strong>of</strong> this <strong>development</strong>. Moreover,<br />
the co-ord<strong>in</strong>ation mechanism is the po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> an approach to <strong>in</strong>dustrial market<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and purchas<strong>in</strong>g – the Network Approach.<br />
The Network Approach to studies <strong>of</strong> market structures was developed at the University <strong>of</strong><br />
Uppsala and the Stockholm School <strong>of</strong> Economics together with researchers from other<br />
countries with<strong>in</strong> the framework <strong>of</strong> the Industrial Market<strong>in</strong>g and Purchas<strong>in</strong>g group (IMP).<br />
Key researchers <strong>in</strong> the <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> this theory were HÅKANSSON, MATTSSON,<br />
JOHANSON and GADDE. The theoretical base, <strong>of</strong>ten referred to as the Uppsala school <strong>of</strong><br />
thought, was developed <strong>in</strong> parallel to extensive field studies and the school <strong>of</strong> thought is<br />
now <strong>in</strong>ternationally recognised 50 .<br />
The first presented model, the <strong>in</strong>teraction model, was based upon empirical studies <strong>of</strong> one<br />
thousand buyer-seller relationships carried out by researchers from Sweden, Germany, the<br />
UK, France and Italy (HÅKANSSON (Ed.), 1982). The work <strong>of</strong> the IMP was focused upon<br />
50 See, for <strong>in</strong>stance, BRADLEY (1991).<br />
53
<strong>in</strong>dustrial markets contrary to most market<strong>in</strong>g literature, that only covers consumer markets<br />
compris<strong>in</strong>g vastly different mechanisms. In <strong>in</strong>dustrial market<strong>in</strong>g, long-term customersupplier<br />
relationships are emphasised. This is a phenomenon <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e with what is studied <strong>in</strong><br />
this dissertation, a fact that justifies an <strong>in</strong>vestigation <strong>of</strong> the usefulness <strong>of</strong> this approach for<br />
the purposes <strong>of</strong> this dissertation.<br />
In the network approach, firms are considered as be<strong>in</strong>g dependent upon each other and they<br />
co-ord<strong>in</strong>ate their activities through <strong>in</strong>teraction. GADDE and HÅKANSSON (1992) identify<br />
a number <strong>of</strong> characteristics <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial networks. Firstly, the l<strong>in</strong>ks <strong>in</strong> a network are coupled,<br />
imply<strong>in</strong>g that a change <strong>in</strong> one l<strong>in</strong>k has an effect on other l<strong>in</strong>ks. Consequently, companies<br />
can <strong>in</strong>fluence other companies directly or <strong>in</strong>directly. Secondly, much <strong>of</strong> a company’s<br />
behaviour occurs as a reaction to the behaviour <strong>of</strong> other companies. This is a strategic bus<strong>in</strong>ess<br />
game where actors react to previous, current and forecasted events. Thirdly, the relationship<br />
can simultaneously <strong>in</strong>volve conflict and co-operation. For <strong>in</strong>stance, the research<br />
and <strong>development</strong> departments <strong>of</strong> various companies with<strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>dustry might co-operate<br />
closely while the market<strong>in</strong>g departments are bitter enemies <strong>in</strong> a competitive market. A<br />
strik<strong>in</strong>g example is the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>in</strong>dustry where Swedish State Railways as a<br />
company group takes on roles as customer, supplier, as well as competitor to the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
<strong>transportation</strong> system 51 . Fourthly, the network is a dynamic phenomenon. The network is<br />
never stable or <strong>in</strong> equilibrium, but works like a gearbox with numerous dependently turn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
gearwheels.<br />
The network models <strong>of</strong> the Uppsala school <strong>of</strong> thought differ slightly between works published<br />
by researchers confess<strong>in</strong>g to the paradigm, probably due to evolutionary steps rather<br />
than disagreement. A three-component model compris<strong>in</strong>g activities, resources and actors, is<br />
nonetheless a common viewpo<strong>in</strong>t. The heart <strong>of</strong> the network model is formulated by<br />
GADDE and HÅKANSSON:<br />
“Theoretically, an <strong>in</strong>dustrial network consists <strong>of</strong> actors related by performance <strong>of</strong> complementary<br />
or compet<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustrial activities that implies that certa<strong>in</strong> resources are ref<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
through other resources’ consumption. Each one <strong>of</strong> the three components, actors,<br />
activities and resources, is dependent upon the other two.”<br />
(GADDE and HÅKANSSON, 1992)<br />
A graphical presentation <strong>of</strong> the model is shown <strong>in</strong> the figure below.<br />
51 This fact is elaborated <strong>in</strong> detail <strong>in</strong> the licentiate thesis, particularly <strong>in</strong> figure 4-2 describ<strong>in</strong>g the ownership<br />
structure with<strong>in</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport system tak<strong>in</strong>g SJ’s perspective.<br />
54
Actors<br />
At different levels - from<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual to groups <strong>of</strong><br />
companies - actors aim to<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease their control <strong>of</strong><br />
the network<br />
Actors control resources;<br />
some alone and others jo<strong>in</strong>tly.<br />
Actors have a certa<strong>in</strong><br />
knowledge <strong>of</strong> resources<br />
Resources<br />
Resources are<br />
heterogeneous<br />
human and<br />
physical, and<br />
mutually dependent<br />
Network<br />
Activities l<strong>in</strong>k resources<br />
to each other<br />
Activities change or<br />
exchange resources<br />
through the use <strong>of</strong><br />
other resources<br />
Actors perform activities<br />
Actors have a certa<strong>in</strong><br />
knowledge <strong>of</strong> activities<br />
Activities<br />
Activities <strong>in</strong>clude the<br />
transformation act,<br />
the transaction act,<br />
activity cycles and<br />
transaction cha<strong>in</strong>s<br />
Figure 2-2 The network model. (Source: HÅKANSSON, 1989).<br />
There is noth<strong>in</strong>g new under the sun, however, and the terms used <strong>in</strong> the network approach<br />
have been used <strong>in</strong> a similar way before. The ideas <strong>of</strong> describ<strong>in</strong>g phenomena <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> activities,<br />
resources and actors are present <strong>in</strong> many systems, economy and organisation theories,<br />
although denoted slightly differently. Not surpris<strong>in</strong>gly, systems theory is by<br />
STJERNBERG (1991) given credit as the forerunner to the network approach. A similar<br />
concept to that <strong>of</strong> the Uppsala school <strong>of</strong> thought has also been presented by PFEFFER and<br />
SALANCIK (1978) who use the same foundation but accentuate the resource side.<br />
The analysis tool presented by GADDE and HÅKANSSON (1992), supports analyses from<br />
one company’s viewpo<strong>in</strong>t, i.e. the activities tak<strong>in</strong>g place <strong>in</strong> one l<strong>in</strong>k <strong>of</strong> the distribution<br />
channel. This limitation <strong>in</strong> scope makes it less useful for analys<strong>in</strong>g the whole <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dustry. Nevertheless, GADDE and HÅKANSSON acknowledge that other l<strong>in</strong>ks <strong>in</strong> the<br />
ref<strong>in</strong>ement cha<strong>in</strong> must be considered <strong>in</strong> order to analyse the actual l<strong>in</strong>k exhaustively.<br />
A tool for distribution channel analyses is described by GADDE (1989) <strong>in</strong> an article on activity<br />
structure analyses <strong>of</strong> distribution channels. In a table with the head<strong>in</strong>g “division-<strong>of</strong>work<br />
model <strong>of</strong> a distribution system”, GADDE (ibid., p. 161) allocates activities to the different<br />
actors. The method is referred to as a systems approach useful for descriptive purposes.<br />
Nevertheless, <strong>in</strong> order to extend the analysis to the dynamics <strong>of</strong> the network,<br />
GADDE only uses this table method as a po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> departure for <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g the network<br />
approach.<br />
55
In the licentiate thesis, with its stated descriptive and model build<strong>in</strong>g purposes, this tablebased<br />
method was considered very useful and it was adapted to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />
studies. Together with the whole network model, it was used as a po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> departure for<br />
the <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> an analytical tool adapted for studies <strong>of</strong> the structure <strong>of</strong> the European<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustry. This tool consists <strong>of</strong> (a) activity analysis, (b) resource analysis and (c)<br />
actor analysis. The analyses are comb<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> order to def<strong>in</strong>e the studied companies’ and<br />
actor groups’ identity or position <strong>in</strong> the network. Also <strong>in</strong> this dissertation, the thoughts and<br />
terms beh<strong>in</strong>d the network approach has been found clearly applicable.<br />
Here, “the network approach” is used for denot<strong>in</strong>g the pure network model 52 based upon<br />
the terms activities, resources and actors. The usefulness <strong>of</strong> the network approach for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport studies will be further illustrated, evaluated and discussed <strong>in</strong> chapter 3.<br />
The Uppsala school <strong>of</strong> thought is more comprehensively described <strong>in</strong> section 3.4.3 <strong>of</strong> the<br />
licentiate thesis.<br />
2.4 CHANNELS AND CHAINS IN A SYSTEMS CONTEXT<br />
As mentioned above, analys<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport with a technical or network perspective<br />
is suitable when the object <strong>of</strong> study is the entire <strong>in</strong>dustry and the services the actors<br />
jo<strong>in</strong>tly <strong>of</strong>fer. When study<strong>in</strong>g a s<strong>in</strong>gle transport arrangement or a shuttle service, however, a<br />
channel or cha<strong>in</strong> approach is more appropriate s<strong>in</strong>ce it accentuates the flow dimension.<br />
A great deal <strong>of</strong> channel and cha<strong>in</strong> research is found <strong>in</strong> the fields <strong>of</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g and logistics,<br />
fields <strong>in</strong> which literature is usually not very dist<strong>in</strong>ct when concept def<strong>in</strong>itions are concerned.<br />
Hence, whether channel or cha<strong>in</strong> ought to be used has not been made quite clear by<br />
the authors <strong>in</strong> the field. Based upon an aggregate <strong>of</strong> the literature, however, the channel<br />
concept is here <strong>in</strong>terpreted as focus<strong>in</strong>g the furrow or path aspects while the cha<strong>in</strong> concept<br />
accentuates the <strong>in</strong>terl<strong>in</strong>ked content <strong>of</strong> a channel, e.g. a number <strong>of</strong> activities along the channel.<br />
An illustration <strong>of</strong> a channel <strong>in</strong> an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport context, is how ITUs are routed<br />
by a cha<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> subsequent transport and transshipment activities. Pipel<strong>in</strong>e is another term<br />
frequently used which is here <strong>in</strong>terpreted as a channel with the same flow <strong>in</strong> every crosssection,<br />
a metaphor for an oil pipel<strong>in</strong>e that for obvious reasons has a balance between <strong>in</strong>flow<br />
and outflow. The term is here used focus<strong>in</strong>g the physical goods flow and the pipel<strong>in</strong>e<br />
aspect <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system is thus treated <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g chapter.<br />
This section aims at discuss<strong>in</strong>g the channel and cha<strong>in</strong> aspects <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
systems aga<strong>in</strong>st the background <strong>of</strong> theories <strong>in</strong> some fields related to <strong>transportation</strong> and logistics,<br />
but yet on a slightly more general system level.<br />
52 For a short and vigorous description <strong>of</strong> the core model, see HÅKANSSON and JOHANSON (1992), and for<br />
a slightly longer one, see HÅKANSSON (1989).<br />
56
2.4.1 Market<strong>in</strong>g and distribution channels<br />
Market<strong>in</strong>g and distribution are two phenomena with outspoken channel or cha<strong>in</strong> character.<br />
The market<strong>in</strong>g channel runs from raw materials to the ultimate customer. As such, it is not<br />
demarcated to market<strong>in</strong>g and purchas<strong>in</strong>g relationships; even processes and supplementary<br />
services are <strong>in</strong>cluded. Distribution channels and market<strong>in</strong>g channels are here considered as<br />
cover<strong>in</strong>g almost the same phenomenon with the slight difference that the distribution channels<br />
focus more on the activities conducted from the time the goods are f<strong>in</strong>ished until consumer<br />
availability.<br />
With<strong>in</strong> the market<strong>in</strong>g channel approach, the channel is considered an entity, and it is assumed<br />
to work as an organised behavioural system. This is <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e with this dissertation –<br />
analys<strong>in</strong>g the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system as an entity without neglect<strong>in</strong>g the fact that<br />
it consists <strong>of</strong> different actors, lack<strong>in</strong>g a common goal and a common management function.<br />
This is another appeal<strong>in</strong>g bridge between theories <strong>of</strong> systems and market<strong>in</strong>g respectively.<br />
The advantages <strong>of</strong> view<strong>in</strong>g the channel as an organised behavioural system is, accord<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
MCCAMMON and LITTLE (1965, p. 330) that:<br />
• it def<strong>in</strong>es the channel as a purposive and rational assemblage <strong>of</strong> firms and not just a random<br />
collection <strong>of</strong> companies<br />
• both co-operative and antagonistic behaviour are emphasised<br />
• the organism reflects the hopes and goals <strong>of</strong> the participants<br />
• the market<strong>in</strong>g channel is viewed as a unit <strong>of</strong> competition compet<strong>in</strong>g with other distribution<br />
channels<br />
• treat<strong>in</strong>g the channel as an operat<strong>in</strong>g system, system-generated malfunction can be analysed<br />
Even ALDERSON (1954) focuses on the entity view <strong>of</strong> a distribution channel with several<br />
actors. Actually, the importance <strong>of</strong> a system view <strong>in</strong>creases with the number <strong>of</strong> actors and<br />
activities:<br />
“The more complex the market<strong>in</strong>g task becomes the more necessary it is for a channel<br />
to operate as an <strong>in</strong>tegrated whole <strong>in</strong> order to atta<strong>in</strong> efficiency.”<br />
(ALDERSON, 1954, p. 31)<br />
All these arguments are important to studies <strong>of</strong> the complexity <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
systems. The competition between market<strong>in</strong>g channels is analogous to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport<br />
compet<strong>in</strong>g aga<strong>in</strong>st pure <strong>transportation</strong> modes and other <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport cha<strong>in</strong>s.<br />
57
The roles <strong>of</strong> the actors <strong>in</strong> a distribution channel are described by GADDE (1982). This is<br />
also treated by BREYER (1964) who says that a market<strong>in</strong>g channel <strong>in</strong>cludes trad<strong>in</strong>g as well<br />
as non-trad<strong>in</strong>g companies. Transportation companies are then seen as non-trad<strong>in</strong>g participants<br />
<strong>in</strong> the market<strong>in</strong>g channel. BREYER also states that the channel concept should be<br />
centred on the s<strong>in</strong>gle product. In <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems, however, goods are to a<br />
large extent general cargo, consist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> many <strong>small</strong> shipments which makes it hard to def<strong>in</strong>e<br />
the specific market<strong>in</strong>g channels where <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport takes place. Nevertheless,<br />
examples <strong>of</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g channels with <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport as an important component have<br />
been identified <strong>in</strong> this research effort, e.g. swap body transport <strong>of</strong> pulp between Värö Bruk<br />
outside Göteborg and Northern Italy on behalf <strong>of</strong> Södra Skogsägarna 53 . Moreover, from a<br />
<strong>transportation</strong> system po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view, the “product” that has to be moved can be def<strong>in</strong>ed simply<br />
as ITUs, hence, plac<strong>in</strong>g the consolidation activity outside the system border. This way<br />
around the problem is chosen <strong>in</strong> most <strong>of</strong> the modell<strong>in</strong>g efforts presented <strong>in</strong> this dissertation.<br />
2.4.2 Supply cha<strong>in</strong> management<br />
In logistics research, supply cha<strong>in</strong> management (SCM) has attracted much attention s<strong>in</strong>ce it<br />
was <strong>in</strong>troduced by OLIVER and WEBBER <strong>in</strong> 1982. Most literature, however, is written<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the last few years imply<strong>in</strong>g that the research field is still <strong>in</strong> a conceptualis<strong>in</strong>g stage.<br />
Hence, much <strong>of</strong> the debate is focused upon the def<strong>in</strong>ition <strong>of</strong> the concept and its scope but<br />
the approach has also been used for more dedicated studies, e.g. by PROFFITT (1995) who<br />
applies it to multimodal distribution.<br />
In the practical world – and partly also <strong>in</strong> academia – it seems common to view SCM as<br />
just another word for logistics or the content <strong>of</strong> distribution channels. S<strong>in</strong>ce logistics itself<br />
has various <strong>in</strong>terpretations (COOPER et al., 1997, p. 1) this is obviously not a satisfactory<br />
def<strong>in</strong>ition. Instead, the def<strong>in</strong>ition used by COOPER et al. is accepted here:<br />
“Supply cha<strong>in</strong> management is the <strong>in</strong>tegration <strong>of</strong> bus<strong>in</strong>ess processes from end user<br />
through orig<strong>in</strong>al suppliers that provides products, services and <strong>in</strong>formation that add<br />
value for customers.”<br />
(COOPER et al., 1997, p. 2)<br />
Hence, SCM should be understood as a wider concept than logistics, but it is still def<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong><br />
a somewhat blunt “management” style 54 . This is partly due to the fact that academia <strong>in</strong> this<br />
53 Apply<strong>in</strong>g a transport cha<strong>in</strong> perspective, the mentioned transport commissions are described <strong>in</strong> detail <strong>in</strong><br />
WOXENIUS (1997/a).<br />
54 BECHTEL and JAYARAM (1997, p. 15) further elaborate the question whether SCM is “important <strong>in</strong> today’s<br />
bus<strong>in</strong>ess environment or simply a “fad” dest<strong>in</strong>ed to die with other short-lived buzzwords”.<br />
58
case is follow<strong>in</strong>g bus<strong>in</strong>ess practice and that it is hard to conceptualise a term already watered<br />
down by the mass. The wide span along the cha<strong>in</strong> is <strong>in</strong>dicated by the figure on the<br />
next page.<br />
Later authors have expanded the scope <strong>in</strong>to “dirt-to-dirt”, i.e. from the source <strong>of</strong> supply to<br />
the po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> consumption. This is, however, not new to logistics researchers. Instead, the<br />
new th<strong>in</strong>g about SCM is the scope concern<strong>in</strong>g functions or processes with<strong>in</strong> the companies,<br />
that is the “width” <strong>of</strong> the cha<strong>in</strong> rather than the “length”.<br />
Figure 2-3<br />
A model show<strong>in</strong>g that supply cha<strong>in</strong> management covers the flow <strong>of</strong> goods<br />
from supplier through manufactur<strong>in</strong>g and distribution to the end user.<br />
(Source: HOULIHAN, 1992, p. 145). COYLE et al. (1996, p. 8), JONES and<br />
RILEY (1992, p. 88) and OLIVER and WEBBER (1992, p. 67) present similar<br />
figures describ<strong>in</strong>g the scope <strong>of</strong> a supply cha<strong>in</strong>.<br />
SCM follows current bus<strong>in</strong>ess trends <strong>of</strong> de-emphasis<strong>in</strong>g the traditional functional structure<br />
with<strong>in</strong> and between organisations. Consequently, the technical systems view is abandoned<br />
for a process or cha<strong>in</strong> view tak<strong>in</strong>g a clear flow perspective. Nevertheless, SCM theory has a<br />
clear relation to classic technical systems theory s<strong>in</strong>ce it recognises that suboptimisation<br />
occurs if each organisation <strong>in</strong> the supply cha<strong>in</strong> attempts to optimise its own results rather<br />
than to <strong>in</strong>tegrate its goals and activities with other organisations <strong>in</strong> order to optimise the<br />
results <strong>of</strong> the cha<strong>in</strong> (COOPER, et al., 1997, p. 3). Also CHRISTOPHER acknowledges the<br />
importance <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrat<strong>in</strong>g companies along the cha<strong>in</strong> as he states that:<br />
“The lead<strong>in</strong>g-edge companies recognize the fallacy <strong>of</strong> this conventional approach [to<br />
achieve cost reductions or pr<strong>of</strong>it improvement at the expense <strong>of</strong> their supply partners]<br />
and <strong>in</strong>stead seek to make the supply cha<strong>in</strong> as a whole more competitive through the<br />
value it adds and the costs that it reduces overall. Lead<strong>in</strong>g-edge companies have realized<br />
that the real competition is not company aga<strong>in</strong>st company, but rather supply cha<strong>in</strong><br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st supply cha<strong>in</strong>.”<br />
59<br />
(CHRISTOPHER, 1992, p. 14)<br />
This attitude ga<strong>in</strong>s further significance as firms, to an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g extent, co-operate <strong>in</strong> virtual<br />
corporations. The approach <strong>of</strong> SCM is found relevant to the present study s<strong>in</strong>ce it, <strong>in</strong>
addition to the recognition <strong>of</strong> competition between cha<strong>in</strong>s rather than companies, identifies<br />
that “an <strong>in</strong>tegrated supply cha<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> partners without common ownership must be managed<br />
<strong>in</strong> a different manner from that <strong>of</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>gle monolithic bureaucracy” (COOPER et al., 1997,<br />
p. 3). The applicability <strong>of</strong> SCM concerns two issues; firstly when treat<strong>in</strong>g the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport <strong>in</strong>dustry as such with companies <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g jo<strong>in</strong>t services without formal and centralised<br />
leadership and secondly, when regard<strong>in</strong>g the cha<strong>in</strong> character <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport<br />
services as such.<br />
The European Commission has recently turned to SCM <strong>in</strong> order to proceed <strong>in</strong> the work on<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the efficiency <strong>of</strong> European <strong>transportation</strong> (VANROYE, conference presentation,<br />
1997). It could be a fruitful approach, but accord<strong>in</strong>g to BJÖRNLAND (conference presentation,<br />
1997), there is a risk <strong>in</strong>volved s<strong>in</strong>ce with an SCM approach, <strong>transportation</strong> is sometimes<br />
seen as someth<strong>in</strong>g that is simply ordered after the structure <strong>of</strong> the cha<strong>in</strong> is already decided<br />
upon. Benefits from bus<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>in</strong>tegration and global sourc<strong>in</strong>g is regarded as so substantial<br />
that the generally low costs <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> can be neglected. This, by the way,<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicates that <strong>transportation</strong> is still commonly viewed upon as someth<strong>in</strong>g practical and trivial<br />
that should be kept from the board meet<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
2.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> a general systems approach is not vital for understand<strong>in</strong>g and describ<strong>in</strong>g the current<br />
production system characterised by technological uniformity and direct connections<br />
between large term<strong>in</strong>als. Atta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g knowledge <strong>of</strong> the whole <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system,<br />
however, requires the support from general system tools. Yet, the acute need for such<br />
tools arise when try<strong>in</strong>g to understand how the future <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system can<br />
capture new markets. Hence, the frame <strong>of</strong> reference outl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> this chapter is found suitable<br />
for address<strong>in</strong>g the question how <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport can meet its chang<strong>in</strong>g environment<br />
and compete over shorter distances through a transition <strong>in</strong>to a pattern <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terconnected<br />
<strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> network modules.<br />
Modell<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems as pure technical systems with a hierarchically<br />
connected set <strong>of</strong> components lack<strong>in</strong>g both own <strong>in</strong>telligence and will is a dramatic<br />
simplification, but it is sometimes necessary <strong>in</strong> order to understand and communicate the<br />
character <strong>of</strong> the system. For static descriptions and more specific analyses at lower system<br />
levels, such a view can also be successfully utilised if the obvious limitations are kept <strong>in</strong><br />
m<strong>in</strong>d. The systems design tools described <strong>in</strong> section 2.2.1 are obvious to most eng<strong>in</strong>eers<br />
and the approach has been used <strong>in</strong> the analyses <strong>in</strong> chapters 5, 6 and 7 as well as <strong>in</strong><br />
WOXENIUS (1997/a). CHURCHMAN’s systems approach has been a more formal <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />
on this research work and <strong>in</strong> section 4.1.2 <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is conceptually modelled,<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g his approach to system modell<strong>in</strong>g and that model has been the lead<strong>in</strong>g star for<br />
several <strong>of</strong> the more specific analyses <strong>in</strong> chapters 5, 6 and 7.<br />
60
However, <strong>in</strong> order to fully understand and expla<strong>in</strong> the phenomenon <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport,<br />
other complement<strong>in</strong>g systems perspectives are needed. A network approach is obviously<br />
suitable for study<strong>in</strong>g the way tra<strong>in</strong>s and lorries are operated spatially, but also for study<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the complex <strong>in</strong>teractions between the actors <strong>in</strong>volved. The “hard” side <strong>of</strong> the network approach<br />
is used when outl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the tra<strong>in</strong> traffic patterns <strong>in</strong> section 4.2.1 and further <strong>in</strong> the<br />
analyses <strong>in</strong> chapters 6 and 7. The “s<strong>of</strong>t” side <strong>of</strong> the network approach is used extensively <strong>in</strong><br />
the licentiate thesis where the <strong>in</strong>dustrial network is elaborated, but the basic term<strong>in</strong>ology <strong>of</strong><br />
the Uppsala school <strong>of</strong> thought – actors, activities and resources – is used throughout the<br />
dissertation. The approach is specifically useful <strong>in</strong> the discussions on technology implementation<br />
barriers <strong>in</strong> section 5.1 and on how to overcome the barrier effects <strong>in</strong> section 5.2.<br />
Tak<strong>in</strong>g a channel or cha<strong>in</strong> perspective, f<strong>in</strong>ally, allows the analyst to delimit the system<br />
along the actual path <strong>of</strong> a consignment without directly pay<strong>in</strong>g attention to other flows. The<br />
approach is used <strong>in</strong> the transport <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>in</strong> order to simplify if not the physical flows yet<br />
the understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the flows and the <strong>in</strong>ternal responsibility. The perspective is here used<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> an article on <strong>in</strong>formation systems (WOXENIUS, 1997/a), but the fact that <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport is a cha<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> subsequent activities is highlighted <strong>in</strong> several sections. The<br />
technical, network and channel/cha<strong>in</strong> characters <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems are further elaborated<br />
<strong>in</strong> the proceed<strong>in</strong>g chapters.<br />
61
3 TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS<br />
Systems (2)<br />
Transportation systems<br />
Intermodal <strong>transportation</strong> systems (4)<br />
Actors Activities Resources (5)<br />
Transshipment<br />
technologies (6)<br />
Small-<strong>scale</strong><br />
transshipment<br />
technologies (7)<br />
A particular <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> concept (8)<br />
There is a significant step between the theoretical<br />
framework <strong>of</strong> systems theory and the application<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. Hence, before apply<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
general systems approaches onto <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport, it is worthwhile to first narrow the focus<br />
to the research field <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> and search it<br />
for semi-manufactured models. The division<br />
between systems perspectives – technical, network<br />
and channel/cha<strong>in</strong> – outl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the preced<strong>in</strong>g<br />
chapter is used while select<strong>in</strong>g conceptual models with the dist<strong>in</strong>ction that they should be<br />
suitable for adaptation for study<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems. Hence, also this<br />
chapter aims at establish<strong>in</strong>g the scientific framework <strong>of</strong> this research effort.<br />
After an <strong>in</strong>troduction that puts the scientific field <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> – and thus also this research<br />
effort – <strong>in</strong>to a discipl<strong>in</strong>ary perspective, the render<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> this chapter is limited to the<br />
presentation and evaluation <strong>of</strong> conceptual models 55 neglect<strong>in</strong>g the huge masses <strong>of</strong> operations<br />
research models. Much has been said – and will be said – about the usefulness <strong>of</strong> such<br />
mathematical models <strong>in</strong> the <strong>transportation</strong> research field. I have no <strong>in</strong>tention <strong>of</strong> contribut<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to that debate here, but admit that I confess to the group <strong>of</strong> researchers that are not too impressed<br />
with the outcome <strong>of</strong> such mathematical studies. Furthermore, I ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> the standpo<strong>in</strong>t<br />
from section 1.4 that the research questions should orig<strong>in</strong>ate from thorough knowledge<br />
<strong>of</strong> the object <strong>of</strong> study rather than from know-ledge <strong>of</strong> methods.<br />
3.1 THE SCIENTIFIC FIELD OF TRANSPORTATION<br />
Transportation and the neighbour<strong>in</strong>g – and to some extent overlapp<strong>in</strong>g – field <strong>of</strong> logistics<br />
are traditionally <strong>of</strong> a multi-discipl<strong>in</strong>ary nature. With just a slight difference <strong>in</strong> research<br />
questions, the fields are exam<strong>in</strong>ed follow<strong>in</strong>g vastly different paradigms and scientific ideals.<br />
The <strong>in</strong>formal division <strong>of</strong> research questions also differs between countries and academic<br />
faculties. This is especially apparent <strong>in</strong> logistics, that <strong>in</strong> Sweden is dealt with at the<br />
universities <strong>of</strong> technology and partly at the bus<strong>in</strong>ess schools while it <strong>in</strong> many countries is a<br />
subject “reserved” for bus<strong>in</strong>ess schools. From an eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g perspective, <strong>transportation</strong> is<br />
then regarded as closely related to urban and traffic plann<strong>in</strong>g rather than to the mobility<br />
55 A conceptual model is here def<strong>in</strong>ed as a graphic depiction <strong>of</strong> a real system presented for the purpose <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>creased understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the real system or for def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g which part <strong>of</strong> the system that is under study. A model<br />
allow<strong>in</strong>g to be manipulated, normally <strong>in</strong> a computer environment, is called a work<strong>in</strong>g model. If not specified differently,<br />
by model <strong>in</strong> this dissertation is meant a conceptual model.<br />
63
market it is <strong>in</strong>tended to serve. Moreover, <strong>transportation</strong> researchers have traditionally emphasised<br />
passenger travel from a public sector perspective while logistics researchers have<br />
emphasised goods transport from a private sector perspective (SJÖSTEDT, et al., 1997/b).<br />
The traditional division between <strong>transportation</strong> and logistics is by SJÖSTEDT depicted as<br />
the transport diagonal shown <strong>in</strong> the figure below.<br />
Figure 3-1<br />
The transport diagonal separat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>transportation</strong> and logistics.<br />
(Source: worked up from SJÖSTEDT, 1996, p. 72).<br />
The figure is found very illustrative as it puts logistics and <strong>transportation</strong> <strong>in</strong> a scientific,<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional and <strong>in</strong>stitutional context. In the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly complex society, however, both<br />
logistics and <strong>transportation</strong> must be treated <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>terdiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary way and too much attention<br />
should not be paid to the traditionally “reserved” parts <strong>of</strong> the research field. In a text on<br />
elements <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g, YU (1982, p. 5) states that a broad approach to<br />
<strong>transportation</strong> is essential and that contributions to problem solv<strong>in</strong>g must be taken from all<br />
branches <strong>of</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g as well as the related social sciences <strong>of</strong> sociology, economics and<br />
politics. SJÖSTEDT (1996, p. 72 and et al. 1997/b, p. 3) also argues that logistics and<br />
<strong>transportation</strong> are likely to start shar<strong>in</strong>g views and scientific approaches.<br />
In this dissertation, a holistic approach to the <strong>transportation</strong> field is taken and the research<br />
could be regarded as be<strong>in</strong>g on the diagonal <strong>in</strong> the figure above. The focus on <strong>freight</strong> and my<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrial eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g background leads to the logistics side <strong>of</strong> the diagonal, but the perspective<br />
<strong>of</strong> the transport operators rather than that <strong>of</strong> the shippers, br<strong>in</strong>gs the research back<br />
onto the diagonal. It should be stated, though, that the def<strong>in</strong>itions <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> and logistics<br />
used here are slightly different from those used by SJÖSTEDT.<br />
Basic literature on <strong>transportation</strong> systems generally take a theoretical, mathematical or operations<br />
research approach (e.g. BAYLISS, 1988; DAGANZO, 1997; KNEAFSEY, 1975;<br />
LUMSDEN, 1995 and MANHEIM, 1979), a geographical approach (e.g. TOLLEY and<br />
64
TURTON, 1995) or a rather practical or descriptive approach (e.g. COYLE et al., 1994;<br />
ENGSTRÖM and BERGENDAHL, 1974; FAULKS, 1990; FLOOD et al., 1984; LIEB,<br />
1985; LUMSDEN, 1989 and 1998; MOSSMAN and MORTON, 1957; SJÖGREN, 1957<br />
and STEWART-DAVID, 1980). Yet, some authors manage to take a more comprehensive<br />
approach where theory and practice meet (e.g. TARKOWSKI et al., 1995).<br />
Nevertheless, this chapter aims at survey<strong>in</strong>g the literature for conceptual models useful for<br />
analys<strong>in</strong>g the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system and not for comment<strong>in</strong>g the general content<br />
<strong>of</strong> the literature. The render<strong>in</strong>g is based upon the f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> the preced<strong>in</strong>g chapter about<br />
systems. Consequently, the outl<strong>in</strong>e follows the system characters: technical, network, and<br />
channel/cha<strong>in</strong> respectively.<br />
3.2 TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS FROM A TECHNICAL<br />
PERSPECTIVE<br />
In this section conceptual <strong>transportation</strong> models are described from a systems analytic perspective,<br />
generally <strong>in</strong> the sense <strong>of</strong> depict<strong>in</strong>g <strong>transportation</strong> systems as a set <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terrelated<br />
components. The question noted <strong>in</strong> section 2.2.2, concern<strong>in</strong>g whether an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport<br />
system is an <strong>in</strong>dependent one, is also applicable at this system level. Here, the problem<br />
is acknowledged and kept <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d when modell<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport as a closed system,<br />
while complement<strong>in</strong>g with models regard<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport as an open system.<br />
In different versions 56 , SJÖSTEDT and co-authors have presented models for <strong>transportation</strong><br />
systems based upon the concepts <strong>of</strong> transport, traffic and mobility. The current version <strong>of</strong><br />
the model conta<strong>in</strong>s four structural elements and four <strong>in</strong>teractions – also called sub-systems<br />
– between these elements as shown <strong>in</strong> the figure below. The <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>of</strong> structural elements<br />
is the reason for the classification here, but the model also conta<strong>in</strong>s some network<br />
and cha<strong>in</strong> characteristics.<br />
56 The different versions are described <strong>in</strong> SJÖHOLM and SJÖSTEDT (1992), SJÖSTEDT (1996 and 1997),<br />
SJÖSTEDT (Ed.) (1994) and SJÖSTEDT et al. (1997/a and 1997/b). For the history <strong>of</strong> the model and comments<br />
upon the different versions, see section 3.1.1 <strong>in</strong> the licentiate thesis.<br />
65
Consignments<br />
Transport<br />
Vehicles<br />
Vessels<br />
Accessibility<br />
Facilities<br />
Activities<br />
Land use<br />
Traffic<br />
Transport<br />
<strong>in</strong>frastructure<br />
Figure 3-2<br />
A <strong>freight</strong> version <strong>of</strong> SJÖSTEDT’s model <strong>of</strong> land use, accessibility, transport<br />
and traffic. (Source: worked up from SJÖSTEDT et al., 1997/a).<br />
In pr<strong>in</strong>ciple, the model can be applied to any k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> flow, but the render<strong>in</strong>g here is limited<br />
to flows <strong>of</strong> goods. The elements and processes are shortly commented upon below, based<br />
upon SJÖSTEDT et al. 1997/a and 1997/b.<br />
Activities are considered to drive the system but are not strictly part <strong>of</strong> the model, thus depicted<br />
as perpendicular to the plane conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the other parts <strong>of</strong> the model.<br />
Start<strong>in</strong>g from right below, transport <strong>in</strong>frastructure denotes manmade and permanent facilities<br />
that make movement <strong>of</strong> consignments possible, e.g. roads, tracks, navigable passages<br />
and air routes. Likewise, the term <strong>in</strong>frastructure encompasses at least the gates or entrances<br />
<strong>of</strong> build<strong>in</strong>gs. Facilities are designed and equipped for serv<strong>in</strong>g as the location <strong>of</strong> activities.<br />
The entrance to the facility marks the <strong>in</strong>terface between the facility and the <strong>in</strong>frastructure.<br />
Consignments and the goods they consist <strong>of</strong> are used when carry<strong>in</strong>g out many <strong>of</strong> the activities.<br />
Consignments need to be moved to the location <strong>of</strong> the facility where they are part <strong>of</strong> an<br />
activity.<br />
Vehicles and vessels are the tools used for satisfy<strong>in</strong>g movement <strong>of</strong> consignments. Land use<br />
is the dedication <strong>of</strong> locations for certa<strong>in</strong> facilities and activities <strong>in</strong> relation to the <strong>in</strong>frastructure.<br />
Accessibility is here used as a measure for the ability to reach a facility for pick<strong>in</strong>g up<br />
or deliver<strong>in</strong>g a consignment. Thus accessibility is similar to the concepts <strong>of</strong> mobility and<br />
movement, but the latter ones merely denote the ability to send a consignment <strong>in</strong> any direction<br />
and not particularly <strong>in</strong> the desired direction.<br />
Transport is the activity facilitat<strong>in</strong>g a desired change <strong>of</strong> positions <strong>of</strong> consignments, i.e. accessibility.<br />
The positions before and after a transport are normally modelled as two nodes <strong>in</strong><br />
a network, hence connect<strong>in</strong>g SJÖSTEDT’s model with the physical network perspective <strong>of</strong><br />
systems. If the change <strong>of</strong> position does not <strong>in</strong>volve a change <strong>of</strong> location, the term handl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
is used.<br />
66
Traffic, f<strong>in</strong>ally, is the movement <strong>of</strong> vehicles or vessels needed for transport<strong>in</strong>g the consignments<br />
to the desired address, thus a necessary evil <strong>in</strong> order to achieve someth<strong>in</strong>g good.<br />
Traffic does not necessarily co<strong>in</strong>cide with transport, s<strong>in</strong>ce the vehicles <strong>of</strong>ten need to be repositioned<br />
between loaded trips.<br />
Traditionally the choice <strong>of</strong> vehicles and vessels limits the scope <strong>of</strong> the system under study<br />
which is the reason for referr<strong>in</strong>g to the whole system as the <strong>transportation</strong> system and to the<br />
scientific field as <strong>transportation</strong>. Switch<strong>in</strong>g to logistics as the scientific field, means that<br />
focus is shifted from a structural perspective centered around vehicles/vessels and physical<br />
<strong>in</strong>frastructure, to a dynamic perspective focused around accessibility and the spatial pattern<br />
<strong>of</strong> addresses. Conceptually there is a close relationship between studies <strong>of</strong> accessibility and<br />
supply cha<strong>in</strong> management (as described <strong>in</strong> section 2.4.2), thus add<strong>in</strong>g a cha<strong>in</strong> perspective to<br />
the model.<br />
This research clearly dwells <strong>in</strong> the upper part <strong>of</strong> the model, focus<strong>in</strong>g the character <strong>of</strong> the<br />
supply <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> vehicles/vessels, the traffic process and the physical <strong>in</strong>frastructure.<br />
However, <strong>in</strong> order to be specific on those matters also the demand <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> accessibility<br />
and the character <strong>of</strong> the consignments has to be treated.<br />
The theory developed by SJÖSTEDT has for obvious reasons <strong>in</strong>fluenced this research significantly.<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> benefit to the present study has been the strict and logical term<strong>in</strong>ology<br />
that is <strong>of</strong>ten lack<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> literature. In addition to the core model, SJÖSTEDT<br />
has presented an extended version which is elaborated <strong>in</strong> section 3.3.2 and illustrated with<br />
an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> application <strong>in</strong> section 4.2.2.<br />
3.3 TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS FROM A NETWORK<br />
PERSPECTIVE<br />
Most models presented <strong>in</strong> this section describe the physical parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems,<br />
e.g. <strong>in</strong>frastructure, term<strong>in</strong>als and vehicles, although some comments on models <strong>of</strong> organisational<br />
networks are given. Nevertheless, the bulk <strong>of</strong> the models tak<strong>in</strong>g a network perspective<br />
to <strong>transportation</strong> systems are <strong>of</strong> the operations research type that is neglected here.<br />
3.3.1 Networks <strong>of</strong> l<strong>in</strong>ks and nodes<br />
Freight <strong>transportation</strong> systems are characterised by the successive movement <strong>of</strong> goods between<br />
supply and demand po<strong>in</strong>ts, <strong>in</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> theory usually denoted as nodes. In scientific<br />
writ<strong>in</strong>g nodes are also referred to as vertices (e.g. BJURKLO, 1991, pp. 21-22,<br />
SJÖHOLM and SJÖSTEDT, 1992, p. 8, TOLLEY and TURTON, 1995, p. 53). Activities<br />
such as consolidation, sort<strong>in</strong>g, stor<strong>in</strong>g and transshipment between vehicles as well as between<br />
<strong>transportation</strong> modes are performed at nodes. For each transport commission, each<br />
67
node can be def<strong>in</strong>ed as a source, a s<strong>in</strong>k or a transshipment node and the goods flow is always<br />
stemmed at nodes. L<strong>in</strong>ks represent<strong>in</strong>g transport and movement activities connect the<br />
nodes (LUMSDEN, 1995).<br />
A transport network can be modelled by connect<strong>in</strong>g all sources and s<strong>in</strong>ks with a number <strong>of</strong><br />
l<strong>in</strong>ks through transshipment nodes. By restrict<strong>in</strong>g the view to the demand for a s<strong>in</strong>gle transport<br />
commission without consider<strong>in</strong>g the actual path, a transport relation can be def<strong>in</strong>ed by<br />
connect<strong>in</strong>g the source and the s<strong>in</strong>k directly, i.e. short-circuit<strong>in</strong>g the network. The figure below<br />
shows a transport network and an example <strong>of</strong> a correspond<strong>in</strong>g transport relation.<br />
Legend:<br />
Node<br />
L<strong>in</strong>k<br />
Transport relation<br />
Figure 3-3<br />
A transport network and a transport relation. (Source: worked up from<br />
LUMSDEN, 1995, p. 23).<br />
L<strong>in</strong>ks and nodes are strictly abstract terms used for modell<strong>in</strong>g. In the real system, l<strong>in</strong>ks are<br />
served by vehicles and vessels us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>frastructure. For the physical unit correspond<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
nodes, the word term<strong>in</strong>al is used although the mode-specific terms airport, port and station<br />
are more common <strong>in</strong> colloquial speech.<br />
MANHEIM (1979) is one <strong>of</strong> the many authors that model <strong>transportation</strong> systems more specifically<br />
based upon nodes and l<strong>in</strong>ks. As <strong>in</strong> this dissertation, MANHEIM identifies the need<br />
for several different perspectives when analys<strong>in</strong>g <strong>transportation</strong> systems, but the reason for<br />
chang<strong>in</strong>g basic term<strong>in</strong>ology several times <strong>in</strong> the widely known textbook is probably pedagogic.<br />
The network perspective is the ma<strong>in</strong> one taken, and the render<strong>in</strong>g is thus placed here.<br />
First, MANHEIM (1979, p. 164) notes that the components <strong>of</strong> a <strong>transportation</strong> system are<br />
spatially spread and <strong>in</strong>teract <strong>in</strong> course <strong>of</strong> time. The structure <strong>of</strong> a <strong>transportation</strong> system is<br />
thus temporal <strong>in</strong> its character which is important to keep <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d. The first description <strong>of</strong> a<br />
<strong>transportation</strong> system is presented <strong>in</strong> a table where its major components are identified as<br />
load-carry<strong>in</strong>g system, guideway, transfer facilities, ma<strong>in</strong>tenance system and management<br />
system. MANHEIM also divides each <strong>of</strong> the major components <strong>in</strong>to several sub-systems<br />
and gives examples <strong>of</strong> each sub-system. This <strong>in</strong>troductory model is clearly <strong>of</strong> a classic<br />
technical character, although not presented as a graphical model.<br />
68
MANHEIM then def<strong>in</strong>es a <strong>transportation</strong> system as a set <strong>of</strong> consecutive l<strong>in</strong>ks, thus tak<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
cha<strong>in</strong> perspective. The l<strong>in</strong>ks are def<strong>in</strong>ed as movement l<strong>in</strong>ks or transfer l<strong>in</strong>ks, but he also<br />
bases the term<strong>in</strong>ology upon the l<strong>in</strong>ks’ places <strong>in</strong> the transport cha<strong>in</strong> and if vehicles are used.<br />
Hence, he classifies l<strong>in</strong>ks as a vehicle l<strong>in</strong>k, a non-vehicle l<strong>in</strong>k (i.e. pipel<strong>in</strong>es and conveyor<br />
belts) or a walk l<strong>in</strong>k (<strong>in</strong> urban transit systems) as well as a collection l<strong>in</strong>k, a l<strong>in</strong>e-haul l<strong>in</strong>k or<br />
a distribution l<strong>in</strong>k. A <strong>transportation</strong> system depicted with the latter perspective is shown <strong>in</strong><br />
the figure below.<br />
Figure 3-4 A <strong>transportation</strong> system. (Source: MANHEIM, 1979, p. 164).<br />
Denot<strong>in</strong>g the resources beh<strong>in</strong>d the l<strong>in</strong>ks facilities gives the foundation to a network model<br />
as shown <strong>in</strong> the figure below.<br />
Figure 3-5 A network <strong>of</strong> facilities. (Source: MANHEIM, 1979, p. 169).<br />
Later <strong>in</strong> the book (p. 303), however, MANHEIM def<strong>in</strong>es a l<strong>in</strong>k as “the facility over which<br />
vehicles may move” and thus giv<strong>in</strong>g less mean<strong>in</strong>g to the above model. Like <strong>in</strong> the modell<strong>in</strong>g<br />
presented <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>troduction to this section, he also identifies the difference between<br />
the path followed by a vehicle (i.e. the route) and the potential set <strong>of</strong> flows specified by the<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>s and dest<strong>in</strong>ations <strong>of</strong> demand. Instead <strong>of</strong> transport relations, though, MANHEIM denotes<br />
the latter phenomenon just market.<br />
For detailed <strong>transportation</strong> network analyses, MANHEIM develops the th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to divid<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the activity system (i.e. all human activities – also referred to as the socio-economic<br />
system) <strong>in</strong>to non-overlapp<strong>in</strong>g regions and zones. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the level and purpose <strong>of</strong><br />
analysis, the activity system can be divided <strong>in</strong>to a different number <strong>of</strong> regions and zones.<br />
MANHEIM also <strong>in</strong>troduces the conception <strong>of</strong> nodes for network analysis, however used <strong>in</strong><br />
a more restrictive way than above. Some nodes simply represent the junctions <strong>of</strong> several<br />
69
l<strong>in</strong>ks and have no properties associated with them. However, if a junction has characteristics<br />
that <strong>in</strong>fluence flows – MANHEIM gives the example <strong>of</strong> an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>al – that<br />
specific facility is represented not as a node but explicitly as a l<strong>in</strong>k. Thus nodes are purely<br />
geometric constructs, as seen <strong>in</strong> the graphical def<strong>in</strong>ition below.<br />
Figure 3-6 Transportation network def<strong>in</strong>itions. (Source: MANHEIM, 1979, p. 471).<br />
Some nodes represent the po<strong>in</strong>ts at which flows enter or leave the network, called zone centroids.<br />
Despite the name, they do not have to be placed <strong>in</strong> the middle <strong>of</strong> the zones which<br />
seems rational as it is hard to enter a zone <strong>in</strong> the middle, except for the air mode.<br />
MANHEIM argues that the concept centroid has a historical orig<strong>in</strong>. The theory is clearly<br />
useful <strong>in</strong> this dissertation as it illustrates the modular design <strong>of</strong> transport networks advocated<br />
here. However, the scope and term<strong>in</strong>ology is differently applied. MANHEIM’s region<br />
is comparable to the European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> system, where the zones are called network<br />
modules and the zone centroids are referred to as gateways.<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> benefit <strong>of</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g the abstract concepts <strong>of</strong> l<strong>in</strong>ks and nodes <strong>in</strong>stead <strong>of</strong>, for <strong>in</strong>stance,<br />
tracks and stations, is that the render<strong>in</strong>g can be made <strong>in</strong>dependent <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> modes.<br />
The theory is thus well suited for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport studies. Concern<strong>in</strong>g the difference<br />
between the term<strong>in</strong>ologies used by LUMSDEN and MANHEIM, so important to this study<br />
– if an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>al should be denoted a l<strong>in</strong>k or a node – LUMSDEN’s node is used<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce that makes the network models more clear. The framework is used <strong>in</strong> sections 4.3, 5.1<br />
and 5.2.<br />
3.3.2 Transportation systems as actor networks<br />
As a complement to his model <strong>of</strong> structural elements and processes (see section 3.2),<br />
SJÖSTEDT presents a general framework model with ten actor categories, i.e. apply<strong>in</strong>g an<br />
actor network perspective 57 . In the conceptual model, the actors are placed accord<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
57 The actor network model starts out from an earlier version <strong>of</strong> his model than the one described <strong>in</strong> section<br />
3.2.<br />
70
whether their ma<strong>in</strong> orientation is towards vehicles, towards <strong>in</strong>frastructure or towards transport<br />
service demand. The extended network model is shown <strong>in</strong> the figure on the next page.<br />
The obvious advantage <strong>of</strong> this image is to connect actors to markets, systems/processes and<br />
elements. The basic image allows the analyst to draw arrows denot<strong>in</strong>g – as SJÖSTEDT def<strong>in</strong>es<br />
it – market and networked relationships. The model also allows for the <strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>of</strong><br />
further elements such as <strong>in</strong>formation systems and logistics channels. SJÖSTEDT illustrates<br />
the <strong>in</strong>tended use <strong>of</strong> this model by a set <strong>of</strong> applications to <strong>in</strong>dustries and metaphorical concepts,<br />
one <strong>of</strong> which is <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport as is described <strong>in</strong> section 4.2.2.<br />
Figure 3-7 SJÖSTEDT’s actor network model. (Source: SJÖSTEDT (Ed.), 1994,<br />
p. 13).<br />
In her dissertation, HERTZ (1993) applies the Uppsala school <strong>of</strong> thought on actor networks<br />
(see section 2.3.2) to the <strong>in</strong>ternationalisation process <strong>of</strong> three Swedish forwarder groups.<br />
An outspoken dynamic perspective is taken while present<strong>in</strong>g the “dom<strong>in</strong>o effect” (ibid., p.<br />
271) that is based upon the fact that the networks <strong>of</strong> forwarders <strong>in</strong> Europe are built up<br />
around bilateral agreements between companies. When one company <strong>in</strong> such a network is<br />
bought by – or starts co-operation with – a company with<strong>in</strong> another network, the whole <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />
is forced to restructure.<br />
Hierarchically, HERTZ (ibid., p. 66) def<strong>in</strong>es a network level, a net level and a (production)<br />
systems level. She sees the network as the whole <strong>transportation</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustry, the nets as networked<br />
co-operations between companies with<strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>dustry and the systems as dyads <strong>of</strong><br />
companies controll<strong>in</strong>g and co-ord<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g the “s<strong>in</strong>gle system”. An outside “objective” perspective<br />
on the whole <strong>transportation</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustry is taken at the network level while the per-<br />
71
spective at the net level is limited to a focal company and its bus<strong>in</strong>ess relations, i.e. a subjective<br />
perspective. At the systems level the perspective is the production system based<br />
upon the bilateral co-operation between two companies. A graphical model <strong>of</strong> the network<br />
and net levels is shown below.<br />
Figure 3-8 Illustration <strong>of</strong> a net <strong>of</strong> transport companies. (Source: HERTZ, 1993,<br />
p. 68).<br />
Besides the conceptual modell<strong>in</strong>g, HERTZ (ibid. pp. 20-23 and Appendix 2) also forwards<br />
a good verbal description <strong>of</strong> the European transport <strong>in</strong>dustry. Still, her application <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Uppsala school <strong>of</strong> thought is rather orthodox, focus<strong>in</strong>g the bus<strong>in</strong>ess relations <strong>in</strong> the network<br />
rather than the physical resources <strong>in</strong> the production system. However, she changes perspectives<br />
to geographical networks <strong>in</strong> a part <strong>of</strong> the dissertation (e.g. between p. 238 and 239).<br />
The Uppsala school <strong>of</strong> thought is applied more specifically to the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
system <strong>in</strong> section 4.2.3 and <strong>in</strong> the licentiate thesis.<br />
3.4 TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS FROM A CHANNEL OR<br />
CHAIN PERSPECTIVE<br />
Networks for telecommunication, power supply and irrigation all depend on an unbroken<br />
cha<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> wires or pipes. Also the l<strong>in</strong>ks <strong>of</strong> land-based <strong>in</strong>frastructure need to be connected at<br />
all times. The <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>freight</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems us<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>frastructure, on the<br />
other hand, is not a cont<strong>in</strong>uously <strong>in</strong>terl<strong>in</strong>ked cha<strong>in</strong> when statically looked upon. In a dynamical<br />
perspective, however, the cha<strong>in</strong> character is obvious with several consecutive activities<br />
needed for mov<strong>in</strong>g goods from consignor to consignee.<br />
The relatively early <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> the networks for power supply and telecommunication<br />
and the substantial economies <strong>of</strong> <strong>scale</strong> implied a <strong>development</strong> towards large monopoly networks<br />
rather than compet<strong>in</strong>g cha<strong>in</strong>s. Also the railway <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>in</strong> Europe eventually devel-<br />
72
oped <strong>in</strong>to national monopoly networks, but these have always been challenged by compet<strong>in</strong>g<br />
road or <strong>in</strong>land waterway services at certa<strong>in</strong> transport relations. Consequently,<br />
BUKOLD (1996) argues that the cha<strong>in</strong> character <strong>of</strong> <strong>freight</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems is<br />
stronger than that <strong>of</strong> other Large Technical Systems (see section 2.3.1):<br />
”More markedly than <strong>in</strong> the other examples [networks for power supply and telecommunication],<br />
<strong>freight</strong> transport is based on various types <strong>of</strong> cha<strong>in</strong>s which, moreover,<br />
frequently compete with one another (e.g. the rail-based transport cha<strong>in</strong> versus the<br />
<strong>in</strong>land shipp<strong>in</strong>g based transport cha<strong>in</strong>). Shippers (from <strong>in</strong>dustry or trade), or the forwarders<br />
that they have commissioned, position themselves at the nodal po<strong>in</strong>ts between<br />
the alternative cha<strong>in</strong>s. The dynamics <strong>in</strong> <strong>freight</strong> transport frequently depends on the <strong>development</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> these upstream and downstream l<strong>in</strong>ks <strong>in</strong> the cha<strong>in</strong>.”<br />
(BUKOLD, 1996, p. 67, translated by himself <strong>in</strong> E-mail message, 1997)<br />
In this section, <strong>transportation</strong> systems are viewed upon as were they made up from consecutive<br />
activities or components. The render<strong>in</strong>g starts with theories and models describ<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the flows present <strong>in</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems and cont<strong>in</strong>ues with the metaphorical concept<br />
pipel<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
3.4.1 Flows <strong>of</strong> goods, system resources, <strong>in</strong>formation and<br />
capital<br />
Flow is a central conception <strong>in</strong> all <strong>transportation</strong> research and two k<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>of</strong> flows are <strong>of</strong> particular<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest when study<strong>in</strong>g <strong>freight</strong> transport networks. The goods flow is directed one<br />
way 58 from the consignor to the consignee while the resource flow is a two-way flow, ideally<br />
matched with another goods flow directed <strong>in</strong> the opposite direction. The two-way nature<br />
stems from the fact that transport operators usually allocate their movable resources,<br />
i.e. vehicles and ITUs, to a few term<strong>in</strong>als, also referred to as bases, from which they start<br />
their transport commissions. Consequently, the goods flow refers to transport <strong>in</strong><br />
SJÖSTEDT’s terms (see section 3.2) and the resource flow refers to traffic.<br />
In reality, however, the movable resources <strong>of</strong>ten have to be redirected with<strong>in</strong> the network <strong>in</strong><br />
order to obta<strong>in</strong> return goods. ITUs and rail wagons move more freely s<strong>in</strong>ce they, contrary to<br />
road vehicles, do not employ drivers that for obvious reasons are more tightly connected to<br />
their bases. Locomotives and ships generally constitute such large <strong>in</strong>vestments and carry<br />
such large operat<strong>in</strong>g costs that they are operated regardless <strong>of</strong> base. The fact that resources<br />
58 This constitutes a significant difference between flows <strong>of</strong> goods and passengers – passengers generally<br />
demand return transport, thus facilitat<strong>in</strong>g balanced flows, at least when aggregated over a longer period <strong>of</strong><br />
time.<br />
73
have to be repositioned clearly adds to the complexity <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems, not least <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> ones.<br />
Information flows and f<strong>in</strong>ancial flows constitute complementary flows. Information does<br />
not only flow between consignor and consignee; but is also required for co-ord<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
different flows. TARKOWSKI et al. (1995, p. 119) see this as vertical status <strong>in</strong>formation,<br />
which is shown <strong>in</strong> the figure below. The term<strong>in</strong>ology used by TARKOWSKI et al. as well<br />
as by KANFLO and LUMSDEN (1991) – who also present a model on flows <strong>in</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
systems – is slightly different from the one used here.<br />
Consignor<br />
F<strong>in</strong>cancial flow<br />
Goods flow<br />
Information flow<br />
Transport companies<br />
Consignee<br />
Resource flow<br />
Figure 3-9<br />
Four flows related to a transport commission. The vertical arrows denote<br />
status <strong>in</strong>formation. (Source: worked up from TARKOWSKI et al., 1995, p.<br />
119 and from KANFLO and LUMSDEN, 1991).<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce flows are so central to <strong>transportation</strong> studies, the concept is used throughout the dissertation,<br />
but more specifically <strong>in</strong> sections 4.2.1 and 4.3. The implications <strong>of</strong> the fact that<br />
resources have to be redirected is also further dealt with <strong>in</strong> section 5.1.3. Information and<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ancial flows are not specifically treated <strong>in</strong> this dissertation, although the former flow is<br />
the issue dealt with <strong>in</strong> WOXENIUS (1997/a).<br />
3.4.2 The pipel<strong>in</strong>e concept<br />
As mentioned <strong>in</strong> section 2.4, the pipel<strong>in</strong>e concept may be considered as similar to the supply<br />
cha<strong>in</strong> concept, but regarded as slightly more focused on logistics and <strong>transportation</strong> due<br />
to the stronger orientation towards physical flows.<br />
FARMER and PLOOS VAN AMSTEL (1991, p. 7) argue that pipel<strong>in</strong>e management is<br />
about recognis<strong>in</strong>g the dependence between system components and balanc<strong>in</strong>g the flows <strong>in</strong><br />
company cha<strong>in</strong>s for system-wide effectiveness, which is also recognised by COYLE et al.<br />
(1996, pp. 216-218). The metaphor with transport pipel<strong>in</strong>es is appropriate, s<strong>in</strong>ce these necessarily<br />
have a balance between <strong>in</strong>put and output <strong>of</strong> oil or other <strong>in</strong>compressible liquids. Intermediate<br />
buffers are also m<strong>in</strong>imised. In fact, already FORRESTER (1961, p. 138 and<br />
155) uses the term supply pipel<strong>in</strong>es for modell<strong>in</strong>g and balanc<strong>in</strong>g production-distribution<br />
systems. Despite the clear metaphor and the early def<strong>in</strong>ition <strong>in</strong> a systems context, some<br />
74
confusion has been added by blunt management literature. It gets especially confus<strong>in</strong>g<br />
when CHRISTOPHER (1992, p. 109) names a chapter “Manag<strong>in</strong>g the global pipel<strong>in</strong>e”<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce both pipe and l<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>tuitively are understood as one-dimensional contrary to global<br />
that is a two-dimensional or perhaps even three-dimensional concept.<br />
FARMER and PLOOS VAN AMSTEL present the scope <strong>of</strong> the pipel<strong>in</strong>e as a model with<br />
three segments – load<strong>in</strong>g, transit and receiv<strong>in</strong>g – and four measur<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>ts before, between<br />
and after the segments <strong>of</strong> the cha<strong>in</strong>. The model has a clear <strong>transportation</strong> focus as seen <strong>in</strong><br />
the figure below.<br />
Figure 3-10<br />
Pipel<strong>in</strong>e segments and measur<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>ts. (Source: FARMER and PLOOS<br />
VAN AMSTEL, 1991, p. 28).<br />
TARKOWSKI et al. (1995, p. 143 and 304) use pipel<strong>in</strong>e as a synonymous term to logistics<br />
channel and they emphasise the metaphor with the pipe <strong>in</strong> their graphical model shown on<br />
the next page.<br />
The scope <strong>of</strong> the conceptual model is wider than the <strong>transportation</strong> system, but the model is<br />
forwarded <strong>in</strong> a <strong>transportation</strong> context, s<strong>in</strong>ce it is used as foundation for discuss<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
support needed <strong>in</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems.<br />
Supplier<br />
Inventory/<br />
Raw materials<br />
Internal<br />
storage/<br />
Transport<br />
Production<br />
External<br />
storage/<br />
Transport<br />
Distribution<br />
to<br />
consumer<br />
Consumer<br />
Figure 3-11<br />
An example <strong>of</strong> a “pipel<strong>in</strong>e”. (Source: worked up from TARKOWSKI et al.,<br />
1995, p. 304).<br />
75
Also HULTKRANTZ et al. (1997, p. 289) deal with pipel<strong>in</strong>es and <strong>transportation</strong> systems<br />
and note that once a traffic l<strong>in</strong>e or a transport facility is established, it could be used as a<br />
tube or a pipel<strong>in</strong>e for the flow <strong>of</strong> goods and the flow <strong>of</strong> services. HULTKRANTZ et al. develop<br />
the concept <strong>in</strong>to an approach on how to route disparate goods flows <strong>of</strong> a general<br />
cargo network <strong>in</strong>to dedicated pipel<strong>in</strong>es or channels for better efficiency, thus connect<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
terms pipel<strong>in</strong>e and network. The approach is based upon the concepts <strong>of</strong> production l<strong>in</strong>es<br />
and bus<strong>in</strong>ess l<strong>in</strong>es as is seen <strong>in</strong> the figure below.<br />
Dispatch<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong>fices<br />
Receiv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong>fices<br />
Bus<strong>in</strong>ess l<strong>in</strong>e A-C<br />
Production l<strong>in</strong>e 1: A-B<br />
Production l<strong>in</strong>e 2: B-C<br />
A<br />
B<br />
C<br />
A<br />
Bus<strong>in</strong>ess l<strong>in</strong>e A-D<br />
Production l<strong>in</strong>e 3: A-D<br />
D<br />
Figure 3-12<br />
Def<strong>in</strong>itions <strong>of</strong> bus<strong>in</strong>ess and production l<strong>in</strong>es. The bus<strong>in</strong>ess l<strong>in</strong>es are A-C<br />
and A-D while the production l<strong>in</strong>es are A-B (because <strong>of</strong> the term<strong>in</strong>al), B-C<br />
and A-D. The A-D production l<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> this example is identical to the bus<strong>in</strong>ess<br />
l<strong>in</strong>e. (Source: HULTKRANTZ et al., 1997, p. 292).<br />
The division between bus<strong>in</strong>ess and production l<strong>in</strong>es is similar to the division between adm<strong>in</strong>istrative<br />
and physical sub-systems used by JENSEN (1990, see section 4.1.1) and the<br />
division between adm<strong>in</strong>istrative system and production system is repeatedly used <strong>in</strong> this<br />
dissertation, for <strong>in</strong>stance <strong>in</strong> the synthesised model <strong>in</strong> section 4.4.<br />
There are obvious advantages <strong>of</strong> view<strong>in</strong>g <strong>transportation</strong> systems as cha<strong>in</strong>s or pipel<strong>in</strong>es<br />
compris<strong>in</strong>g consecutive activities, and the approach will be used for modell<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
<strong>transportation</strong> systems <strong>in</strong> section 4.3.<br />
3.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION<br />
As for general systems <strong>in</strong> the previous chapter, <strong>transportation</strong> system models are here categorised<br />
as tak<strong>in</strong>g a general technical systems perspective, a network perspective or a channel/cha<strong>in</strong><br />
perspective. The two chapters together constitute the theoretical framework <strong>of</strong><br />
this research effort.<br />
76
If one <strong>of</strong> the perspectives would have been superior to the others <strong>in</strong> all aspects, there would<br />
be no need for the division nor for present<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>ferior models. However, the complex<br />
and multi-discipl<strong>in</strong>ary field <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> is best researched when adopt<strong>in</strong>g different<br />
perspectives towards the same problem. This is also identified by MANHEIM (1979)<br />
whose book is very comprehensive and one <strong>of</strong> the classics <strong>in</strong> the field <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems<br />
analysis. The fact that he forwards several different system models further <strong>in</strong>dicates<br />
the need for tak<strong>in</strong>g different perspectives. HERTZ (1993), TARKOWSKI et al. (1995),<br />
TOLLEY and TURTON (1995) and YU (1982), and are examples <strong>of</strong> other authors stat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the need for adopt<strong>in</strong>g different perspectives towards <strong>transportation</strong> problems. Also YIN<br />
(1994, p. 92) states that tak<strong>in</strong>g various perspectives on the same data set – by YIN denoted<br />
theory triangulation – enhances the quality <strong>of</strong> studies.<br />
In the next chapter, the three approaches are further particularised and tested aga<strong>in</strong>st the<br />
application <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport.<br />
77
4 INTERMODAL TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS<br />
Systems (2)<br />
Transportation systems (3)<br />
Intermodal <strong>transportation</strong> systems<br />
Actors Activities Resources (5)<br />
Transshipment<br />
technologies (6)<br />
Small-<strong>scale</strong><br />
transshipment<br />
technologies (7)<br />
A particular <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> concept (8)<br />
Narrow<strong>in</strong>g the focus to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
systems – that should be understood as a sub-set to<br />
<strong>transportation</strong> systems due to the stricter def<strong>in</strong>ition –<br />
implies that the hierarchical level constitut<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
research object is reached. Hence, the own conceptual<br />
modell<strong>in</strong>g is emphasised at this level and the empirical<br />
base appears more clearly.<br />
The conceptual framework presented <strong>in</strong> the last chapter<br />
is rather <strong>in</strong>dependent <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> mode and can easily be applied to <strong>transportation</strong> systems<br />
employ<strong>in</strong>g more than one <strong>transportation</strong> mode. For more restricted analyses <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport issues, dedicated tools tak<strong>in</strong>g the specific and complicated phenomena <strong>in</strong>to<br />
account are, however, needed. The complexity <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems is especially<br />
apparent when address<strong>in</strong>g technical change issues, tak<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>dustrial organisation<br />
<strong>in</strong>to account. The own modell<strong>in</strong>g presented here, however, pays heed to the advice<br />
"Make it as simple as possible, but not simpler!" that is attributed to Albert EINSTEIN.<br />
The theoretical foundation described <strong>in</strong> the previous two chapters is here deepened by present<strong>in</strong>g<br />
conceptual <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport models divided upon the three systems perspectives:<br />
classic/technical, network, and channel/cha<strong>in</strong>. As frequently mentioned <strong>in</strong> the preced<strong>in</strong>g<br />
chapters, these three perspectives should not be seen as compet<strong>in</strong>g with each other but<br />
as complementary. Each has its advantages and shortcom<strong>in</strong>gs and by “pick<strong>in</strong>g the pearls”, a<br />
suitable framework for analys<strong>in</strong>g different <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport issues is arrived at. However,<br />
as the approaches are somewhat related, the different applications end up <strong>in</strong> rather<br />
similar analyses and models. This might be apprehended as reiterations, but the advantages<br />
and the significance <strong>of</strong> the different models are motivated throughout the chapter.<br />
Some <strong>of</strong> the presented models are reproduced from literature by other authors while others<br />
are modelled, us<strong>in</strong>g a s<strong>in</strong>gle systems approach from chapter 2 and yet others are modelled<br />
on basis <strong>of</strong> the general render<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> chapters 2 and 3. The empirical base for the models is<br />
presented <strong>in</strong> sections 1.1 and 1.2. F<strong>in</strong>ally, a synthesised model us<strong>in</strong>g all three approaches is<br />
arrived at.<br />
78
4.1 THE TECHNICAL PERSPECTIVE<br />
View<strong>in</strong>g the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system as a pure technical system 59 is, as discussed<br />
<strong>in</strong> sections 2.2.2 and 2.5, clearly an oversimplification. Apply<strong>in</strong>g the classic/technical systems<br />
approach is nonetheless regarded as a good po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> orig<strong>in</strong> for study<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport as long as the shortcom<strong>in</strong>gs are acknowledged and as long as other approaches are<br />
used as complements. The ma<strong>in</strong> advantage is that the hierarchical modell<strong>in</strong>g allows for reduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a complex reality to a system model capable <strong>of</strong> communicat<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>creased understand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> the phenomenon <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. It is especially well suited for communication<br />
between eng<strong>in</strong>eers, s<strong>in</strong>ce the modell<strong>in</strong>g can be done us<strong>in</strong>g a language and logical<br />
reason<strong>in</strong>g familiar to them.<br />
In this section, three models are presented. The first one, presented by JENSEN (1990), dist<strong>in</strong>guishes<br />
between the adm<strong>in</strong>istrative and the physical sub-systems which is regarded as a<br />
very useful move when analys<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. The second model is an application<br />
<strong>of</strong> CHURCHMAN’s systems approach (as described <strong>in</strong> section 2.2.2) def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the objectives,<br />
environment, components, resources, management, customers, decision-makers and<br />
planners <strong>of</strong> the system 60 . The third one is another own model based upon the ma<strong>in</strong> functions<br />
<strong>of</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport production system; the load-carry<strong>in</strong>g function, the transport<br />
function and the transshipment function.<br />
Some additional models adopt<strong>in</strong>g a classic technical perspective towards <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport<br />
have been found dur<strong>in</strong>g the course <strong>of</strong> the research, but these are used only as <strong>in</strong>formal<br />
sources <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluence. COOPER (1991), for <strong>in</strong>stance, applies PORTER’s model with five<br />
competitive forces (PORTER, 1985) for analys<strong>in</strong>g the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>in</strong>dustry from a<br />
shipper perspective, but the model has only been a secondary <strong>in</strong>fluence on this study s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
it is limited to focus<strong>in</strong>g one company with<strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>dustry and says noth<strong>in</strong>g about the technical<br />
side <strong>of</strong> the system. General models cover<strong>in</strong>g different aspects <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport<br />
are also presented by MERTEL et al. (1988), NEA (1992), TFK (1986) and Bundesm<strong>in</strong>ister<br />
für Verkehr (1981). However, none <strong>of</strong> these were found directly applicable to the purpose<br />
<strong>of</strong> this study.<br />
4.1.1 Divid<strong>in</strong>g between adm<strong>in</strong>istrative and physical system<br />
A reference model for use <strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport studies is presented by JENSEN (1990,<br />
pp. 40-43). The heart <strong>of</strong> the model is the division between the physical and the adm<strong>in</strong>istrative<br />
sub-systems. A further division <strong>of</strong> a multimodal <strong>transportation</strong> system <strong>in</strong> the layers;<br />
59 That is, view<strong>in</strong>g a system as a set <strong>of</strong> hierarchically l<strong>in</strong>ked components lack<strong>in</strong>g both own <strong>in</strong>tellect and will.<br />
60 CHURCHMAN’s extension with customers, decision-makers and planners addresses the shortcom<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong><br />
view<strong>in</strong>g systems as pure technical ones.<br />
79
physical base, commercial system, management and co-ord<strong>in</strong>ation, flow <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation and<br />
liability network, is presented by D’ESTE (1996, p. 4). The division presented by JENSEN,<br />
however, is found sufficient for this dissertation and it is regarded as more consistent than<br />
the multi-layer model.<br />
JENSEN identifies two ma<strong>in</strong> types <strong>of</strong> resources with<strong>in</strong> the physical sub-system with the<br />
task <strong>of</strong> mov<strong>in</strong>g goods from consignor to consignee. The first one is equipment <strong>in</strong> the form<br />
<strong>of</strong> vehicles, unit loads, handl<strong>in</strong>g equipment, term<strong>in</strong>al build<strong>in</strong>gs and term<strong>in</strong>al areas. The<br />
other type <strong>of</strong> resource is the people mann<strong>in</strong>g the physical system. JENSEN models the<br />
physical sub-system with a clear cha<strong>in</strong> perspective, but the whole model is more <strong>of</strong> a classic<br />
system model with <strong>in</strong>teract<strong>in</strong>g parts.<br />
The functions <strong>of</strong> the adm<strong>in</strong>istrative sub-system are ma<strong>in</strong>ly transport adm<strong>in</strong>istration and<br />
market<strong>in</strong>g, i.e. functions on a systems management level. The ma<strong>in</strong> resources are consequently<br />
people and <strong>in</strong>formation systems.<br />
The general model, shown <strong>in</strong> the figure on the next page, <strong>in</strong>dicates that the physical subsystem<br />
is closely <strong>in</strong>tegrated <strong>in</strong>to the logistics system <strong>of</strong> the shipper. This is due to the fact<br />
that the unit load can be a user asset and not necessarily a part <strong>of</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport<br />
service and that the stuff<strong>in</strong>g and stripp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the unit load generally is a task for consignors<br />
and consignees respectively. Progress <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>formation handl<strong>in</strong>g field s<strong>in</strong>ce the report was<br />
written 61 has obviously enabled further <strong>in</strong>tegration also <strong>of</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istrative systems.<br />
Separat<strong>in</strong>g the physical and the adm<strong>in</strong>istrative sub-systems is found useful, and this dist<strong>in</strong>ction<br />
will be used from now on, although with slightly different denotation as is described <strong>in</strong><br />
section 2.4. Most published studies concern either the physical or the adm<strong>in</strong>istrative subsystem<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce they <strong>in</strong>volve different pr<strong>of</strong>essions as well as research fields. For such specialised<br />
studies, the model is a good po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>, nonetheless it is considered (and it is <strong>in</strong>tended<br />
to be) rather simple and it has to be complemented with other models for further description<br />
and analysis.<br />
61 The 1990 edition is actually a translation <strong>of</strong> a version <strong>in</strong> Swedish published <strong>in</strong> 1987.<br />
80
Figure 4-1 JENSEN’s <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport model. (Source: JENSEN, 1990, p. 43).<br />
4.1.2 CHURCHMAN’s systems approach applied to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport<br />
The first step <strong>of</strong> an analysis accord<strong>in</strong>g to CHURCHMAN’s systems approach is to def<strong>in</strong>e<br />
the objectives <strong>of</strong> the system. At its highest level, the objective <strong>of</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
system is def<strong>in</strong>ed as <strong>transportation</strong> <strong>of</strong> ITUs from consignor to consignee at a high service<br />
level, yet with as little resource consumption as possible. As a result <strong>of</strong> this objective,<br />
the pr<strong>of</strong>it ought to be maximised with maximum <strong>in</strong>come to be shared between the components<br />
<strong>of</strong> the system. However, the division <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>its is always a delicate task, and the actors<br />
<strong>in</strong> this system might have another ma<strong>in</strong> source <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>come and could therefore afford to<br />
have other goals for their participation. Moreover, as many <strong>of</strong> the resources are shared with<br />
other systems, it is difficult to measure the costs <strong>in</strong>curred. The system objective is still accepted<br />
<strong>in</strong> this brief analysis.<br />
The next step is to def<strong>in</strong>e the system environment. The European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
system is <strong>in</strong> this dissertation described by four ma<strong>in</strong> activities: road haulage, term<strong>in</strong>al handl<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
rail haulage and management, plann<strong>in</strong>g and market<strong>in</strong>g activities. At certa<strong>in</strong> transport<br />
81
elations, the activity ferry cross<strong>in</strong>g has to be added. Stowage <strong>of</strong> goods <strong>in</strong> ITUs is performed<br />
by the shipper or by the forwarder if the goods are grouped <strong>in</strong> a general cargo term<strong>in</strong>al.<br />
In this analysis, this is assumed to take place outside the system and thus belongs to<br />
the environment. The boundary <strong>in</strong> the transport cha<strong>in</strong> aspect is therefore located at the<br />
po<strong>in</strong>ts where the ITUs are stuffed before an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport or when a decision on<br />
empty position<strong>in</strong>g is taken. The other borderl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> the system is accord<strong>in</strong>gly located at the<br />
po<strong>in</strong>t where the ITUs are stripped.<br />
The demand for transport services is obviously affected by pric<strong>in</strong>g and the quality <strong>of</strong> the<br />
transport <strong>of</strong>fered, but demand is assumed to be part <strong>of</strong> the environment s<strong>in</strong>ce it is not formally<br />
controlled by the system. The model would have no mean<strong>in</strong>g if the customers were<br />
placed <strong>in</strong>side the system. It therefore follows that the resource ITU is placed outside the<br />
system and is regarded as a part <strong>of</strong> the transport object. JENSEN (1990, see section 4.1.1)<br />
makes no firm delimitation <strong>in</strong> this regard, but says that the ITUs might be <strong>in</strong>side or outside<br />
depend<strong>in</strong>g on the level <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegration between the physical sub-system and the shipper’s<br />
logistics system.<br />
Additional environment factors are political decisions (either <strong>of</strong> an economic nature such as<br />
subventions and taxes, or legislative such as laws and regulations), <strong>in</strong>frastructure and competition<br />
from other <strong>transportation</strong> modes. Compet<strong>in</strong>g modes are ma<strong>in</strong>ly s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode road or<br />
rail <strong>transportation</strong> but to some extent also coastal shipp<strong>in</strong>g and barge <strong>transportation</strong> on<br />
<strong>in</strong>land waterways. In the long term, the system can affect <strong>in</strong>vestments <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>frastructure by<br />
demand and due to the fact that the railway adm<strong>in</strong>istrations <strong>in</strong> some countries still control<br />
the tracks. However, <strong>in</strong> the short term and as long as <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is <strong>of</strong> moderate<br />
scope compared to s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode <strong>transportation</strong>, the <strong>in</strong>frastructure is regarded as environment.<br />
Even political decisions can be <strong>in</strong>fluenced <strong>in</strong> the long run by means <strong>of</strong> lobby<strong>in</strong>g organisations<br />
or media debates; nonetheless the system possesses no formal political control.<br />
The transport and transfer resources are distributed among the ma<strong>in</strong> activities above. Control<br />
and plann<strong>in</strong>g tools are added as general resources, controlled by certa<strong>in</strong> actors <strong>in</strong> the<br />
transport cha<strong>in</strong> with l<strong>in</strong>ks throughout the adm<strong>in</strong>istrative and production systems. Technology<br />
is considered as part <strong>of</strong> the resource hardware and is as such placed <strong>in</strong>side the system<br />
boundary. Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, it must be supplied from outside the system, however not <strong>in</strong> the<br />
daily course <strong>of</strong> bus<strong>in</strong>ess, but as <strong>in</strong>vestments at certa<strong>in</strong> times.<br />
The term components is here used synonymously with the term actors. The l<strong>in</strong>ks between<br />
resources and components are shown <strong>in</strong> the figure below. Both pure ownership l<strong>in</strong>ks and<br />
operational l<strong>in</strong>ks, i.e. that a component controls a resource without own<strong>in</strong>g it, exist.<br />
The management <strong>of</strong> the system is difficult to def<strong>in</strong>e s<strong>in</strong>ce the system is not an organisation<br />
with a formal management. Hence, the relationships between the components <strong>in</strong> the European<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system are not characterised by direct orders and directives<br />
82
ut through negotiations and by follow<strong>in</strong>g timetables, with the help <strong>of</strong> contracts and cooperation<br />
agreements. The resources are not allocated by a superior management but procured<br />
by the components to enable production <strong>of</strong> the services with<strong>in</strong> their respective area <strong>of</strong><br />
responsibility. Forwarders and <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport companies 62 may however be seen as<br />
hav<strong>in</strong>g a greater managerial role than other actors. With the def<strong>in</strong>ed system delimitation<br />
follows that the forwarders themselves are customers as they represent the shippers and<br />
thus exert great <strong>in</strong>fluence on the system. The <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport companies have the responsibility<br />
<strong>of</strong> controll<strong>in</strong>g the behaviour <strong>of</strong> the system commissioned by the forwarders and<br />
hauliers (the UIRR) as well as the railway adm<strong>in</strong>istrations (ICF and national conta<strong>in</strong>er<br />
companies). However, this is made without direct executive power.<br />
The ultimate customers <strong>of</strong> the system are <strong>in</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>al analysis always the shippers, but accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to the system delimitation, forwarders may also be regarded as customers when<br />
transport<strong>in</strong>g general cargo consolidated <strong>in</strong>to ITUs or when act<strong>in</strong>g on commission for shippers.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the discussion above, there are no formal managers and planners at the<br />
highest levels <strong>of</strong> the system. Direction and plann<strong>in</strong>g is <strong>in</strong>stead performed jo<strong>in</strong>tly by representatives<br />
<strong>of</strong> the components. Plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> timetables is carried out by the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport<br />
companies <strong>in</strong> co-operation with railway adm<strong>in</strong>istrations. The basis is the derived demand<br />
for tra<strong>in</strong> slots on the tracks, wagon slots <strong>in</strong> tra<strong>in</strong>s and transshipment capacity. The<br />
forwarders may, because <strong>of</strong> this derived demand, be said to have a plann<strong>in</strong>g role. Flexibility<br />
<strong>in</strong> the area <strong>of</strong> chang<strong>in</strong>g timetables is very limited <strong>in</strong> the railway sector. This forces the<br />
schedules to be re-negotiated once or twice a year. In order to achieve flexibility, some<br />
slack slots can be reserved.<br />
Forwarders book an ITU slot on a tra<strong>in</strong> by contact<strong>in</strong>g the term<strong>in</strong>al companies and hire a<br />
haulier for the local road haulage, actions that may be called plann<strong>in</strong>g activities. The term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
companies also plan the load<strong>in</strong>g and tra<strong>in</strong> formation, but this is seen rather as part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
regular operation <strong>of</strong> the company than as pure plann<strong>in</strong>g. From this reason<strong>in</strong>g it follows that<br />
some <strong>of</strong> the personnel at the forwarders and the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport companies may be<br />
called planners.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to CHURCHMAN’s systems approach, a general system description at the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
<strong>transportation</strong> system level may appear as <strong>in</strong> the table below.<br />
62 Depend<strong>in</strong>g on the transport arrangement, ICF, the national UIRR-companies, national conta<strong>in</strong>er companies<br />
or other subsidiaries to the railway companies such as Rail Combi AB might play the role <strong>of</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport company. For further read<strong>in</strong>g about the actor groups, see chapter 4 <strong>in</strong> the licentiate thesis.<br />
83
Table 4-1<br />
Conclusion <strong>of</strong> the application <strong>of</strong> CHURCHMAN’s systems approach to<br />
European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport.<br />
Objective<br />
Environment<br />
Resources<br />
Components<br />
Management<br />
Customers<br />
Decision-makers<br />
Planners<br />
To transport ITUs from consignor to consignee at a high service<br />
level, yet with the least possible consumption <strong>of</strong> resources.<br />
The demand for transport services. Effects <strong>of</strong> political decisions<br />
such as laws, regulations, taxes and subventions. Compet<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>transportation</strong> modes. Infrastructure.<br />
Lorries. Handl<strong>in</strong>g equipment at term<strong>in</strong>als. Railway wagons.<br />
Rail eng<strong>in</strong>es. Ferries. Personnel.<br />
Hauliers. Term<strong>in</strong>al companies. Railway adm<strong>in</strong>istrations. Ferry<br />
l<strong>in</strong>es. Forwarders. Intermodal transport companies.<br />
Forwarders and <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport companies, although<br />
lack<strong>in</strong>g formal power.<br />
Shippers directly or via forwarders with groupage term<strong>in</strong>als for<br />
general cargo.<br />
No formal, but nearest are some personnel <strong>of</strong> forwarders and<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport companies.<br />
As above, but closer co-operation between personnel at term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
companies and railway adm<strong>in</strong>istrations.<br />
The content <strong>of</strong> the table – especially the relationships between components and resources –<br />
is best expla<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> a figure, which also co<strong>in</strong>cides with the conceptual modell<strong>in</strong>g purpose <strong>of</strong><br />
this chapter. The figure on the next page is a worked up version <strong>of</strong> figure 3-7 <strong>in</strong> the licentiate<br />
thesis (p. 58).<br />
CHURCHMAN’s systems approach is regarded as very useful when analys<strong>in</strong>g and describ<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the technically and organisationally complex <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system. Analys<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the system configuration systematically, thus determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>teractions <strong>of</strong> the components,<br />
allows for analys<strong>in</strong>g the different parts <strong>of</strong> the system separately, yet <strong>in</strong> a systems<br />
context.<br />
84
Infrastructure<br />
Consignor<br />
Haulier<br />
Laws and regulations<br />
Political and economic<br />
decisions<br />
Forward<strong>in</strong>g agent Comb<strong>in</strong>ed transport company<br />
Plann<strong>in</strong>g- and<br />
Plann<strong>in</strong>g- and<br />
control tools<br />
control tools<br />
Term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
company<br />
Railway<br />
company/ies<br />
P h y s i c a l f l o w<br />
Rail wagons<br />
Term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
company<br />
Haulier<br />
Consignee<br />
Lorry Term<strong>in</strong>al Rail eng<strong>in</strong>e/s<br />
Rail wagons<br />
Term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
Lorry<br />
Explanations:<br />
Compet<strong>in</strong>g <strong>transportation</strong> modes<br />
Bold<br />
Components<br />
Normal Resources<br />
Bold underl<strong>in</strong>ed Management with decision makers and planners<br />
Italic<br />
Environment<br />
Figure 4-2<br />
Depiction <strong>of</strong> the results <strong>of</strong> a systems analysis <strong>of</strong> European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g CHURCHMAN’s systems approach.<br />
This systems approach has been a clear <strong>in</strong>fluence and us<strong>in</strong>g it, e.g., <strong>in</strong> the article SJÖGREN<br />
and WOXENIUS (1994) and the licentiate thesis, has facilitated a deeper understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system. The approach is not limited to such wide analyses as<br />
presented above; it also allows for more detailed analyses <strong>of</strong> demarcated <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> systems<br />
or s<strong>in</strong>gle <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport commissions.<br />
4.1.3 Functions <strong>in</strong> the production system<br />
For specific descriptions <strong>of</strong> the production system for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, a simple model<br />
start<strong>in</strong>g out from the basic functions is found more useful than the wider and more complex<br />
models l<strong>in</strong>ed out above. The model has been used <strong>in</strong> several own publications 63 for <strong>in</strong>troductory<br />
and descriptive purposes and it is used as po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> departure for the description <strong>of</strong><br />
the production system <strong>in</strong> section 1.2.2.<br />
Basically, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport production systems comprise three categories <strong>of</strong> functions:<br />
a load-carry<strong>in</strong>g function, a transport function and a transshipment function. Although comb<strong>in</strong>ations<br />
<strong>of</strong> functions might constitute one physical resource, the different functions are<br />
def<strong>in</strong>able constitut<strong>in</strong>g a model as shown <strong>in</strong> the figure below.<br />
63 The model has been used <strong>in</strong> WOXENIUS, 1996; <strong>in</strong> WOXENIUS et al., 1995/a and 1995/b; and <strong>in</strong><br />
WOXENIUS and LUMSDEN, 1994.<br />
85
Consignor<br />
Consignee<br />
Load carry<strong>in</strong>g<br />
function<br />
Transport function<br />
Transshipment function<br />
Figure 4-3<br />
A model <strong>of</strong> an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> system based upon functions <strong>in</strong> the production<br />
system.<br />
The conceptual system model is applicable to all <strong>transportation</strong> systems based upon the<br />
transshipment <strong>of</strong> packed consignments, but <strong>in</strong> order to be classified as an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
system, the functions <strong>of</strong> the analysed system must fulfil some basic demands.<br />
Firstly, the load-carry<strong>in</strong>g function must enable consolidation or pack<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> goods <strong>in</strong>to units<br />
<strong>of</strong> suitable size and design. Instead <strong>of</strong> standardis<strong>in</strong>g all goods – obviously an impossible<br />
th<strong>in</strong>g to do – the goods are put <strong>in</strong>to standardised boxes facilitat<strong>in</strong>g a standardised <strong>in</strong>terface<br />
to other <strong>transportation</strong> system functions. The size <strong>of</strong> the boxes is determ<strong>in</strong>ed by transport<br />
demand structure, by possibilities <strong>of</strong> efficient transshipment between <strong>transportation</strong> modes<br />
and, f<strong>in</strong>ally, by maximum measurements permitted by the <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>transportation</strong> modes <strong>in</strong><br />
the geographical area that the system serves.<br />
Secondly, at least one transshipment operation between <strong>transportation</strong> modes must be carried<br />
out <strong>in</strong> order to comply with the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> part <strong>of</strong> the def<strong>in</strong>ition.<br />
Thirdly, the <strong>transportation</strong> modes should not be chosen only for overcom<strong>in</strong>g geographical<br />
hurdles by load<strong>in</strong>g vehicles upon or <strong>in</strong>to each other. Hence, a system is not truly <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
if, say, ferries are used for overcom<strong>in</strong>g the Baltic Sea, or Roll<strong>in</strong>g Highway (see section<br />
2.8.1 <strong>in</strong> the detached appendix) is used for overcom<strong>in</strong>g the Alps.<br />
4.2 INTERMODAL TRANSPORT NETWORKS<br />
Tak<strong>in</strong>g a network perspective to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems is obviously fruitful<br />
when address<strong>in</strong>g research questions related to the way the vehicles and vessels are operated.<br />
Consequently, the first model presented <strong>in</strong> this section describes alternative ways <strong>of</strong><br />
traffick<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als – an approach directly applied <strong>in</strong> section 6.1 but also central<br />
to section 6.2 and chapters 7 and 8. Otherwise, most modell<strong>in</strong>g concern<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
networks are <strong>of</strong> the operations research type (e.g. ADJADJIHOUE, 1995, D’ESTE, 1996<br />
and TAVASSZY, 1996) that is not treated here. The other obvious application field is for<br />
analys<strong>in</strong>g how the actors <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>dustry co-operate. Hence, the other two models are dedicated<br />
to the <strong>in</strong>dustry structure.<br />
86
4.2.1 A model <strong>of</strong> network operation pr<strong>in</strong>ciples<br />
In <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> discussions, much attention is rightfully paid to the <strong>development</strong> and utilisation<br />
<strong>of</strong> transshipment technologies. However, do<strong>in</strong>g this without consider<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> which way<br />
the term<strong>in</strong>als are trafficked with tra<strong>in</strong>s is not fruitful, s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als are designed<br />
to fit certa<strong>in</strong> tra<strong>in</strong> operation pr<strong>in</strong>ciples. In this section, five such tra<strong>in</strong> operation pr<strong>in</strong>ciples<br />
that are significantly different are outl<strong>in</strong>ed and described.<br />
The section is based upon an earlier article 64 and besides a general work up, the ma<strong>in</strong><br />
change is that the term allocated routes has been exchanged for flexible routes. The coauthors<br />
<strong>of</strong> the first article, Johan HELLGREN and Lars SJÖSTEDT are herewith credited.<br />
The operators’ choice <strong>of</strong> traffic network design is <strong>in</strong>fluenced by geographical and <strong>in</strong>frastructural<br />
conditions as well as the demand for transport services, <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> goods flow<br />
and transport quality. The approach is rather universal, for example it can describe distribution<br />
networks <strong>of</strong> forwarders or, as <strong>in</strong> this application, systems for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. The<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciples are presented <strong>in</strong> the figure on the next page as a fixed example with ten term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
which illustrates the different routes for <strong>transportation</strong> between term<strong>in</strong>al A and term<strong>in</strong>al B.<br />
Similar ways <strong>of</strong> represent<strong>in</strong>g different network alternatives are presented by, for <strong>in</strong>stance,<br />
BRUNN and KUHN (1992, p. 1378), HELMROTH (1993, pp. 19-27), RUTTEN (1995, pp.<br />
19-43), TARKOWSKI et al. (1995, pp. 158-166 and 203-205) and TOLLEY and TURTON<br />
(1995, p. 25 and 79) and a purely verbal description <strong>in</strong> an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> context by ENGELS<br />
(1993, p. 21-22).<br />
The theory is based upon the assumption that a sufficient <strong>in</strong>frastructure enables direct connection<br />
between all term<strong>in</strong>als <strong>in</strong> the system. It is then up to the operator to choose which<br />
routes to use. In the application to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, the dots and circles represent transshipment<br />
term<strong>in</strong>als. An additional road haulage is needed <strong>in</strong> all cases – the discussed traffic<br />
solutions only describe the rail-based part <strong>of</strong> the total <strong>transportation</strong> system. The dots along<br />
the route might constitute marshall<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>ts or gateways where ITUs are transshipped between<br />
tra<strong>in</strong>s. The use <strong>of</strong> gateways is a com<strong>in</strong>g trend with the purpose <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrat<strong>in</strong>g different<br />
network modules without restrict<strong>in</strong>g the possibilities <strong>of</strong> optimisation, to the common<br />
preconditions. Also empty position<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> wagons can be decreased by transferr<strong>in</strong>g ITUs<br />
<strong>in</strong>stead <strong>of</strong> marshall<strong>in</strong>g wagons.<br />
64 WOXENIUS et al., 1994, appended to the licentiate thesis.<br />
87
Direct<br />
connection<br />
Corridor<br />
Hub-andspoke<br />
Fixed<br />
routes<br />
Flexible<br />
routes*<br />
A<br />
A<br />
A<br />
A<br />
A<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
B<br />
, Term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
B<br />
* Only some <strong>of</strong> the possible l<strong>in</strong>ks are shown<br />
B<br />
B<br />
L<strong>in</strong>ks used <strong>in</strong> transport A to B<br />
Other l<strong>in</strong>ks <strong>in</strong> the network<br />
B<br />
Ma<strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Satellite l<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Figure 4-4 Five different traffic patterns for transport from A to B.<br />
In the direct connection alternative, there is a direct transport relation between A and B.<br />
The timetable is not dependent upon other transport assignments and can easily be tailormade<br />
for the customer as long as there is spare capacity <strong>in</strong> the rail network. In this solution<br />
there is a high degree <strong>of</strong> flexibility with regard to time plann<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
The transport corridor is a design with frequent connections along a corridor l<strong>in</strong>e and short<br />
feeder services between term<strong>in</strong>als on the corridor and satellite term<strong>in</strong>als 65 . The transport<br />
flows are grouped at the term<strong>in</strong>als on the corridor l<strong>in</strong>e. In this example, connection B is on<br />
the corridor l<strong>in</strong>e and term<strong>in</strong>al A is a satellite term<strong>in</strong>al. This means that the short-l<strong>in</strong>e transport<br />
from A to the nearest term<strong>in</strong>al on the corridor l<strong>in</strong>e is followed by a transport along the<br />
corridor.<br />
In the hub-and-spoke solution, one term<strong>in</strong>al is selected as hub and all transports pass<br />
through this term<strong>in</strong>al, even when sender and receiver are situated close to each other and<br />
far from the hub. Rational handl<strong>in</strong>g at the hub and good utilisation <strong>of</strong> vehicles compensate<br />
for the longer transport distances. There is a freedom <strong>in</strong> time plann<strong>in</strong>g as transports to and<br />
from the hub are frequent and not dependent on other transports. If there are no transport<br />
time restrictions, a high utilisation can be accomplished as goods can be stored at the hub<br />
until the capacity <strong>of</strong> a tra<strong>in</strong> can be fully utilised.<br />
65 Short feeder tra<strong>in</strong>s to privately owned satellite term<strong>in</strong>als are advocated, among others by ENGELS (1993, p.<br />
18) for solv<strong>in</strong>g capacity problems at ma<strong>in</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als.<br />
88
When fixed routes are used, the operator has decided to use routes, which are operated at a<br />
fixed schedule, with connections to other routes at fixed term<strong>in</strong>als. In contrast to the huband-spoke<br />
solution, many term<strong>in</strong>als are used as transshipment po<strong>in</strong>ts and the haulage is organised<br />
as loops or separate l<strong>in</strong>ks. Term<strong>in</strong>al handl<strong>in</strong>g is not necessary at every term<strong>in</strong>al on<br />
the route – usually only a part <strong>of</strong> the load is handled. The routes don’t have to have common<br />
term<strong>in</strong>als; the system can be organised as two pick up/delivery areas with one connection<br />
between the respective ma<strong>in</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als. The load plan is crucial as the load<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the<br />
vehicle, tra<strong>in</strong> or ship must enable handl<strong>in</strong>g goods <strong>of</strong> current <strong>in</strong>terest at all term<strong>in</strong>als. When a<br />
tra<strong>in</strong> is filled, the routes can be short-circuited at any po<strong>in</strong>t and an additional tra<strong>in</strong> must<br />
back up.<br />
The maximum degree <strong>of</strong> freedom is possible <strong>in</strong> the flexible routes design. Routes are dynamically<br />
allocated <strong>in</strong> real time as a function <strong>of</strong> actual demand as reflected by book<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
Direct connections between all term<strong>in</strong>als are possible if there are sufficient goods to be<br />
transported between their end po<strong>in</strong>ts. The operator can choose many different routes between<br />
A and B and transports are planned by heuristical methods or optimised with operational<br />
analysis tools. Information about current transport demand is crucial <strong>in</strong> this plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />
process along with the ability to change tra<strong>in</strong> timetable with short notice.<br />
The presented traffic patterns are used <strong>in</strong> different exist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>transportation</strong> systems. These<br />
are seldom downright applications <strong>of</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>gle design but the ma<strong>in</strong> features can usually be<br />
identified. The table on the next page shows some real world applications.<br />
This approach to the traffic system <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is further elaborated and used <strong>in</strong><br />
the whole <strong>of</strong> chapter 6, <strong>in</strong> chapter 8, <strong>in</strong> section 9.1 and <strong>in</strong> the detached appendix.<br />
Table 4-2<br />
Examples <strong>of</strong> the different traffic design pr<strong>in</strong>ciples.<br />
Application<br />
Passenger<br />
transport<br />
Cargo<br />
transport<br />
Rail cargo<br />
transport<br />
Direct<br />
connection<br />
Taxi<br />
Full lorryload<br />
services<br />
Specialised<br />
systemtra<strong>in</strong>s<br />
Traffic design pr<strong>in</strong>ciples<br />
Corridor<br />
Hub-andspoke<br />
Fixed routes<br />
Japanese US domestic Urban public<br />
“Sh<strong>in</strong>kansen”<br />
airl<strong>in</strong>e traffic, transport<br />
French TGV<br />
systems<br />
Transports<br />
on <strong>in</strong>land<br />
waterways<br />
US class 1<br />
Railroads<br />
and shortl<strong>in</strong>es<br />
Air transport <strong>of</strong><br />
express cargo<br />
Wagonload<br />
with large<br />
marshall<strong>in</strong>g<br />
yards<br />
Forwarders’<br />
network for<br />
general cargo<br />
Classic<br />
general cargo<br />
services<br />
Flexible<br />
routes<br />
Airport<br />
limous<strong>in</strong>e<br />
service<br />
Part-load<br />
lorry<br />
services<br />
Old wagonload<br />
with<br />
marshall<strong>in</strong>g<br />
operations<br />
89
4.2.2 The model <strong>of</strong> elements, processes and actors applied to<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport<br />
As described <strong>in</strong> section 3.3.2, SJÖSTEDT (Ed., 1994) has developed his model <strong>of</strong> logistic<br />
elements and processes (see section 3.2) to <strong>in</strong>clude market and actor relationships. The<br />
model is illustrated with a number <strong>of</strong> applications to real world <strong>transportation</strong> systems, <strong>of</strong><br />
which one is <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport as seen <strong>in</strong> the figure below.<br />
Figure 4-5<br />
SJÖSTEDT’s actor network model applied to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. (Source:<br />
SJÖSTEDT (Ed.), 1994, p. 48).<br />
The term logistic platform denotes break po<strong>in</strong>ts where shippers co-operate locally and regionally<br />
to consolidate goods <strong>in</strong> order to concentrate flows (SJÖSTEDT (Ed.), 1994, p. 45)<br />
as is elaborated by HELMROTH (1993, p. 4) and SJÖHOLM and SJÖSTEDT (1992, p.<br />
16).<br />
The model is regarded as useful for mapp<strong>in</strong>g market and networked relationships and for<br />
expla<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the complexity <strong>of</strong> the system. The model is also one <strong>of</strong> few that take political<br />
bodies <strong>in</strong>to account directly <strong>in</strong> the model.<br />
90
4.2.3 The network approach applied to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport<br />
In its primary application, the network approach is used for analyses <strong>of</strong> dynamic changes <strong>in</strong><br />
market<strong>in</strong>g and purchas<strong>in</strong>g relationships 66 as well as <strong>in</strong> technological <strong>development</strong>. As the<br />
modell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> this section is limited to a static description, the full potential <strong>of</strong> the theories<br />
cannot be shown. However, the presented model allows for further <strong>development</strong> encompass<strong>in</strong>g<br />
also the dynamics <strong>of</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>in</strong>dustry.<br />
The conceptions <strong>of</strong> activities, resources and actors is a good start<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t to any <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />
structure analysis. As stated <strong>in</strong> section 2.3.2, these conceptions are not exclusive f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong><br />
market<strong>in</strong>g network research. Used <strong>in</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>gle network model, however, the merit is dedicated<br />
to the Swedish researchers <strong>of</strong> the Uppsala school <strong>of</strong> thought. The three methodological<br />
analyses <strong>of</strong> activities, resources and actors are used for creat<strong>in</strong>g a graphical depiction <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport.<br />
In an activity analysis, an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system can be described by six activity<br />
categories: road haulage, term<strong>in</strong>al handl<strong>in</strong>g, rail haulage, support<strong>in</strong>g activities, transport<br />
arrangement, and market<strong>in</strong>g to shippers. Support<strong>in</strong>g activities refer to utility creat<strong>in</strong>g services<br />
at the term<strong>in</strong>als such as <strong>in</strong>spection, clean<strong>in</strong>g, mend<strong>in</strong>g and storage <strong>of</strong> empty ITUs.<br />
Even handl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> documents – except for the documents directly needed for controll<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
flow – is regarded as a support<strong>in</strong>g service. Stowage <strong>of</strong> goods <strong>in</strong> ITUs is performed by the<br />
shipper or by the forwarder if the goods are assembled <strong>in</strong> a general cargo term<strong>in</strong>al. This operation<br />
is <strong>in</strong> this analysis, just as <strong>in</strong> that us<strong>in</strong>g CHURCHMAN’s systems approach, considered<br />
as positioned outside the system.<br />
The set <strong>of</strong> resources needed for accomplish<strong>in</strong>g these activities are analysed <strong>in</strong> a resource<br />
analysis. The ma<strong>in</strong> resources are: ITUs, lorries for local road haulage, term<strong>in</strong>als with appropriate<br />
equipment for transshipment, rail wagons, rail eng<strong>in</strong>es, and, f<strong>in</strong>ally, <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
systems. Load units are here treated as a part <strong>of</strong> the system <strong>in</strong> contrast to the model accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to the systems approach. Road and rail <strong>in</strong>frastructure is needed to accomplish <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport, but as this is a jo<strong>in</strong>t asset with other <strong>transportation</strong> modes, it is not treated as a<br />
resource. For obvious reasons, also energy is needed for operat<strong>in</strong>g the system, but neither is<br />
this treated here.<br />
The resources are controlled by a number <strong>of</strong> actors with<strong>in</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>in</strong>dustry,<br />
which are identified <strong>in</strong> the actor analysis. In Europe 67 , these are <strong>of</strong> six different categories:<br />
66 However, changes cannot be isolated to a s<strong>in</strong>gle buyer-supplier relationship and thus network effects <strong>of</strong><br />
such local changes must be analysed.<br />
67 The actor structure is vastly different <strong>in</strong> the USA and so is the term<strong>in</strong>ology concern<strong>in</strong>g actor categories as<br />
well as the governmental regulations. For read<strong>in</strong>g about the American actor structure, see BOWERSOX et al.,<br />
1986, pp. 169-170; DEBOER, 1992, pp. 39-41 and MULLER, 1995, pp. 11, 56-57 and 60-61).<br />
91
shippers, forwarders, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport companies, road hauliers, term<strong>in</strong>al operators and<br />
railway adm<strong>in</strong>istrations. Intermodal transport companies are those actors tak<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>termediary<br />
position but not perform<strong>in</strong>g market<strong>in</strong>g aimed at shippers. Examples, depend<strong>in</strong>g on<br />
the actual arrangement, are ICF, the UIRR-companies, Rail Combi AB and national conta<strong>in</strong>er<br />
companies. The f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs from this analysis are illustrated <strong>in</strong> the figure below.<br />
Consignor<br />
Forward<strong>in</strong>g agent<br />
Control and management<br />
Plann<strong>in</strong>g- and<br />
control tools<br />
Comb<strong>in</strong>ed transport company<br />
Control and management<br />
Plann<strong>in</strong>g- and<br />
control tools<br />
Rail wagons<br />
Term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
company<br />
Haulier<br />
Term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
company<br />
Railway<br />
company/ies<br />
Road Transshipment<br />
Rail<br />
haulage<br />
haulage<br />
Lorry Term<strong>in</strong>al Eng<strong>in</strong>e/s<br />
Rail wagons<br />
Explanations:<br />
Bold Actors<br />
Italic Activities<br />
Normal Resources<br />
Transshipment<br />
Term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
Haulier<br />
Road<br />
haulage<br />
Lorry<br />
Consignee<br />
Figure 4-6<br />
Results <strong>of</strong> a structural analysis <strong>of</strong> the European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
system us<strong>in</strong>g the network approach.<br />
The illustration <strong>of</strong> the analysis us<strong>in</strong>g the network approach is similar to the one besed upon<br />
CHURCHMAN’s systems approach. This is primarily due to the fact that the approaches as<br />
such show general similarities <strong>of</strong> conception. The ma<strong>in</strong> disparity is that the network approach<br />
<strong>in</strong>cludes the concept <strong>of</strong> activities but not specifically environment. The activity conception<br />
is found useful for discuss<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>dustry structure as well as the production system<br />
while the lack <strong>of</strong> environment def<strong>in</strong>ition is not regarded as crucial, s<strong>in</strong>ce the network<br />
approach assumes that only a part <strong>of</strong> the “total network” can be studied and the system border<br />
is somewhat float<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
In the licentiate thesis, the model also <strong>in</strong>cluded arrows denot<strong>in</strong>g the dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g supplier<br />
relations between actors, but as the <strong>in</strong>dustry has changed considerably s<strong>in</strong>ce then (1994),<br />
these arrows are removed here. The approach was also developed <strong>in</strong>to a more formal analysis<br />
method, based upon fill<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> tables (pp. 78-88). Two tables – actor/activity and actor/resource<br />
– were used for mapp<strong>in</strong>g the roles <strong>of</strong> the actors <strong>in</strong> the European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
<strong>transportation</strong> system (pp. 89-127). A third conceivable table – activity/resource – was not<br />
used s<strong>in</strong>ce the outcome would be trivial. The application <strong>of</strong> the method was limited to the<br />
role cast<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>dustry but a further <strong>development</strong> also tak<strong>in</strong>g market shares, supplier<br />
relations and <strong>in</strong>dustrial dynamics <strong>in</strong>to account was suggested (p. 79). The method<br />
92
ased upon tables was also used <strong>in</strong> a narrower and more detailed study (WOXENIUS,<br />
1995/a) on <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>in</strong> the Scand<strong>in</strong>avian countries.<br />
The basic approach with actors, activities and resources is also used for analys<strong>in</strong>g the production<br />
system <strong>of</strong> Swedish domestic <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>in</strong> an earlier article<br />
(WOXENIUS, 1994/b). Furthermore, the framework model as such is used as po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> departure<br />
<strong>in</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> articles (WOXENIUS 1994/b, 1995/b and 1997/a). In this dissertation,<br />
the model is used as the ma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluence on the system model synthesised <strong>in</strong> section<br />
4.4. The problems concern<strong>in</strong>g relations between actor groups is especially highlighted<br />
when discuss<strong>in</strong>g barriers for technological change <strong>in</strong> chapter 5.<br />
4.3 INTERMODAL TRANSPORT CHAINS<br />
View<strong>in</strong>g <strong>transportation</strong> systems as a number <strong>of</strong> consecutive activities is fruitful for follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
certa<strong>in</strong> consignments’ path through the system. The complexity can be kept at a low<br />
level, although only a fraction <strong>of</strong> all transport commissions are completed by a direct transport<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g a s<strong>in</strong>gle vehicle or vessel. The absolute majority <strong>of</strong> consignments have to be consolidated,<br />
stored and transshipped between vehicles and even between <strong>transportation</strong> modes<br />
on their way from consignors to consignees. By stuff<strong>in</strong>g goods <strong>of</strong> different characteristics<br />
<strong>in</strong>to standardised ITUs, as shown <strong>in</strong> the figure below, several diversified and particular<br />
goods flows are transferred to a general flow giv<strong>in</strong>g economies <strong>of</strong> <strong>scale</strong>. Such groupage<br />
cha<strong>in</strong>s are further described <strong>in</strong> WOXENIUS (1997/a, pp. 2-4).<br />
Level <strong>of</strong> consolidation<br />
Figure 4-7<br />
Flow unification.<br />
The general flow is not only standardised <strong>in</strong> shape; an added benefit is that the flow becomes<br />
spatially concentrated, that is, <strong>in</strong>to a pipel<strong>in</strong>e as described <strong>in</strong> section 3.4.2. This dissertation<br />
primarily deals with the special case when goods stuffed <strong>in</strong>to unit loads are moved<br />
by different vehicles and even by different <strong>transportation</strong> modes. The <strong>in</strong>tegration <strong>of</strong> such a<br />
93
transport cha<strong>in</strong> implies that the different capacities and regulations <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>frastructure as well<br />
as the fact that different actors operate l<strong>in</strong>ks and transshipment nodes must be taken <strong>in</strong>to<br />
account. A basic model <strong>of</strong> an <strong>in</strong>tegrated transport cha<strong>in</strong> is shown <strong>in</strong> the figure below. The<br />
model is based upon the concepts and term<strong>in</strong>ology presented <strong>in</strong> sections 2.2.2 and 3.3.1.<br />
Components<br />
L<strong>in</strong>k 1<br />
Transshipment<br />
node 1<br />
Transshipment<br />
node...<br />
Transshipment<br />
node n<br />
L<strong>in</strong>k 2 L<strong>in</strong>k ... L<strong>in</strong>k n<br />
Source<br />
Vehicle 1<br />
Vehicle 2<br />
Vehicle ...<br />
Vehicle n<br />
Infrastr. 1 Infrastr. 2 Infrastr. ... Infrastr. n<br />
Term<strong>in</strong>al 1<br />
Term<strong>in</strong>al ...<br />
Term<strong>in</strong>al n<br />
Resources Transshipment Transshipment Transshipment<br />
equipment 1<br />
equipment ... equipment n<br />
S<strong>in</strong>k<br />
Figure 4-8<br />
A model <strong>of</strong> an <strong>in</strong>tegrated transport cha<strong>in</strong>.<br />
The model – as well as the term <strong>in</strong>tegrated transport cha<strong>in</strong> – is rather universal, but <strong>in</strong> order<br />
to qualify as be<strong>in</strong>g an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> system, the l<strong>in</strong>ks <strong>of</strong> the system should employ at least two<br />
different <strong>transportation</strong> modes. A similar model is presented by the European Commission<br />
(1997/e, p. 2).<br />
Integrated transport cha<strong>in</strong>s generally have no management with formal decision power. Instead,<br />
the activities are <strong>in</strong>tegrated through well def<strong>in</strong>ed procedures and contracts between<br />
the actors. The cha<strong>in</strong> concept is thus illustrative s<strong>in</strong>ce the <strong>in</strong>tegration concerns seller-buyer<br />
connections along the cha<strong>in</strong> rather than that a s<strong>in</strong>gle actor takes an overreach<strong>in</strong>g and formal<br />
responsibility as illustrated <strong>in</strong> the figure below.<br />
Activity 1 Activity 2 Activity... Activity n<br />
Systems management<br />
Activity 1 Activity 2 Activity... Activity n<br />
Figure 4-9<br />
Integration <strong>of</strong> activities seen with a cha<strong>in</strong> (above) and technical (below) perspective<br />
respectively. The arrows denote <strong>in</strong>tegration or management <strong>in</strong>fluence.<br />
Forwarders, as transport <strong>in</strong>tegrators, have a systems management role to some extent, but<br />
they possess no power guid<strong>in</strong>g the activities <strong>of</strong> other actors <strong>in</strong> detail. Instead, on behalf <strong>of</strong><br />
shippers they demand a certa<strong>in</strong> transport quality – e.g. <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> transit times, frequencies,<br />
degree <strong>of</strong> damage – from the transport operators along the cha<strong>in</strong>. They also keep some control<br />
by connect<strong>in</strong>g other actors with their <strong>in</strong>formation systems for track<strong>in</strong>g and trac<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
94
Along with the old concessions and monopolies also follows that certa<strong>in</strong> companies have<br />
acted as wholesaler – and thus managers – <strong>of</strong> parts <strong>of</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> cha<strong>in</strong>. The conditions<br />
<strong>in</strong> Europe are described <strong>in</strong> the licentiate thesis (p. 24 and 101) and those <strong>in</strong> the USA, which<br />
have been more outspoken, are described by BOWERSOX et al. (1986, pp. 169-170),<br />
DEBOER (1992, pp. 39-41) and MULLER (1995, pp. 11, 56-57 and 60-61).<br />
View<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport from a cha<strong>in</strong> perspective allows the analyst to keep the studied<br />
system delimited and thus at a reasonably low degree <strong>of</strong> complexity. However, the fact<br />
that most flows are connected with other flows, e.g. by shar<strong>in</strong>g resources or compet<strong>in</strong>g for<br />
slots for <strong>in</strong>frastructure use, should not be forgotten. Especially the direct tra<strong>in</strong> shuttle services<br />
can be successfully studied us<strong>in</strong>g a cha<strong>in</strong> perspective, but so can also other <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
issues focus<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>tegration <strong>of</strong> consecutive activities.<br />
In this research effort, a cha<strong>in</strong> approach was chosen <strong>in</strong> an article analys<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
system used for controll<strong>in</strong>g the flow <strong>of</strong> goods (WOXENIUS, 1997/a) and the model <strong>in</strong><br />
Figure 4-8 is used as po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> departure <strong>in</strong> two articles (WOXENIUS and LUMSDEN,<br />
1996/c and 1997).<br />
4.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION<br />
In this chapter, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport was <strong>in</strong>itially modelled with a classic /technical perspective<br />
assum<strong>in</strong>g that the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system is a technical system with hierarchically<br />
connected components without own will or <strong>in</strong>telligence. S<strong>in</strong>ce this is an obvious<br />
simplification, modell<strong>in</strong>g was also made from the complement<strong>in</strong>g perspectives <strong>of</strong> networks<br />
and channels/cha<strong>in</strong>s. The network approach as presented by the Uppsala school <strong>of</strong> thought,<br />
for <strong>in</strong>stance, acknowledges that <strong>in</strong>dustrial systems <strong>of</strong>ten lack an authorised and logical<br />
management and common goals for all components <strong>of</strong> the system. Also the very term cha<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dicates that the system is seen as a number <strong>of</strong> consecutively related activities <strong>in</strong>stead <strong>of</strong><br />
centrally managed dittos. In <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems, these are performed by different<br />
actors us<strong>in</strong>g different k<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>of</strong> resources.<br />
Together with the simple model based upon system functions, a model synthesised from<br />
several <strong>of</strong> the above models is used as the framework <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g chapters, unless the<br />
use <strong>of</strong> other specific models is stated. The model is shown on the next page.<br />
The primary <strong>in</strong>fluences have been JENSEN’s model (the division between adm<strong>in</strong>istrative<br />
and physical sub-systems), CHURCHMAN’s systems approach (the environmental factors,<br />
the components (actors) and the resources) and the network approach accord<strong>in</strong>g to the Uppsala<br />
school <strong>of</strong> thought (the division between actors, activities and resources). Also the cha<strong>in</strong><br />
perspective is encompassed with the arrow <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tegration along the activity cha<strong>in</strong><br />
rather than by a formal systems management function. The arrow also illustrates the flow<br />
dimension. It should, however, not be <strong>in</strong>terpreted as a s<strong>in</strong>gle flow, but rather as the set <strong>of</strong><br />
95
flows that the system handles. The use <strong>of</strong> ferries or other ships is obviously only needed <strong>in</strong><br />
some cases.<br />
Intermodal Transport<br />
Actors<br />
Activities<br />
Resources<br />
Infrastructure<br />
Adm<strong>in</strong>istrative<br />
system<br />
Forwarder<br />
Intermodal<br />
companies<br />
Systems Management<br />
Information System<br />
Production<br />
system<br />
Consignor<br />
Fill<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Unit load<br />
Laws and<br />
regulations<br />
Haulier<br />
Term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
Company<br />
Road Haulage<br />
Transshipment<br />
Lorry<br />
Term<strong>in</strong>al with<br />
Equipment<br />
Demand for<br />
transport<br />
services<br />
© J.W. 98 03 04<br />
Railway<br />
Company<br />
Shipp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
L<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Rail Haulage<br />
Sail<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Rail Eng<strong>in</strong>e<br />
and Wagons<br />
Ferry/ship<br />
Political and<br />
economical<br />
decisions<br />
... ...<br />
...<br />
Compet<strong>in</strong>g<br />
s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode<br />
<strong>transportation</strong><br />
Consignee<br />
Empty<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Figure 4-10<br />
A reference model synthesised from models tak<strong>in</strong>g classic/technical, network<br />
and channel/cha<strong>in</strong> perspectives.<br />
L<strong>in</strong>ks between actors, activities and resources are not encompassed <strong>in</strong> the model s<strong>in</strong>ce these<br />
can be determ<strong>in</strong>ed first <strong>in</strong> each s<strong>in</strong>gle case. Generally, however, the l<strong>in</strong>ks are horizontal<br />
across the figure. For <strong>in</strong>stance, the term<strong>in</strong>al company performs transshipment us<strong>in</strong>g its term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
with transshipment equipment. In chapter 8, such l<strong>in</strong>ks are encompassed <strong>in</strong> the modell<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> the implementation phases <strong>of</strong> a specific case that is circumstantially described.<br />
A problem is that the theories rely on different basic presumptions which obviously have to<br />
be taken <strong>in</strong>to account when comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the approaches <strong>in</strong>to one model. Nevertheless, as all<br />
theories have been selected based upon their support for expla<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> issues, this<br />
problem is not acute. Furthermore, the model is used for navigation and explanation purposes<br />
and not specifically for determ<strong>in</strong>istic studies. In summary, the model is found specifically<br />
useful for putt<strong>in</strong>g detailed issues <strong>in</strong>to a systems context and for position<strong>in</strong>g own<br />
and other authors’ contributions <strong>in</strong> a larger perspective.<br />
In the follow<strong>in</strong>g chapters, the treatment <strong>of</strong> narrower research questions is prioritised before<br />
further conceptual modell<strong>in</strong>g s<strong>in</strong>ce modell<strong>in</strong>g has no purpose <strong>in</strong> itself. The analyses <strong>in</strong><br />
chapters 6, however, are based upon specific analyses models. The empirical content will<br />
appear more clearly, especially <strong>in</strong> chapter 8 about a specific <strong>development</strong> <strong>in</strong>itiative.<br />
96
5 RESOURCES IN INTERMODAL<br />
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS<br />
Systems (2)<br />
Transportation systems (3)<br />
Intermodal <strong>transportation</strong> systems (4)<br />
Actors Activities Resources<br />
Transshipment<br />
technologies (6)<br />
Small-<strong>scale</strong><br />
transshipment<br />
technologies (7)<br />
A particular <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> concept (8)<br />
The fact that I was set to research technical aspects<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport obviously br<strong>in</strong>gs me to<br />
follow a path to the right <strong>in</strong> the reference model<br />
synthesised <strong>in</strong> the preced<strong>in</strong>g chapter. Narrow<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
focus to the resources employed then implies a<br />
further focus onto the physical parts <strong>of</strong> the system,<br />
yet pay<strong>in</strong>g respect to the complexity on account <strong>of</strong><br />
the multiplicity <strong>of</strong> actors and activities.<br />
When analys<strong>in</strong>g the potential for locally adapted network<br />
modules as an <strong>in</strong>tegral part <strong>of</strong> a wider <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport system, it is logical to first study<br />
the limitations the systems designers must be aware <strong>of</strong>. Hence, the first <strong>of</strong> the two analyses<br />
presented here deals with the barriers imped<strong>in</strong>g the implementation <strong>of</strong> new technical resources,<br />
while the second deals with how the operators can overcome the negative effects<br />
<strong>in</strong>duced by the barriers. Many <strong>of</strong> the technologies described <strong>in</strong> the detached appendix<br />
clearly seem to have failed due to lack<strong>in</strong>g knowledge about these matters. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the<br />
European Commission, this has lead to the fact that ”<strong>in</strong>novations f<strong>in</strong>d their way to the market<br />
very slowly” (European Commission, 1996/b, p. 48).<br />
A common mistake is to take a too outspoken technical approach neglect<strong>in</strong>g that technologies<br />
cannot successfully be implemented without tak<strong>in</strong>g also the s<strong>of</strong>ter aspects <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
<strong>transportation</strong> <strong>in</strong>to account. Not least the relationships between the actors play a significant<br />
role, which means that the framework models developed <strong>in</strong> the last chapter are serviceable<br />
as is the knowledge ga<strong>in</strong>ed when produc<strong>in</strong>g the licentiate thesis.<br />
In this and the two follow<strong>in</strong>g chapters, there is no explicit modell<strong>in</strong>g purpose and the outl<strong>in</strong>e<br />
based upon systems perspective is herewith abandoned. Instead, the outl<strong>in</strong>e is determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
by the content <strong>of</strong> the specific analyses forwarded.<br />
5.1 BARRIERS FOR IMPLEMENTING NEW RESOURCES<br />
The work <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems designers and <strong>in</strong>ventors <strong>of</strong> technical resources is like<br />
runn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a labyr<strong>in</strong>th fac<strong>in</strong>g a wide range <strong>of</strong> limit<strong>in</strong>g factors. In order to reach the ultimate<br />
objective, measures must be taken to avoid these factors, i.e. to f<strong>in</strong>d a way out <strong>of</strong> the labyr<strong>in</strong>th.<br />
In order to understand the nature <strong>of</strong> technical <strong>in</strong>novation <strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
systems, thorough knowledge about these limit<strong>in</strong>g factors is essential.<br />
97
Some def<strong>in</strong>itions are needed before present<strong>in</strong>g the analysis. A barrier is here def<strong>in</strong>ed as a<br />
h<strong>in</strong>drance that is impossible to change by the systems designer or only can be changed at<br />
high costs or <strong>in</strong> a long time span. Hence, they are generally classified as system environment<br />
<strong>in</strong> the term<strong>in</strong>ology <strong>of</strong> CHURCHMAN’s systems approach, although some aspects are<br />
clearly with<strong>in</strong> the system border but still difficult to change. Examples <strong>of</strong> such <strong>in</strong>ertia that a<br />
systems designer must consider are physical capacity <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>frastructure, laws and regulations,<br />
standards and exist<strong>in</strong>g technologies. However, the rigour <strong>of</strong> barrier effects can be<br />
overcome but the systems designer must be aware <strong>of</strong> the implications <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> costs and<br />
benefits when choos<strong>in</strong>g implementation strategy.<br />
Standardisation is a key issue when analys<strong>in</strong>g barriers for technological change <strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
<strong>transportation</strong> systems. S<strong>in</strong>ce overall performance is prioritised, the decided standard<br />
cannot be optimised for all components. Hence, the performance <strong>of</strong> a limited <strong>transportation</strong><br />
system can benefit from restrict<strong>in</strong>g the admissible varieties <strong>of</strong> resources. Technological<br />
openness is then a useful conception, which <strong>in</strong> an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> context can be def<strong>in</strong>ed as the<br />
level <strong>of</strong> restriction <strong>in</strong> technical acceptance <strong>of</strong> different ITUs, lorries, rail wagons and to<br />
some extent also transshipment equipment. A system with the lowest technological openness<br />
only permits some non-standardised load units and it uses non-standardised lorries,<br />
transshipment equipment and rail wagons. Thus freedom <strong>of</strong> action is severely restricted, but<br />
sub-systems can be optimised to fit well-def<strong>in</strong>ed tasks.<br />
Operators <strong>of</strong> l<strong>in</strong>ks and transshipment nodes must also decide whether to form an <strong>in</strong>tegral<br />
part <strong>of</strong> a general <strong>transportation</strong> system or to <strong>of</strong>fer end customers complete door-to-door<br />
transport services. Analogous to technological openness, commercial openness can be def<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
as the level <strong>of</strong> restriction <strong>in</strong> commercial acceptance <strong>of</strong> different customers. A system<br />
with the lowest commercial openness only permits one s<strong>in</strong>gle customer, may it be a shipper<br />
or an <strong>in</strong>termediary transport operator. The service can be <strong>of</strong>ficially restricted – it might be a<br />
direct tra<strong>in</strong> service for one shipper – or the operators can use discrim<strong>in</strong>atory pric<strong>in</strong>g to prevent<br />
other customers from us<strong>in</strong>g the service.<br />
Technological openness is a matter for systems designers while commercial openness traditionally<br />
has been strongly <strong>in</strong>fluenced by government policies. Nevertheless, as a consequence<br />
<strong>of</strong> deregulation, commercial openness is chang<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to pure market<strong>in</strong>g and strategy<br />
decisions ma<strong>in</strong>ly taken with<strong>in</strong> transport companies. Some European railway companies,<br />
though, tend to use the government as a shield protect<strong>in</strong>g them from the need to take hard<br />
decisions (COOPER, 1991, p. 9). For further read<strong>in</strong>g about technological and commercial<br />
openness, see SJÖSTEDT et al. (1994).<br />
The purpose <strong>of</strong> this section is to describe and analyse the barriers fac<strong>in</strong>g actors when they<br />
have decided to implement new pieces <strong>of</strong> technology <strong>in</strong>to the exist<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
system. The proceed<strong>in</strong>g section (5.2) is dedicated to the more positive issue <strong>of</strong> how<br />
to overcome the barrier effects.<br />
98
The level <strong>of</strong> analysis applied here implies that the substantial research on the technological<br />
evolution <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems as presented by the research group around GRÜBLER<br />
and MARCHETTI 68 is neglected. The matters dealt with here are generally <strong>of</strong> a more technical<br />
and pragmatic nature than technology substitution and evolutionary dynamics. It is<br />
rather the problems occurr<strong>in</strong>g when tak<strong>in</strong>g s<strong>in</strong>gle decisions <strong>of</strong> implement<strong>in</strong>g new types <strong>of</strong><br />
technologies than the competition <strong>in</strong> course <strong>of</strong> time between technical solutions that is emphasised<br />
here.<br />
Several other researchers have addressed barriers <strong>in</strong> an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> environment. BUKOLD<br />
(1993/a and 1993/b) discusses barriers for new entrants and uses (1993/a, p. 27) the terms<br />
structural (structure <strong>of</strong> the market), strategic (reaction <strong>of</strong> established firms) and <strong>in</strong>stitutional<br />
(regulations) barriers while COOPER (1991, p. 29) divides barriers to trade <strong>in</strong> an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
<strong>transportation</strong> perspective <strong>in</strong>to physical, technical and fiscal barriers. Also<br />
TAVASSZY (1996, p. 32) deals with barriers to trade <strong>in</strong> an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> perspective, however<br />
emphasis<strong>in</strong>g geographical and mathematical issues. GELLMAN (conference presentation,<br />
1995) identifies barriers and catalysts for implement<strong>in</strong>g new pieces <strong>of</strong> technology <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>transportation</strong> systems, but the research is on the strategic level and, hence, not directly applicable<br />
to this research. Several consultants and research <strong>in</strong>stitutes have also dealt with<br />
barriers and <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, ma<strong>in</strong>ly the issue <strong>of</strong> barriers for <strong>in</strong>creased market shares<br />
(e.g. Danish M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Bus<strong>in</strong>ess, 1996, LJUNGEMYR, 1995 and A.T. Kearney, unpublished<br />
consultant report, 1989) have been <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest to them and their customers. Nevertheless,<br />
despite the large number <strong>of</strong> publications address<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport and barriers,<br />
no framework suitable for this specific analysis has been found.<br />
When new technology is implemented <strong>in</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems, it can be aimed at solv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
tasks at a node, at a l<strong>in</strong>k or at a complete transport network. The wider technological and<br />
commercial openness, the more restrictions must be taken <strong>in</strong>to account. Besides ITUs, vehicles<br />
and transshipment equipment, changes can also refer to the goods, which can be<br />
formed or packed <strong>in</strong> order to fit <strong>in</strong>to general <strong>transportation</strong> systems.<br />
When analys<strong>in</strong>g the barriers it should also be kept <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d that it is not always a common<br />
goal to keep the barriers on a low level. Contrary, sometimes barriers are created on purpose,<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> order to achieve benefits <strong>in</strong> a restricted <strong>transportation</strong> system, but also for<br />
competitive or strategic reasons. One strik<strong>in</strong>g example is the wide gauge <strong>of</strong> Spanish tracks<br />
that was partly decided upon <strong>in</strong> order to render it more difficult for French troops to <strong>in</strong>vade<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong>. Without tra<strong>in</strong>s for fast troop transfer and efficient munitions, such an operation<br />
would be much more difficult.<br />
68 See, for <strong>in</strong>stance, GRÜBLER (1990), GRÜBLER and NAKICENOVIC (1991), GRÜBLER et al. (1993) and<br />
MARCHETTI (1992 and 1993).<br />
99
Moreover, as for all system research, very specific and normative conclusions can only be<br />
drawn for s<strong>in</strong>gle implementation cases that are carefully demarcated. The study expla<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
and classify<strong>in</strong>g the barriers is kept on a rather general level, and it is <strong>in</strong>tended to be supportive<br />
for systems designers work<strong>in</strong>g with specific implementation cases. In chapter 8, however,<br />
barriers are discussed more narrowly <strong>in</strong> light <strong>of</strong> a case study.<br />
The barriers are here divided <strong>in</strong>to regulative barriers, technological barriers, system oriented<br />
barriers and, f<strong>in</strong>ally, commercial barriers <strong>of</strong> which the former three are primarily considered<br />
here. In order to get to the core <strong>of</strong> the problems, the full set <strong>of</strong> approaches presented<br />
<strong>in</strong> previous chapters must be utilised. Especially the conceptions technological and commercial<br />
openness def<strong>in</strong>ed above are vital to the study. Most <strong>of</strong> the described barriers are<br />
illustrated with real world examples, many <strong>of</strong> which are related to the technologies described<br />
<strong>in</strong> the detached appendix. The analysis is worked up from earlier research carried<br />
out together with Kenth LUMSDEN 69 .<br />
5.1.1 Regulative barriers<br />
Regulative barriers orig<strong>in</strong>ate from laws and decrees issued by authorities primarily concern<strong>in</strong>g<br />
direct <strong>in</strong>teraction with governmental <strong>in</strong>frastructure but also concern<strong>in</strong>g external effects<br />
such as emissions, noise, traffic accidents, work<strong>in</strong>g conditions <strong>of</strong> drivers and recycl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> construction materials. A further regulative barrier is that laws and regulations still are<br />
applicable to s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode <strong>transportation</strong> rather than to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> and that<br />
the adaptation to new circumstances is slow.<br />
Weights and dimensions<br />
In order to plan and build compatible <strong>in</strong>frastructure, authorities must decide upon the permissible<br />
size <strong>of</strong> vehicles. This applies both to the permissible cross section, normally referred<br />
to as the load<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>of</strong>ile, and to the maximum weight that bridges, road embankments<br />
and tracks are designed to endure. Length is less important, but still restricted <strong>in</strong> road<br />
transport due to manoeuvrability <strong>in</strong> cities and to safe overtak<strong>in</strong>g by other vehicles, and <strong>in</strong><br />
rail transport due to the length <strong>of</strong> side-tracks and platforms. The size <strong>of</strong> ships is ma<strong>in</strong>ly restricted<br />
<strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> draught dur<strong>in</strong>g sail<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>of</strong> length by quays <strong>in</strong> ports and <strong>of</strong> width by the<br />
outreach <strong>of</strong> quay cranes. In <strong>in</strong>land navigation, the size <strong>of</strong> barges is restricted by the size <strong>of</strong><br />
locks, width <strong>of</strong> canals as well as by the height <strong>of</strong> bridges.<br />
Permissible dimensions differ widely between <strong>transportation</strong> modes but also between l<strong>in</strong>ks<br />
<strong>of</strong> the same <strong>transportation</strong> mode. One example important to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is the<br />
69 For earlier versions <strong>of</strong> the research, see WOXENIUS and LUMSDEN, 1996/a, 1996/b, 1996/c and 1997.<br />
100
maximum weights and dimensions allowed <strong>in</strong> road transport, which differ widely between<br />
European nations as shown <strong>in</strong> the table below.<br />
Table 5-1<br />
Width, length and weight allowed <strong>in</strong> European countries before the EU harmonisation<br />
efforts. (Source: worked up from BJÖRKMAN, 1992, p. 17).<br />
Articulated lorries Semi-trailer comb<strong>in</strong>ations<br />
Country Width Length Weight Length Weight<br />
F<strong>in</strong>land 2.60 m 22 m 56 tons 16.50 m 44 tons<br />
Norway 2.50 18.75 50 17.00 Infr. limits<br />
Sweden 2.60 24.00 60 24.00 60<br />
Denmark 2.55 18.50 48 16.50 44<br />
Germany 2.50 18.35 40 16.50 40<br />
The Netherlands 2.60 18.35 50 16.50 50<br />
Belgium 2.60 18.35 40 16.50 40<br />
UK 2.50 18.35 32.5 16.50 38<br />
Switzerland 2.50 18.35 28 16.50 28<br />
Austria 2.50 18.35 38 16.50 38<br />
France 2.50 18.35 40 16.50 40<br />
Italy 2.50 18.35 44 16.50 44<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> 2.50 18.35 40 16.50 40<br />
Also the load<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>of</strong>iles <strong>of</strong> railways differ widely. For obvious reasons, all mov<strong>in</strong>g resources<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems must fall with<strong>in</strong> the maximum dimensions allowed<br />
at each l<strong>in</strong>k. The ma<strong>in</strong> load<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>of</strong>iles used <strong>in</strong> Europe are schematically depicted <strong>in</strong><br />
the figure below.<br />
Eurotunnel<br />
Germany<br />
France<br />
Semi-trailer<br />
UK<br />
Figure 5-1<br />
The rail load<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>of</strong>iles <strong>of</strong> some European countries. Note the pr<strong>of</strong>ile<br />
needed for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>of</strong> semi-trailers. (Source: The Piggyback<br />
Consortium, 1994).<br />
101
The great variety <strong>of</strong> maximum vehicle lengths and weights between European nations has<br />
<strong>in</strong>duced an <strong>in</strong>tense harmonisation process lead by the European Commission. The Commission<br />
has decided that the member states must allow articulated lorries be<strong>in</strong>g 18.75 m long,<br />
2.55 m wide and weigh<strong>in</strong>g 44 tons for <strong>in</strong>ternational road traffic (WOXENIUS et al.,<br />
1995/b, pp. 120-121). At last, this gives a firm framework for future technical <strong>development</strong>.<br />
External effects<br />
External effects are <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly important <strong>in</strong> design <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems. In addition<br />
to exist<strong>in</strong>g regulations, authorities have revealed <strong>in</strong>tentions for charg<strong>in</strong>g the full external<br />
costs for each <strong>transportation</strong> mode. Still, proper cost<strong>in</strong>g is a delicate task and petitions<br />
about the costs are frequently issued. Nevertheless, higher taxes and even the prohibition <strong>of</strong><br />
pollut<strong>in</strong>g, noisy and dangerous vehicles are foreseeable. Although, this might be seen as a<br />
catalyst for new cleaner and safer operations, e.g. <strong>in</strong>creased use <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport,<br />
systems designers must conform to exist<strong>in</strong>g and preferably also to proposed future regulations<br />
when design<strong>in</strong>g new technology. Even demand for the recycl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> construction materials<br />
and work<strong>in</strong>g conditions for drivers 70 are <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> this problem area.<br />
Lately, environmental friendl<strong>in</strong>ess has become an important factor <strong>in</strong> the competition for<br />
end customers. Environmental certification <strong>of</strong> products will certa<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong>clude how the products<br />
are transported thus add<strong>in</strong>g a new dimension to an issue up until now seen as a matter<br />
<strong>of</strong> obey<strong>in</strong>g governmental regulations. In the future, environmental friendl<strong>in</strong>ess will not only<br />
be seen on the cost side <strong>of</strong> the accounts and the transport <strong>in</strong>dustry is expected to not only<br />
live up to the m<strong>in</strong>imum level stipulated <strong>in</strong> the regulations.<br />
For <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport that is <strong>of</strong>ten marketed with environmental arguments, a consistent<br />
environment concern is <strong>of</strong> utmost importance. Technical resources must be manufactured<br />
and operated ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the “green” reputation <strong>of</strong> the <strong>transportation</strong> system. An example<br />
on the reverse is that the Swedish <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> company Rail Combi AB has replaced its<br />
electrically powered gantry cranes with diesel powered ones on the three ma<strong>in</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als.<br />
This has obviously attracted criticism from road transport companies s<strong>in</strong>ce the dieselpowered<br />
cranes are operated <strong>in</strong> the environmentally sensitive city centres. If cranes utilis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
electric power or natural gas 71 were chosen, the environmental arguments <strong>of</strong> Rail<br />
Combi’s aggressive market<strong>in</strong>g would be much stronger.<br />
70 The work<strong>in</strong>g conditions <strong>of</strong> drivers is elaborated <strong>in</strong> an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> context <strong>in</strong> WOXENIUS (1995/b, p. 6 and<br />
10). The topic is also treated at the University <strong>of</strong> Stuttgart <strong>in</strong> an ongo<strong>in</strong>g research project called WORKFRET<br />
(BULLINGER, letter, 1998).<br />
71 Stationary equipment like term<strong>in</strong>al-bound gantry cranes and reach-stackers are better suited for be<strong>in</strong>g powered<br />
by natural gas than lorries s<strong>in</strong>ce one <strong>of</strong> the major barriers when <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g a new fuel is how to distribute<br />
it. Keep<strong>in</strong>g a gas tank at the term<strong>in</strong>al is much cheaper than keep<strong>in</strong>g a distributed net <strong>of</strong> tanks for lorries.<br />
102
Slow legislative adaptation<br />
Despite 30 years <strong>of</strong> large-<strong>scale</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, the history <strong>of</strong> the European <strong>transportation</strong><br />
system is the history <strong>of</strong> the s<strong>in</strong>gle modes. The slow adaptation <strong>of</strong> legislation and liability<br />
rules to a truly mode-<strong>in</strong>dependent one severely hampers the technical and commercial<br />
<strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. The harmonisation process has begun, but<br />
it lags beh<strong>in</strong>d. The public bodies are not solely to blame; the slow process is also due to<br />
counteractive behaviour from the actors <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>dustry. Bureaucracy and the lack <strong>of</strong> proper<br />
legislation as a barrier to technological change is identified by Joao SOARES <strong>of</strong> the Portuguese<br />
Nautical School, <strong>in</strong> his research carried out together with Pr<strong>of</strong>essor Figueiredo<br />
SEQUEIRA:<br />
“One <strong>of</strong> our conclusions regard<strong>in</strong>g barriers for new technology <strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport<br />
systems was that the bureaucracy from the local authorities and the lack <strong>of</strong> proper legislation<br />
for the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, that should be equal <strong>in</strong> all European countries, are<br />
the ma<strong>in</strong> factors for the failures <strong>of</strong> some projects <strong>in</strong> the area.”<br />
(SOARES, E-mail message, 1996)<br />
A problem <strong>in</strong> the legislative field is that the <strong>in</strong>tense activity <strong>of</strong> the European Commission<br />
may make national, regional and local authorities passive <strong>in</strong> the legislation <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport. The legislation should obviously be harmonised by the European Commission,<br />
but there are problems concern<strong>in</strong>g the scope <strong>of</strong> jurisdiction. With the pr<strong>in</strong>ciple <strong>of</strong> subsidiarity<br />
72 follows that the Commission concentrates on <strong>in</strong>ternational <strong>transportation</strong>, while it is at<br />
the local and regional levels that effort must be spent <strong>in</strong> order to make <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport<br />
competitive. If shuttles between Milan and Rotterdam cannot be operated with pr<strong>of</strong>its without<br />
EU support <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> advantageous legislation and pure subventions, then <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport would be doomed everywhere <strong>in</strong> Europe. In fact, they don’t even <strong>in</strong>volve <strong>in</strong>tra-<br />
European trade. Another risk <strong>of</strong> support<strong>in</strong>g very long direct tra<strong>in</strong> shuttles is that the very<br />
objective <strong>of</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> policy – the modal shift from road to rail – may be violated.<br />
Many <strong>of</strong> the long-distance shuttles are obviously predatory with<strong>in</strong> the rail sector s<strong>in</strong>ce they<br />
convert conventional rail transport to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. The competition for <strong>in</strong>vestment<br />
funds with<strong>in</strong> the railway companies is an obstacle for implement<strong>in</strong>g new resources <strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
<strong>transportation</strong> systems that should not be neglected.<br />
Beside the European nations, the US Department <strong>of</strong> Transportation is very aggressive <strong>in</strong><br />
giv<strong>in</strong>g the American <strong>transportation</strong> system a multimodal character. The giant Intermodal<br />
72 The pr<strong>in</strong>ciple <strong>of</strong> subsidiarity (closeness) was <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> the Treaty <strong>of</strong> Maastricht and it means that decisions<br />
<strong>in</strong> fields <strong>in</strong> which the <strong>in</strong>stitutions <strong>of</strong> the European Union do not possess exclusive competence, shall be<br />
taken at the lowest efficient level, i.e. by national, regional or local authorities. Decisions should only be taken<br />
at a union level if it <strong>in</strong>creases the goal atta<strong>in</strong>ment. The term is politically disputed due to the facts that the def<strong>in</strong>ition<br />
is not precise and that it is unclear who is to decide which decisions it encompasses (Nationalencykloped<strong>in</strong>,<br />
1995/a, p. 393).<br />
103
Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) <strong>of</strong> 1991 <strong>in</strong>cludes all modes and encourages<br />
improved <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> connectivity, reliability and flexibility by provid<strong>in</strong>g legislative and<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ancial <strong>in</strong>centives. Intermodal transport <strong>of</strong> both passenger and <strong>freight</strong> is developed us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
an immense budget <strong>of</strong> USD 155 billion (ECU 133 billion) <strong>in</strong> the fiscal years 1992-97<br />
(MULLER, 1995 and 1996) 73 . Of this amount, only less than 1% was used for pure <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
<strong>freight</strong> projects dur<strong>in</strong>g the first four years (Cargo Systems, 1997/d, p. 27). As a part<br />
<strong>of</strong> the act, the Congress set up a national work<strong>in</strong>g group – the National Commission on Intermodal<br />
Transportation – that had to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the future <strong>of</strong> US <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong>ism. The<br />
commission came up with three recommendations (National Commission on Intermodal<br />
Transportation, 1997):<br />
• Make efficient <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> the goal <strong>of</strong> federal <strong>transportation</strong> policy<br />
• Increase <strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
• Restructure government <strong>in</strong>stitutions to support <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
Reorganis<strong>in</strong>g the Department <strong>of</strong> Transportation focus<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> issues has fulfilled the<br />
last recommendation. Now, ISTEA’s even larger successor NEXTEA (National Economic<br />
Crossroads Transportation Efficiency Act) with a budget <strong>of</strong> USD 175 billion (ECU 150 billion)<br />
over six years is proposed by the White House (Cargo Systems, 1997/d, p. 27) 74 .<br />
It should be stated, though, that the problems concern<strong>in</strong>g legislation are less crucial <strong>in</strong> the<br />
USA then <strong>in</strong> Europe with its many national laws and regulations. Intermodal is also more<br />
focused to the railroads <strong>in</strong> the USA contrary to Europe where the road transport <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />
has assumed a more important role.<br />
5.1.2 Technological barriers<br />
Standards and dom<strong>in</strong>ant technologies are good help for <strong>in</strong>novators <strong>of</strong> technical resources,<br />
but also a limitation for new and different technical solutions. Technological barriers also<br />
stem from the fact that the capacities <strong>of</strong> vehicles are different, which means that technological<br />
change is more dramatic to modes with a <strong>small</strong> carry<strong>in</strong>g capacity <strong>of</strong> each vehicle.<br />
Standards<br />
Technical standards guide systems designers and manufacturers. Standards for equipment<br />
for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> generally def<strong>in</strong>e the <strong>in</strong>terfaces between system resources <strong>in</strong><br />
73 The part <strong>of</strong> the legal text (amendments to the United States Code) <strong>of</strong> ISTEA concern<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
is presented by Michichan Department <strong>of</strong> Transportation (www-site, 1997).<br />
74 The content <strong>of</strong> the NEXTEA (National Economic Crossroads Transportation Efficiency Act) is presented by<br />
US Department <strong>of</strong> Transportation (www-site, 1998).<br />
104
terms <strong>of</strong> dimensions and positions <strong>of</strong> the fasten<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>ts, but they also stipulate the required<br />
construction strength.<br />
Most significant for <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems are standards stipulat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the size <strong>of</strong> ITUs. These standards are closely l<strong>in</strong>ked to regulations for use <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>frastructure.<br />
The obvious purpose is that vehicles loaded with suitable ITU comb<strong>in</strong>ations shall<br />
benefit from the maximum vehicle weights and dimensions.<br />
Technical standards are thus stipulated <strong>in</strong> order to simplify the <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> complex<br />
systems, but it also implies restrictions for the systems designer. ITU standards have been<br />
established after discussions over many years mean<strong>in</strong>g that some standards have been obsolete<br />
from the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g (KOZMA, <strong>in</strong>terview, 1993). Swap bodies have constituted a special<br />
problem s<strong>in</strong>ce they have long lacked a standard due to the fact that the dimensions <strong>of</strong> swap<br />
bodies have been reversibly def<strong>in</strong>ed by the national road transport regulations. The wide<br />
selection <strong>of</strong> allowed vehicle lengths has caused an accord<strong>in</strong>gly wide selection <strong>of</strong> swap body<br />
lengths. When a European standard was f<strong>in</strong>ally approved it <strong>in</strong>cluded the lengths 7.15, 7.45<br />
and 7.82 m, but not the Dutch “Philips system” <strong>of</strong> 8.05 m 75 . A standard <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g three<br />
measures with<strong>in</strong> 70 cm is still regarded as almost a non-standard and the operators hesitated<br />
with their <strong>in</strong>vestments <strong>in</strong> swap bodies. This problem <strong>of</strong> standards is also identified by<br />
ECMT:<br />
“There are at present many new projects <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> technologies, and this tends to be<br />
counter-productive by leav<strong>in</strong>g operators uncerta<strong>in</strong> about the <strong>in</strong>vestment to be made.<br />
Specifications must be worked out by operators but they should not call <strong>in</strong>to question<br />
the work done with a view to standardization.”<br />
(ECMT, 1993/b, p. 121).<br />
Nevertheless, the harmonised rules stipulat<strong>in</strong>g 18.75 m articulated lorries for border cross<strong>in</strong>g<br />
road transport with<strong>in</strong> the EU, <strong>in</strong>dicate that <strong>in</strong>vestments will be directed towards the 7.82<br />
m swap body.<br />
Prevail<strong>in</strong>g technology<br />
When firm standards are miss<strong>in</strong>g, technological <strong>development</strong> can be hampered by the presence<br />
<strong>of</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>ant technologies, so called de facto standards. This does not only <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
technical resources but also whole procedures and pr<strong>in</strong>cipal solutions.<br />
One example <strong>of</strong> de facto standards <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport procedures is the over-night traffic<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciple dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Europe. Tra<strong>in</strong>s stand at the term<strong>in</strong>als all day and travel between<br />
75 For further read<strong>in</strong>g about the Philips System and on other unit load dimensions, see WOXENIUS et al.,<br />
1995/b.<br />
105
term<strong>in</strong>als over night. This has long been the prevail<strong>in</strong>g way <strong>of</strong> do<strong>in</strong>g th<strong>in</strong>gs, but three trends<br />
will change the night-leap situation. Firstly, demand for more advanced logistics services<br />
may <strong>in</strong>duce the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustry to <strong>of</strong>fer short- and medium-distance transport services<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the day. Secondly, as <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is prioritised and the competition is rapid<br />
road haulage, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> tra<strong>in</strong>s have enjoyed higher priority on the railway l<strong>in</strong>es dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
past few years. In fact, some conta<strong>in</strong>er tra<strong>in</strong>s are today given even higher priority than passenger<br />
tra<strong>in</strong>s. Thirdly, the extension <strong>of</strong> the European high-speed tra<strong>in</strong> network with dedicated<br />
tracks will leave more space on exist<strong>in</strong>g tracks for <strong>freight</strong> tra<strong>in</strong>s dur<strong>in</strong>g the day.<br />
Hence, a change <strong>in</strong> traffic operations is very dependent on the environment and far from<br />
always <strong>in</strong> the hands <strong>of</strong> the systems designer.<br />
One reason for choos<strong>in</strong>g another technology rather than the prevail<strong>in</strong>g one is obviously that<br />
new and better technology is available. When the Danish State Railways (DSB) electrified<br />
their tracks, they chose another current than the one used <strong>in</strong> neighbour<strong>in</strong>g Sweden and<br />
Germany. That is <strong>of</strong> course good for Danish domestic traffic, but problems arise with the<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g amount <strong>of</strong> border-cross<strong>in</strong>g traffic and it will be an acute problem once the Öresund<br />
bridge is <strong>in</strong> place.<br />
Furthermore, pure stubbornness and national pride seems to be the cause <strong>of</strong> the many different<br />
signall<strong>in</strong>g standards <strong>in</strong> Europe now obstruct<strong>in</strong>g tra<strong>in</strong>s from runn<strong>in</strong>g through Europe<br />
with the same rail eng<strong>in</strong>e. With 50 000 rail eng<strong>in</strong>es and over one million signall<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>ts it<br />
is now a delicate task to harmonise the national systems, but an <strong>in</strong>itiative <strong>in</strong> that direction<br />
was taken by the International Union <strong>of</strong> Railways (UIC) <strong>in</strong> 1997 (SJ Nytt, 1998, p. 12).<br />
Different capacities <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> modes<br />
In a technological context, the different capacities <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> modes imply that a<br />
change <strong>in</strong> one resource used <strong>in</strong> one l<strong>in</strong>k can force the replacement <strong>of</strong> many pieces <strong>of</strong><br />
equipment <strong>in</strong> other l<strong>in</strong>ks. For <strong>in</strong>stance, a new type <strong>of</strong> tra<strong>in</strong> with <strong>in</strong>tegrated transshipment<br />
equipment work<strong>in</strong>g together with purpose-built lorries implies that many such lorries have<br />
to be purchased at the same time. That is not necessarily a problem, s<strong>in</strong>ce they represent a<br />
much lower price per unit, but there is a high probability that the exist<strong>in</strong>g lorries are not<br />
bought at the same time, thus represent<strong>in</strong>g different grades <strong>of</strong> depreciation. Replac<strong>in</strong>g units<br />
not fully worn out is always costly although a second hand market is <strong>of</strong>ten available.<br />
Furthermore, if the <strong>in</strong>tensely discussed 45-foot conta<strong>in</strong>ers are to be <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> Europe<br />
and Japan, a large-<strong>scale</strong> replacement <strong>of</strong> cell-guide vessels, railway wagons as well as trailer<br />
chassis and lorries is needed. The lobby<strong>in</strong>g activities for the 45-footer has <strong>in</strong> Europe been<br />
lead by two shipp<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>in</strong>es, Bell L<strong>in</strong>es and Geest North Sea L<strong>in</strong>es (Cargo Systems, 1997/a).<br />
These companies can benefit from larger transport units when <strong>in</strong>vest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> one new ship, at<br />
the same time forc<strong>in</strong>g changes <strong>in</strong> the rest <strong>of</strong> the system. Another reason for the European<br />
reluctance is that the European Commission has helped a number <strong>of</strong> third world countries<br />
106
to <strong>in</strong>vest <strong>in</strong> equipment and <strong>in</strong>frastructure <strong>in</strong> order to transport 40-footers – allow<strong>in</strong>g 45-<br />
footers would make some <strong>of</strong> these <strong>in</strong>vestments obsolete (DE BOCK, guest lecture, 1996).<br />
The standard 45-footer is expected to be restricted to use with<strong>in</strong> North America and to portto-port<br />
operations for many years to come. Nevertheless, the shipp<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>in</strong>es mentioned<br />
above have come up with a variant with cut corner cast<strong>in</strong>gs, enabl<strong>in</strong>g boxes loaded onto<br />
semi-trailer chassis to comply with the sw<strong>in</strong>g clearance for 13.6 m trailers (Cargo Systems,<br />
1997/a, p. 6). The <strong>in</strong>novative solution to the problem has been approved by Transport<br />
Commissioner Neil K<strong>in</strong>nock as well as the UK and Dutch m<strong>in</strong>istries <strong>of</strong> transport (Cargo<br />
System, 1997/c, p. 8). Nevertheless, Bell L<strong>in</strong>e cannot take advantage <strong>of</strong> the approval as it<br />
ran out <strong>of</strong> bus<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>in</strong> June 1997 (Cargo Systems, 1997/g, p. 19).<br />
The almost <strong>in</strong>surmountable problems and limited benefits <strong>of</strong> implement<strong>in</strong>g the proposed<br />
ISO series 2 conta<strong>in</strong>ers – 49 ft long, 8 ½ ft wide and tall – are well illustrated <strong>in</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>al<br />
report <strong>of</strong> COST 315 (ALFARO et al., 1994). Most <strong>of</strong> the problems relate to the replacement<br />
<strong>of</strong> vehicles and vessels.<br />
5.1.3 System oriented barriers<br />
Even the <strong>transportation</strong> system itself conta<strong>in</strong>s barriers. It is especially difficult to <strong>in</strong>troduce<br />
new pieces <strong>of</strong> technology <strong>in</strong> systems lack<strong>in</strong>g a formal system’s management <strong>in</strong> which<br />
economies <strong>of</strong> <strong>scale</strong> are present. The facts that the depreciation times vary for different types<br />
<strong>of</strong> resources and that ITUs and vehicles <strong>of</strong>ten must be repositioned before tak<strong>in</strong>g on a new<br />
transport commission, also hampers technological <strong>development</strong>. For obvious reasons, the<br />
multimodal adaptation also implies higher barriers than if the technology is to be designed<br />
for a s<strong>in</strong>gle <strong>transportation</strong> mode.<br />
Lack <strong>of</strong> formal system leadership<br />
As for most eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> systems that <strong>in</strong>clude flows <strong>of</strong> any k<strong>in</strong>d, eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
<strong>transportation</strong> systems is much about identify<strong>in</strong>g and remov<strong>in</strong>g bottlenecks along the cha<strong>in</strong>.<br />
As one bottleneck is removed, however, the narrow section is moved somewhere else <strong>in</strong> the<br />
cha<strong>in</strong>. What makes this cont<strong>in</strong>uous procedure especially difficult <strong>in</strong> the k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> system<br />
studied here is that the cha<strong>in</strong> is not controlled by a s<strong>in</strong>gle actor. As described briefly <strong>in</strong> previous<br />
sections and <strong>in</strong> detail <strong>in</strong> the licentiate thesis, a large number <strong>of</strong> actors make up the<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>in</strong> Europe. Hauliers, forwarders, term<strong>in</strong>al companies, railway companies<br />
and leas<strong>in</strong>g companies co-operate <strong>in</strong> order to <strong>of</strong>fer transport services to the shippers.<br />
Consequently, technological <strong>development</strong> is obviously hampered by the fact that no s<strong>in</strong>gle<br />
organisation can push for it along the transport cha<strong>in</strong>, and that problems arise when the<br />
benefits from the <strong>in</strong>vestments should be split among the actors participat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the transport<br />
cha<strong>in</strong>. The problem is further aggravated by the fact that road and rail transport <strong>in</strong>terests<br />
compete with their s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode operations and have a long history <strong>of</strong> mutual conflicts. The<br />
107
problem is especially urgent for the hauliers, s<strong>in</strong>ce they are generally <strong>of</strong> a very moderate<br />
size as seen <strong>in</strong> the table below.<br />
Table 5-2<br />
Hauliers and lorries operated for hire or reward <strong>in</strong> some European countries.<br />
All data do not refer to the same year and are not directly comparable, but<br />
they <strong>in</strong>dicate the structure <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>dustry.<br />
Country<br />
Number <strong>of</strong> lorries<br />
Number <strong>of</strong><br />
hauliers<br />
Share <strong>of</strong> <strong>small</strong><br />
hauliers<br />
Share <strong>of</strong> large<br />
hauliers<br />
Denmark 30 000 6900 44% = 1 lorry 1.6% >20 lorries<br />
F<strong>in</strong>land 25 000 N.a. 90% < 3 lorries 1% >11<br />
France<br />
3.6 million <strong>in</strong>cl.<br />
2% > 50<br />
N.a. 67% < 5 employees<br />
own accounts*<br />
employees<br />
Germany 160 000* N.a.<br />
Local: 50% = 1 lorry Local: 30% > 2 lorr.<br />
Long-dist.: 36% = 1 l. Long-distance: n.a.<br />
Italy 250 000** 200 000** 92% < 5 empl.*** 1.5% > 50 empl.***<br />
Norway 30 000 15 000 67% = 1 lorry N.a.<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> 750 000**** 500 000**** 98% < 6 lorries N.a.<br />
Sweden 40 000 18 000 59% = 1 lorry 3% > 10 lorries<br />
The Netherlands<br />
The UK<br />
56 000 8000 40% < 3 lorries 11% > 15 lorries<br />
2.3 million <strong>in</strong>cl.<br />
own accounts*<br />
N.a. N.a. N.a.<br />
Sources: * = United Nations, 1993; ** = COOPER et al., 1991; *** = CARRARA, 1995;<br />
**** = AGUADO, 1995. All other data from Swedish Hauliers’ Association, 1993. N.a. = data not<br />
available.<br />
Owner-driver hauliers can for obvious reasons not pay full attention to technological <strong>development</strong><br />
themselves, and their decisions on substitut<strong>in</strong>g vehicles and related equipment is<br />
almost b<strong>in</strong>ary – change all or noth<strong>in</strong>g 76 .<br />
When chang<strong>in</strong>g a complex system, so called reverse salients (BUKOLD, 1996, p. 65), i.e.<br />
an improvement <strong>in</strong> one sub-system gives deterioration <strong>in</strong> other sub-systems, <strong>of</strong>ten occur.<br />
One example is that the Swedish term<strong>in</strong>al company Rail Combi AB <strong>in</strong>vested <strong>in</strong> new gantry<br />
cranes with automatic spreaders. The new cranes demanded standardised placement <strong>of</strong> lift<br />
pockets and corner fitt<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> order to work automatically. Many hauliers with custommade<br />
trailers could thus not use these for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport anymore. An obvious improvement<br />
<strong>in</strong> one node made the network suffer, however for the sake <strong>of</strong> efficiency <strong>in</strong> the<br />
long run and encouragement to those hauliers operat<strong>in</strong>g standardised equipment.<br />
A further example is the Krupp Fast Handl<strong>in</strong>g System (see section 3.1.1 <strong>in</strong> the detached<br />
appendix) that adds a lot <strong>of</strong> benefits to the <strong>in</strong>tegrated transport cha<strong>in</strong>, but cannot be f<strong>in</strong>ancially<br />
motivated if only seen as the replacement <strong>of</strong> a conventional <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
76 The role <strong>of</strong> <strong>small</strong> hauliers <strong>in</strong> relation to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is elaborated <strong>in</strong> WOXENIUS (1995/b).<br />
108
(SONDERMANN, 1997, p. 4). The core <strong>of</strong> the implementation problem concern<strong>in</strong>g Krupp<br />
Fast Handl<strong>in</strong>g System is thus about how to distribute the costs along the cha<strong>in</strong> accord<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
the achieved benefits.<br />
The European Commission has identified this set <strong>of</strong> problems and now tries to take a system’s<br />
management role, pay<strong>in</strong>g for transport Research, Technological <strong>development</strong> and<br />
Demonstration (RTD) and even support<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport pilot projects (see section<br />
6.2.12) <strong>in</strong> exchange for control <strong>of</strong> a sound <strong>development</strong>.<br />
Smallest implementation <strong>scale</strong><br />
The full benefits <strong>of</strong> most new technologies are not utilised until they are implemented by<br />
several users or <strong>in</strong> a certa<strong>in</strong> <strong>scale</strong>. For <strong>in</strong>stance, Alexander Graham Bell had more use for<br />
the second telephone than he had for the first one. This can also be referred to as “the<br />
ketchup effect” allud<strong>in</strong>g to what happens when a bottle <strong>of</strong> ketchup is turned upside down.<br />
Another, more scientific, term is “network externalities”. This effect refra<strong>in</strong>s from <strong>in</strong>vestments<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce the operators do not want to <strong>in</strong>vest <strong>in</strong> technologies that cannot be fully utilised<br />
until other operators have <strong>in</strong>vested <strong>in</strong> similar technologies.<br />
One strik<strong>in</strong>g example with an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> connection is the ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>er that was implemented<br />
at a slow pace until gantry cranes became prevalent <strong>in</strong> ports mak<strong>in</strong>g the expensive<br />
and badly utilised on-board cranes obsolete. The follow<strong>in</strong>g transition <strong>of</strong> world trade <strong>in</strong>to<br />
conta<strong>in</strong>ers is legendary as described <strong>in</strong> section 1.2.1. Moreover, <strong>in</strong> spite <strong>of</strong> the obvious advantages<br />
<strong>of</strong> Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) between transport operators, the pace <strong>of</strong> implementation<br />
has been very slow. Although no operator wants to be last to implement EDI,<br />
they obviously do not want to be first mak<strong>in</strong>g the expensive mistakes without be<strong>in</strong>g able to<br />
benefit from many connections (KANFLO and LUMSDEN, 1991).<br />
Vary<strong>in</strong>g depreciation times for resources<br />
Another barrier for new technologies <strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems is that the technical<br />
resources, e.g. ITUs, vehicles, transshipment equipment and <strong>in</strong>frastructure, are economically<br />
and technically worn out over different time spans. The high costs <strong>of</strong> replac<strong>in</strong>g<br />
resources before they are depreciated severely impede drastic changes <strong>of</strong> the technology.<br />
For efficiency and economic reasons, lorries are exchanged for new ones approximately<br />
every 12 th year, semi-trailers and conta<strong>in</strong>ers every 10 th year while transshipment equipment,<br />
railway wagons and conta<strong>in</strong>er ships are used for 20-30 years with <strong>in</strong>termediate renovations.<br />
General operation pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and <strong>in</strong>frastructure last for several decades if not centuries.<br />
However, depreciation times are generally decreas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>dustry today and as is true<br />
for computers, it is not because <strong>of</strong> technical wear and tear but because they become outmoded<br />
more quickly.<br />
109
The next few years is a convenient opportunity to change the technology <strong>in</strong> the global <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
systems s<strong>in</strong>ce much <strong>of</strong> the equipment with the longest depreciation time, i.e.<br />
transshipment equipment and rail wagons, has now served for some 30 years and large<strong>scale</strong><br />
replacement <strong>of</strong> resources is foreseen. Consequently, it is not believed that the postpanamax<br />
vessels (see section 5.2.5) are appear<strong>in</strong>g now just by chance, however helped by<br />
the fact that the importance <strong>of</strong> the Panama Canal decreases. Nevertheless, it will not be a<br />
total replacement over a short period <strong>of</strong> time and it is absolutely crucial to the system’s efficiency<br />
that the new technologies can work together with the old ones.<br />
Reposition<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> system resources<br />
As described <strong>in</strong> section 3.4.1, goods flows are – contrary to passenger flows – almost always<br />
directed one way while vehicles and ITUs must be reallocated to the place where new<br />
consignments are wait<strong>in</strong>g. Far from all goods flows are balanced <strong>in</strong>duc<strong>in</strong>g a need for reposition<strong>in</strong>g<br />
with<strong>in</strong> the network. An alternative to immediate reposition is obviously to store<br />
resources – ma<strong>in</strong>ly ITUs – at certa<strong>in</strong> places until there is a demand for movements from<br />
that place. Hence, there is a barrier aga<strong>in</strong>st technologies transferr<strong>in</strong>g ITUs directly between<br />
lorries and rail wagons without possibilities for <strong>in</strong>termediate storage. There are also barriers<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st technologies not suitable for empty position<strong>in</strong>g, e.g., bimodal systems with bogies<br />
that can only be moved loaded with bimodal trailers or after be<strong>in</strong>g lifted onto dedicated<br />
railway wagons.<br />
This barrier is also the key to the limited success <strong>of</strong> collapsible conta<strong>in</strong>ers such as Fallpac 77<br />
and ECO-CARRIER, s<strong>in</strong>ce the empty position<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> many conta<strong>in</strong>ers on one rail wagon<br />
implies empty position<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> wagons. The client may save <strong>freight</strong> charges <strong>in</strong> the short run<br />
and some sav<strong>in</strong>gs on the aggregate system level are also possible, but all <strong>in</strong> all, collapsible<br />
units have not proven to be economical.<br />
Consequently, the demand for reposition is both a catalyst and a barrier for implement<strong>in</strong>g<br />
certa<strong>in</strong> k<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>of</strong> new technology.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>gle-mode operation<br />
The bulk <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>tra-European <strong>freight</strong> transport volumes refers to s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode <strong>transportation</strong>,<br />
<strong>of</strong> which road transport has been most successful over the last 50 years. Despite many years<br />
<strong>of</strong> system <strong>development</strong> it has proven very difficult to transfer goods flows from road to rail.<br />
Rail is today more or less reduced to the transport <strong>of</strong> large shipments over relatively long<br />
distances. One reason for this failure is that the road <strong>transportation</strong> system – after the <strong>in</strong>itial<br />
stage when lorries were used for serv<strong>in</strong>g conventional rail transport – has been developed<br />
77 For further description and analysis, see WOXENIUS and LUMSDEN, 1994, p. 6 and WOXENIUS et al.,<br />
1995/b, p. 128.<br />
110
accord<strong>in</strong>g to s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode optimisation rather than to efficient use together with other <strong>transportation</strong><br />
modes.<br />
As <strong>in</strong>dicated above, the ITU standards should facilitate use <strong>of</strong> vehicles correspond<strong>in</strong>g to the<br />
maximum allowed weight and dimensions for all l<strong>in</strong>ks. In many countries, however, the<br />
regulations favour s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode operations. In Sweden, for <strong>in</strong>stance, lorries are allowed to<br />
be as long as 24 m and weigh up to 60 tons. These rules are badly suited for comb<strong>in</strong>ations<br />
<strong>of</strong> standardised ITUs. Hence, articulated lorries with fixed superstructures can benefit more<br />
from them, seriously hamper<strong>in</strong>g the use <strong>of</strong> domestic Swedish <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport.<br />
Nevertheless, as a consequence <strong>of</strong> enter<strong>in</strong>g the EU, Sweden and F<strong>in</strong>land have agreed to allow<br />
even larger road vehicles – 25.25 m long – <strong>in</strong> order to facilitate fair competition from<br />
foreign hauliers <strong>in</strong> the Scand<strong>in</strong>avian domestic markets. By use <strong>of</strong> different comb<strong>in</strong>ations <strong>of</strong><br />
swap bodies and trailers, three cont<strong>in</strong>ental vehicles <strong>of</strong> 18.75 m (as described <strong>in</strong> section<br />
5.1.1) can be reconfigured <strong>in</strong>to two 25.25 m when arriv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Sweden or F<strong>in</strong>land. As a consequence,<br />
even the F<strong>in</strong>nish and Swedish domestic hauliers now see reasons for us<strong>in</strong>g ITUs<br />
<strong>in</strong>stead <strong>of</strong> road vehicles with fixed superstructures.<br />
For other European countries with comparable road regulations, the most significant parameter<br />
for how easy s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode road transport can be technically turned <strong>in</strong>to an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
system is the share <strong>of</strong> semi-trailers compared to articulated lorries. This division is<br />
shown <strong>in</strong> the table below, however not as the absolute number <strong>of</strong> vehicles on the roads, but<br />
as the number <strong>of</strong> newly registered vehicles. Nevertheless, these are not yet worn out, and<br />
the table is regarded as a good h<strong>in</strong>t on the actual share <strong>of</strong> semi-trailer tractors.<br />
Table 5-3<br />
Number <strong>of</strong> newly registered semi-trailer tractors and articulated lorries <strong>in</strong><br />
some European countries <strong>in</strong> 1988. (Source: worked up from BJÖRKMAN,<br />
1992, p. 45).<br />
Country<br />
Semi-trailer<br />
tractors<br />
Articulated<br />
lorries<br />
Share <strong>of</strong> semitrailer<br />
tractors<br />
Norway 200 1 800 10 %<br />
F<strong>in</strong>land 200 1 800 10 %<br />
Sweden 500 4 500 10 %<br />
Denmark 1 000 1 000 50 %<br />
Germany 8 000 14 900 35 %<br />
The Netherlands 5 500 1 900 75 %<br />
Belgium 3 000 600 83 %<br />
UK 17 500 600 97 %<br />
Switzerland 200 800 20 %<br />
Austria 400 1 600 20 %<br />
France 16 000 4 000 80 %<br />
Italy 10 000 8 100 65 %<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> 6 000 400 94 %<br />
111
A road <strong>transportation</strong> system dom<strong>in</strong>ated by semi-trailers facilitates a rather easy transition<br />
<strong>in</strong>to an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> system – <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong>ly adapted semi-trailers can be gradually implemented<br />
– while a system dom<strong>in</strong>ated by articulated lorries implies higher <strong>in</strong>vestments <strong>in</strong><br />
swap body adapted lorries. The transition <strong>of</strong> the semi-trailer system, however, refers to<br />
conventional <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport – a high share <strong>of</strong> semi-trailers actually impedes the transition<br />
<strong>in</strong>to the <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> systems frequently asked for <strong>in</strong> this dissertation. Furthermore,<br />
the restricted load<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>of</strong>ile on UK tracks (see figure 5-1) make <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport with standard pocket wagons (see figure 1-2) impossible. Instead, specially lowbuilt<br />
wagons – such as the Thrall EuroSp<strong>in</strong>e wagon (see section 5.2.6) – must be used.<br />
Primarily the <strong>small</strong> hauliers – which constitute the bulk number <strong>of</strong> hauliers, as seen <strong>in</strong><br />
Table 5-2 – see difficulties <strong>in</strong> technical adaptation for us<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. The reason<br />
is that such vehicles are not competitive for long-distance all-road transport. Consequently,<br />
the choice <strong>of</strong> go<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> is almost b<strong>in</strong>ary – use <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport always<br />
or never – for these <strong>small</strong> hauliers and their first choice is to stick with s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode operation,<br />
as is elaborated <strong>in</strong> WOXENIUS (1995/b).<br />
In order to <strong>in</strong>crease the market share <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, it is <strong>of</strong> utmost importance that<br />
the jo<strong>in</strong>t operation <strong>of</strong> several modes is not punished by restrictions compared to s<strong>in</strong>glemode<br />
operation.<br />
5.1.4 Commercial barriers<br />
Commercial barriers are only briefly dealt with <strong>in</strong> this dissertation. They are most significant<br />
for competition between <strong>transportation</strong> modes, i.e. on a higher system level, but implementation<br />
<strong>of</strong> new technologies also suffers from commercial barriers.<br />
The most important commercial barrier is that the relationship between road transport companies<br />
and railway adm<strong>in</strong>istrations have been characterised by confrontation rather than by<br />
co-operation. Technologically, this means that it is hard to implement new technical solutions<br />
imply<strong>in</strong>g co-operation s<strong>in</strong>ce both parties fear loos<strong>in</strong>g customers to s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode transport<br />
by the other mode. This barrier is similar to the system-oriented barriers regard<strong>in</strong>g lack<br />
<strong>of</strong> systems management and s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode operations but emphasises the direct competition<br />
between the companies.<br />
One example is that the hybrid bimodal technologies (see section 2.7 <strong>in</strong> the detached appendix)<br />
have not been implemented at a large <strong>scale</strong> <strong>in</strong> Europe. Coda-E – a Dutch version <strong>of</strong><br />
the American RoadRailer technology – was regarded as a promis<strong>in</strong>g technology when it<br />
was first proposed <strong>in</strong> 1972 by an employee at the National Railways <strong>of</strong> the Netherlands<br />
(NS). Yet, no work was done to eng<strong>in</strong>eer the concept and construct a prototype until 1985,<br />
112
when the Stork Alpha eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g group – which now owns the patent rights to the system<br />
– undertook to advance the concept and presented a prototype <strong>in</strong> 1991. Reportedly 78 , this<br />
was due to the fact that NS did not want to promote a technology based upon road technology<br />
and the road transport <strong>in</strong>dustry’s unwill<strong>in</strong>gness to promote any transport concept utilis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
rail.<br />
5.2 APPROACHES FOR OVERCOMING THE EFFECTS OF<br />
BARRIERS<br />
As was elaborated <strong>in</strong> the preced<strong>in</strong>g section, implement<strong>in</strong>g new technologies <strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
<strong>transportation</strong> systems is severely difficult. After def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the barriers, it is rational to outl<strong>in</strong>e<br />
some ways <strong>of</strong> deal<strong>in</strong>g with the negative effects <strong>in</strong>duced by barriers. The European<br />
Commission states the great importance <strong>of</strong> such research on how to solve the barrier problems:<br />
“(…) a major research effort is still needed to provide solutions to the technological,<br />
legal, logistical and <strong>in</strong>stitutional barriers which prevent the rapid customisation and <strong>in</strong>tegration<br />
<strong>of</strong> technologies which are capable <strong>of</strong> mak<strong>in</strong>g a real contribution to the seamless<br />
transfer <strong>of</strong> goods and passengers from one mode <strong>of</strong> transport to another. Research<br />
<strong>of</strong> this nature will have major benefits for both the efficiency and the competitiveness<br />
<strong>of</strong> European <strong>in</strong>dustry (particularly for SMEs which are strongly represented <strong>in</strong> the sector).”<br />
(European Commission, 1997/c, p. 30)<br />
The bridg<strong>in</strong>g strategies presented here are <strong>in</strong>tended to be ways <strong>of</strong> approach<strong>in</strong>g sets <strong>of</strong> problems<br />
rather than solv<strong>in</strong>g the separate ones described <strong>in</strong> the barrier section. Such an analysis<br />
would be quite trivial and such solutions do not facilitate the radical improvements needed.<br />
Consequently, the strategies are l<strong>in</strong>es <strong>of</strong> thought rather than checklists for the systems designer.<br />
By no means, the strategies exclude each other. Contrary, provided that they are not<br />
contradictory, the more <strong>of</strong> them that can be encompassed the better are the prospects for a<br />
successful implementation.<br />
5.2.1 To conform firmly to regulations, standards and<br />
prevail<strong>in</strong>g technologies<br />
The first and most obvious approach is simply to comply with the restrictions set by the<br />
system environment. This approach is the safest one, but the price to pay for the large po-<br />
78 Intermodal Shipper, 1997, p.1, cit<strong>in</strong>g Evert VAN DE LAAR <strong>of</strong> Rail Distri Centre Midden Holland BV.<br />
113
tential market and wide geographical scope is that the possibilities for radical improvements<br />
are restricted.<br />
Knowledge <strong>of</strong> current, but also <strong>of</strong> future, standards is <strong>of</strong> utmost importance, especially<br />
when design<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>ternational networks, which means that different national regulations<br />
must be taken <strong>in</strong>to account. For a s<strong>in</strong>gle <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport cha<strong>in</strong>, the use <strong>of</strong> different<br />
modes and different routes make it possible to achieve improvements. For <strong>in</strong>stance, all-road<br />
transport between Norway and Italy through Switzerland means a restriction to 28 tons although<br />
much larger vehicles are allowed on almost the full distance (See Table 5-1 about<br />
allowed vehicle dimensions <strong>in</strong> European countries). Options are then to go through France<br />
or Austria or to use rail through the Alps. It is obviously the reason for the strict Swiss<br />
regulations to stimulate the use <strong>of</strong> other routes or the rail mode.<br />
Another example is export <strong>of</strong> fresh fish from Norway to Cont<strong>in</strong>ental Europe. S<strong>in</strong>ce Norwegian<br />
and Swedish road regulations are more generous than those <strong>in</strong> Germany, the vehicles<br />
loaded with fish on ice is dimensioned for weigh<strong>in</strong>g 40 tons when enter<strong>in</strong>g Germany, that is<br />
when part <strong>of</strong> the ice has melted. The weight <strong>in</strong> Norway and Sweden is then far above 40<br />
tons per vehicle. Such load maximisation obeys the regulations, but only if the semi-trailers<br />
are dimensioned for the higher load, which has not always been the case when export<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Norwegian fish (PERSSON, <strong>in</strong>terview, 1997). This was experienced as one <strong>of</strong> the problems<br />
when try<strong>in</strong>g to implement a Roll<strong>in</strong>g Highway service for Norwegian lorries transit<strong>in</strong>g Sweden<br />
on the way to Germany. The railway wagons used <strong>in</strong> the service RoLa Scand<strong>in</strong>avia<br />
were dimensioned for 40-ton vehicles and was thus not suitable for vehicles overloaded<br />
with fish on ice (SANDBERG, conference presentation, 1996).<br />
Another limitation <strong>of</strong> this approach is that new technologies swiftly become complicated<br />
when different standards have to be followed. The high-speed rail eng<strong>in</strong>es used <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
PBKAL-traffic (Paris-Brussels-Cologne-Amsterdam-London) are built to meet the<br />
requirements <strong>of</strong> several different electrical power supply systems as well as signall<strong>in</strong>g systems,<br />
hence add<strong>in</strong>g to the complexity and cost <strong>of</strong> each eng<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
5.2.2 To change the barriers or to obta<strong>in</strong> exemptions<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the def<strong>in</strong>ition <strong>of</strong> barriers used <strong>in</strong> this dissertation, barriers can only be<br />
changed through great difficulties or at high costs. Perhaps the most expensive barrier to<br />
change is <strong>in</strong>frastructure. When new <strong>in</strong>frastructure is to be built, it is obviously more expensive<br />
to dimension it generously, but substantial benefits might motivate the extra costs.<br />
Double-stack capacity is <strong>of</strong> particular <strong>in</strong>terest. Extend<strong>in</strong>g the European rail network for<br />
double-stack tra<strong>in</strong>s is not realistic although French State Railways (SNCF) wants a Roll<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Highway corridor with very generous load<strong>in</strong>g gauge (SINGER, 1995, p. 120). Another example<br />
is the Betuwe l<strong>in</strong>e that is a projected rail l<strong>in</strong>k connect<strong>in</strong>g the Port <strong>of</strong> Rotterdam to the<br />
114
<strong>in</strong>dustries <strong>in</strong> the Ruhr area through Emmerich on the Dutch/German border. The l<strong>in</strong>k is<br />
planned for open<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 2004 at a cost <strong>of</strong> USD 4.3 billion (ECU 3.7 billion) (Conta<strong>in</strong>erisation<br />
International, 1995, p. 31). The National Railways <strong>of</strong> the Netherlands (ibid.) and the<br />
Dutch M<strong>in</strong>ister <strong>of</strong> Transport (Cargo Systems, 1997/e, p. 24) both call for it be<strong>in</strong>g built facilitat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
double-stack tra<strong>in</strong>s like <strong>in</strong> the USA. Reportedly (KING, 1998, p. 59), it is now<br />
decided to build the l<strong>in</strong>e with such a generous load<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>of</strong>ile. The l<strong>in</strong>k is somewhat <strong>in</strong>dependent<br />
thus possible to design with special clearance for shuttle tra<strong>in</strong>s and work on tunnels<br />
and bridges has not yet commenced.<br />
The really high costs, however, occur when <strong>in</strong>frastructure is to be changed. This is <strong>in</strong>dicated<br />
by the American railroad Conrail’s USD 97 million (ECU 83 million) clearance upgrad<strong>in</strong>g<br />
program <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g 100 tunnels and 30 bridges facilitat<strong>in</strong>g double-stack tra<strong>in</strong>s with<br />
9-foot 5-<strong>in</strong>ches high conta<strong>in</strong>ers (Cargo Systems, 1995/a). Although barriers can be changed<br />
<strong>in</strong> course <strong>of</strong> time at a lower cost, the long depreciation times <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>frastructure determ<strong>in</strong>e<br />
that it is hard to overcome <strong>in</strong>frastructural h<strong>in</strong>drances.<br />
Nevertheless, the regulative barriers guid<strong>in</strong>g the use <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>frastructure are <strong>of</strong>ten more restrictive<br />
than the physical restrictions. If large benefits, especially for society, can be shown to<br />
be realised, exemptions can be applied for and allowed by authorities. One example <strong>of</strong> such<br />
an exemption is the lift<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the drive ban dur<strong>in</strong>g nights and weekends <strong>in</strong> Austria for the<br />
local road haulage around <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport term<strong>in</strong>als (HANREICH, 1995, p. 8). The<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciple <strong>of</strong> “give and take” rules, mean<strong>in</strong>g that it is OK to disturb locally if the long haul is<br />
undertaken with less disturbance. The European Commission has for the same reason advocated<br />
that lorries carry<strong>in</strong>g 40-foot ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers to and from <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als should<br />
benefit from 44 tons maximum weight compared to the general 40 tons (WOXENIUS et<br />
al., 1995/b, p. 55). However, after strong lobby<strong>in</strong>g, 44 tons will now be allowed for all lorries<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational traffic.<br />
Exemptions can also refer to restricted parts <strong>of</strong> a network. By def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g roads <strong>in</strong> different<br />
classes, longer vehicle comb<strong>in</strong>ations can be permitted on especially suitable l<strong>in</strong>ks. In certa<strong>in</strong><br />
states <strong>in</strong> the USA, for <strong>in</strong>stance, special legislation allows longer vehicle comb<strong>in</strong>ations<br />
on the <strong>in</strong>terstate highways requir<strong>in</strong>g break-po<strong>in</strong>ts adjacent to the highway before enter<strong>in</strong>g<br />
local roads. Similar legislation is now proposed for Europe where roads might be divided<br />
<strong>in</strong>to three classes suitable for lorries with different unit load comb<strong>in</strong>ations (IRU, 1996 and<br />
Volvo, pamphlet, 1996). On a core cont<strong>in</strong>ental road network, the 25.25 m vehicles about to<br />
be implemented <strong>in</strong> Sweden and F<strong>in</strong>land <strong>in</strong> 2003 (see section 5.1.3) might then be allowed.<br />
5.2.3 To create closed systems<br />
It is obvious that the barriers become less dramatic if the scope <strong>of</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
system is restricted. The limitation could regard the range <strong>of</strong> resource variants, e.g. to<br />
115
limit an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> service to one strictly def<strong>in</strong>ed ITU type; the range <strong>of</strong> customers, e.g.<br />
direct it to one shipper; or to limit a service to a geographical area, e.g. to serve only one<br />
l<strong>in</strong>k <strong>in</strong> a network. Hence, the approach is about limit<strong>in</strong>g the technological or commercial<br />
openness <strong>of</strong> the system (see section 5.1). The pr<strong>in</strong>ciple is that by limit<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>transportation</strong><br />
system, a more specialised technical solution could be implemented but one should bear <strong>in</strong><br />
m<strong>in</strong>d that flexibility and economies <strong>of</strong> <strong>scale</strong> are jeopardised. Real world examples are so<br />
frequent and obvious that no one is described here. In chapter 8, however, it is shown how<br />
this strategy is applied when implement<strong>in</strong>g a new <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> concept.<br />
In order not to limit the scope <strong>of</strong> a closed <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> system, this could be designed as a<br />
module <strong>in</strong> a larger system. Via gateways, some <strong>of</strong> the unit loads or even rail wagons can<br />
<strong>in</strong>terchange with other modules. This advantages <strong>of</strong> the fashion <strong>of</strong> operat<strong>in</strong>g a divided, yet<br />
<strong>in</strong>terconnected, network is actually the core message <strong>of</strong> this dissertation.<br />
5.2.4 To control the transport cha<strong>in</strong> under one management<br />
A similar approach also aimed at keep<strong>in</strong>g the complexity down, is to develop an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
concept produced and managed by a s<strong>in</strong>gle company or company group. The railways are<br />
those most commonly apply<strong>in</strong>g this approach s<strong>in</strong>ce they have a tradition <strong>of</strong> own<strong>in</strong>g haulier<br />
companies for support<strong>in</strong>g their wagonload system. Along with deregulation, however, roadbased<br />
companies are likely to start up own <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> door-to-door services, perhaps not <strong>in</strong><br />
the short term though, due to the currently low pr<strong>of</strong>itability <strong>in</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />
(STONE, 1998, p. 33). As for the previous approach, examples are obvious and rather common.<br />
The task is strategically delicate s<strong>in</strong>ce the railways hesitate before the risk <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g criticised<br />
for directly compet<strong>in</strong>g with their customers buy<strong>in</strong>g other <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> core services,<br />
that is the forwarders and hauliers.<br />
5.2.5 To change technology <strong>in</strong> course <strong>of</strong> time dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
system’s <strong>in</strong>vestment cycle<br />
Rome was not built <strong>in</strong> a day and neither are new <strong>transportation</strong> systems. However, if the<br />
technology implementation is managed with long-term plann<strong>in</strong>g and persistence, the technology<br />
transition can be less dramatic. Hence, resources can be planned and developed and<br />
then implemented when the system and its environment have matured to <strong>in</strong>clude the new<br />
type <strong>of</strong> technical resource.<br />
One such example is the implementation <strong>of</strong> the maritime conta<strong>in</strong>er by Sea-Land under Malcom<br />
McLean’s management. As described <strong>in</strong> section 1.2.1, with the first generation <strong>of</strong><br />
conta<strong>in</strong>er ships – modified World War II tankers – only a restricted number <strong>of</strong> ports were<br />
116
called and conventional cranes made the conta<strong>in</strong>er handl<strong>in</strong>g an arduous task. The second<br />
generation employed on-board cranes, add<strong>in</strong>g to costs and limit<strong>in</strong>g stack<strong>in</strong>g height and<br />
width on deck, but facilitat<strong>in</strong>g calls at all ports possess<strong>in</strong>g equipment for mov<strong>in</strong>g the conta<strong>in</strong>ers<br />
on the quay. First when many ports had <strong>in</strong>vested <strong>in</strong> gantry cranes <strong>in</strong> the late 1960’s<br />
the time was ready to <strong>in</strong>troduce conta<strong>in</strong>er ships, as we know them today.<br />
The current leader <strong>in</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>er shipp<strong>in</strong>g, Danish Maersk, is part <strong>of</strong> a company group – A.P.<br />
Möller – that has a composition and legal status that allows it to keep its plans and operations<br />
<strong>in</strong> utmost secrecy. The plans for build<strong>in</strong>g its new generation <strong>of</strong> K- and S-class postpanamax<br />
vessels were only revealed to a limited number <strong>of</strong> ports under non-disclosure<br />
agreements. The first ships were built by a shipyard <strong>in</strong> the A.P. Möller group allow<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
secret to be kept, thus giv<strong>in</strong>g Maersk a competitive advantage over other conta<strong>in</strong>er shipp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
l<strong>in</strong>es. However, this secrecy also prevents a flexible use <strong>of</strong> the new ships s<strong>in</strong>ce it delayed<br />
other ports’ <strong>in</strong>vestments <strong>in</strong> sufficiently high and wide gantry cranes. Consequently, Maersk<br />
trades the restriction <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>itial use to certa<strong>in</strong> routes for competitive advantages through be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
first with the post-panamax ships.<br />
5.2.6 To optimise sets <strong>of</strong> resources together<br />
At the cost <strong>of</strong> lost flexibility and <strong>in</strong>terchangeability, one system resource can be altered <strong>in</strong><br />
order to accommodate a non-standardised resource that shows significant benefits <strong>in</strong> other<br />
parts <strong>of</strong> the system. One example is that a new large unit load is allowed on road, but for<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> use, the rail wagons must be lowered to keep the wagon/unit load comb<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
<strong>in</strong>side the load<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>of</strong>ile. The Dutch haulier Harry Vos Transportgroep and the National<br />
Railways <strong>of</strong> the Netherlands <strong>in</strong>troduce a large swap body together. The non-standard swap<br />
body with <strong>in</strong>ternal measurements (length x width x height) 8.0 x 2.46 x 3.0 <strong>of</strong>fers nearly<br />
50% <strong>in</strong>creased volume capacity compared to standard swap bodies. It is capable <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
moved throughout almost the entire European rail network but only <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ation with an<br />
especially low wagon. However, no wagons long enough to carry two units have yet been<br />
constructed imply<strong>in</strong>g that they have to be loaded together with a 20-foot ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>er<br />
(Cargo Systems, 1995/b, p. 10). Hence, both the wagons and 20-foot conta<strong>in</strong>ers must be<br />
matched to the new units for efficient transport services, severely restrict<strong>in</strong>g the flexibility.<br />
As mentioned <strong>in</strong> section 5.1.3, the ma<strong>in</strong> problem hamper<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>in</strong> the UK<br />
is that the <strong>in</strong>frastructure cannot accommodate the semi-trailers that today dom<strong>in</strong>ate road<br />
transport, if they are loaded upon a standard pocket wagon (see figure 1-2) as <strong>in</strong> other EU<br />
countries. An obvious alternative to <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the tunnel and bridge clearances is then to<br />
adapt either the semi-trailers or the rail wagons to enable the comb<strong>in</strong>ed carriage to use the<br />
exist<strong>in</strong>g rail network.<br />
117
Technologies that address the problem <strong>in</strong>clude the Tiphook System (developed <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
and now abolished) <strong>in</strong> which semi-trailers with slightly cut upper corners were used, and<br />
the restricted pr<strong>of</strong>ile wagons EuroSp<strong>in</strong>e by Thrall and the Piglet by Powell Duffryn Rail<br />
Projects. The wagons are also adapted to the special requirements set for use <strong>in</strong> the Channel<br />
tunnel and <strong>in</strong>vestments <strong>of</strong> some £400 million (ECU 570 million) (Cargo Systems, 1997/b,<br />
p. 16) 79 will give a core network for piggyback traffic with standard semi-trailers. S<strong>in</strong>ce the<br />
new wagons are alternatives to fully extend the load<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>of</strong>ile at enormous costs, public<br />
money might be used for <strong>in</strong>vestments <strong>in</strong> the new wagons (CHRAYE, <strong>in</strong>terview, 1995).<br />
5.2.7 To design one resource to make another superfluous<br />
Instead <strong>of</strong> optimis<strong>in</strong>g comb<strong>in</strong>ations <strong>of</strong> two resources, a s<strong>in</strong>gle resource can be designed to<br />
accommodate the functions <strong>of</strong> the two resources. The strategies are similar but different to<br />
the extent that the resources always go together giv<strong>in</strong>g more flexibility but add<strong>in</strong>g costs.<br />
Examples are side-load<strong>in</strong>g semi-trailers and rail wagons, i.e. vehicles equipped with a hydraulic<br />
lift that can transship conta<strong>in</strong>ers to ground or between lorries and rail wagons, and<br />
RoRo ships with <strong>in</strong>ternal load<strong>in</strong>g ramps mak<strong>in</strong>g it possible to call at any port with sufficient<br />
open space on the quay. Also swap bodies can be transshipped with equipment mounted on<br />
rail wagons – ABB Henschel’s WAS wagon and Mercedes Benz’ Kombilifter are examples<br />
<strong>of</strong> wagons that can go between the support-legs <strong>of</strong> a swap body and lift it for further <strong>transportation</strong>.<br />
The side-load<strong>in</strong>g technologies as well as the swap body wagons are described <strong>in</strong><br />
detail <strong>in</strong> the detached appendix.<br />
5.2.8 To implement an <strong>in</strong>terface between system resources<br />
Instead <strong>of</strong> chang<strong>in</strong>g the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> system over-night, it is possible to change one resource<br />
while lett<strong>in</strong>g another rema<strong>in</strong> unchanged for a while. Introduc<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>terface between the<br />
resources can solve this. Interfaces can also be used permanently when pieces <strong>of</strong> technology<br />
represent<strong>in</strong>g different systems must fit together for certa<strong>in</strong> transport commissions. The<br />
most common <strong>in</strong>terface is the semi-trailer chassis that is used as an <strong>in</strong>terface between an<br />
ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>er or swap body and a semi-trailer tractor. In American <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> systems, the<br />
conta<strong>in</strong>er is used as an ITU on the sea and railway l<strong>in</strong>ks with very efficient, large-<strong>scale</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>er<br />
ships and double-stack tra<strong>in</strong>s. Conta<strong>in</strong>ers are lifted onto trailer chassis at <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
term<strong>in</strong>als and the units are then treated as semi-trailers dur<strong>in</strong>g delivery and pick-up operations.<br />
The benefits <strong>of</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>ers at sea and on rail are thus comb<strong>in</strong>ed with the benefits <strong>of</strong><br />
semi-trailers on road.<br />
79 Other – but earlier – sources are more positive, e.g. The Piggyback Consortium (1994): £70 million (ECU<br />
100 million) and SUTCLIFFE (1995): ECU 120 million.<br />
118
A good example <strong>of</strong> how to use an <strong>in</strong>terface dur<strong>in</strong>g a transition period is the strategy advocated<br />
by German State Railways (DB AG) for implement<strong>in</strong>g the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>small</strong>-conta<strong>in</strong>er<br />
system Logistikbox. The boxes are <strong>of</strong> two different sizes, one for four and one for six Europallets.<br />
They are handled with forklifts and special road vehicles. In the long run they are<br />
supposed to be transshipped directly to dedicated rail wagons. Before the network and the<br />
demand is fully developed, however, two <strong>of</strong> the bigger boxes and one <strong>of</strong> the <strong>small</strong>er are<br />
supposed to be loaded together upon a swap body frame to be handled as every other swap<br />
body <strong>in</strong> the normal <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> system. The concept is described <strong>in</strong> detail <strong>in</strong> the detached<br />
appendix.<br />
Interfaces can also be used <strong>in</strong> order to accommodate non-standardised equipment <strong>in</strong> the<br />
standard system. One example, the Hungarian Basket Car, however, represents a less clever<br />
way <strong>of</strong> address<strong>in</strong>g the problems <strong>of</strong> resource unification. The purpose is to accommodate<br />
semi-trailers that are not technically adapted to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> use through load<strong>in</strong>g them upon a<br />
steel “basket” that is equipped with standardised lift pockets. Also the rail wagon is purpose-built<br />
and the technology looks very awkward <strong>in</strong> the figure below, where a long swap<br />
body is loaded upon a semi-trailer chassis, which is <strong>in</strong> turn loaded upon the basket that is<br />
lifted by a counter-balanced truck to the rail wagon. Hence, a Russian doll solution with a<br />
very <strong>small</strong> net to gross load ratio is applied.<br />
Figure 5-2<br />
The Intermdodal Railway Basket Car. (Source: Hungarian State Railways,<br />
product brochure, 1995).<br />
For port to port operations, several European shipp<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>in</strong>es have <strong>in</strong>vested <strong>in</strong> RoRocassettes.<br />
Loads as heavy as 70 tons are loaded upon cassettes mak<strong>in</strong>g up an <strong>in</strong>terface between<br />
the term<strong>in</strong>al tractors and the cargo, <strong>of</strong>ten paper rolls and sheet metal coils. New de-<br />
119
velopments <strong>in</strong>tend to br<strong>in</strong>g the cassettes, however with less payload, outside the port gates<br />
and go unbroken with road and rail.<br />
The plans have been taken ahead <strong>in</strong> a co-operation scheme between the shipp<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>in</strong>e Tor<br />
L<strong>in</strong>e, the Port <strong>of</strong> Göteborg and the sta<strong>in</strong>less steel manufacturer Avesta-Sheffield. Avesta-<br />
Sheffield has production units <strong>in</strong> both Avesta <strong>in</strong> the middle <strong>of</strong> Sweden and <strong>in</strong> Sheffield <strong>in</strong><br />
the UK. Today, steel slabs are moved by rail from Sheffield to Imm<strong>in</strong>gham where they are<br />
transshipped to large-sized cassettes for the sea voyage to Göteborg. After a second transshipment,<br />
they are transported by rail to Avesta. After ref<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g to steel plate, 80% <strong>of</strong> the<br />
products are send back to Sheffield <strong>in</strong> form <strong>of</strong> coils (ALGELL and SIMERT, 1997). In order<br />
to decrease handl<strong>in</strong>g operations, it is suggested that cassettes are used even for the rail<br />
legs <strong>of</strong> the transport cha<strong>in</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g low rail wagons with the spr<strong>in</strong>g package on the <strong>in</strong>side <strong>of</strong><br />
the wheels that are now tested (Transportjournalen, 1997/a, p. 17). The technology is further<br />
described <strong>in</strong> the detached appendix.<br />
5.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION<br />
In this chapter, the barriers fac<strong>in</strong>g actors when they have decided to implement new pieces<br />
<strong>of</strong> technology <strong>in</strong>to the exist<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system was described and analysed<br />
followed by the presentation <strong>of</strong> some approaches on how to overcome the effects<br />
caused by the barriers.<br />
It is a truly troublesome task to implement new pieces <strong>of</strong> technology <strong>in</strong>to exist<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
<strong>transportation</strong> systems. The above argumentation is here synthesised <strong>in</strong>to some advice<br />
for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system operators or designers with technological renewal on<br />
the agenda:<br />
• Investigate and analyse barriers carefully before develop<strong>in</strong>g and implement<strong>in</strong>g new<br />
technology!<br />
• Emphasise the network effects!<br />
• Decide upon the scope <strong>of</strong> the new technology!<br />
• Go through the <strong>in</strong>vestment analysis algorithm many times and fix variables along the<br />
path!<br />
• Unless you are very sure – obey the rules stipulated by regulations and standards or<br />
implement <strong>small</strong> parts <strong>of</strong> new technology gradually!<br />
It should be kept <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d that the whole field <strong>of</strong> renew<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems<br />
is a very delicate and complex matter. The systems designers as well as <strong>in</strong>ventors<br />
should be humble before the <strong>in</strong>terrelations with<strong>in</strong> the system and not th<strong>in</strong>k that one s<strong>in</strong>gle<br />
technology should solve all problems globally and certa<strong>in</strong>ly not with<strong>in</strong> a short period <strong>of</strong><br />
120
time. However, an example <strong>of</strong> a vigorous attempt on implement<strong>in</strong>g a new concept is described<br />
<strong>in</strong> chapter 8 <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g a discussion on how barriers are treated.<br />
121
122
6 TRANSSHIPMENT TECHNOLOGY IN<br />
INTERMODAL TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS<br />
Systems (2)<br />
Transportation systems (3)<br />
Intermodal <strong>transportation</strong> systems (4)<br />
Actors Activities Resources (5)<br />
Transshipment<br />
technologies<br />
Small-<strong>scale</strong><br />
transshipment<br />
technologies (7)<br />
A particular <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> concept (8)<br />
importance than domestic ditto.<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong> economic features <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport is that the additional costs <strong>of</strong> term<strong>in</strong>al handl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and local road haulage implies that transport relations<br />
must exceed a certa<strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>imum distance to allow<br />
competitiveness with all-road transport. In Europe, this<br />
m<strong>in</strong>imum distance is frequently referred to as be<strong>in</strong>g at<br />
least 500 kilometres, which logically leads to the fact<br />
that <strong>in</strong>ternational <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is <strong>of</strong> greater<br />
Contrary to this logic, nationally restricted railway adm<strong>in</strong>istrations and subvention schemes<br />
have implied that domestic markets for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport are more prom<strong>in</strong>ent than <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
ones. This has resulted <strong>in</strong> limited geographical market sizes and thus relatively<br />
short transport distances. This has <strong>in</strong> turn lead to the employment <strong>of</strong> standardised and flexible<br />
systems, i.e. systems technologically open for all types <strong>of</strong> unit loads. The prime reason<br />
for this is that a large portion <strong>of</strong> the available market has to be covered by a s<strong>in</strong>gle system<br />
<strong>in</strong> order to capture the transport volumes needed for utilis<strong>in</strong>g the economies <strong>of</strong> <strong>scale</strong> <strong>in</strong> both<br />
rail haulage and term<strong>in</strong>al operations.<br />
Nevertheless, cont<strong>in</strong>uously lower prices for road haulage has <strong>in</strong>duced severe problems for<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport over distances <strong>in</strong> the range 500 to 800 kilometres. Logically, there are<br />
two major solutions to the problems. The first solution is to extend the distances with preserved<br />
technology, which means <strong>in</strong>creased significance <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational transport markets.<br />
The other solution is to address the penalis<strong>in</strong>g costs and design new system modules for<br />
serv<strong>in</strong>g geographically restricted markets. This will logically lead to the division between<br />
one large-<strong>scale</strong> system for direct connections between term<strong>in</strong>als <strong>in</strong> the major European<br />
conurbations and a set <strong>of</strong> re-eng<strong>in</strong>eered system modules featur<strong>in</strong>g local adaptation and connections<br />
to other modules.<br />
So far logical reason<strong>in</strong>g based upon well-known facts and easily identifiable trends. But is<br />
it so? Well, the competitiveness <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is obviously determ<strong>in</strong>ed by a truly<br />
wide range <strong>of</strong> factors, but the logical reason<strong>in</strong>g above is accepted for now. This chapter is<br />
then dedicated to the question whether there are prospects for such a <strong>development</strong> rather<br />
than try<strong>in</strong>g to prove the logical reason<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
It is clear that there is a prom<strong>in</strong>ent technological conservatism among the operators and <strong>in</strong>novations<br />
are not likely to be found <strong>in</strong> the mature <strong>transportation</strong> modes, but rather <strong>in</strong> the<br />
<strong>in</strong>terfaces between these. Is it then so simple that gantry cranes and counter-balanced trucks<br />
123
are superior to any other technology or are there alternatives around the corner that wait for<br />
implementation as complements solv<strong>in</strong>g more specific tasks?<br />
Hence, it is rational to address the complex issue <strong>of</strong> technology transition <strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
<strong>transportation</strong> systems by start<strong>in</strong>g out from the term<strong>in</strong>als and the transshipment technologies<br />
that have been proposed or developed but still wait for implementation. This can, however,<br />
not be done with a ceteris paribus approach restrict<strong>in</strong>g the level <strong>of</strong> analysis to the<br />
term<strong>in</strong>als. Instead, the transshipment technologies must be studied aga<strong>in</strong>st their <strong>in</strong>tended<br />
use as an <strong>in</strong>tegrated part <strong>of</strong> an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> system.<br />
In this chapter, the <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transshipment technologies is analysed from<br />
two slightly different angles, both <strong>in</strong> a systems context. The first one relates the developed<br />
transshipment technologies to the alternative ways <strong>of</strong> traffick<strong>in</strong>g the rail part <strong>of</strong> the network<br />
that were presented <strong>in</strong> section 4.2.1. The requirements on transshipment technologies that<br />
each traffic design entails are deduced and then technologies fulfill<strong>in</strong>g them are identified.<br />
In the second study, it is <strong>in</strong>vestigated whether national or Europe-wide conditions and applied<br />
policies have been prevail<strong>in</strong>g for the <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> new transshipment technologies.<br />
Both analyses aim at show<strong>in</strong>g that there are alternatives to the conventional transshipment<br />
technologies and that they are suitable for solv<strong>in</strong>g specific tasks <strong>in</strong> a modular <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
<strong>transportation</strong> system.<br />
The technologies referred to are all presented <strong>in</strong> a rather comprehensive way <strong>in</strong> the detached<br />
appendix. Hence, the technologies are only briefly described or just mentioned by<br />
name here.<br />
6.1 THERE ARE TRANSSHIPMENT TECHNOLOGIES FOR<br />
ALTERNATIVE NETWORK DESIGNS!<br />
A wide range <strong>of</strong> factors <strong>in</strong>fluence the choice <strong>of</strong> traffic design to be employed <strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
<strong>transportation</strong> systems. The choice <strong>of</strong> traffic design then decides which level <strong>of</strong> performance<br />
that has to be met by the term<strong>in</strong>als and thus the choice <strong>of</strong> transshipment technology.<br />
The analysis <strong>in</strong> this section is based upon the alternative ways <strong>of</strong> traffick<strong>in</strong>g the rail part <strong>of</strong><br />
the network that were presented <strong>in</strong> section 4.2.1. For each <strong>of</strong> the five traffic pr<strong>in</strong>ciples, the<br />
requirements on the term<strong>in</strong>als and the transshipment technology are analysed, and examples<br />
<strong>of</strong> technologies that have the qualifications for fulfill<strong>in</strong>g the demands are given. However,<br />
no example is given for the fifth traffic design – flexible routes – that is still a utopia<br />
<strong>in</strong> European rail <strong>transportation</strong>.<br />
The underly<strong>in</strong>g factors and the <strong>in</strong>terrelations between them are illustrated <strong>in</strong> the figure below.<br />
The lower part <strong>of</strong> the analysis model is emphasised here, s<strong>in</strong>ce the upper part was<br />
dealt with <strong>in</strong> section 4.2.1.<br />
124
Geographical and <strong>in</strong>frastructural<br />
factors<br />
Unit-loads or<br />
rail waggons<br />
Traffic design<br />
Demand<br />
Goods flow<br />
-amount<br />
-type <strong>of</strong> unit-loads<br />
Transport quality<br />
Available technology<br />
Term<strong>in</strong>al design<br />
Figure 6-1<br />
Interrelations between the factors <strong>in</strong>fluenc<strong>in</strong>g traffic and term<strong>in</strong>al design.<br />
The analysis is also based upon a number <strong>of</strong> prerequisites concern<strong>in</strong>g the level <strong>of</strong> analysis.<br />
The <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> network modules <strong>in</strong> question cover the geographical size <strong>of</strong> a major European<br />
country or a large region. The task <strong>of</strong> the modules is to transport ITUs from one term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
to another, i.e. the road haulage is performed outside the analysed system. Us<strong>in</strong>g this<br />
demarcation, the shipper or forwarder with a full ITU is the system’s customer. For facilitat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational traffic, compatibility is focused on the exchanged resources while the<br />
employed transshipment technologies might well be adapted to the special requirements<br />
given by the used network pr<strong>in</strong>ciple.<br />
Furthermore, the analysis is implicitly based upon four analytic questions about the performance<br />
and operation <strong>of</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> system:<br />
• Should the module be operated with fixed tra<strong>in</strong> sets or marshall<strong>in</strong>g, i.e., should the rail<br />
wagons or the ITUs be transferred <strong>in</strong> the term<strong>in</strong>als along the route?<br />
• Should the transshipment technology be capable <strong>of</strong> ITU transfer <strong>in</strong> a short period <strong>of</strong> time<br />
or is load<strong>in</strong>g/unload<strong>in</strong>g permissible throughout the day?<br />
• What are the capacity requirements, i.e., should the term<strong>in</strong>als be efficient high-capacity<br />
facilities, or are low-cost, low-capacity term<strong>in</strong>als sufficient?<br />
• Should the system module be technologically open for all ITUs or should it be a specialised<br />
solution?<br />
Parts <strong>of</strong> the render<strong>in</strong>g are worked up and updated from three earlier articles (WOXENIUS<br />
et al., 1994, WOXENIUS, 1997/b and 1997/c) and the co-authors <strong>of</strong> the first article Johan<br />
HELLGREN and Lars SJÖSTEDT are herewith credited.<br />
6.1.1 Term<strong>in</strong>als for direct connections<br />
In a direct connection design, there is no central term<strong>in</strong>al <strong>in</strong> the system. Instead, all handl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> the unit loads is performed at term<strong>in</strong>als near the consignor and the consignee. This<br />
means that the goods volume pass<strong>in</strong>g any one term<strong>in</strong>al is limited, thus reduc<strong>in</strong>g the capac-<br />
125
ity requirements on the term<strong>in</strong>als. The transfer time requirements depend on how long the<br />
tra<strong>in</strong>s stay at the term<strong>in</strong>al. If tra<strong>in</strong>s stay at the term<strong>in</strong>al throughout the day – as is customary<br />
<strong>in</strong> Europe today – this becomes a non-critical parameter. Nevertheless, due to the demand<br />
from customers, the term<strong>in</strong>al is ma<strong>in</strong>ly utilised <strong>in</strong> some early morn<strong>in</strong>g hours and some late<br />
afternoon hours, when quick transshipment is needed.<br />
Despite the large number <strong>of</strong> transshipment technologies developed over the last 30 years,<br />
the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als look rather much the same throughout the world – a gantry crane<br />
overreach<strong>in</strong>g some railway tracks and lorry driv<strong>in</strong>g lanes is complemented with large<br />
counter-balanced trucks. Large and complicated term<strong>in</strong>als are needed for handl<strong>in</strong>g many<br />
different types <strong>of</strong> ITUs and the costs must be distributed between a large number <strong>of</strong> transshipments.<br />
The tra<strong>in</strong>s rema<strong>in</strong> at the term<strong>in</strong>al throughout the day, conta<strong>in</strong> a fixed number <strong>of</strong><br />
wagons and are operated follow<strong>in</strong>g the direct connection pr<strong>in</strong>ciple. On connections with<br />
<strong>small</strong> or irregular flows, some wagons might be marshalled between departure and arrival<br />
term<strong>in</strong>als.<br />
An alternative to the traditional transshipment technology is to equip the vehicles and ITUs<br />
for <strong>in</strong>dependent transshipment, i.e., apply<strong>in</strong>g the approach “to design one resource to make<br />
another superfluous” as described <strong>in</strong> section 5.2.7. The <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g feature <strong>of</strong> these systems<br />
is that the term<strong>in</strong>al requirements are virtually restricted to a track <strong>in</strong> the driv<strong>in</strong>g lane.<br />
Hence, the term<strong>in</strong>al <strong>in</strong>vestments and localisation becomes much less crucial and def<strong>in</strong>ite.<br />
Also simple sid<strong>in</strong>gs at the premises <strong>of</strong> the consignor and the consignee can be used as term<strong>in</strong>als.<br />
It is questionable, however, if tra<strong>in</strong>s operated directly between the private sid<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong><br />
the consignor and the consignee can be referred to as <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> tra<strong>in</strong>s.<br />
An example <strong>of</strong> such a solution is a rail wagon designed for lift<strong>in</strong>g swap bodies or cassettes.<br />
The restriction to direct connections is due to the fact that the wagons run underneath prepositioned<br />
swap bodies or cassettes and lift them <strong>in</strong> one operation. Brand names <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
Mercedes-Benz’ Kombi-Lifter, ABB Henschel’s WAS Wagon, AGEVE’s Supertrans, the<br />
Wieskötter System, Rautaruukki’s Wheelless System and Chalmers’ Titan cassette system.<br />
The two former brands are now enter<strong>in</strong>g service while the others are still on the draw<strong>in</strong>g<br />
board or have been abolished.<br />
Also bimodal systems 80 are practically limited to direct connections. The reason is that the<br />
concept requires purpose-built trailers and bogies as well as that the bogies cannot easily be<br />
repositioned empty, i.e. they face the barrier <strong>in</strong>duced by the need for reposition<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> sys-<br />
80 Brand names <strong>of</strong> bimodal systems <strong>in</strong>clude Wabash’s Road Railer, Coda-E, A.T. Kearney’s Cars,<br />
Breda/Ferrosud’s Carro Bimodale, Fruehauf/Talbot/Remafer’s Kombirail, Innotermodal’s 3R International system,<br />
Reggiane’s Proteo, Sambre et Meuse’s Rail Trailer, Technical University <strong>of</strong> Warsaw’s Tabor Bimodalny,<br />
Trailer Tra<strong>in</strong> Limited’s Trailer Tra<strong>in</strong> and Transfesa’s Transtrailer.<br />
126
tem resources. Some bimodal technologies, however, are today runn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> commercial services.<br />
6.1.2 Term<strong>in</strong>als for corridors<br />
In a system based on the corridor design, each tra<strong>in</strong> passes several term<strong>in</strong>als dur<strong>in</strong>g one<br />
day. Term<strong>in</strong>al transfer times must therefore be kept at a m<strong>in</strong>imum, which must be considered<br />
when choos<strong>in</strong>g the term<strong>in</strong>al handl<strong>in</strong>g equipment to be employed. On the other hand is<br />
only a limited amount <strong>of</strong> goods handled at each term<strong>in</strong>al, accord<strong>in</strong>gly limit<strong>in</strong>g the capacity<br />
requirements. S<strong>in</strong>ce tra<strong>in</strong>s are available at each term<strong>in</strong>al only for a limited period <strong>of</strong> time,<br />
storage space for unit loads must be provided at the term<strong>in</strong>als, and there should be no need<br />
for road vehicles and rail wagons to be co-ord<strong>in</strong>ated at the term<strong>in</strong>als.<br />
Demands for transshipment ability <strong>of</strong> all types <strong>of</strong> ITUs might lead to conflicts with the requirement<br />
<strong>of</strong> fast transfers, because, for <strong>in</strong>stance, semi-trailers are unsuitable for horizontal<br />
handl<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Germany with a huge demand for <strong>transportation</strong> along the <strong>in</strong>dustrial zones, e.g. along the<br />
Rh<strong>in</strong>e, is the lead<strong>in</strong>g country when it comes to develop<strong>in</strong>g high-capacity corridor term<strong>in</strong>als.<br />
Immensely capital-<strong>in</strong>tensive concepts have been presented by Krupp (Fast Handl<strong>in</strong>g System),<br />
Noell (Fast Transshipment System) and, slightly cheaper, by Mannesmann Transmodal<br />
(Transterm<strong>in</strong>al). Some <strong>of</strong> the new concepts are now be<strong>in</strong>g constructed (O’MAHONY,<br />
1996).<br />
More <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g to an extensive implementation throughout Europe are the <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> corridor<br />
term<strong>in</strong>als suitable also for relatively <strong>small</strong> flows. In Japan, forklift trucks are used at<br />
<strong>in</strong>termediate stops along term<strong>in</strong>als <strong>in</strong> JR Freight’s Multi-functional <strong>freight</strong> track system.<br />
Some horizontal transshipment technologies for corridor use have also been presented.<br />
Among the promis<strong>in</strong>g ones, the CarConTra<strong>in</strong> and the Kombiflex have Swedish orig<strong>in</strong>,<br />
while the Mondiso Rail Term<strong>in</strong>al is Dutch.<br />
6.1.3 Term<strong>in</strong>als for hub-and-spoke designs<br />
The chief characteristic <strong>of</strong> the hub-and-spoke design is that all consignments pass through a<br />
central term<strong>in</strong>al. Hence, this term<strong>in</strong>al has to accommodate an extensive flow <strong>of</strong> goods. It is<br />
therefore <strong>of</strong> paramount importance that the hub term<strong>in</strong>al has a large capacity and that it is<br />
able to <strong>of</strong>fer short handl<strong>in</strong>g times. As is true for the corridor design, semi-trailers can only<br />
be used if transshipment times are kept short. Only rail-rail transshipment takes place at the<br />
hub term<strong>in</strong>al imply<strong>in</strong>g that it is actually not a true <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>al. The satellite term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
can be conventional ones with gantry cranes and forklift trucks.<br />
127
France is the archetype <strong>of</strong> a hub-and-spoke system, not only when <strong>transportation</strong> is concerned.<br />
A hub-and-spoke network is then almost axiomatic, and CNC 81 operates such a<br />
network (NIERAT, 1995/a, p. 10). Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, the French are lead<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>development</strong><br />
with Technicatome’s gigantic Commutor system, but they are be<strong>in</strong>g challenged by German<br />
Noell with the Mega Hub Concept, by Austrian Pentaplan with the High Capacity Term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
and by Swiss Tuchschmid with the Compact Term<strong>in</strong>al. The latter <strong>development</strong> schemes<br />
also aim at the emerg<strong>in</strong>g market for gateway term<strong>in</strong>als for transshipments between tra<strong>in</strong>s<br />
operat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> different network modules while the Commutor only operates with purposebuilt<br />
wagons that make the technology less feasible as a gateway term<strong>in</strong>al.<br />
6.1.4 Term<strong>in</strong>als for fixed routes<br />
A fixed route design faces roughly the same requirements as a corridor one, but on a<br />
<strong>small</strong>er <strong>scale</strong>. Short tra<strong>in</strong> to tra<strong>in</strong> transshipment times at gateway term<strong>in</strong>als, or alternatively<br />
marshall<strong>in</strong>g so that the last wagons <strong>in</strong> the tra<strong>in</strong> are to be decoupled at marshall<strong>in</strong>g yards, are<br />
therefore a crucial requirement. However, it is generally difficult to plan such routes that<br />
the last wagon is always the one to be decoupled. In order to make this design feasible, it is<br />
therefore necessary to restrict the types <strong>of</strong> ITU admitted or to employ a handl<strong>in</strong>g technology<br />
that can accommodate all types <strong>of</strong> ITUs. Serv<strong>in</strong>g as gateways between network modules<br />
can be a future task for the traditional <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als that today are generally<br />
badly utilised dur<strong>in</strong>g the mid-day and mid-night hours.<br />
In a current <strong>development</strong> project called “Light-combi”, Swedish State Railways (SJ) <strong>in</strong>itially<br />
plans to employ forklift trucks travell<strong>in</strong>g with the tra<strong>in</strong>s and operated by the rail eng<strong>in</strong>e<br />
drivers at term<strong>in</strong>als. The services will be technologically restricted to swap bodies and<br />
conta<strong>in</strong>ers. Although the corridor network design is prioritised, also direct connections and<br />
loop tra<strong>in</strong>s will be mixed <strong>in</strong> a relatively dynamic fashion. The plans are to build 30-40<br />
<strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als that will be connected by traffic along about ten rail corridor l<strong>in</strong>es<br />
with an average length <strong>of</strong> some 600 kilometres. Each corridor will connect between five<br />
and ten <strong>small</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als (YOUNG, 1997, p. 111). The Light-combi corridors will be l<strong>in</strong>ked<br />
to the conventional “Heavy-combi” network and to <strong>in</strong>ternational l<strong>in</strong>es us<strong>in</strong>g conventional<br />
term<strong>in</strong>als as gateways (LARSSON, 1996, p. 3). The concept is further elaborated <strong>in</strong> chapter<br />
8 and <strong>in</strong> the detached appendix.<br />
81 CNC stands for Compagnie Nouvelle de Cadres and the company is SNCF’s subsidiary for conta<strong>in</strong>er transport<br />
by rail.<br />
128
6.1.5 Term<strong>in</strong>als for flexible routes<br />
In this design, the tra<strong>in</strong> sets traffic routes, along which load<strong>in</strong>g and unload<strong>in</strong>g operations<br />
are performed on several occasions. The transshipment capacity required is limited s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
only a few ITUs are handled at each term<strong>in</strong>al.<br />
Nevertheless, due to the rigidity <strong>of</strong> tra<strong>in</strong> timetables, this is currently no option for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport. With future <strong>in</strong>formation systems and enhanced availability <strong>of</strong> tracks, however,<br />
dynamic timetables are foreseen for <strong>freight</strong> tra<strong>in</strong>s.<br />
6.2 THERE ARE TECHNOLOGIES CONFORMING TO<br />
NATIONAL REQUIREMENTS!<br />
Transportation systems are designed accord<strong>in</strong>g to geographical and <strong>in</strong>frastructural conditions<br />
as well as to the demand for transport services <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> transport relations, volumes<br />
and demanded service quality. These factors are especially important for developers <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
<strong>transportation</strong> systems that must consider the preconditions for all l<strong>in</strong>ks and all<br />
nodes <strong>in</strong> the transport cha<strong>in</strong>.<br />
This study aims at analys<strong>in</strong>g whether national or Europe-wide conditions and applied policies<br />
have been prevail<strong>in</strong>g for the <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> new <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transshipment technologies.<br />
The study is demarcated to the EU countries, exclud<strong>in</strong>g Eire, Greece, Portugal and<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> but <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Norway due to its close connections to the EU, and Switzerland due to<br />
its significance for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> cross<strong>in</strong>g the Alps. For each country, current<br />
<strong>development</strong> projects are checked aga<strong>in</strong>st the prevail<strong>in</strong>g conditions and policy. The national<br />
level is chosen s<strong>in</strong>ce the railway networks and transport policies are rather national<br />
than regional. For future <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> systems, however, the significance <strong>of</strong> national borders<br />
is anticipated to decrease.<br />
The analysis is prepared us<strong>in</strong>g a set <strong>of</strong> complex data and <strong>in</strong>formation gathered through<br />
studies <strong>of</strong> numerous product brochures, scientific articles, <strong>in</strong>dustry journals and through<br />
attendance to conferences and exhibitions, all dur<strong>in</strong>g a long time <strong>of</strong> accumulated research.<br />
The topography and demography is studied <strong>in</strong> various geography books and atlases. Most<br />
<strong>of</strong> the described technologies and concepts are described <strong>in</strong> the detached appendix and literature<br />
references concern<strong>in</strong>g the specific technologies are not repeated here. The f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
<strong>in</strong> this analysis are also summarised <strong>in</strong> a table <strong>in</strong> Appendix A.<br />
The render<strong>in</strong>g is a worked up and updated version <strong>of</strong> three earlier articles (WOXENIUS et<br />
al., 1995/a and 1996; and WOXENIUS, 1996) and the co-authors <strong>of</strong> the two former articles,<br />
Johan HELLGREN, Ola KARLSSON (now HULTKRANTZ) and Lars SJÖSTEDT<br />
are herewith credited.<br />
129
6.2.1 The analysis reference model<br />
Mother nature stipulates the basic conditions for all human activities, <strong>transportation</strong> certa<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
not excluded. The pattern <strong>of</strong> mounta<strong>in</strong>s, marshes, seas, lakes and rivers <strong>in</strong>fluences the<br />
choice <strong>of</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> mode and the cost <strong>of</strong> establish<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>frastructure and transport<br />
networks. Nature has also <strong>in</strong>fluenced the geographical pattern <strong>of</strong> other human activities.<br />
Location <strong>of</strong> natural resources, the climate and the soil all <strong>in</strong>fluence where human be<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
have decided to settle and thus <strong>in</strong>directly the demand for transport services. Hence, the topography<br />
and demography <strong>of</strong> a country affect the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als both by stipulat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
possible rail l<strong>in</strong>ks, i.e. the configuration <strong>of</strong> the network, and the competitiveness <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport services. Together they determ<strong>in</strong>e the total goods flow for the term<strong>in</strong>als to<br />
handle. The theoretical base for the network configuration is presented <strong>in</strong> section 4.2.1 and<br />
the related requirements for transshipment technology were def<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the preced<strong>in</strong>g section.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to MANHEIM’s (1979, p. 13) basic relations model, the performance <strong>of</strong> the<br />
<strong>transportation</strong> system <strong>in</strong> the long term <strong>in</strong>fluences localisation <strong>of</strong> manufactur<strong>in</strong>g and other<br />
human activities. However, this long-time <strong>in</strong>terdependence is ignored <strong>in</strong> this analysis s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is only a part, and so far only a marg<strong>in</strong>al part, <strong>of</strong> the total <strong>transportation</strong><br />
system serv<strong>in</strong>g Europe.<br />
Another factor that <strong>in</strong>fluences <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> transshipment technologies is the current<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system, e.g. the structure <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>dustry and its present market.<br />
The focus <strong>of</strong> the analysis is on significant differences from what can be considered as “average”<br />
European conditions. The competition with road transport is especially emphasised.<br />
So far, European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport has generally proven to be unpr<strong>of</strong>itable for the companies<br />
<strong>in</strong>volved while the society as a whole has benefited from the limited degree <strong>of</strong> external<br />
effects related to the <strong>transportation</strong> system. In l<strong>in</strong>e with EU Directive 91/440 (The<br />
Official Journal, 1991), the national railways are now transformed <strong>in</strong>to organisations with<br />
strict bus<strong>in</strong>ess economic pr<strong>of</strong>itability goals. Hence, until the external costs have been <strong>in</strong>ternalised,<br />
publicly funded Research and Technological <strong>development</strong> and Demonstration<br />
(RTD) will cont<strong>in</strong>ue to play an important role <strong>in</strong> the design <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
systems, and particularly the <strong>in</strong>terface between the relatively mature road and rail <strong>transportation</strong><br />
modes. Most notable <strong>of</strong> these programs are arguably the European Commission’s<br />
framework programmes, but the issue is also addressed by national programmes and<br />
<strong>small</strong>er programmes run by the Commission.<br />
A reference model can thus be outl<strong>in</strong>ed. The <strong>in</strong>cluded factors are: the general preconditions,<br />
e.g. topography and demography, the current <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system regard<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>frastructure, production system and competition and governmental and EU policies<br />
for f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g RTD, <strong>in</strong>vestments and transport service operation. These factors all affect<br />
130
the general lists <strong>of</strong> functional requirements for new term<strong>in</strong>al technologies that apply to each<br />
country or the EU as a whole. Of course, the lists l<strong>in</strong>ed out here are restricted to a logical<br />
analysis at a general level; the lists actually guid<strong>in</strong>g technology <strong>development</strong> might be quite<br />
different <strong>in</strong> s<strong>in</strong>gle cases. F<strong>in</strong>ally, country by country, a number <strong>of</strong> <strong>development</strong> projects are<br />
compared to the special features expected to guide the <strong>development</strong>. The model is graphically<br />
presented <strong>in</strong> the figure below.<br />
General<br />
preconditions<br />
Topography<br />
Demography<br />
Current<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport system<br />
Infrastructure<br />
Production system<br />
Market situation<br />
Government<br />
and EU<br />
policies<br />
R&D<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ancial<br />
support<br />
Deduced requirements<br />
for new term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
technologies<br />
Correspondence?<br />
Development<br />
projects<br />
Figure 6-2<br />
The reference model guid<strong>in</strong>g the analysis.<br />
A similar approach is taken by BUKOLD (1996) when mapp<strong>in</strong>g the genesis <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport <strong>in</strong> Germany, France and the Netherlands, but as it was published after the orig<strong>in</strong>al<br />
version <strong>of</strong> the present study; it has not been a formal <strong>in</strong>fluence. In the rest <strong>of</strong> this chapter,<br />
the reference model is applied to a number <strong>of</strong> European countries that are listed <strong>in</strong> a purely<br />
geographical order, start<strong>in</strong>g from the north.<br />
6.2.2 Norway<br />
Norway is largely mounta<strong>in</strong>ous with a large number <strong>of</strong> fjords and <strong>in</strong>lets that cut <strong>in</strong>land from<br />
the coast and the w<strong>in</strong>ter climate is extremely harsh. Rail transport to the northern parts goes<br />
through Sweden because the Norwegian national rail network misses a l<strong>in</strong>k to the far North.<br />
This means that nature dictates a hub-and-spoke structure or a corridor with rather long<br />
feeder l<strong>in</strong>ks. The topography also implies that coastal shipp<strong>in</strong>g is competitive. In addition<br />
to the barren topography, the scarcity <strong>of</strong> population means that <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is only<br />
feasible <strong>in</strong> some areas. Any fund<strong>in</strong>g programme for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> technology <strong>development</strong><br />
has not been identified dur<strong>in</strong>g this study and much <strong>of</strong> the research related to Norwegian<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport concerns commercial issues and how to connect Norway to<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ental Europe (e.g. BJÖRNLAND, 1993; BRYNE and LJUNGHILL, 1995 and TØI,<br />
1989). In short, the preconditions <strong>in</strong> Norway do not favour <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport.<br />
Any concept dedicated to the Norwegian <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system must facilitate<br />
<strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> handl<strong>in</strong>g and a low fixed to variable cost ratio. Coastal shipp<strong>in</strong>g and the harsh<br />
131
climate must also be taken <strong>in</strong>to account <strong>in</strong> the design process. These problematic conditions<br />
together with the <strong>small</strong> domestic market are constra<strong>in</strong>ts lead<strong>in</strong>g to the fact that the Norwegians<br />
have not come up with any important <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport technologies. However,<br />
the Norwegians are not technology unfriendly and some systems developed <strong>in</strong> other countries<br />
have been commercially implemented or tested, e.g. a bimodal system (HINDLEY,<br />
1992, p. 73) and the <strong>small</strong>-box concept LLB. Moreover, dur<strong>in</strong>g the autumn <strong>of</strong> 1996 Swedish<br />
State Railways (SJ) ran commercial tests with a roll<strong>in</strong>g highway service aim<strong>in</strong>g at Norwegian<br />
lorries transit<strong>in</strong>g Sweden but the service did not prove to be particularly successful<br />
(see section 5.2.1).<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce there are neither good preconditions for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport nor any important<br />
achievement when technology <strong>development</strong> is concerned, it could be stated that there is a<br />
correspondence accord<strong>in</strong>g to the analysis model.<br />
6.2.3 F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
F<strong>in</strong>land is situated on the eastern side <strong>of</strong> the Gulf <strong>of</strong> Bothnia, which means that most connections<br />
to and from Western Europe comprise a sea leg. Therefore, a multimodal system<br />
(road-rail-sea) is <strong>of</strong>ten required. On the <strong>in</strong>frastructure side, the wider gauge <strong>of</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish rail<br />
tracks means that there is no use transport<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport wagons between F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
and Western Europe 82 . A large part <strong>of</strong> the flow between F<strong>in</strong>land and Cont<strong>in</strong>ental Europe<br />
goes through Sweden strengthen<strong>in</strong>g the importance <strong>of</strong> multimodal adaptation due to the<br />
second sea leg still needed. Much <strong>of</strong> the flows concerns forest products generally better<br />
suited for conventional rail transport and shipp<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Due to the paucity <strong>of</strong> population, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport only exists <strong>in</strong> some regions <strong>in</strong><br />
F<strong>in</strong>land. In addition, the large size <strong>of</strong> lorries – 22 m and 56 metric tons – further reduces the<br />
competitiveness <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport and yield lorries that are not adapted for carry<strong>in</strong>g<br />
unit loads. However, after enter<strong>in</strong>g the EU, F<strong>in</strong>land and Sweden have agreed to <strong>in</strong>crease the<br />
permissible vehicle length to 25.25 m <strong>in</strong> 2003 <strong>in</strong> order to make it easier for foreign hauliers<br />
to compete domestically <strong>in</strong> Scand<strong>in</strong>avia. As described <strong>in</strong> section 5.1.4, the new rules favour<br />
lorry configurations based upon unit loads more then the present rules.<br />
Furthermore, the F<strong>in</strong>ns are earnest <strong>in</strong> their <strong>in</strong>tention to serve as the ma<strong>in</strong> gateway to Russia<br />
and the Far East by the Trans-Siberian railway. The long experience <strong>of</strong> trad<strong>in</strong>g with the<br />
Russians makes the transport route via St Petersburg and the Port <strong>of</strong> Kotka very <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
until new and efficient rail l<strong>in</strong>ks have been built directly between Russia and Western<br />
82 The bogies <strong>of</strong> conventional <strong>freight</strong> wagons, however, are exchanged at the border <strong>in</strong> Haparanda/Tornio and<br />
<strong>in</strong> the port <strong>of</strong> Turku/Åbo <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land. The latter <strong>in</strong>vestment has enjoyed fund<strong>in</strong>g from the EU PACT Programme<br />
(European Commission, 1996/b, p. 33).<br />
132
Europe. The gateway role has led to a concentration to ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers that are suitable for<br />
<strong>transportation</strong> <strong>in</strong> Russia and can be used for sea transport directly to markets overseas.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>land’s geography calls for transshipment technologies that are suited for transshipment<br />
between the vehicles and vessels used <strong>in</strong> road, rail and sea <strong>transportation</strong>. The focus on<br />
ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers calls for equipment that is specially adapted to that unit load. The modest<br />
population <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land, however, implies that there is no demand for high-capacity equipment.<br />
The F<strong>in</strong>ns have been quite active <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> technologies. Technologies that<br />
have been developed <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land <strong>in</strong>clude the port-to-port cassette system Rolux, which has<br />
been proposed to be extended <strong>in</strong>to the truly multimodal Wheelless System. Moreover, the<br />
Biglo side-load<strong>in</strong>g trailer and Partek’s Multilift (<strong>in</strong> cha<strong>in</strong>-lift and hook-lift versions) address<br />
the demand for road-to-ground transshipment <strong>of</strong> ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers <strong>in</strong> <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> operations.<br />
The technologies can also be used for <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> horizontal road-rail transshipment.<br />
In fact, Partek has co-operated with F<strong>in</strong>nish State Railways (VR) <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g the cha<strong>in</strong>lift<br />
version <strong>of</strong> their Multilift <strong>in</strong>to the TTT-system, a concept where ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers and swap<br />
bodies are transshipped horizontally between a lorry and a purpose-built railway wagon.<br />
The developed technologies match the established specification well. In addition, the F<strong>in</strong>nish<br />
supply <strong>in</strong>dustry has presented the Tiphook system for horizontal semi-trailer transshipment,<br />
however developed for UK conditions (see more <strong>in</strong> the UK section below).<br />
6.2.4 Sweden<br />
As is true for all Nordic countries, Sweden’s <strong>small</strong> population dictates that <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport is not feasible <strong>in</strong> all areas. However, as Sweden is oblong, the distances required<br />
for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> competitiveness are present between several <strong>of</strong> the largest cities. Swedish<br />
road regulations permit even larger vehicles than the F<strong>in</strong>nish ones – 24 metres and 60 metric<br />
tons is allowed – which further reduces the competitiveness <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. Articulated<br />
lorries today dom<strong>in</strong>ate Swedish domestic road transport but as mentioned <strong>in</strong> the<br />
section above, Sweden and F<strong>in</strong>land have agreed to change the road regulation <strong>in</strong>to one that<br />
favours road vehicle comb<strong>in</strong>ations us<strong>in</strong>g ITUs.<br />
SJ with subsidiaries dom<strong>in</strong>ates the production <strong>of</strong> the core <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> service. Small private<br />
hauliers generally operate the local road haulage activity and some term<strong>in</strong>als are privately<br />
owned. Nevertheless, SJ’s monopoly on the ma<strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>es is now challenged by the private<br />
railway company BK Tåg that launches a new <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>er service between Karlstad<br />
and Göteborg <strong>in</strong> March 1998 (Göteborgsposten, 1998, p. 11).<br />
Swedish national RTD policy aims at stimulat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> technologies suitable for<br />
low-density demand and for short sea shipp<strong>in</strong>g. This is <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e with Sweden’s limited popu-<br />
133
lation and pen<strong>in</strong>sular lie, although the importance <strong>of</strong> the latter fact will be dim<strong>in</strong>ished once<br />
the Öresund Bridge is f<strong>in</strong>ished <strong>in</strong> the year 2000. The directive to a parliamentary committee<br />
for analysis <strong>of</strong> the future <strong>of</strong> Swedish <strong>transportation</strong> revealed a desire for stronger governmental<br />
<strong>in</strong>volvement and the establishment <strong>of</strong> further <strong>in</strong>tegration between the <strong>transportation</strong><br />
modes as well as <strong>in</strong>creased environmental concern. The committee proposed measures for<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternalis<strong>in</strong>g external costs, that is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the tax assessment <strong>of</strong> road traffic (Kommunikationskommittén,<br />
1997), but the committee report was badly received by virtually all bodies<br />
to which it was referred for consideration. The issue <strong>of</strong> fuel taxes is truly delicate – not<br />
least s<strong>in</strong>ce diesel taxes negatively <strong>in</strong>fluence the competitiveness <strong>of</strong> the Swedish export <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />
– and the government bill based upon the committee proposal does not <strong>in</strong>clude any<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> taxation.<br />
The most notable factors that <strong>in</strong>fluence the <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> transshipment technologies <strong>in</strong><br />
Sweden are the limited population density, which means that technologies for low-density<br />
flows are needed, and the pen<strong>in</strong>sular position, which means that short sea shipp<strong>in</strong>g and ferries<br />
need to be <strong>in</strong>tegrated <strong>in</strong>to the operations. The first factor is more generally prevail<strong>in</strong>g<br />
than the second, and therefore most <strong>development</strong> projects have been aimed <strong>in</strong> that direction.<br />
Besides several versions <strong>of</strong> counter-balanced trucks, Swedish low-capacity technologies<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude Kombiflex, CarConTra<strong>in</strong> PLUS, the Stenhagen System, C-sam and a special conta<strong>in</strong>er<br />
technology for dry bulk material <strong>transportation</strong>. Other, now abolished examples are<br />
the C-sam 83 <strong>small</strong> box system and Supertrans. The multimodal TITAN cassette system proposed<br />
by Chalmers University <strong>of</strong> Technology addresses both <strong>small</strong> <strong>scale</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> and<br />
the pen<strong>in</strong>sular lie, while HIAB’s hook-lift and different brands <strong>of</strong> side-load<strong>in</strong>g trailers, focus<br />
on serv<strong>in</strong>g the short and deep sea shipp<strong>in</strong>g markets with h<strong>in</strong>terland distribution. Furthermore,<br />
FlexiWaggon, a twist<strong>in</strong>g roll<strong>in</strong>g highway wagon designed for the com<strong>in</strong>g 25.25<br />
m vehicles, and Berglund’s G2000 RoRo are new <strong>development</strong>s <strong>of</strong> roll<strong>in</strong>g stock with <strong>in</strong>ternal<br />
handl<strong>in</strong>g aim<strong>in</strong>g for the <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> market.<br />
Despite the fact that <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transshipment technology has<br />
been governmentally sponsored through the general programme for technology <strong>development</strong>,<br />
SJ’s <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport company Rail Combi <strong>in</strong>sists <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>vest<strong>in</strong>g largely <strong>in</strong> conventional<br />
term<strong>in</strong>al technology – by SJ referred to as Heavy-combi. At the staff level, however,<br />
SJ has presented ideas for a <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the use<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>small</strong> counter balanced trucks and new domestic conta<strong>in</strong>ers (NELLDAL, 1994). Moreover,<br />
as described <strong>in</strong> section 6.1.4, 7.3, chapter 8 and <strong>in</strong> the detached appendix, SJ runs a<br />
<strong>development</strong> project l<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g up the schemes for a Light-combi system for geographical outreach<br />
and as a complement to the large-<strong>scale</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> system. The prelim<strong>in</strong>ary plans<br />
83 Also sold under the brand names LLB, M<strong>in</strong>i-l<strong>in</strong>k and Maxi-l<strong>in</strong>k.<br />
134
comprise 30-40 term<strong>in</strong>als cover<strong>in</strong>g most parts <strong>of</strong> Sweden with <strong>in</strong>ternational connections<br />
available through term<strong>in</strong>als <strong>in</strong> Oslo, Trondheim and Haparanda/Tornio, several Swedish<br />
ports and a gateway term<strong>in</strong>al <strong>in</strong> Malmö.<br />
In general, the Swedish <strong>in</strong>ventions contribute to solv<strong>in</strong>g the special needs for the Swedish<br />
market but have also attracted attention from foreign markets s<strong>in</strong>ce the conditions that for<br />
long have been prevalent <strong>in</strong> Sweden are rather congruent with those for future <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong><br />
network modules <strong>in</strong> other European countries.<br />
6.2.5 Denmark<br />
From a <strong>transportation</strong> po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view, the dom<strong>in</strong>ant geographical feature <strong>of</strong> Denmark is its<br />
position as a gateway between the rest <strong>of</strong> the Nordic countries and cont<strong>in</strong>ental Europe. In<br />
addition, Denmark <strong>in</strong> itself is too <strong>small</strong> for substantial domestic <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, which<br />
further strengthens its role as a transit country. Ma<strong>in</strong>ly for the same reason, rail cargo services<br />
<strong>in</strong> general are <strong>in</strong> severe trouble. Another dom<strong>in</strong>ant feature is Denmark’s abundance <strong>of</strong><br />
islands, which means that all transit transport will comprise at least one ferry leg until the<br />
fixed connections over the Great Belt and Öresund are completed 84 . For Danish road transport,<br />
the dom<strong>in</strong>ant market feature is that articulated lorries are more frequently used than<br />
semi-trailers.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce 1990, the Transport M<strong>in</strong>istry has f<strong>in</strong>anced 17 research projects related to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport through its Transport Council (European Commission, 1996/b, p. 37). None <strong>of</strong><br />
these, however, have come up with important technological solutions.<br />
As is the case with Norway, Denmark has not established itself on the map <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport technology <strong>in</strong>ventions. However, a <strong>small</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>er service called +box was tried<br />
but is now discont<strong>in</strong>ued, reportedly 85 after a patent dispute with the Swedish company Lagab<br />
over the similarity to their C-sam concept. Moreover, a commercial service employ<strong>in</strong>g<br />
bimodal technology connects Denmark with Italy. The cargo – meat southbound and vegetables<br />
northbound – calls for refrigerated units and the project <strong>in</strong>dicates that the Danish <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport <strong>in</strong>dustry is open for new technologies. The role as gateway for the other<br />
Scand<strong>in</strong>avian countries also means that some technology adaptations are needed.<br />
The conclusion for Denmark is as for Norway – no real potential and no important achievements.<br />
84 The rail tunnel under the Great Belt opened for operations on 1 June 1997, while the bridge for road traffic is<br />
due on 14 June 1998 (OHLSEN, www-site, 1998). The Öresund bridge will connect Denmark and Sweden<br />
early <strong>in</strong> the year 2000 (UIRR, 1997, p. 11).<br />
85 TORKELSSON, telephone <strong>in</strong>terview, 1997.<br />
135
6.2.6 Germany<br />
Despite high costs for the east-west reunion, Germany is still the economic hub <strong>of</strong> Europe.<br />
This means that a major demand for transport services is generated with<strong>in</strong> the country. The<br />
fact that Germany is the world’s number one export country adds to the huge demand for<br />
goods transport. In addition, Germany’s geographical position <strong>in</strong> the heart <strong>of</strong> Europe means<br />
that a lot <strong>of</strong> transit traffic flows through the country<br />
Topographically, Germany is flat <strong>in</strong> the north and <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly mounta<strong>in</strong>ous <strong>in</strong> the south.<br />
The large flows <strong>of</strong> German <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport means that the traffic to a large extent can<br />
be arranged as direct connections, but the <strong>in</strong>dustry concentration along the river Rh<strong>in</strong>e and<br />
other <strong>in</strong>land waterways makes a corridor layout feasible. Integrat<strong>in</strong>g road, rail and <strong>in</strong>land<br />
waterways is obviously a task for German <strong>transportation</strong> system designers.<br />
Furthermore, Germany is heavily populated with <strong>in</strong>dustry particularly concentrated to areas<br />
such as the Ruhr. This means that space for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als is limited and, due to road<br />
congestion, the size <strong>of</strong> pick-up areas is rather determ<strong>in</strong>ed by haulage time than distance.<br />
The size <strong>of</strong> the German <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport market means that RTD on transshipment<br />
technology is largely market-driven and therefore governmental RTD policies less consequential.<br />
Nevertheless, some technologies have emerged through governmental sponsor<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ly through a programme <strong>in</strong> the late 1970’s. Moreover, German <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport<br />
has benefited from substantial economic help for term<strong>in</strong>al <strong>in</strong>vestments, i.e. the demand side<br />
<strong>of</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport term<strong>in</strong>al equipment market is sponsored rather than the supply<br />
side. An example is the project, “Technologieplattform 2000+” that has attracted governmental<br />
fund<strong>in</strong>g after an <strong>in</strong>itiative from the lead<strong>in</strong>g transport and term<strong>in</strong>al operators: DB<br />
AG, Kombiverkehr, Transfracht and Deutsche Umschlaggesellschaft Schiene-Strasse<br />
(DUSS). The project aims at <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the productivity <strong>in</strong> all l<strong>in</strong>ks <strong>in</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport<br />
cha<strong>in</strong> (HAASS, 1996).<br />
Further political <strong>in</strong>itiatives <strong>in</strong>fluence the <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> the German <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
network. An obvious one is to fully <strong>in</strong>tegrate the eastern parts <strong>of</strong> Germany <strong>in</strong>to the network,<br />
which requires large-<strong>scale</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestments <strong>in</strong> new term<strong>in</strong>al equipment. The government <strong>in</strong>vestment<br />
plans for 1996-2012 amounts to about DM 4.1 billion (ECU 2.1 billion) for construction<br />
<strong>of</strong> new transshipment term<strong>in</strong>als and improvement <strong>of</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g ones (LARSSON,<br />
1996, p. 2). Accord<strong>in</strong>g to SEIDELMANN (1996), the clearly def<strong>in</strong>ed aim is to <strong>in</strong>crease the<br />
amount <strong>of</strong> goods moved by <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport from 30 million tons today to 90 million<br />
tons <strong>in</strong> 2010. Together with Deutsche Bank, the government has released DM 400 million<br />
(ECU 200 million) for construct<strong>in</strong>g seven new <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als with DM 200 million<br />
(ECU 100 million) <strong>in</strong> reserve (O’MAHONY, 1996, p. 39).<br />
136
The high population density and concentration <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>in</strong> Germany mean that transshipment<br />
technologies need to be suitable for fast transshipments along corridors. Term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
operations should also be possible on <strong>small</strong> term<strong>in</strong>al surfaces. Another requirement is that<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegration with <strong>in</strong>land waterways should be possible s<strong>in</strong>ce these have the potential for carry<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a significant transport volume.<br />
German transshipment technologies that facilitate fast transshipment <strong>in</strong> a corridor network<br />
with limited space requirements, <strong>in</strong>clude Noell’s Fast Transshipment System and the Mega<br />
Hub Concept, Krupp’s Fast Handl<strong>in</strong>g System (FHS), Thyssen’s Conta<strong>in</strong>er-Transport-<br />
System (<strong>development</strong> discont<strong>in</strong>ued) and Mannesmann’s Transmann. The governmentally<br />
funded build<strong>in</strong>g scheme mentioned above <strong>in</strong>cludes Krupp FHS <strong>in</strong> Dresden, Transmann <strong>in</strong><br />
Erfurt 86 and Noell’s Mega Hub Concept <strong>in</strong> Lehrte (O’MAHONY, 1996, p. 39).<br />
The <strong>development</strong> programme <strong>of</strong> the late 1970’s resulted <strong>in</strong> a large number <strong>of</strong> technologies,<br />
none <strong>of</strong> which are used <strong>in</strong> German <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport today, s<strong>in</strong>ce they do not meet the<br />
requirement <strong>of</strong> fast transshipment. DEMAG presented a variant <strong>of</strong> the conventional gantry<br />
crane able to transship conta<strong>in</strong>ers and swap bodies under the overhead contact l<strong>in</strong>e, a solution<br />
also advocated by Aachen University <strong>of</strong> Technology. More outspoken <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong><br />
technologies <strong>in</strong>clude the R<strong>in</strong>ger System, LogMan’s Conta<strong>in</strong>er FTS, the Hochste<strong>in</strong> System,<br />
Umschlagfahrzeuge Schwanhäuser/Lässig (ULS) and the Wieskötter System.<br />
Small-<strong>scale</strong> transshipment technologies also <strong>in</strong>clude various bimodal concepts as well as<br />
rail wagons equipped for lift<strong>in</strong>g swap bodies like ABB’s WAS-wagon and Mercedes Benz’<br />
Kombi-Lifter. Roland-System Schiene-Strasse (RSS) aims at horizontal transshipment<br />
(turntable wagons) <strong>of</strong> bulk conta<strong>in</strong>ers with low-value cargo, and Entwicklungsteam Kölker-<br />
Thiele’s ALS is an <strong>in</strong>novative device for transshipp<strong>in</strong>g semi-trailers horizontally between a<br />
platform and dedicated rail wagons by use <strong>of</strong> caterpillar treads.<br />
Moreover, German <strong>development</strong> <strong>in</strong>cludes new unit loads and <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> vehicles. Stackable<br />
swap bodies have been developed for the purpose <strong>of</strong> stack<strong>in</strong>g at term<strong>in</strong>als, easier handl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
with top-lift spreaders and also for <strong>in</strong>tegration with navigation on <strong>in</strong>land waterways<br />
(SEIDELMANN and FRITZCHE, 1993, p. 11). DB Cargo has also marketed a <strong>small</strong>-box<br />
system, Logistikbox but the commercial <strong>development</strong> has reportedly been halted. DB<br />
Cargo’s CargoSpr<strong>in</strong>ter is a diesel-powered tra<strong>in</strong> module designed for flexible use <strong>of</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
network.<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> the many transshipment technologies developed <strong>in</strong> Germany are <strong>in</strong> accordance<br />
with the established specification.<br />
86 The construction <strong>of</strong> the Transmann has later been abolished and Krupp’s contract has been changed <strong>in</strong>to<br />
plann<strong>in</strong>g for a term<strong>in</strong>al near Essen (DE BOCK, E-mail message, 1998).<br />
137
6.2.7 Benelux<br />
The Benelux countries are, with the exception <strong>of</strong> the Ardennes region <strong>in</strong> the southeast, flat<br />
and populous. In addition, they are not large enough to warrant significant domestic <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport, especially apparent <strong>in</strong> the case <strong>of</strong> Luxembourg. Instead, the ma<strong>in</strong> source <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport demand is the h<strong>in</strong>terland transport by rail or <strong>in</strong>land waterways <strong>of</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>ers<br />
that flow through the major seaports <strong>in</strong> the area. Of these, Rotterdam is a traditional<br />
road-port and Antwerp is a traditional rail-port (DE LEIJER, 1995, p. 1). The <strong>small</strong> volumes<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>in</strong> the Benelux is slightly mislead<strong>in</strong>g s<strong>in</strong>ce many hauliers pass<br />
the borders on rubber wheels and enter <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> services at foreign term<strong>in</strong>als (ibid., p. 2).<br />
German policies for support<strong>in</strong>g DB AG and the German conta<strong>in</strong>er ports also restrict the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
flows <strong>in</strong> the Benelux countries.<br />
The Dutch government has launched a large programme support<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport –<br />
NLG 160 million (ECU 73 million) have been earmarked for develop<strong>in</strong>g the term<strong>in</strong>al network<br />
until 1999. Additional NLG 20 million (ECU 9 million) are dedicated to promote <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport dur<strong>in</strong>g the same period (M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Transport <strong>in</strong> the Netherlands, 1994).<br />
Still, the road lobby is very strong (BUKOLD, 1996, p. 143). With the high number <strong>of</strong><br />
maritime conta<strong>in</strong>ers and the widespread network <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>land waterways, the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> concept<br />
is wide <strong>in</strong> scope <strong>in</strong> the Netherlands. Term<strong>in</strong>als for transshipments between <strong>in</strong>land waterways<br />
and other modes <strong>of</strong> transport are emerg<strong>in</strong>g rapidly. The current term<strong>in</strong>al <strong>in</strong>vestments<br />
are divided <strong>in</strong>to three levels, <strong>of</strong> which the lowest is a concern for local authorities<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>g less co-ord<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>in</strong> the network (BUKOLD, 1996, p. 148 and DE LEIJER, 1995,<br />
p. 4).<br />
The Belgian situation is unclear, and revitalisation <strong>of</strong> the Belgian State Railways (SNCB)<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ues <strong>in</strong> a slow pace. Another national feature is that <strong>in</strong>vestments <strong>in</strong> the rail <strong>transportation</strong><br />
system <strong>of</strong> Belgium are not based upon SNCB needs, but decided upon by the regions<br />
and based upon a 60/40 distribution between Flanders and Walloon (DE LEIJER, 1995, p.<br />
3). The Belgian UIRR-company T.R.W. and the conta<strong>in</strong>er company Interferry do <strong>in</strong>vestments<br />
<strong>in</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als.<br />
Luxembourg has one term<strong>in</strong>al and for obvious reasons <strong>small</strong> and purely <strong>in</strong>ternational flows,<br />
yet the country is represented with<strong>in</strong> the UIRR by Combilux.<br />
To handle h<strong>in</strong>terland <strong>transportation</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Benelux, transshipment technologies need to be<br />
adapted to ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers. In addition, the transshipment technologies need to function<br />
well with <strong>in</strong>land waterways and make efficient port handl<strong>in</strong>g possible. The <strong>small</strong> size <strong>of</strong> the<br />
countries implies that <strong>in</strong>ternational standards should be obeyed. Especially Dutch road<br />
138
hauliers are famous for be<strong>in</strong>g cheap and efficient 87 and semi-trailers dom<strong>in</strong>ate road transport<br />
<strong>in</strong> the region (see Table 5-3). Nevertheless, ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers and swap bodies dom<strong>in</strong>ate<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> flows (DE LEIJER, 1995, p. 1).<br />
Dutch companies dom<strong>in</strong>ate the <strong>in</strong>novation <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> technologies <strong>in</strong> the region. Efficient<br />
seaport handl<strong>in</strong>g is achieved by the ECT/Delta Sea-Land System. However, the large<br />
amount <strong>of</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>ers generates substantial amounts <strong>of</strong> traffic to the port area and the urban<br />
area suffers from pollution and congestion (BUKOLD, 1996, p. 145 and KING, 1998, p.<br />
59). In order to decrease these problems, ECT – the company that operates the conta<strong>in</strong>er<br />
port – plans an <strong>in</strong>novative new <strong>in</strong>frastructure. The <strong>in</strong>frastructure – CombiRoad – will be<br />
used for mov<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>terface to road, rail and barge traffic from the actual port area<br />
(HEERE, 1997 and LEYN, 1995) and <strong>in</strong> the long run perhaps also for connect<strong>in</strong>g the ports<br />
<strong>of</strong> Rotterdam and Antwerp.<br />
The Coda-E bimodal system 88 and the <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> a domestic <strong>small</strong>-conta<strong>in</strong>er (10-foot)<br />
system – Rail Distributie Nederland – for flowers and vegetables are examples <strong>of</strong> road-rail<br />
technologies, the latter a contradiction to the fact that the Netherlands is geographically<br />
<strong>small</strong>. In addition to these, the Abroll Conta<strong>in</strong>er Transport System (ACTS) and an <strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
plane technology, N.C.H. ISO 2000/4000, have been developed for the special needs for<br />
transshipment and distribution generated by ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers. The manufacturer <strong>of</strong> the latter<br />
technology has also come up with an idea <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrat<strong>in</strong>g transport on roads, tracks and<br />
<strong>in</strong>land waterways <strong>in</strong> the Mondiso Intermodal Transportation System. Besides N.C.H. ISO<br />
2000/4000, the system comprises the horizontal road-rail transshipment equipment<br />
Mondiso Rail Term<strong>in</strong>al and barges equipped with onboard gantry cranes (N.C.H. Hydraulic<br />
Systems, video, 1995). Further Dutch <strong>in</strong>novations for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport on <strong>in</strong>land waterways<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude an automatic barge load<strong>in</strong>g system – the Rollerbarge – proposed by cooperat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
consultants (HUIJSMAN, conference presentation, 1995) and a barge cha<strong>in</strong> concept<br />
with the appropriate name the River Snake (RUTTEN, 1995, p. 88).<br />
Also <strong>in</strong> the case <strong>of</strong> the Benelux, the correspondence between the national requirements and<br />
the actually developed technologies is satisfactory.<br />
6.2.8 The UK<br />
Although rail transport was <strong>in</strong>vented <strong>in</strong> the UK, politicians are generally considered to have<br />
an anti-rail attitude (SUTCLIFFE, 1995, p. 9). In addition, much <strong>of</strong> the rail network can be<br />
87 In 1990, Dutch hauliers transported 27% (<strong>in</strong> tonkm) <strong>of</strong> border-cross<strong>in</strong>g road transport with<strong>in</strong> the EU, whereas<br />
the Netherlands only accounts for 5% <strong>of</strong> its Gross National Product (BUKOLD, 1996, p. 143).<br />
88 The Coda-E project has received fund<strong>in</strong>g from EUREKA – an action at the European level, however without<br />
direct EU fund<strong>in</strong>g (European Commission, 1996/b, p. 36).<br />
139
seen as be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> less than m<strong>in</strong>t condition. The UK also differs from cont<strong>in</strong>ental Europe <strong>in</strong><br />
that it has a severely limited load<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>of</strong>ile on rail, which means that semi-trailers and<br />
some swap bodies have to be limited <strong>in</strong> height to be rail-transportable. This is a serious<br />
problem to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport s<strong>in</strong>ce semi-trailers heavily dom<strong>in</strong>ate road transport <strong>in</strong> Brita<strong>in</strong><br />
(see Table 5-3). Nevertheless, the Channel Tunnel has lead to a boost for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport based upon conta<strong>in</strong>ers and lower swap bodies <strong>of</strong> semi-trailer length.<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> problem that dictates the specification for transshipment technologies <strong>in</strong> the UK<br />
is, accord<strong>in</strong>gly, the need for equipment that allows <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport with semi-trailers<br />
<strong>of</strong> standard size. Consequently, current RTD policy is aimed at mak<strong>in</strong>g piggyback transport<br />
possible on the exist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>frastructure. An obvious alternative to <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the tunnel and<br />
bridge clearances is to adapt either the semi-trailers or the rail wagons to lett<strong>in</strong>g the comb<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
carriage use the exist<strong>in</strong>g rail network. In addition, the Channel tunnel places specific<br />
demands on the technology that is to be used <strong>in</strong> connection with this traffic.<br />
Technologies that address the ma<strong>in</strong> problem <strong>in</strong>clude the Tiphook System (developed <strong>in</strong><br />
F<strong>in</strong>land and now abolished) <strong>in</strong> which semi-trailers with slightly cut upper corners were<br />
used. Also the bimodal technology Trailer Tra<strong>in</strong> presented by the British company Tiger<br />
and the restricted-pr<strong>of</strong>ile wagons EuroSp<strong>in</strong>e by Thrall and the Piglet by Powell Duffryn<br />
Rail Projects, as described <strong>in</strong> sections 5.1.3 and 5.2.6, address the problems related to semitrailers.<br />
Also some <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> systems have emerged <strong>in</strong> the UK. British Rail (BR)<br />
tested the Swedish CarConTra<strong>in</strong> concept and has come up with the similar technologies the<br />
Self-Load<strong>in</strong>g Vehicle and a rail wagon with elevat<strong>in</strong>g twistlocks, which operates together<br />
with a lorry with a roller trolley. The similarity to the CarConTra<strong>in</strong> lies <strong>in</strong> that they propose<br />
solutions for horizontal transshipment <strong>of</strong> ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers. Also Blatchford’s Stag technology<br />
addresses this issue, but the solution is a side-load<strong>in</strong>g equipment mounted on a semitrailer.<br />
Furthermore, Cholerton Ltd <strong>of</strong> Isle <strong>of</strong> Man has come up with Shwople, a term<strong>in</strong>al equipment<br />
built between the tracks for the purpose <strong>of</strong> lift<strong>in</strong>g semi-trailers and sw<strong>in</strong>g them perpendicular<br />
to the tracks for semi-trailer tractor handl<strong>in</strong>g. Other than that, a roll<strong>in</strong>g highway<br />
technology is used for the Channel tunnel traffic. So far it is limited to the core tunnel distance<br />
that has a very generous load<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>of</strong>ile as shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 5-1.<br />
In all, the British attempts are reasonably congruent with the logically deduced requirements.<br />
140
6.2.9 France<br />
The French rail network is – as is much <strong>of</strong> the society as a whole – largely centred on Paris,<br />
which assumes the function <strong>of</strong> a national hub. In the different regions, very different preconditions<br />
exist. The country’s topography ranges from pla<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> the north to the extremely<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong>ous Southwest and Southeast. Industrial regions coexist with purely rural regions<br />
as well as regions dependent on tourism. France also serves as a transit country for transports<br />
to Italy as well as to the Iberian Pen<strong>in</strong>sula, where a wider rail gauge is employed.<br />
The <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system <strong>of</strong> France is today much <strong>of</strong> a domestic phenomenon.<br />
This is illustrated by the fact that the French UIRR-company Novatrans was accountable<br />
for 22% <strong>of</strong> the consignments transported domestically by the UIRR companies <strong>in</strong> 1996, but<br />
only for 7% <strong>of</strong> the consignments moved <strong>in</strong>ternationally (UIRR, 1997, p. 9). Two facts,<br />
however, keep the statistics <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> moves on French tracks lower than<br />
they actually are. First, most <strong>of</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> traffic cross<strong>in</strong>g French borders can be referred<br />
to as transit between Germany and the Iberian Pen<strong>in</strong>sula (AGUADO, 1995), traffic<br />
that does not show up <strong>in</strong> Novatrans statistics. Second, French trade with Germany and the<br />
Benelux countries <strong>of</strong>ten conta<strong>in</strong>s one domestic <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport service, but due to lack<br />
<strong>of</strong> technical and <strong>in</strong>frastructural standards the goods passes the border on rubber wheels.<br />
French State Railways (SNCF) enjoys a strong position <strong>in</strong> the French society. The <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
RTD policy, <strong>of</strong> which SNCF is responsible for a large part, is aimed at develop<strong>in</strong>g fast<br />
and large-<strong>scale</strong> transshipment technologies, which is consistent with the hub-and-spoke<br />
structure <strong>of</strong> the rail network. Another problem to solve is the impact <strong>of</strong> the substantial transit<br />
traffic by articulated road vehicles. In addition to this, technologies are also required for<br />
use <strong>in</strong> the Channel tunnel. French <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> policy aims for doubl<strong>in</strong>g the volumes between<br />
1995 and 2002. The <strong>in</strong>vestment aid to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport amounted to FRF 300 million<br />
(ECU 45 million) <strong>in</strong> 1995, six times as much as earlier f<strong>in</strong>ancial help (NIERAT, 1995/a, p.<br />
2).<br />
Two <strong>development</strong> projects aim<strong>in</strong>g for the hub function are Commutor and an automatic<br />
marshall<strong>in</strong>g yard. The question is thus whether ITUs should be transshipped or wagons<br />
should be marshalled. SNCF also advocates the construction <strong>of</strong> the Autoroute Ferroviaire –<br />
a dedicated roll<strong>in</strong>g highway corridor with a very generous load<strong>in</strong>g gauge (SNCF, wwwsite,<br />
1997). The long-term project has a stated aim <strong>of</strong> reliev<strong>in</strong>g the environment from emissions,<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ly from lorries driv<strong>in</strong>g from the northern parts <strong>of</strong> France all the way to Italy.<br />
The <strong>development</strong> project started <strong>in</strong> 1991 and a prototype <strong>of</strong> the articulated wagon built by<br />
Lohr Industries has gone through technical tests. SNCF hopes to commence cross-Alp<strong>in</strong>e<br />
traffic <strong>in</strong> 2006 (DE GUILHEM and MONTELH, 1996, p. 15). Lohr Industries has also developed<br />
the Modalor wagon for <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> handl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> semi-trailers and, <strong>in</strong> fact, also<br />
SNCF Fret has presented a <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> technology: Multi-berces that is similar to the Dutch<br />
ACTS, the German RSS and the F<strong>in</strong>nish TTT-system.<br />
141
The large-<strong>scale</strong> technologies match the specifications very well, while the <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> technologies<br />
is regarded to be rather far from the French attitude towards advanced technology<br />
that is regarded as a phenomenon between culture and religion.<br />
6.2.10 Switzerland and Austria<br />
Switzerland and Austria are largely dom<strong>in</strong>ated by the Alps, which means that the rail network<br />
is largely conf<strong>in</strong>ed to the available mounta<strong>in</strong> routes. Together with France, both countries<br />
receive a substantial amount <strong>of</strong> transit traffic as they form a l<strong>in</strong>k between northern and<br />
southern Europe. Exist<strong>in</strong>g tunnel pr<strong>of</strong>iles are limited imply<strong>in</strong>g a dom<strong>in</strong>ant use <strong>of</strong> swap bodies<br />
<strong>in</strong>stead <strong>of</strong> semi-trailers, although specially adapted units with cut upper corners can go<br />
through the Alp tunnels.<br />
For environmental reasons 89 , road traffic is severely restricted 90 and <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is<br />
subsidised (HANREICH, 1995, pp. 8-9 and WARMUTH, 1995, p. 29-30). The technical<br />
problems concern<strong>in</strong>g emission evacuation, safety measures and tunnel dimensions all favour<br />
rail or roll<strong>in</strong>g highway shuttle solutions <strong>in</strong>stead <strong>of</strong> the road tunnel alternative. The<br />
Channel tunnel is a recent example <strong>of</strong> this technical choice, and the projected base tunnels<br />
<strong>in</strong> Switzerland will most probably be built purely for rail traffic and roll<strong>in</strong>g highway shuttles.<br />
This will obviously favour <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, s<strong>in</strong>ce once the term<strong>in</strong>al costs are paid,<br />
the rail distance can favourably be extended outside the tunnel open<strong>in</strong>gs. This is also the<br />
ma<strong>in</strong> reason for the high market share <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>in</strong> alp<strong>in</strong>e cross<strong>in</strong>gs today.<br />
Austria also faces problems with the east-west traffic with severely pollut<strong>in</strong>g lorries from<br />
the former Eastern Bloc. This traffic was transferred to rail by use <strong>of</strong> up to 80% subsidisation<br />
for roll<strong>in</strong>g highway services together with high road tolls. From the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> 1995,<br />
however, this traffic is to a large extent lost to road aga<strong>in</strong> s<strong>in</strong>ce Austria has been forced to<br />
lower the road tolls and decrease enforc<strong>in</strong>g activities accord<strong>in</strong>g to EU regulations.<br />
Neither Switzerland nor Austria is large enough to make traditional domestic <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport feasible for time-sensitive cargo. Consequently, RTD policy is aimed at develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
transit traffic solutions and <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> term<strong>in</strong>al technologies for low-value cargo. One<br />
example <strong>of</strong> supportive measures is the Austrian government’s Innovation and Technology<br />
Funds, <strong>of</strong> which a major theme is to develop <strong>in</strong>tegrated transport. Operators, users and research<br />
bodies must co-operate <strong>in</strong> the projects (European Commission, 1996/b, p. 37).<br />
89 The great environmental concern <strong>in</strong> the Alp countries is highlighted by the fact that the trees on the Alp hillsides<br />
<strong>of</strong>fer very efficient avalanche protection. Dead trees protect the valleys much worse.<br />
90 A Swiss referendum <strong>in</strong> 1994 voted for enforc<strong>in</strong>g transit<strong>in</strong>g lorries to use roll<strong>in</strong>g highway services for cross<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the Alps (SJÖSTEDT, et al., 1994, p. 4) but the EU is set to push ahead with a 40-ton road corridor with low<br />
transit<strong>in</strong>g fees (KÜLPER, 1997, p. 3).<br />
142
In summary, the conditions for Switzerland and Austria generally require technologies for<br />
transit traffic through the Alps and, <strong>in</strong> addition, <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> solutions for the much less<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ant domestic transports.<br />
Standard roll<strong>in</strong>g highway technology is used for the transit traffic <strong>of</strong> articulated vehicles.<br />
Technology <strong>development</strong> on decreas<strong>in</strong>g ma<strong>in</strong>tenance and problems related to the <strong>small</strong><br />
wheels’ speed <strong>of</strong> rotation is emphasised. Exist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> technologies <strong>in</strong>clude the<br />
ACTS 91 and other turntable systems as well as Voest-Alp<strong>in</strong>e’s and Karl Meier’s sideload<strong>in</strong>g<br />
trailers. Contrary to the domestic needs, Swiss Tuchschmid Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g advocates<br />
its Compact Term<strong>in</strong>al and Austrian Pentaplan its High Capacity Term<strong>in</strong>al for meet<strong>in</strong>g a future<br />
demand for large-<strong>scale</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. These high-capacity technologies aim for<br />
the market <strong>of</strong> gateway term<strong>in</strong>als and term<strong>in</strong>als for fixed routes, flexible routes and corridor<br />
traffic designs. The Roll<strong>in</strong>g Shelf by Jenbacher, is perhaps not a true <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport<br />
technology s<strong>in</strong>ce it is <strong>in</strong>tended for palletised goods and not ITUs, but it is still <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce it competes for the same market.<br />
In all, there is a certa<strong>in</strong> correspondence between the requirements <strong>in</strong>duced by national preconditions<br />
and the developed technologies.<br />
6.2.11 Italy<br />
Besides the Po-valley, Italy is mostly mounta<strong>in</strong>ous. The most outstand<strong>in</strong>g regional difference<br />
is that the <strong>in</strong>dustry is concentrated to the northern parts, whereas the southern regions<br />
are more rural. Due to Alp<strong>in</strong>e transit by <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, Italy is one <strong>of</strong> the large European<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport countries when it comes to <strong>in</strong>ternational traffic. In fact, together<br />
with Germany, Italy accounts for 95% <strong>of</strong> all <strong>in</strong>ternational <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>in</strong> Europe<br />
(BUKOLD, 1995). Italy also serves as a transit country for transport to Greece via the Port<br />
<strong>of</strong> Br<strong>in</strong>disi and shuttles connect<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>dustrialised northern Italy with Rotterdam and<br />
other ma<strong>in</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>er ports have been successful <strong>in</strong> recent years. They are actually so successful<br />
that privately owned operators fight for the market.<br />
The length <strong>of</strong> Italy implies competitiveness also for domestic <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> services. For domestic<br />
traffic, Italy’s UIRR representative CEMAT reported 16% growth <strong>in</strong> 1996, chiefly<br />
over longer distances (UIRR, 1997, p. 9).<br />
On the network operation side, the term<strong>in</strong>als <strong>in</strong> the north sometimes operate as gateways<br />
between domestic and <strong>in</strong>ternational <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. For the domestic services, the<br />
91 ACTS is developed <strong>in</strong> the Netherlands, but Swiss Tuchschmid manufactures components and has supplied<br />
wagons to both the Swiss State Railways (SBB) and Austrian State Railways (ÖBB) (ERNI, 1995).<br />
143
length, narrowness and demographical constitution <strong>of</strong> Italy make a corridor solution feasible.<br />
There is a broad political support for Italian <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport (CARRARA, 1995, p.<br />
“A”). At the moment, the governmentally sponsored RTD programme is focused on the<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport related issue <strong>of</strong> <strong>freight</strong> villages 92 (<strong>in</strong>terporti), primarily on<br />
management and not on technology.<br />
Italy needs technologies that are suitable for use as connections to the transit traffic through<br />
the Alps and, <strong>in</strong> addition, corridor solutions for the less dom<strong>in</strong>ant, but still substantial, domestic<br />
<strong>transportation</strong>.<br />
As an exception from the RTD policy support<strong>in</strong>g <strong>freight</strong> villages, the basically domestic<br />
Italian RTD project TR.A.I. 2000 has resulted <strong>in</strong> a full-<strong>scale</strong> prototype/laboratory (MAGNI,<br />
letter, 1997) and a basic operative scheme for a horizontal transshipment technology with a<br />
capacity <strong>of</strong> 30 to 50 TEU/hour has been presented. The presented technology is regarded as<br />
suitable for a corridor traffic design. Under the acronym FL.I.H.T.T. (Flexible Intermodal<br />
Horizontal Transshipment Techniques), the project has proceeded with fund<strong>in</strong>g from EU’s<br />
Fourth Framework Programme, but it is now term<strong>in</strong>ated.<br />
Besides conventional roll<strong>in</strong>g highway technology, a bimodal technology is now used as described<br />
<strong>in</strong> the section for Denmark. Exist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> technologies <strong>in</strong>clude the Firema<br />
Twistwagon (a turntable system for complete lorries) and also the Ferrosud/Breda bimodal<br />
system called Carro Bimodale.<br />
The correspondence accord<strong>in</strong>g to the analysis model is reasonably good for the case <strong>of</strong> Italy.<br />
6.2.12 The European level<br />
The geographical and demographical conditions for Europe as a whole are for obvious reasons<br />
just a compilation <strong>of</strong> the national features. However, seen as a unit, one can note that<br />
the central parts are densely populated <strong>in</strong> contrast to the outskirts. Mounta<strong>in</strong>ous areas and<br />
sounds also screen <strong>of</strong>f some <strong>of</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong> parts <strong>of</strong> Europe from each other. The crucial po<strong>in</strong>t<br />
for <strong>in</strong>ternational <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems is the technical compatibility <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>frastructure<br />
and exchanged technological resources, ma<strong>in</strong>ly load units and rail wagons. The<br />
European Commission has a great harmonis<strong>in</strong>g role to play <strong>in</strong> these fields.<br />
92 For excellent read<strong>in</strong>g about <strong>freight</strong> villages, see HÖLTGEN, 1995.<br />
144
Transportation has a long tradition <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g thoroughly regulated by governmental bodies.<br />
The transport market is be<strong>in</strong>g deregulated, but public organisations still play a decisive role<br />
<strong>in</strong> the <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> tomorrow’s <strong>transportation</strong> system. The European Commission is<br />
very active <strong>in</strong> the field, especially concerned with how to establish the conditions for a truly<br />
common market, yet <strong>in</strong> a susta<strong>in</strong>able manner 93 .<br />
The giant four-year Fourth Framework Programme for RTD compris<strong>in</strong>g a total budget <strong>of</strong><br />
12.3 billion ECUs, is the most important s<strong>in</strong>gle action for promot<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
new <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transshipment technology. Transport-related research features are present<br />
<strong>in</strong> four <strong>of</strong> the specific programs <strong>of</strong> the framework: Telematics (DG XIII), Industrial and<br />
Material Technologies (DG XII), Non Nuclear Energy (DG XVII), and, <strong>of</strong> course, Transport<br />
(DG VII). The transport RTD budget is 240 million ECUs, and it aims at <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
efficiency and environmental friendl<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>in</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems. It also aims at facilitat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>terconnections between different transport networks and modes, which means that it<br />
is largely dedicated to different types <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport technology.<br />
The research tasks <strong>in</strong> the dedicated area <strong>of</strong> Integrated Transport Cha<strong>in</strong>s have been def<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
along two axes – quality <strong>of</strong> the network and quality <strong>of</strong> the term<strong>in</strong>als/transfer po<strong>in</strong>ts. Intermodality<br />
will also play a very important role <strong>in</strong> the successive Fifth Framework Programme<br />
with a marg<strong>in</strong>al <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> the total budget to 12.7 billion ECUs, which, however, is a decrease<br />
<strong>in</strong> real terms. Intermodality is selected as one out <strong>of</strong> 20 key actions (European Commission,<br />
1997/b, pp. 27 and 50-51, and www-site, 1998).<br />
A special EU-project, SCIPIO (Study for a Comprehensive International research Program<br />
<strong>in</strong> Intermodal Operation), has suggested how the European research efforts <strong>in</strong> the field<br />
could be better utilised. The project came up with the proposition <strong>of</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g a “systemic approach”<br />
for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> research <strong>in</strong> order to <strong>in</strong>corporate a wide range <strong>of</strong> issues, such as susta<strong>in</strong>ability,<br />
external effects, efficiency and pr<strong>of</strong>itability (European Commission, 1997/d, p.<br />
88).<br />
The <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> Trans-European Networks (TENs) for rail, highways, <strong>in</strong>land waterways<br />
as well as <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport as such, obviously <strong>in</strong>fluences <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. In<br />
fact, much <strong>of</strong> the calculated revenues <strong>of</strong> rail <strong>in</strong>frastructure projects stem from expected future<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>freight</strong> tra<strong>in</strong>s (BUKOLD, 1997, p. 2). Interest<strong>in</strong>g to notice is that the term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
are part <strong>of</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport network outl<strong>in</strong>ed by the EU (European Commission,<br />
1995/b, and European Commission and European Investment Bank, 1996). However,<br />
the situation is not clear and the EU neither has the available funds nor the authority to<br />
force national governments to establish the networks (DE BOCK, guest lecture, 1996). If<br />
93 The European legal framework for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is analysed by DOLFEN (1993, pp. 12-17) and a<br />
short review <strong>of</strong> the policy documents issued by the European Commission is forwarded by STONE (1998, pp.<br />
30-32).<br />
145
the EU is conv<strong>in</strong>ced <strong>of</strong> establish<strong>in</strong>g the network <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g term<strong>in</strong>als, it will strongly affect<br />
com<strong>in</strong>g term<strong>in</strong>al technology <strong>development</strong> and <strong>in</strong>vestments. For reasons generally referred<br />
to as the cohesion <strong>of</strong> the Union, the EU tends to spend money on <strong>in</strong>frastructure not <strong>in</strong> central<br />
countries with massive transit flows but <strong>in</strong> the periphery, which logically should be<br />
more <strong>of</strong> a domestic issue. Nevertheless, the general attitude <strong>of</strong> the European Commission is<br />
that it trades subventions for a certa<strong>in</strong> degree <strong>of</strong> control (CHRAYE, <strong>in</strong>terview, 1995).<br />
For develop<strong>in</strong>g commercial <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> services, the PACT programme (Pilot Actions for<br />
Comb<strong>in</strong>ed Transport) plays a significant role. Some <strong>of</strong> the available funds have been spent<br />
on term<strong>in</strong>al <strong>in</strong>vestments, but not specifically on technology <strong>development</strong> (European Commission,<br />
1995/a and 1997/a).<br />
The funds made available by the European Union for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> related RTD are <strong>in</strong> the table<br />
below presented divided upon programmes and tasks.<br />
Table 6-1<br />
EU fund<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> programmes and themes related to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. The<br />
amounts are <strong>in</strong> million ECUs and relate to the period 1991-1998. (Source:<br />
worked up from European Commission, 1996/b, p. 24).<br />
Brite<br />
Euram<br />
2 nd /3 rd<br />
framew. pr.<br />
TENs<br />
Other programs<br />
PACT<br />
4 th framework programme<br />
Transport<br />
Telematics<br />
Transport<br />
Telematics<br />
Cohesion<br />
Funds<br />
Row<br />
totals:<br />
Transfer po<strong>in</strong>t<br />
efficiency<br />
7.2 - 2.1 2 - 54.4 4 34.6 104.3<br />
Intermodal network<br />
efficiency<br />
4.4 - - - - 60.9 7.6 30.1 103<br />
Information technology<br />
and services<br />
- 20.2 - - 9.3 10.9 2 - 41<br />
Intermodal transport<br />
market<br />
0.9 - - - - - 0.2 - 1.1<br />
Transport means 0.9 - - - - - 0.5 - 1.4<br />
Column totals: 13.4 20.2 2.1 2 9.3 125.2 14.3 64.7 252<br />
As is customary, funds for <strong>in</strong>vestments <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>frastructure and telematics are more generous<br />
than those for movable resources s<strong>in</strong>ce the latter is regarded as a concern for the transport<br />
operators.<br />
In addition to the above f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is also one <strong>of</strong> the fields prioritised<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Task Force <strong>in</strong>itiative forwarded jo<strong>in</strong>tly by three general directorates <strong>of</strong> the European<br />
Commission (European Commission, 1997/c, pp. 29-33). The programme deals with <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport and transport telematics for both passengers and <strong>freight</strong>. The <strong>freight</strong> part is<br />
funded by ECU 5 million for demonstrations and ECU 1 million for studies (DE BOCK, E-<br />
mail message, 1998).<br />
146
Moreover, the European Commission supports COST (an acronym for European Cooperation<br />
<strong>in</strong> the field <strong>of</strong> Scientific and Technical Research) actions. EU provides adm<strong>in</strong>istrative<br />
and f<strong>in</strong>ancial support for the co-operative dimension, but all research is carried out<br />
and funded nationally (ALFARO et al., 1994, p. III). 25 countries are <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the programme,<br />
i.e. not only EU Countries. The COST action most relevant to this dissertation is<br />
COST 315 on Large Conta<strong>in</strong>ers <strong>in</strong> which the standardisation <strong>of</strong> ISO series 2 conta<strong>in</strong>ers was<br />
dissuaded (ibid., p. X-XI).<br />
Other organisations undertak<strong>in</strong>g actions for co-ord<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport on the EU<br />
level are European Conference <strong>of</strong> M<strong>in</strong>isters <strong>of</strong> Transport (ECMT) (e.g. ECMT, 1993/a,<br />
1993/b and 1995) and UN ECE (United Nations, Economic Commission for Europe) (e.g.<br />
UN Economic Commission for Europe, 1990). For issu<strong>in</strong>g technical and operational standards<br />
for general European railway traffic, the International Union <strong>of</strong> Railways (UIC) also<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>s a strong role.<br />
The extensive <strong>in</strong>vestments <strong>in</strong> current technology are also important to take <strong>in</strong>to consideration.<br />
So far the employed technology is comparatively homogenous <strong>in</strong> Europe, but mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
future modular networks compatible is a task well suited for co-operative actions at a European<br />
level. KIRIAZIDIS (1994) states that such efforts have not been forthcom<strong>in</strong>g from the<br />
EU prior to the Fourth Framework Programme, but the compatibility between the two turntable<br />
systems ACTS and Multi-berces was tested on a European level <strong>in</strong> 1992. The tests<br />
showed that rather <strong>small</strong> changes would allow better compatibility between the two concepts<br />
(BORHART, 1993).<br />
Today’s <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems are generally compatible s<strong>in</strong>ce the term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
conta<strong>in</strong> all specific equipment for the transshipment operation. Most term<strong>in</strong>als active today<br />
were also established dur<strong>in</strong>g a short period <strong>of</strong> time implement<strong>in</strong>g the best technology available<br />
at that time. This means that gantry cranes and counter-balanced trucks dom<strong>in</strong>ate at the<br />
European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als. Wagons are rather universal and even more so are the<br />
ITUs. Exceptions are semi-trailers <strong>in</strong>tended for use <strong>in</strong> the UK or on Alp<strong>in</strong>e transit routes as<br />
well as 2.77 m high swap bodies that are not compatible with all current European rail load<strong>in</strong>g<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>iles.<br />
The analysis here and the detached appendix, however, show that most developed, but not<br />
yet implemented, technologies correspond to national or regional preconditions rather than<br />
to those common for the EU as a whole. Also BUKOLD (1994, p. 134) has come to the<br />
conclusion that the European countries’ geographical structure and the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>freight</strong><br />
volumes have shaped national <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> philosophies. This should not be seen as a problem,<br />
but as a possibility for implement<strong>in</strong>g locally adapted system modules. In order to facilitate<br />
for these modules to attract sufficiently large goods flows, it is <strong>of</strong> utmost importance<br />
that the exchanged resources, i.e. ITUs and rail wagons, are compatible between the European<br />
countries and regions.<br />
147
Nevertheless, many <strong>of</strong> the new systems are, as is shown <strong>in</strong> the detached appendix and <strong>in</strong> the<br />
table <strong>in</strong> Appendix A, to a large extent designed with dedicated wagons and all ITUs are not<br />
technically suited for the new systems. The specialised wagons give rise to geographically<br />
restricted network modules and services. Of course, the gateway pr<strong>in</strong>ciple with transshipment<br />
at network module <strong>in</strong>terfaces is viable, but it is certa<strong>in</strong>ly better with compatible systems<br />
and – where the demand is sufficient – direct tra<strong>in</strong>s operated directly between two<br />
term<strong>in</strong>als. Hence, <strong>in</strong> order to avoid a scattered European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system<br />
with pronounced national <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport networks due to <strong>in</strong>compatible technology<br />
choices, the EU has an important co-ord<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g role to play <strong>in</strong> the future.<br />
6.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION<br />
The issue <strong>of</strong> technological renewal <strong>of</strong> the European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system is<br />
quite urgent. Pr<strong>of</strong>itability is low and <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is cont<strong>in</strong>uously pushed upwards<br />
<strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> shortest competitive distance. Political <strong>in</strong>itiatives for support<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport thus easily result <strong>in</strong> that market shares are captured from all-rail rather than from<br />
all-road, hence violat<strong>in</strong>g the goals from society. Moreover, as argued <strong>in</strong> section 5.1.3, one<br />
barrier for new technologies <strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems is that the resources – e.g.<br />
ITUs, vehicles, transshipment equipment and <strong>in</strong>frastructure – are depreciated and technically<br />
worn out over different time spans. The depreciation time for gantry cranes is about<br />
30 years, which means that many <strong>of</strong> the cranes acquired when Europe’s <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> system<br />
was <strong>in</strong>troduced on a large <strong>scale</strong>, now have to be replaced. The depreciation time for<br />
counter-balanced trucks is slightly less, but they were, on the other hand, <strong>in</strong>troduced later.<br />
Consequently, there is a need for <strong>in</strong>vestments at the European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als, an occasion<br />
that can be used for redesign<strong>in</strong>g the system.<br />
The two analyses <strong>in</strong> this chapter show that there are alternatives to re<strong>in</strong>vest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> conventional<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transshipment technology, i.e. <strong>in</strong> gantry cranes and counter-balanced<br />
trucks. The selection <strong>of</strong> technologies is truly wide and so is the range <strong>of</strong> requirements they<br />
are <strong>in</strong>tended to serve. Many <strong>of</strong> the new technologies <strong>of</strong>fer features add<strong>in</strong>g to the competitiveness<br />
on restricted markets rather than on a European level. A prerequisite for enhanced<br />
system performance, however, is that the pr<strong>in</strong>ciples for operat<strong>in</strong>g the rail network is<br />
changed first. An operator with technological change on the agenda can thus decide upon<br />
the technological and commercial openness, <strong>in</strong>vestigate the prevail<strong>in</strong>g requirements <strong>in</strong> detail,<br />
decide upon a network operation pr<strong>in</strong>ciple and then select and possibly adapt a technology<br />
that fits the demands.<br />
Consequently, there are prospects for redesign<strong>in</strong>g a part <strong>of</strong> the European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
system <strong>in</strong>to a system made up from network modules connected through gateways.<br />
One th<strong>in</strong>g is clear, a fundamental reth<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g is needed if <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is to<br />
148
ecome a serious complement to the lorries on the important medium transport distances <strong>of</strong><br />
200-500 kilometres.<br />
149
7 SMALL-SCALE TRANSSHIPMENT<br />
TECHNOLOGY IN INTERMODAL<br />
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS<br />
Systems (2)<br />
Transportation systems (3)<br />
Intermodal <strong>transportation</strong> systems (4)<br />
Actors Activities Resources (5)<br />
Transshipment<br />
technologies (6)<br />
Small-<strong>scale</strong><br />
transshipment<br />
technologies<br />
A particular <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> concept (8)<br />
In order for European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport to be<br />
competitive on short and medium distances, regional<br />
systems must be designed to adapt to local preconditions<br />
rather than to any general preconditions prevail<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> all<br />
<strong>of</strong> Europe. The network modules are also likely to<br />
succeed only if the traffick<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> direct connections is<br />
abandoned for more advanced pr<strong>in</strong>ciples for operat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the rail network. As was shown <strong>in</strong> the preced<strong>in</strong>g chapter,<br />
there are transshipment technologies suitable for serv<strong>in</strong>g such advanced network operation<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciples.<br />
Based upon my general knowledge <strong>of</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> system, the systems analyses and the<br />
analytic elements presented <strong>in</strong> earlier chapters, the deduction <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>of</strong> chapter<br />
6 is here deepened <strong>in</strong>to a brief scenario on how the European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system<br />
can be developed. I assert that the <strong>development</strong> must follow four ma<strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> order to<br />
compete successfully with s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode road transport.<br />
The first <strong>development</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e is aimed for the large flows over relatively long distances. For<br />
natural reasons, these services are most economically produced with direct full tra<strong>in</strong>s between<br />
end term<strong>in</strong>als. The term<strong>in</strong>als employ well proven large-<strong>scale</strong> transshipment technology<br />
or any <strong>of</strong> the advanced large-<strong>scale</strong> technologies described <strong>in</strong> the detached appendix.<br />
This part <strong>of</strong> the transition is well under way s<strong>in</strong>ce measures for improv<strong>in</strong>g productivity implies<br />
that the current networks are split up, focus<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>of</strong>itable direct connections (STONE,<br />
1997, p. 3).<br />
The second and third <strong>development</strong> l<strong>in</strong>es are far more <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g; how should the substantial<br />
market for transport over short and medium distances – 200 to 500 kilometres – be approached?<br />
The second <strong>development</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e aims for the part <strong>of</strong> this market that <strong>in</strong>volves<br />
densely populated areas generat<strong>in</strong>g large and concentrated flows. This market will be approached<br />
by <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g corridor tra<strong>in</strong>s. The tra<strong>in</strong>s will cross all over Europe along such<br />
corridors and make frequent but short stops at road-rail transshipment term<strong>in</strong>als.<br />
The third <strong>development</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>volves <strong>small</strong>, short and dispersed flows. The key to improved<br />
competitiveness <strong>in</strong> this part <strong>of</strong> market, is to firstly renew all <strong>of</strong> the tra<strong>in</strong> operation system.<br />
However, also the employed transshipment technology must be renewed s<strong>in</strong>ce that is a prerequisite<br />
for implement<strong>in</strong>g advanced tra<strong>in</strong> operation pr<strong>in</strong>ciples. Although the total <strong>of</strong> these<br />
flows are <strong>of</strong> a significant magnitude <strong>in</strong> Europe, the dispatched volumes might be <strong>small</strong> for<br />
150
each network module and each term<strong>in</strong>al, call<strong>in</strong>g for <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> technologies keep<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>vestments<br />
and operat<strong>in</strong>g costs at a reasonable level. In order to secure a certa<strong>in</strong> amount <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>freight</strong>, the network modules will collect and distribute ITUs <strong>in</strong> connection with large-<strong>scale</strong><br />
shuttle and corridor services. Another task for the <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> systems is to take care <strong>of</strong> the<br />
<strong>small</strong> flows <strong>of</strong> ITUs and build them up for new large-<strong>scale</strong> direct tra<strong>in</strong> and corridor services.<br />
The rest <strong>of</strong> the chapter is dedicated to this part <strong>of</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport market.<br />
The fourth <strong>development</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e is roll<strong>in</strong>g highway services where complete lorry comb<strong>in</strong>ations<br />
are driven onto low-built rail wagons. The purpose <strong>of</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g this expensive solution with a<br />
bad net to tare weight ratio is to overcome hurdles related to the geography or the <strong>in</strong>frastructure,<br />
or use the drivers’ sleep<strong>in</strong>g hours productively. The concept does not fulfil the<br />
applied def<strong>in</strong>ition <strong>of</strong> an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> service, but it is still <strong>in</strong>cluded here as it is generally discussed<br />
together with the downright <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> concepts.<br />
This brief scenario is further deepened and discussed <strong>in</strong> section 9.2. Together with the descriptive<br />
parts <strong>of</strong> section 1.2, it is used for outl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the requirements for new <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong><br />
transshipment technologies <strong>in</strong> the next section. The scenario and the list <strong>of</strong> requirements are<br />
then used for evaluat<strong>in</strong>g the suitability <strong>of</strong> a large number <strong>of</strong> transshipment technologies for<br />
<strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> operations.<br />
7.1 REQUIREMENTS FOR SMALL-SCALE TRANSSHIPMENT<br />
TECHNOLOGIES<br />
A systems design approach (see section 2.2.1) is used here to identify the characteristics<br />
required for a future <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> system. The approach assumes that the system<br />
is a pure technical system consist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> organisational components that allow a systems<br />
management to “redesign” it. This simplified approach is found suitable at this detailed system<br />
level, however respect<strong>in</strong>g the substantial problems occurr<strong>in</strong>g when implement<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
new technical resources dealt with <strong>in</strong> section 5.1 as well as the approaches for overcom<strong>in</strong>g<br />
their effects presented <strong>in</strong> section 5.2.<br />
First, system requirements are def<strong>in</strong>ed and then these are used for determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the functional<br />
requirements <strong>of</strong> the technical resources. The background <strong>of</strong> the analysis is taken from<br />
the descriptive parts <strong>of</strong> section 1.2 and from the scenario briefly reproduced above and<br />
more comprehensively <strong>in</strong> section 9.2. The third <strong>development</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>novative network<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciples for serv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>small</strong> and dispersed flows over short and medium distances<br />
(200-500 kilometres) is emphasised. These networks must obviously be very well adapted<br />
to local and regional conditions, but <strong>in</strong> order to attract larger quantities <strong>of</strong> goods, they must<br />
also be well adapted for regional collection and distribution <strong>of</strong> long-distance cargo. In order<br />
to avoid repetition, the requirements are summarised first <strong>in</strong> section 7.2.2 where they are<br />
used as <strong>in</strong>put to the evaluation <strong>of</strong> <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> transshipment technologies.<br />
151
The render<strong>in</strong>g is worked up from an earlier research effort with a concentration on mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />
<strong>transportation</strong> (WOXENIUS and LUMSDEN, 1994).<br />
7.1.1 System requirements<br />
The system requirements presented here are general guidel<strong>in</strong>es for the overall system, outl<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
with the purpose <strong>of</strong> decreas<strong>in</strong>g the risk for sub-optimisation when design<strong>in</strong>g the resources.<br />
The system looked for should be an open system 94 for rail and road, and preferably also for<br />
sea <strong>transportation</strong>. This implies that it must conform to standards, enabl<strong>in</strong>g implementation<br />
without restrictions <strong>in</strong> the whole <strong>of</strong> Western Europe. As an alternative, closed system modules<br />
can be designed to meet specifications for strictly def<strong>in</strong>ed transport commissions – determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
by certa<strong>in</strong> k<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>of</strong> goods, <strong>transportation</strong> modes, users or geographical outreach.<br />
In order to attract larger quantities <strong>of</strong> goods, however, they must facilitate <strong>in</strong>teroperability<br />
with the technologies currently used for large-<strong>scale</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. Thus, the <strong>in</strong>terchanged<br />
system resources – ITUs and perhaps rail wagons – should preferably be strictly<br />
standardised.<br />
The transshipment technology must facilitate quick, flexible and safe unit load transfer between<br />
<strong>transportation</strong> modes. Load<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> entire vehicles <strong>of</strong> different <strong>transportation</strong> modes<br />
upon each other should be avoided and so should the need for co-ord<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g vehicles at term<strong>in</strong>als.<br />
Hence, an <strong>in</strong>termediate storage function is needed.<br />
Low cost term<strong>in</strong>als are a prerequisite for sufficiently dense term<strong>in</strong>al networks also <strong>in</strong> areas<br />
without large goods flows. A low number <strong>of</strong> personnel needed to handle the units must be<br />
kept. The drivers <strong>of</strong> the different vehicles ought to be able to transship the ITUs without<br />
support from term<strong>in</strong>al workers. Term<strong>in</strong>al equipment must use simple technology with a<br />
high level <strong>of</strong> reliability <strong>in</strong> order to keep breakdowns, ma<strong>in</strong>tenance and repairs at reasonable<br />
levels s<strong>in</strong>ce technical personnel cannot be employed at all term<strong>in</strong>als.<br />
A high relation between utility load and tare weight must be sought for. This is not critical<br />
for shipp<strong>in</strong>g, but it is important to rail transport and vital to road transport. The system<br />
should also allow the utility cube to be maximised accord<strong>in</strong>g to road and rail permissions.<br />
Furthermore, it should be possible to implement the system gradually so that the implementation<br />
costs rema<strong>in</strong> at a reasonable level. Implementation barriers are, as described <strong>in</strong> section<br />
5.1, not only <strong>of</strong> a technological nature, but they are also – and perhaps to a larger ex-<br />
94 For further read<strong>in</strong>g about commercial and technological openness <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport systems, see the<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>of</strong> chapter 5 and SJÖSTEDT et al. (1994).<br />
152
tent – found <strong>in</strong> a conservative bus<strong>in</strong>ess structure. Thus, completely new systems must show<br />
solid benefits to raise any <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> the transport <strong>in</strong>dustry. Consequently, the system<br />
should fit <strong>in</strong>to the physical <strong>transportation</strong> system as well as the bus<strong>in</strong>ess structure <strong>of</strong> today<br />
and the foreseeable future.<br />
7.1.2 Functional requirements<br />
Functional requirements are here def<strong>in</strong>ed as requirements applicable to the different functions<br />
<strong>of</strong> the system, as presented <strong>in</strong> the model <strong>in</strong> section 4.1.3 above.<br />
Load-carry<strong>in</strong>g function – unit loads<br />
Load units can either be system specific or generally standardised, then referred to as unit<br />
loads or ITUs. To fulfil the system requirement <strong>of</strong> gradual implementation, the system must<br />
at least be able to handle 20-foot and 40-foot ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers. S<strong>in</strong>ce these form a vast majority,<br />
handl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> these units must be regarded as be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> prime importance, both from an<br />
economical and a transport technological po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view. Also the pallet-wide conta<strong>in</strong>ers that<br />
are becom<strong>in</strong>g more common have to be encompassed <strong>in</strong> the system.<br />
Moreover, the high number <strong>of</strong> swap bodies <strong>in</strong> Europe and the <strong>in</strong>terface similarities with the<br />
ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>er <strong>in</strong>dicate that the system also should be open to swap bodies <strong>in</strong> the shorter<br />
range (up to 7.82 m). This should also make road hauliers and forwarders more <strong>in</strong>terested,<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce swap bodies are better suited for European <strong>in</strong>land transport than ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers.<br />
Due to their high cost and weight, semi-trailers are not considered as suitable <strong>in</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
system, but could be <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the road transport function as <strong>in</strong> US <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> today<br />
(see section 1.2.2). Specific ITUs with a similar <strong>in</strong>terface but optimised to system use<br />
might be developed and implemented gradually or operated with<strong>in</strong> restricted network modules.<br />
When choos<strong>in</strong>g among exist<strong>in</strong>g ITUs or develop<strong>in</strong>g system specific dittos, the criteria<br />
should be to maximise utility cube and weight us<strong>in</strong>g the pr<strong>in</strong>ciple <strong>of</strong> the lowest common<br />
denom<strong>in</strong>ator for the <strong>transportation</strong> modes <strong>in</strong>volved. This is especially important when the<br />
cross-section is concerned. It might be better to specify length as comb<strong>in</strong>ations <strong>of</strong> ITUs <strong>in</strong><br />
order to utilise the full length <strong>of</strong> road vehicles and rail wagons 95 . In addition, it is then easier<br />
to <strong>of</strong>fer an ITU size that fits to s<strong>in</strong>gle shipper’s demand. The obvious advantage is –<br />
95 As is previously mentioned, a consequence that Sweden and F<strong>in</strong>land have entered the EU, they have<br />
agreed to allow road vehicles <strong>of</strong> up to 25.25 m long. The purpose is to facilitate fair competition from foreign<br />
hauliers <strong>in</strong> the Scand<strong>in</strong>avian domestic markets. By use <strong>of</strong> different comb<strong>in</strong>ations <strong>of</strong> swap bodies and trailers,<br />
three cont<strong>in</strong>ental vehicles <strong>of</strong> 18.75 m can be reconfigured <strong>in</strong>to two 25.25 m units (IRU, 1996/b and Volvo, pamphlet,<br />
1996).<br />
153
obey<strong>in</strong>g the pr<strong>in</strong>ciple <strong>of</strong> unit loads – that the unit rema<strong>in</strong>s consolidated through the whole<br />
transport cha<strong>in</strong> from consignor to consignee. This implies that the <strong>in</strong>terface between ITUs<br />
and vehicles might not be strictly standardised. Today, conta<strong>in</strong>ers and swap bodies need<br />
adjustable twist-lock positions on vehicles while semi-trailers <strong>of</strong> different length can be<br />
used if the coupl<strong>in</strong>g to the tow<strong>in</strong>g tractor follows <strong>in</strong>ternational standards.<br />
The technological openness <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> ITUs must be strictly def<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> order to enable<br />
standardisation <strong>in</strong> other components throughout the system. Flexibility is a good th<strong>in</strong>g, but<br />
not if the <strong>transportation</strong> system has to be designed for every possible measurement <strong>of</strong> ITUs.<br />
Nevertheless, adjustable fitt<strong>in</strong>g positions are not wanted but could be admitted also <strong>in</strong> future<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> systems.<br />
Transport function – vehicles and vessels<br />
Together with <strong>in</strong>frastructure, vehicles and vessels comprise the heavy <strong>in</strong>vestments <strong>in</strong> all<br />
<strong>transportation</strong> systems. This implies that, <strong>in</strong> order to fulfil the demand <strong>of</strong> gradual implementation,<br />
a new <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> system must <strong>in</strong>clude the currently dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g types <strong>of</strong> vehicles<br />
and vessels. If not, it must show tremendous benefits or match current trends <strong>in</strong> vehicle<br />
<strong>development</strong>. However, as for ITUs, new system-optimised equipment might be developed,<br />
but the importance <strong>of</strong> a standardised <strong>in</strong>terface should not be underestimated. Simple and<br />
cheap transshipment technology handled by the lorry driver might imply vehicle-<strong>in</strong>ternal<br />
equipment.<br />
Transshipment function – transshipment equipment<br />
From a cost and handl<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view, a suitable horizontal transshipment technology is<br />
required. The term<strong>in</strong>al must be very simple, perhaps just a flat surface <strong>of</strong> a certa<strong>in</strong> size. It is<br />
an advantage, if the driver <strong>of</strong> lorries or tra<strong>in</strong>s can transfer the ITUs alone. However, this<br />
decision must follow a wide range <strong>of</strong> regulations and unmanned term<strong>in</strong>als are not always an<br />
option for the <strong>transportation</strong> systems designer.<br />
For a wide European implementation, transshipment should be performed under the overhead<br />
contact l<strong>in</strong>e used for power<strong>in</strong>g electric locomotives. Thus term<strong>in</strong>als can be built at<br />
side-tracks along the ma<strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>es and diesel-powered shunt<strong>in</strong>g locomotives can be made obsolete.<br />
For flexibility reasons, there should be no demand for simultaneous presence <strong>of</strong> transport<br />
equipment <strong>of</strong> different modes. If there is, one <strong>of</strong> the prime benefits <strong>of</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g unit loads<br />
(HULTÉN, 1997, p. 1 and WOXENIUS, 1993, p. 33) is lost. Consequently, a storage function<br />
is needed at term<strong>in</strong>als. The system must permit easy transfer between this storage and<br />
154
vehicles. F<strong>in</strong>ally, <strong>in</strong> order to enhance the security on the l<strong>in</strong>es 96 as well as the transfer speed<br />
and reliability, the load secur<strong>in</strong>g must be simple and fast.<br />
7.2 WHICH NEW TRANSSHIPMENT TECHNOLOGIES ARE<br />
SUITABLE FOR SMALL-SCALE OPERATIONS?<br />
The usefulness <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transshipment technologies can be evaluated <strong>in</strong> detail first<br />
when the network pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and <strong>of</strong>fered transport quality <strong>of</strong> an <strong>in</strong>tended <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> service<br />
have been firmly def<strong>in</strong>ed. Nevertheless, here follows an evaluation <strong>of</strong> the technologies described<br />
<strong>in</strong> the detached appendix accord<strong>in</strong>g to the brief scenario <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>of</strong> this<br />
chapter and the requirements for <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> systems outl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the section<br />
above.<br />
The weight criterion method – as is described <strong>in</strong> Appendix B – is developed for be<strong>in</strong>g useful<br />
when carry<strong>in</strong>g out an evaluation <strong>of</strong> alternative solutions accord<strong>in</strong>g to several criteria.<br />
The purpose <strong>of</strong> the method is to force the analyst – <strong>in</strong> this case me – to perform a thorough<br />
comparison <strong>in</strong> order to assess the alternatives as objectively as possible. It is best suited<br />
when the number <strong>of</strong> criteria is large and there is no obvious rank<strong>in</strong>g between them. The<br />
evaluation method was orig<strong>in</strong>ally developed for evaluat<strong>in</strong>g alternative solutions <strong>in</strong> the mach<strong>in</strong>e<br />
design process (BJAERNEMO, 1983) but it is rather general and it has previously<br />
been used for evaluat<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems 97 .<br />
A question that has to be addressed is whether the weight criterion method is useful for the<br />
present evaluation task. Well, there is always a problem when s<strong>of</strong>t aspects are attacked us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
“objective” or quantitative methods, by FORRESTER well formulated as:<br />
“The objective test is useful if the underly<strong>in</strong>g assumptions for it are sound and if the<br />
judgement criteria are not amenable to direct application but must be <strong>in</strong>terpreted<br />
through an <strong>in</strong>termediate quantitative procedure. The danger is that the quantitative procedure<br />
will take on an aura <strong>of</strong> authenticity <strong>in</strong> its own right. It becomes a pseudoscientific<br />
ritual. The underly<strong>in</strong>g assumptions based on judgement or merely faith may be<br />
forgotten. The objective test, which may have been sound for the orig<strong>in</strong>al goals and assumptions,<br />
may now move by itself <strong>in</strong>to new areas where it is useless or actually mislead<strong>in</strong>g.”<br />
(FORRESTER, 1961, p. 123)<br />
96 Unit loads are generally not locked to rail wagons, but with <strong>in</strong>creased speed, this is becom<strong>in</strong>g necessary.<br />
The next generation <strong>of</strong> European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> systems will need lock<strong>in</strong>g devices on rail wagons s<strong>in</strong>ce conta<strong>in</strong>ers<br />
have fallen <strong>of</strong>f wagons <strong>in</strong> France, Germany as well as <strong>in</strong> Sweden (WEDE, <strong>in</strong>terview 26 March 1997).<br />
97 Evaluat<strong>in</strong>g horizontal <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transshipment technologies: JÖNSSON and KROON (1990).<br />
Evaluat<strong>in</strong>g alternatives to a s<strong>in</strong>gle <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> technology: GOLDBECK-LÖWE and SYRÉN (1993).<br />
Evaluat<strong>in</strong>g causes for transport damages <strong>in</strong> an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport system: LINDAU et al. (1993).<br />
155
The trap <strong>of</strong> false authenticity may very well be dealt with by be<strong>in</strong>g careful with how to present<br />
and use the achieved results. In that respect, my assistant supervisor Dag<br />
BJÖRNLAND <strong>in</strong>fluenced me considerably as a novel researcher when he commented a<br />
section <strong>in</strong> a draft by say<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
“Johan, you write that it is. Very few th<strong>in</strong>gs are. Write that it can be…”<br />
(Pr<strong>of</strong>essor Dag BJÖRNLAND, dur<strong>in</strong>g supervision <strong>in</strong> 1992)<br />
These wise words are well worth consider<strong>in</strong>g although they should be obvious to researchers<br />
who can only conclude firmly on scientifically proven facts. Yet, it is also a source <strong>of</strong><br />
problems when communicat<strong>in</strong>g with <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>of</strong>ficials that want specific answers on their<br />
questions and no lawyer-style “it depends” answers. It is also a reason for scientists not be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
too popular as <strong>in</strong>terviewees to contemporary journalists confess<strong>in</strong>g to the “CNNjournalism”<br />
now blunt<strong>in</strong>g the public <strong>in</strong>tellect by prioritis<strong>in</strong>g flashy headl<strong>in</strong>es before deeper<br />
and relevant analyses.<br />
In this case, the accurateness <strong>of</strong> the evaluation, i.e. the ki*fulfilment product for each technology<br />
should not be mis<strong>in</strong>terpreted for be<strong>in</strong>g a f<strong>in</strong>al and exact result <strong>of</strong> a truly objective<br />
rank<strong>in</strong>g. Yet it is an attempt to attack a complex evaluation situation methodologically.<br />
Thus, the result can be used as a rough <strong>in</strong>dication on which technologies are promis<strong>in</strong>g for<br />
<strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> operations but as no real implementation case is identical to any other, the rank<strong>in</strong>g<br />
procedure must be performed <strong>in</strong> every s<strong>in</strong>gle case. The result should def<strong>in</strong>itely not be<br />
used as base for unconditional statements or for disqualify<strong>in</strong>g technologies without further<br />
analysis.<br />
Hence, I assert that the use <strong>of</strong> the weight criterion method enhances the quality <strong>of</strong> the present<br />
evaluation <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g several s<strong>of</strong>t criteria. An attempt to be even more normative, e.g.<br />
by try<strong>in</strong>g to measure the criteria on a common <strong>scale</strong>, would, however, most probably be<br />
abortive.<br />
The outl<strong>in</strong>e below follows the analytic steps <strong>of</strong> the method as described <strong>in</strong> Appendix B.<br />
7.2.1 Def<strong>in</strong>e the conditions <strong>of</strong> the evaluation situation<br />
The first step is to def<strong>in</strong>e the conditions <strong>of</strong> the evaluation situation. This should be carried<br />
out thoroughly every time, s<strong>in</strong>ce it is a common mistake to use old references that do not fit<br />
the actual problem. In this evaluation, the evaluation situation has been thoroughly <strong>in</strong>vestigated<br />
throughout the last chapters, briefly def<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>troduction to this chapter and<br />
further elaborated <strong>in</strong> section 9.2. It is thus only briefly summarised here. In summary it is<br />
anticipated that the current <strong>development</strong> will take the European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
system towards:<br />
156
• meet<strong>in</strong>g the new demand for higher transport quality as <strong>freight</strong> is transferred from air<br />
and all-road services<br />
• flexible use <strong>of</strong> resources 24 hours a day<br />
• for large flows: further focus on direct tra<strong>in</strong> services<br />
• for <strong>small</strong> and dispersed flows: new and specialised network operat<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>in</strong>ciples <strong>in</strong> different<br />
modules l<strong>in</strong>ked through gateway term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
• decreased importance <strong>of</strong> national borders, however <strong>in</strong> a gentle pace<br />
• larger tra<strong>in</strong>s, ma<strong>in</strong>ly feeder tra<strong>in</strong>s carry<strong>in</strong>g ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers<br />
• <strong>in</strong>creased concern for local environment around term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
It is functionality <strong>in</strong> this environment – with focus on the <strong>small</strong> and dispersed flows – that<br />
the <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> systems are evaluated aga<strong>in</strong>st.<br />
7.2.2 Make lists <strong>of</strong> demands and criteria<br />
The next step <strong>in</strong> the weight criterion method is to make a list <strong>of</strong> requirements. Some <strong>of</strong> the<br />
requirements are classified as formal demands that must be fulfilled <strong>in</strong> order to qualify for<br />
the evaluation, while others are classified as criteria (wishes) that ought to be fulfilled <strong>in</strong><br />
order to receive positive scor<strong>in</strong>g. Cost is used as a criterion first <strong>in</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>al decision step<br />
but some <strong>of</strong> the criteria give a h<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>vestment and operational costs <strong>in</strong>volved.<br />
Earlier <strong>in</strong> this chapter, general requirements for new transshipment technologies for <strong>small</strong><strong>scale</strong><br />
or short-distance <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport were outl<strong>in</strong>ed. In summary, the system looked<br />
for should be one which:<br />
• is open for rail, road and preferably also sea <strong>transportation</strong>, with<strong>in</strong> the whole <strong>of</strong> Western<br />
Europe<br />
• is compatible with conventional large-<strong>scale</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport<br />
• at least accommodates 20-foot and 40-foot ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers as well as swap bodies up to<br />
7.82 m long<br />
• avoids the load<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> entire vehicles <strong>of</strong> different <strong>transportation</strong> modes upon each other<br />
• is compatible with the currently dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g types <strong>of</strong> vehicles and vessels<br />
• facilitates low cost term<strong>in</strong>als – both <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestments and operations – for sufficiently<br />
dense term<strong>in</strong>al networks <strong>in</strong> <strong>small</strong>-flow areas<br />
• utilises a simple transshipment technology that facilitates quick, flexible, reliable and<br />
safe ITU transshipment under the overhead contact l<strong>in</strong>e<br />
157
• avoids the need for co-ord<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> vehicles at term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
• is possible to implement gradually – both technically and commercially<br />
These requirements are classified as demands or criteria follow<strong>in</strong>g the lists below:<br />
Demands:<br />
The transshipment technology must:<br />
D1 be open for rail and road transport with<strong>in</strong> the whole <strong>of</strong> Europe<br />
D2 be open for 20- or 40-foot ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers or swap bodies<br />
D3 be compatible with conventional large-<strong>scale</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport<br />
D4 avoid the use <strong>of</strong> entire vehicles <strong>of</strong> different <strong>transportation</strong> modes upon each other<br />
D5 facilitate low cost term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
Criteria:<br />
The transshipment technology ought to:<br />
C1<br />
C2<br />
C3<br />
C4<br />
C5<br />
C6<br />
be open for sea <strong>transportation</strong><br />
be compatible with the currently dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g types <strong>of</strong> ITUs, vehicles and vessels<br />
facilitate simple, quick, flexible, reliable and safe transshipment<br />
facilitate transshipment under the overhead contact l<strong>in</strong>e<br />
avoid the need for co-ord<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> vehicles at term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
facilitate possibility for gradual implementation<br />
These criteria are the requirements that the evaluation is based upon.<br />
7.2.3 List the alternative solutions<br />
The next step is to generate a list <strong>of</strong> alternative solutions that satisfy the demands by exclud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
those which violate certa<strong>in</strong> demands. The table below lists the technologies described<br />
<strong>in</strong> the detached appendix and which <strong>of</strong> them that violate the demands. The ones not<br />
receiv<strong>in</strong>g any x:s are those that will rema<strong>in</strong> for further evaluation.<br />
158
Table 7-1<br />
Violation <strong>of</strong> demands thus exclud<strong>in</strong>g technologies from further evaluation.<br />
The technologies are presented <strong>in</strong> the same order as <strong>in</strong> appendix. The cod<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> demands and mark<strong>in</strong>gs is expla<strong>in</strong>ed on the next page.<br />
Technologies<br />
DEMANDS<br />
Small-<strong>scale</strong> road-rail technologies D1 D2 D3 D4 D5<br />
Vertical transshipment<br />
JR Freight: Multi-functional <strong>freight</strong> track system<br />
x<br />
NS Cargo: Rail Distributie Nederland ? x<br />
SJ: Light-combi ?<br />
Horizontal transshipment<br />
Proveho: CarConTra<strong>in</strong><br />
Steadman Industries: Railta<strong>in</strong>er/Steadman System ?<br />
Southern Car & Manufactur<strong>in</strong>g Company: Rail<strong>in</strong>er ?<br />
BR Research: Self-Load<strong>in</strong>g Vehicle<br />
BR Res.: Rail wagon with elevat<strong>in</strong>g twistlocks<br />
The R<strong>in</strong>ger System<br />
LogMan: Conta<strong>in</strong>er FTS<br />
The Hochste<strong>in</strong> System<br />
Blatchford: Stag ?<br />
Stenhagen: Stenhagen System ?<br />
Albatec: Kombiflex<br />
N.C.H. Hydraulic Systems: Mondiso Rail Term<strong>in</strong>al ?<br />
Lorry-to-ground and turntable systems<br />
Cha<strong>in</strong>-lifts: ISO 2000/4000; Translift; Roll-Off Hoist<br />
x<br />
Hook-lifts: Ampliroll, Multilift; HIAB and LIVAB Load Exch.<br />
x<br />
Translift: Abroll Conta<strong>in</strong>er Transport System (ACTS) ? ? ?<br />
Roland Tankbau: Roland-System Schiene-Strasse (RSS) ? ?<br />
SNCF Fret: Multi-berces ? ?<br />
Partek Multilift Factory: TTT-System ?<br />
Self-load<strong>in</strong>g trailers and rail wagons<br />
Steel Bros.: Sidelifter ?<br />
Hammar Mask<strong>in</strong>: Hammarlift<br />
Arbau-Klaus Transportsysteme Vertriebs: Kranmobil<br />
Steelmec: SIMAN-lift<br />
Blatchford Transp. Equip.: Blatchford-SIMAN sideloader sys.<br />
Mitra: Mitralift and the Rural Road-Rail Cont Handl<strong>in</strong>g Sys. ?<br />
Biglo Oy: Biglo Bigloader ?<br />
Voest-Alp<strong>in</strong>e MCE: S4036 ?<br />
Karl Maier: Conta<strong>in</strong>er Load<strong>in</strong>g and Transport System ?<br />
CHR. Olsson: Triolift ?<br />
KMA System: Sideloader ?<br />
Umschlagfahrzeug Lässig Schwanhäusser – ULS ?<br />
The Blatchford T-lift system ?<br />
Rail wagons for lift<strong>in</strong>g swap bodies or cassettes<br />
Mercedes-Benz: Kombi-Lifter ?<br />
ABB Henschel: WAS Wagon ?<br />
ABB AGEVE: Supertrans ?<br />
The Wieskötter System ?<br />
The Wheelless System ?<br />
Chalmers University <strong>of</strong> Technology: Titan Cassettes ?<br />
159
Small and special conta<strong>in</strong>er systems<br />
DB: Logistikbox x x<br />
Flexbox x x<br />
TCS: Trilok<br />
x<br />
L<strong>in</strong>jegods: LLB – L<strong>in</strong>jegods Lastbaerer x x<br />
Kalmar Lagab: C-sam x x x<br />
DSB: +box x x<br />
M<strong>in</strong>i-l<strong>in</strong>k and Maxi-l<strong>in</strong>k ? x<br />
Costamasnaga: TR.A.I. 2000 ? ?<br />
Jenbacher: Roll<strong>in</strong>g Shelf x x x<br />
Bimodal systems (group <strong>of</strong> technologies) x x<br />
Rail wagons for RoRo-transshipment <strong>of</strong> semi-trailers and x x x<br />
lorries (group <strong>of</strong> technologies)<br />
Large <strong>scale</strong> road-rail technologies<br />
Krupp: Fast Handl<strong>in</strong>g System<br />
x<br />
Technicatome and SNCF: Commutor x x<br />
Pentaplan: High capacity term<strong>in</strong>al – HoT<br />
x<br />
Noell: Mega Hub Concept<br />
x<br />
Noell: Fast Transshipment System<br />
x<br />
Tuchschmid: The Compact Term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
x<br />
Thyssen: Conta<strong>in</strong>er Transport System (CTS)<br />
x<br />
Mannesmann Transmodal: Transmann<br />
x<br />
DEMAG: The DEMAG System<br />
x<br />
Aachen University <strong>of</strong> Technology: System Aachen<br />
x<br />
Road-<strong>in</strong>land navigation<br />
Rollerbarge x ? x<br />
Botervloot x ? x<br />
Comb<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> silo and conta<strong>in</strong>er handl<strong>in</strong>g x ? x<br />
CALCON-ship x ? x<br />
Mondiso: Barge with on-board crane x ? x<br />
The River Snake x ? x<br />
Road-rail-short sea shipp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Coaster Express x ? x<br />
Rolux: RoRo-cassettes x ? x<br />
Road-deep sea shipp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
High rise storage <strong>in</strong>side a ship’s hull x ? x<br />
Reggiane: Octopus x ? x x<br />
Robotic Conta<strong>in</strong>er Mach<strong>in</strong>e x ? x x<br />
Road-air technologies<br />
Stenhagen: Stenhagen System (road-air version) ? ? ? x<br />
Integration road-rail-air x x x x<br />
Demands:<br />
The transshipment technology should:<br />
D1 be open for rail and road transport with<strong>in</strong> the whole <strong>of</strong> Europe<br />
D2 be open for 20- or 40-foot ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers and swap bodies (x if neither <strong>of</strong> the types is accommodated,<br />
? if not all types are accommodated)<br />
D3 be compatible with conventional large-<strong>scale</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport<br />
D4 avoid the <strong>of</strong> use <strong>of</strong> entire vehicles <strong>of</strong> different <strong>transportation</strong> modes upon each other<br />
D5 facilitate low cost term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
Mark<strong>in</strong>gs:<br />
x Clearly not fulfill<strong>in</strong>g the demand thus exclud<strong>in</strong>g the technology from further evaluation<br />
? Questionable fulfilment <strong>of</strong> the demand, but not exclud<strong>in</strong>g the technology from further evaluation<br />
160
7.2.4 Weight the criteria aga<strong>in</strong>st each other<br />
As is <strong>in</strong>dicated by the name <strong>of</strong> the evaluation method, weight<strong>in</strong>g the criteria aga<strong>in</strong>st each<br />
other is the crucial steps <strong>in</strong> the method. The criteria are weighted <strong>in</strong> order to decide how<br />
important the different criteria are. The criteria are coded and then compared <strong>in</strong> pairs. A<br />
matrix is designed and filled <strong>in</strong> accord<strong>in</strong>g to the method description <strong>in</strong> Appendix B.<br />
Table 7-2<br />
Weight criterion matrix for <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transshipment technologies.<br />
Criteria<br />
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 Corr P i k i (p i /Σp i )<br />
C1 -0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.02778<br />
C2 -0 1 2 2 1 3 9 0.25000<br />
C3 -1 2 2 2 5 10 0.27778<br />
C4 -4 2 1 7 6 0.16667<br />
C5 -6 2 9 5 0.13889<br />
C6 -6 11 5 0.13889<br />
Σ: 36 1.0000<br />
Criteria:<br />
The transshipment technology ought to:<br />
C1 be open for sea <strong>transportation</strong><br />
C2 be compatible with the currently dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g types <strong>of</strong> ITUs, vehicles and vessels<br />
C3 facilitate simple, quick, flexible, reliable and safe transshipment<br />
C4 facilitate transshipment under the overhead contact l<strong>in</strong>e<br />
C5 avoid the need for co-ord<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> vehicles at term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
C6 facilitate possibility for gradual implementation<br />
From the table it is obvious that criteria C3 (facilitate simple, quick, flexible, reliable and<br />
safe transshipment) and C2 (be compatible with the currently dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g types <strong>of</strong> ITUs, vehicles<br />
and vessels) are found most important and criteria C1, be open for sea <strong>transportation</strong><br />
is found least important. The importances for the other three criteria are <strong>of</strong> the same magnitude.<br />
7.2.5 Evaluate the alternatives accord<strong>in</strong>g to the def<strong>in</strong>ed criteria<br />
The different alternatives can now be scored and evaluated accord<strong>in</strong>g to the weight criterion<br />
method. A new matrix is def<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> which the technologies are given scores accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to how they fulfil the def<strong>in</strong>ed criteria respectively. The weight factors <strong>of</strong> the criteria from<br />
table 7-1 are used for calculat<strong>in</strong>g the ki*fulfilment product.<br />
161
Table 7-3<br />
Grad<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> fulfilment <strong>of</strong> criteria. Some technologies are grouped for jo<strong>in</strong>t<br />
evaluation.<br />
Technologies<br />
Small-<strong>scale</strong> road-rail technologies<br />
Vertical transshipment<br />
Criteria, k i , fulfilment po<strong>in</strong>ts and sums<br />
C C C C C C6 Σ k i *fulfil-<br />
1 2 3 4 5<br />
po<strong>in</strong>t ment<br />
SJ: Light-combi 2 2 3 3 3 3 16 2.725<br />
Horizontal transshipment<br />
Proveho: CarConTra<strong>in</strong> PLUS 2 2 3 3 3 2 15 2.586<br />
Steadman Ind.: Railta<strong>in</strong>er/Steadm. Sys. 1 1 3 2 0 1 8 1.585<br />
Southern Car & Manuf. Comp.: Rail<strong>in</strong>er 1 2 3 3 2 2 13 2.419<br />
BR Research: Self-Load<strong>in</strong>g Vehicle 2 1 3 3 0 2 11 1.919<br />
BR Research: Rail wagon with elevat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
1 1 3 3 0 2 10 1.891<br />
twistlocks and lorry with a roller trolley<br />
The R<strong>in</strong>ger System 1 1 1 3 2 1 9 1.474<br />
LogMan: Conta<strong>in</strong>er FTS 1 1 1 3 2 1 9 1.474<br />
The Hochste<strong>in</strong> System 1 1 2 3 2 2 11 1.891<br />
Blatchford: Stag 2 2 3 2 1 2 12 2.141<br />
Stenhagen: Stenhagen System 2 1 2 3 0 2 10 1.641<br />
Albatec: Kombiflex 1 2 3 3 3 2 14 2.558<br />
N.C.H. Hydr. Sys.: Mondiso Rail Term<strong>in</strong>al 3 1 2 3 3 1 13 1.947<br />
Turntable systems<br />
ACTS; RSS; Multi-berces; TTT-System 1 1 3 3 1 1 10 1.891<br />
Self-load<strong>in</strong>g trailers and rail wagons<br />
Steel Bros.; Hammarlift; Kranmobil;<br />
SIMAN-lift; Blatchford-SIMAN sideloader<br />
system; Mitralift; Biglo; S4036; CLTS; Triolift;<br />
KMA Sideloader<br />
0.028<br />
0.250<br />
0.278<br />
0.167<br />
0.139<br />
0.139<br />
3 2 3 2 1 2 13 2.169<br />
ULS; T-lift system 0 3 1 3 2 2 11 2.085<br />
Rail wagons for lift<strong>in</strong>g swap bodies/cass.<br />
Kombi-Lifter; WAS Wagon; Supertrans; the<br />
1 2 2 3 2 1 11 2.002<br />
Wieskötter System<br />
The Wheelless System; Titan Cassettes 3 1 2 3 3 1 13 1.947<br />
Small and special conta<strong>in</strong>er systems<br />
Costamasnaga: TR.A.I. 2000 1 1 2 3 3 1 11 1.891<br />
Criteria:<br />
The transshipment technology ought to:<br />
C1 be open for sea <strong>transportation</strong><br />
C2 be compatible with the currently dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g types <strong>of</strong> ITUs, vehicles and vessels<br />
C3 facilitate simple, quick, flexible, reliable and safe transshipment<br />
C4 facilitate transshipment under the overhead contact l<strong>in</strong>e<br />
C5 avoid the need for co-ord<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> vehicles at term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
C6 facilitate possibility for gradual implementation<br />
Scores:<br />
0 The alternative can def<strong>in</strong>itely not fulfil the criterion<br />
1 The alternative is not likely to fulfil the criterion<br />
2 The alternative is likely to fulfil the criterion<br />
3 The alternative can fulfil the criterion well<br />
162
Note that it is the ki*fulfilment product – and not the total sum <strong>of</strong> received po<strong>in</strong>ts – that is<br />
the result <strong>of</strong> the evaluation. The result is commented upon <strong>in</strong> section 7.3 below.<br />
7.2.6 F<strong>in</strong>al evaluation and decision<br />
At this stage <strong>of</strong> the weight criterion method, it becomes clear how well the alternatives satisfy<br />
the criteria and hereby also the probability <strong>of</strong> solv<strong>in</strong>g the problems at hand. In this last<br />
step, the cost <strong>of</strong> each alternative should be carefully estimated <strong>in</strong> a systems context, not<br />
only for the transshipment as such. As argued for above, this is virtually impossible to do at<br />
a general European level, it must simply be done by the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> system developers<br />
themselves when the implementation case is firmly def<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />
The f<strong>in</strong>al decision taken by the developer should, for obvious reasons, not only be based<br />
upon the ratio between k i *fulfilment-rate and the costs <strong>of</strong> the different solutions, but also<br />
upon a wide range <strong>of</strong> s<strong>of</strong>ter aspects.<br />
7.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION<br />
It is aga<strong>in</strong>st the <strong>in</strong>tention <strong>of</strong> this dissertation to propose one s<strong>in</strong>gle <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transshipment<br />
technology for the whole <strong>of</strong> Western Europe. Consequently, the evaluation should be regarded<br />
more as a guidel<strong>in</strong>e when look<strong>in</strong>g for technologies to <strong>in</strong>corporate <strong>in</strong> a new or redesigned<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> system. For an accurate and just evaluation, more comprehensive and detailed<br />
analyses have to be carried out with<strong>in</strong> every s<strong>in</strong>gle <strong>development</strong> project. As mentioned<br />
more than once <strong>in</strong> this report, for a successful implementation, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> systems<br />
must conform to the requirements prevail<strong>in</strong>g at the market aimed for and not for some general<br />
European requirements.<br />
Nevertheless, the result from the evaluation must be commented upon. For easier appraisal<br />
<strong>of</strong> the result, the technologies are sorted accord<strong>in</strong>g to the ki*fulfilment product as seen <strong>in</strong><br />
the table below.<br />
163
Table 7-4<br />
Technologies<br />
Result <strong>of</strong> the evaluation. The technologies are sorted accord<strong>in</strong>g to the<br />
k i *fulfilment product.<br />
Criteria, k i , fulfilment po<strong>in</strong>ts and sums<br />
C C C C C C6 Σ k i *fulfil-<br />
1 2 3 4 5<br />
po<strong>in</strong>t ment<br />
SJ: Light-combi 2 2 3 3 3 3 16 2.725<br />
Proveho: CarConTra<strong>in</strong> PLUS 2 2 3 3 3 2 15 2.586<br />
Albatec: Kombiflex 1 2 3 3 3 2 14 2.558<br />
Southern Car & Manuf. Comp.: Rail<strong>in</strong>er 1 2 3 3 2 2 13 2.419<br />
Self-load<strong>in</strong>g trailers: Steel Bros.; Hammarlift;<br />
Kranmobil; SIMAN-lift; Blatchford-<br />
SIMAN sideloader system; Mitralift; Biglo<br />
Bigloader; S4036; Conta<strong>in</strong>er Load<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
3 2 3 2 1 2 13 2.169<br />
Transport System; Triolift; KMA Sideloader<br />
Blatchford: Stag 2 2 3 2 1 2 12 2.141<br />
ULS; T-lift system 0 3 1 3 2 2 11 2.085<br />
Rail wagons for lift<strong>in</strong>g swap bodies:<br />
Kombi-Lifter; WAS Wagon; Supertrans; the<br />
Wieskötter System<br />
0.028<br />
0.250<br />
0.278<br />
0.167<br />
0.139<br />
0.139<br />
1 2 2 3 2 1 11 2.002<br />
N.C.H.: Mondiso Rail Term. 3 1 2 3 3 1 13 1.947<br />
Rail wagons for lift<strong>in</strong>g cassettes: The<br />
Wheelless System; Titan Cassettes<br />
3 1 2 3 3 1 13 1.947<br />
BR Research: Self-Load<strong>in</strong>g Vehicle 2 1 3 3 0 2 11 1.919<br />
BR Research: Rail wagon with elevat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
twistlocks and lorry with a roller trolley<br />
1 1 3 3 0 2 10 1.891<br />
Small and special conta<strong>in</strong>er systems:<br />
Costamasnaga: TR.A.I. 2000<br />
1 1 2 3 3 1 11 1.891<br />
The Hochste<strong>in</strong> System 1 1 2 3 2 2 11 1.891<br />
Turntable systems: ACTS; RSS; Multiberces;<br />
TTT-System<br />
1 1 3 3 1 1 10 1.891<br />
Stenhagen: Stenhagen System 2 1 2 3 0 2 10 1.641<br />
Steadman Ind.: Railta<strong>in</strong>er/Steadm. Sys. 1 1 3 2 0 1 8 1.585<br />
LogMan: Conta<strong>in</strong>er FTS 1 1 1 3 2 1 9 1.474<br />
The R<strong>in</strong>ger System 1 1 1 3 2 1 9 1.474<br />
Criteria:<br />
The transshipment technology ought to:<br />
C1 be open for sea <strong>transportation</strong><br />
C2 be compatible with the currently dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g types <strong>of</strong> ITUs, vehicles and vessels<br />
C3 facilitate simple, quick, flexible, reliable and safe transshipment<br />
C4 facilitate transshipment under the overhead contact l<strong>in</strong>e<br />
C5 avoid the need for co-ord<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> vehicles at term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
C6 facilitate possibility for gradual implementation<br />
Scores:<br />
0 The alternative can def<strong>in</strong>itely not fulfil the criterion<br />
1 The alternative is not likely to fulfil the criterion<br />
2 The alternative is likely to fulfil the criterion<br />
3 The alternative can fulfil the criterion well<br />
164
From the sorted table, it is clear that SJ’s Light-combi concept is the technology regarded<br />
best suited for mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport successful on the medium-distance part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
transport market <strong>in</strong> tomorrow’s Europe. The difference to the second and third ranked technologies<br />
is, however, <strong>small</strong> and s<strong>in</strong>ce the evaluation method has a certa<strong>in</strong> degree <strong>of</strong> subjectivity,<br />
the result should be used merely as an <strong>in</strong>dication.<br />
Still Light-combi has some advantages compared to the other technologies. What dist<strong>in</strong>guishes<br />
it from the second ranked technology, Proveho’s CarConTra<strong>in</strong> (CCT) PLUS, is the<br />
well-planned gradual implementation scheme. Compared to the third ranked technology,<br />
Albatec’s Kombiflex, Light-combi is also better suited for term<strong>in</strong>als <strong>in</strong> port areas. However,<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> a forklift truck that follows the tra<strong>in</strong> limits the Light-combi system to ITUs<br />
with forklift tunnels, which is a clear shortcom<strong>in</strong>g. Still, as SJ has revealed plans for employ<strong>in</strong>g<br />
other <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> technologies <strong>in</strong> the long run 98 , the openness is expected to be extended<br />
to <strong>in</strong>clude all ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers and swap bodies. Moreover, the transshipment technology<br />
is developed apply<strong>in</strong>g an impressive systems approach rather than one limited to the<br />
pure transshipment function. Hence, the Light-combi concept is considered to be a good<br />
choice as the object <strong>of</strong> the next chapter.<br />
The openness to a wide range <strong>of</strong> ITU-types can be stated as better for CarConTra<strong>in</strong> PLUS<br />
than for the Light-combi concept. The difference is, however, not big enough to motivate a<br />
difference <strong>in</strong> grades for the important criteria C2 – “be compatible with a wide range <strong>of</strong><br />
ITUs, vehicles and vessels” – s<strong>in</strong>ce CCT PLUS is a more restricted when rail and road vehicles<br />
are concerned. In all, the CCT PLUS is regarded as well suited for tak<strong>in</strong>g on the<br />
challenge <strong>of</strong> equipp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> corridor term<strong>in</strong>als. Also Albatec’s Kombiflex technology<br />
with transshipment equipment movable along the tra<strong>in</strong>, has clear advantages at corridor<br />
term<strong>in</strong>als. Unfortunately, a prototype has not been built and the concept is neither further<br />
developed nor promoted anymore.<br />
Beside SJ’s Light-combi concept, Proveho’s CarConTra<strong>in</strong> PLUS and Albatec’s Kombiflex;<br />
Southern Car & Manufactur<strong>in</strong>g Company’s Rail<strong>in</strong>er, the side-lift<strong>in</strong>g trailers, and Blatchford’s<br />
Stag technology received high scores. A clear majority <strong>of</strong> the technologies are then<br />
clustered with<strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>terval 1.900 ± 0.1. Slightly worse scores are received by an older Canadian<br />
system (the Railta<strong>in</strong>er) and a Swedish concept (Stenhagen System), the latter primarily<br />
aim<strong>in</strong>g for the road-air transport market.<br />
Two older German systems are found at the far bottom <strong>of</strong> the evaluation table. The basic<br />
reason for the low grad<strong>in</strong>g is that they were developed as parts <strong>of</strong> larger <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> systems<br />
accord<strong>in</strong>g to the research guidel<strong>in</strong>es issued by the German M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Transportation<br />
(Bundesm<strong>in</strong>ister für Verkehr, 1981). Hence, they are <strong>in</strong>tended to be operated <strong>in</strong> conjunction<br />
98 See chapter 8 and the section about Mondiso Rail Term<strong>in</strong>al <strong>in</strong> the detached appendix.<br />
165
with conventional gantry cranes and they are no real <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> systems. They certa<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
do, however, possess clear potentials for improvements.<br />
The result here is quite different from that presented by JÖNSSON and KROON (1990, p.<br />
93 ff.). They rated ACTS highest followed by side-lift<strong>in</strong>g trailers, C-sam and the Tiphook<br />
system. The ma<strong>in</strong> difference between the evaluations is that they considered an immediate<br />
implementation rather than suitability for a future <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> system. Hence, the criteria<br />
“well-tried technology” and “technical maturity” where highly weighted. In addition, they<br />
considered “ma<strong>in</strong>tenance need” as very important, while this factor is only <strong>in</strong>directly rated<br />
here. Another difference is that their evaluation did not exclude pure semi-trailer technologies.<br />
CarConTra<strong>in</strong> was lowly rated by JÖNSSON and KROON, but it should be noted that<br />
the evaluated technology was <strong>of</strong> an earlier design that would have scored rather badly also<br />
<strong>in</strong> this evaluation.<br />
The result presented here is also slightly different from that presented <strong>in</strong> WOXENIUS<br />
(1998). The CarConTra<strong>in</strong> PLUS concept received the highest scores <strong>in</strong> that study. The reason<br />
for the differences is that SJ now has unveiled more <strong>in</strong>formation about its Light-combi<br />
concept, which has granted higher scores.<br />
An analysis <strong>of</strong> the result would reveal that there is a correspondence between the nationality<br />
<strong>of</strong> the best-ranked technologies and that <strong>of</strong> the evaluator. This should not be regarded as<br />
a simple attempt to promote Swedish technologies, but rather as that the general requirements<br />
prevail<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Sweden are congruent with those prevail<strong>in</strong>g for future short-distance<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport on a European level. If an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system can be a<br />
viable complement to s<strong>in</strong>gle mode road transport <strong>in</strong> Sweden with its <strong>small</strong> and dispersed<br />
transport flows and huge lorries, it should have potential to succeed almost anywhere else<br />
<strong>in</strong> Europe.<br />
166
8 A PARTICULAR SMALL-SCALE CONCEPT<br />
Systems (2)<br />
Transportation systems (3)<br />
Intermodal <strong>transportation</strong> systems (4)<br />
Actors Activities Resources (5)<br />
Transshipment<br />
technologies (6)<br />
Small-<strong>scale</strong><br />
transshipment<br />
technologies (7)<br />
A particular <strong>small</strong><strong>scale</strong><br />
concept<br />
In the previous chapters, it has been repeatedly<br />
argued that specific and determ<strong>in</strong>istic statements<br />
are only valid for strictly delimited cases. It then<br />
goes without say<strong>in</strong>g that it is suitable to dedicate a<br />
chapter to one such case. It is also appropriate to<br />
dedicate the case study to the technology found best<br />
suited for <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> operations <strong>in</strong> the evaluation <strong>in</strong><br />
the preced<strong>in</strong>g chapter. Hence, this chapter treats<br />
SJ’s <strong>development</strong> project Light-combi that has attracted<br />
significant attention from the <strong>in</strong>dustry, from authorities, from researchers as well as<br />
from media.<br />
The role should not be overestimated, but I have been – and I still am – <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the <strong>development</strong><br />
project as a discussion partner, a researcher and a consultant. This implies that<br />
the case study cannot be used for classic verification <strong>of</strong> the ideas presented <strong>in</strong> earlier chapters.<br />
Instead, it may be regarded as further illustration <strong>of</strong> the thoughts, and a possibility to<br />
be comparatively determ<strong>in</strong>istic and to avoid lawyer-style “it depends” statements. The<br />
chapter is thus not limited to the lowest system level, but rather used for referr<strong>in</strong>g up to<br />
higher system levels and for prepar<strong>in</strong>g for the synthesised conclusions <strong>in</strong> the next chapter.<br />
In my op<strong>in</strong>ion, the Light-combi project is also a good example <strong>of</strong> how a complex eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g<br />
problem can be successfully addressed by apply<strong>in</strong>g a comprehensive systems approach.<br />
Consequently, the plans for how the concept is to be implemented are especially focused<br />
here.<br />
The description and analysis <strong>of</strong> the Light-combi concept presented <strong>in</strong> the detached appendix<br />
is based upon external <strong>in</strong>formation sources while this render<strong>in</strong>g is ma<strong>in</strong>ly based upon<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation supplied directly by SJ. Hence, no references are given here. The <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
has been gathered through access to <strong>in</strong>ternal project material and through frequent <strong>in</strong>terviews<br />
and discussions, chiefly with the project manager Jan-Ola WEDE.<br />
8.1 THE LIGHT-COMBI CONCEPT<br />
As argued for <strong>in</strong> section 6.2.4 and <strong>in</strong> the previous chapter, Sweden with its <strong>small</strong> and dispersed<br />
goods flows is a natural breed<strong>in</strong>g place for <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> concepts. Swed-<br />
167
ish State Railways (SJ) 99 has taken various <strong>in</strong>itiatives for develop<strong>in</strong>g a viable <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
system <strong>in</strong> competition with the large lorries allowed <strong>in</strong> Sweden. Only the most recent one –<br />
the Light-combi project – is described and analysed here but two <strong>of</strong> its predecessors are<br />
briefly presented <strong>in</strong> the detached appendix. A common feature <strong>of</strong> the three projects is that a<br />
comprehensive systems approach was used for re-eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g the whole <strong>transportation</strong> system<br />
rather than just the transshipment function.<br />
The peripheral location and the low population density mean that the Swedish <strong>in</strong>dustry’s<br />
competitiveness depends on quick, reliable and cost-efficient transport services. Compared<br />
to <strong>in</strong> Cont<strong>in</strong>ental Europe, the feasibility <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>in</strong> Sweden is limited by the<br />
facts that:<br />
• Sweden is sparsely populated with an <strong>in</strong>dustry distributed over large areas imply<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>small</strong>er and less concentrated flows.<br />
• Sweden is a peripheral country with a pen<strong>in</strong>sular lie still imply<strong>in</strong>g dependence on ferries<br />
for reach<strong>in</strong>g the major trade partners. S<strong>in</strong>ce most <strong>in</strong>ternational transport routes are divided<br />
<strong>in</strong>to two shorter halves, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport becomes less competitive and road transport<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten used on either or both sides <strong>of</strong> the Baltic Sea.<br />
• The competition with road transport is fierce s<strong>in</strong>ce very large road vehicles – 24 meters<br />
and 60 tons – are allowed and even longer ones – 25.25 meters – will be allowed <strong>in</strong> a few<br />
years.<br />
Today, the short- and medium-distance transport market is totally dom<strong>in</strong>ated by road transport.<br />
Domestic <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, operated by Rail Combi AB, is competitive from approximately<br />
500 kilometres, but still has a modest market share. On <strong>in</strong>ternational dest<strong>in</strong>ations,<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is competitive over really long distances, but the use <strong>of</strong> ferries<br />
hampers the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> operations severely. Moreover, as is true <strong>in</strong> Cont<strong>in</strong>ental Europe, the<br />
competition from lorries from non-EU member states is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly fierce.<br />
In order to face these problems, Swedish State Railways (SJ) runs a <strong>development</strong> project<br />
with the aim <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g a f<strong>in</strong>e-meshed network <strong>of</strong> some 40 simple, flexible and unmanned<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als at side-tracks along exist<strong>in</strong>g rail <strong>in</strong>frastructure. The network<br />
will be operated as a complement to the 16 larger conventional <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als oper-<br />
99 Swedish State Railways (Statens Järnvägar – SJ) is a state-owned railway operation company. The number<br />
<strong>of</strong> employees <strong>in</strong> the end <strong>of</strong> 1995 was 24 800/14 200/3 800 (group/parent entity/<strong>freight</strong> division) and the turnover<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1995 was ECU 2.1/1.4/0.6 billion.<br />
168
ated by the SJ subsidiary Rail Combi AB 100 . The Swedish network will also be <strong>in</strong>ternationally<br />
connected through gateways.<br />
The concept is based upon fixed-formation tra<strong>in</strong> sets that make short stops (15-30 m<strong>in</strong>utes)<br />
at side-track term<strong>in</strong>als approximately every 100 kilometres. The maximum local road haulage<br />
distance is considered to be 50 kilometres but when flows fluctuate, lorries can be used<br />
for longer haulage <strong>in</strong> order to avoid stops where only one or a few ITUs are shifted.<br />
At the term<strong>in</strong>als, swap bodies and ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers are transshipped under the overhead contact<br />
l<strong>in</strong>e, to beg<strong>in</strong> with by use <strong>of</strong> a forklift truck carried by the tra<strong>in</strong> and operated by the eng<strong>in</strong>e<br />
driver as shown <strong>in</strong> the figure below.<br />
Figure 8-1<br />
An artist’s impression <strong>of</strong> a Light-combi term<strong>in</strong>al operated with a forklift truck<br />
carried on the tra<strong>in</strong>. (Source: SJ/Marknadsplan).<br />
So far, Staff Corporate Plann<strong>in</strong>g and Strategic Development have managed the project.<br />
Along with the commercialisation, the responsibility is to be gradually transferred to the<br />
<strong>freight</strong> division <strong>of</strong> SJ – SJ Gods 101 . The concept is developed <strong>in</strong> close co-operation with<br />
SJ’s road haulier subsidiary AB Svelast 102 that will use their lorries for carry<strong>in</strong>g out local<br />
100 The bus<strong>in</strong>ess unit for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>of</strong> SJ, SJ Kombi, became a limited company on July 1, 1992.<br />
The new company Rail Combi AB is fully owned by SJ. With 169 employees, Rail Combi dispatched 4 million<br />
tons <strong>of</strong> <strong>freight</strong> loaded on 209 000 rail wagons <strong>in</strong> 1995. At the term<strong>in</strong>als, 344 000 lift-operations were accomplished.<br />
The revenues <strong>in</strong> 1995 were ECU 63 million <strong>of</strong> which ECU 115 000 was a pr<strong>of</strong>it.<br />
101 “Gods” is the Swedish word for <strong>freight</strong> and it should not be mistaken for a belief <strong>in</strong> more than one Supreme<br />
Be<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
102 AB Svelast became a member <strong>of</strong> the SJ group <strong>in</strong> 1945 and has supported SJ’s rail <strong>freight</strong> operations ever<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce. Svelast is a fully owned subsidiary to the SJ Group with the aim <strong>of</strong> support<strong>in</strong>g rail transport <strong>in</strong> Sweden. In<br />
169
oad haulage and for safety backup <strong>in</strong> case <strong>of</strong> technical problems. Connections to other <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport networks are developed together with SJ’s subsidiary for conventional<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, Rail Combi AB. Svelast and Rail Combi also co-operate directly <strong>in</strong><br />
the production <strong>of</strong> conventional <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport services.<br />
The <strong>development</strong> project started <strong>in</strong> October 1995 and the goal is to complete a customer<br />
pilot <strong>in</strong> 1998 and run a fully developed service <strong>in</strong> 2003. The fully developed <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport service is anticipated to be competitive with s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode road transport on distances<br />
exceed<strong>in</strong>g 200 kilometres. As will be elaborated below, a cornerstone <strong>in</strong> the project<br />
is to keep the bus<strong>in</strong>ess risk on a low level by us<strong>in</strong>g standard equipment flexibly and by develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the concept gradually. In short, the <strong>in</strong>novative aspects are:<br />
• flexible use <strong>of</strong> fixed-formation tra<strong>in</strong> sets – no marshall<strong>in</strong>g<br />
• short stops (15-30 m<strong>in</strong>utes) at <strong>small</strong>, simple and unmanned term<strong>in</strong>als at side-tracks<br />
• load<strong>in</strong>g and unload<strong>in</strong>g under the overhead contact l<strong>in</strong>e<br />
• co-ord<strong>in</strong>ation between regional, domestic and <strong>in</strong>ternational tra<strong>in</strong>s<br />
• close co-operation with other term<strong>in</strong>al operators and road hauliers<br />
• carefully prepared implementation scheme<br />
The concept makes it possible to start up a <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> network <strong>in</strong> areas with <strong>small</strong> flows<br />
over short and medium distances without big <strong>in</strong>vestment. S<strong>in</strong>ce the term<strong>in</strong>als are <strong>of</strong> a very<br />
simple design it is possible to establish term<strong>in</strong>als fast and at low costs. Resources can also<br />
be moved easily with<strong>in</strong> the network, especially <strong>in</strong> the basic concept where a forklift truck<br />
follows the tra<strong>in</strong> on a special wagon. In the detached appendix, the Light-combi concept is<br />
described from a technical perspective and analysed concern<strong>in</strong>g advantages and disadvantages.<br />
The <strong>development</strong> project is also dealt with <strong>in</strong> sections 6.1.4, 6.2.4 and 7.3 <strong>in</strong> this dissertation.<br />
8.2 PROJECT OBJECTIVES<br />
As was elaborated <strong>in</strong> section 6.2, preconditions for design<strong>in</strong>g viable <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
systems vary considerably between the European countries. The <strong>small</strong> flows present <strong>in</strong><br />
Sweden and other peripheral countries imply that regional, domestic and <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
flows have to be co-ord<strong>in</strong>ated to make up the <strong>scale</strong> <strong>in</strong> which <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport can reach<br />
bus<strong>in</strong>ess economic pr<strong>of</strong>itability. For a substantial modal shift, the problems concern<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>addition,<br />
the company takes on all-road, door-to-door, transport assignments for part loads and full truckloads.<br />
In 1995 an average <strong>of</strong> 500 employees used 300 lorries and 21 term<strong>in</strong>als to produce transport and third party<br />
logistics services worth ECU 37 million. Of the total costs, 6 % referred to purchas<strong>in</strong>g from other SJ companies<br />
and 19 % <strong>of</strong> the revenues was bus<strong>in</strong>ess with other companies with<strong>in</strong> the SJ Group.<br />
170
termodal transport over short and medium distances must be addressed with priority. Once<br />
these markets have been penetrated, competitiveness over long distances will most probably<br />
come as a bonus.<br />
As is true for large parts <strong>of</strong> Europe, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is los<strong>in</strong>g competitiveness <strong>in</strong> Sweden.<br />
To SJ as a group, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is not pr<strong>of</strong>itable – the operational costs are covered<br />
but not the capital costs (LUNDBERG, 1996, p. 30). Several Swedish <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport term<strong>in</strong>als have been closed <strong>in</strong> recent years thus restrict<strong>in</strong>g the geographic coverage<br />
and market potential. One <strong>of</strong> the objectives <strong>of</strong> the Light-combi project is therefore to<br />
recapture lost markets for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, SJ puts a lot <strong>of</strong> effort <strong>in</strong>to decreas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the m<strong>in</strong>imum distance where <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is competitive with s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode<br />
road transport.<br />
In the domestic transport market, the Light-combi concept seems to be a viable attempt to<br />
compete with road transport at the very important medium distances. Besides the traffic<br />
with<strong>in</strong> the closed loops, co-ord<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> services will also contribute to the competitiveness<br />
<strong>of</strong> conventional domestic <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport due to enhanced area coverage. The<br />
present <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> flows are by no means <strong>in</strong>tended to be forced <strong>in</strong>to the Light-combi services.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to SJ, the Swedish domestic transport market has an annual volume <strong>of</strong> 427 million<br />
tons. However, only a <strong>small</strong> share <strong>of</strong> this market is suitable for Light-combi. First, the<br />
<strong>in</strong>tention <strong>of</strong> the Light-combi services is neither to take market shares from sea nor from rail<br />
transport. Second, the major part <strong>of</strong> road transport is over distances less than 200 kilometres<br />
over which Light-combi is no realistic alternative. Third, a part <strong>of</strong> the market is outside<br />
the geographic coverage <strong>of</strong> the basic Light-combi network. Fourth, the Light-combi services<br />
do not aim for non-conta<strong>in</strong>erised general cargo. After subtract<strong>in</strong>g these parts from the<br />
total market, there is a potential market <strong>of</strong> 22 million tons annually as shown <strong>in</strong> the figure<br />
below. International and domestic flows that are planned to be l<strong>in</strong>ked to the Light-combi<br />
network will add to the 22 million tons.<br />
171
427 Mton -13 -Sea Total domestic transport<br />
-57<br />
-Rail market <strong>in</strong> Sweden<br />
-314<br />
-Road, less than 200 kms<br />
-10<br />
-11<br />
=22 Mton<br />
-Outside the basic Light-combi network<br />
-Non-conta<strong>in</strong>erised general cargo<br />
-Potential market for Light-combi<br />
Figure 8-2<br />
The potential market <strong>of</strong> Light-combi.<br />
Regionally, a fully developed service is regarded to have the possibility to capture one third<br />
<strong>of</strong> the potential market <strong>of</strong> 22 million tons annually. If realised, more than 7 million tons can<br />
thus be shifted from road to rail. For <strong>in</strong>ternational flows not only “tons” will be shifted<br />
from road to rail through <strong>in</strong>creased competitiveness – the rail part <strong>of</strong> the distance will also<br />
be extended compared to today’s <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>of</strong>fer.<br />
In the <strong>in</strong>ternational transport market, the Light-combi has the potential for contribut<strong>in</strong>g not<br />
only to the fact that an extended part <strong>of</strong> the total distance is performed by rail, but also to<br />
enhanced competitiveness for <strong>in</strong>ternational <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport as such. Hence, so-called<br />
broken traffic with road transport on either side <strong>of</strong> the Baltic Sea can be avoided.<br />
8.3 AN IMPLEMENTATION SCENARIO<br />
A lead<strong>in</strong>g star when develop<strong>in</strong>g the Light-combi concept is to keep the bus<strong>in</strong>ess risks on a<br />
low level. Much effort is thus spent on plann<strong>in</strong>g the implementation carefully. Based upon<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation supplied by SJ, the different implementation phases are described here. S<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
the implementation is still <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>fant stage, much <strong>of</strong> the description can be referred to as a<br />
scenario. This scenario is m<strong>in</strong>e, but it has been checked by SJ <strong>in</strong> order not to unveil sensitive<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation given to me <strong>in</strong> confidence.<br />
A selection <strong>of</strong> the implementation phases are modelled us<strong>in</strong>g the synthesised model from<br />
section 4.4. The first step, a customer pilot, is modelled <strong>in</strong> detail but as the other implementation<br />
phases lie further <strong>in</strong>to the future and are <strong>of</strong> larger scope, the modell<strong>in</strong>g is successively<br />
less specific. In the end <strong>of</strong> this chapter, the implementation plan is further discussed<br />
<strong>in</strong> light <strong>of</strong> the theory on how to overcome effects <strong>of</strong> barriers aga<strong>in</strong>st implement<strong>in</strong>g new resources,<br />
as presented <strong>in</strong> section 5.2.<br />
172
8.3.1 Customer pilot: “Dalkullan”<br />
First, the Light-combi concept will be tried technically and commercially <strong>in</strong> a customer pilot<br />
commenc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> April 1998. The task is to transport groceries from the warehouse <strong>of</strong> the<br />
wholesaler DAGAB to 32 grocery stores <strong>in</strong> DAGAB’s Hemköp cha<strong>in</strong>. Two closed loops<br />
will connect the stores that receive deliveries from the central warehouse three times a<br />
week. It is basically a one-way flow, but some pack<strong>in</strong>g material will be returned for recycl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
or reuse. The pilot is denoted “Dalkullan” 103 s<strong>in</strong>ce the flow orig<strong>in</strong>ates at the warehouse<br />
<strong>in</strong> Borlänge <strong>in</strong> Dalecarlia. Today the groceries are transported us<strong>in</strong>g DAGAB’s own<br />
lorries for local distribution while the forwarder ASG supplies long-distance haulage.<br />
The commercial risk will be ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed on a low level by exclusive use <strong>of</strong> standardised<br />
equipment with alternative fields <strong>of</strong> application if the trials turn out unsuccessfully. In this<br />
respect, SJ has thus learnt from the warn<strong>in</strong>g example <strong>of</strong> C-sam (see the detached appendix)<br />
that employed specific ITUs, lorries as well as rail wagons.<br />
The mov<strong>in</strong>g resources that SJ Gods have allocated for the pilot <strong>in</strong>clude 60 <strong>in</strong>sulated swap<br />
bodies, two tra<strong>in</strong> sets, each consist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> a rail eng<strong>in</strong>e, eight standard flat wagons and a<br />
slightly rebuilt low-bed transformer wagon for carry<strong>in</strong>g a forklift truck. The swap bodies<br />
are equipped with forklift tunnels and each flat wagon is capable <strong>of</strong> carry<strong>in</strong>g two such swap<br />
bodies. The forklift truck to be used for the customer pilot and for tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the eng<strong>in</strong>e drivers<br />
is supplied by Silverdalen Mekaniska Verkstad (SMV). The truck is <strong>of</strong> a standard model<br />
with a price tag <strong>in</strong> the range <strong>of</strong> SEK 1,5 million (ECU 170 000). The truck weighs 34.5 tons<br />
and is capable <strong>of</strong> lift<strong>in</strong>g 25 tons. In addition, Svelast will operate a number <strong>of</strong> lorries.<br />
Only <strong>small</strong> <strong>in</strong>stallations are needed at the term<strong>in</strong>als, ma<strong>in</strong>ly a ramp, a flat asphalt surface<br />
and storage racks for swap bodies. Such simple and unmanned term<strong>in</strong>als have been erected<br />
at exist<strong>in</strong>g side-tracks <strong>in</strong> L<strong>in</strong>köp<strong>in</strong>g, Mölndal, Nässjö and Hässleholm. In addition, the conventional<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als <strong>in</strong> Borlänge, Örebro, Halmstad and Malmö will be used.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce lift equipment is available at the term<strong>in</strong>als <strong>in</strong> Borlänge and Örebro, the two tra<strong>in</strong> sets<br />
do not have to carry the truck <strong>in</strong> the northern part <strong>of</strong> the loops. Hence, a s<strong>in</strong>gle forklift truck<br />
can be used by both tra<strong>in</strong> sets. For <strong>in</strong>stance, when the tra<strong>in</strong> set traffick<strong>in</strong>g the loop clockwise<br />
has reached Mölndal it leaves the truck there to be picked up by the other tra<strong>in</strong> set.<br />
Similarly, that tra<strong>in</strong> set leaves the truck <strong>in</strong> L<strong>in</strong>köp<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g stops at the unmanned term<strong>in</strong>als, the rail eng<strong>in</strong>e driver walks to the forklift truck,<br />
drives it <strong>of</strong>f its wagon over the ramp and then transships the appropriate unit loads between<br />
103 Dalecarlian girl <strong>in</strong> English – a folklore archetype represented by a blond and curvy girl with curves, <strong>in</strong> Sweden<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten associated with Anders Zorn’s pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs and the girl deliver<strong>in</strong>g a garland to the w<strong>in</strong>ner <strong>of</strong> the Vasa ski<br />
race.<br />
173
the tra<strong>in</strong> and the <strong>in</strong>termediate storage racks. The use <strong>of</strong> racks implies that neither the forklift<br />
operator nor the lorry driver will have to fold the support-legs manually. After driv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the forklift truck back onto the tra<strong>in</strong> – a manoeuvre that is shown <strong>in</strong> the figure below – the<br />
eng<strong>in</strong>e driver is ready to take the tra<strong>in</strong> to the next term<strong>in</strong>al.<br />
Figure 8-3<br />
Load<strong>in</strong>g the forklift truck onto the Light-combi tra<strong>in</strong> over the ramp.<br />
(Source: SJ Gods, www-site, 1998).<br />
SJ Gods sells the transport service subcontract<strong>in</strong>g Svelast and Rail Combi for local road<br />
haulage and transshipments at conventional <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als. Rail Combi operates the<br />
term<strong>in</strong>als <strong>in</strong> Örebro and Malmö while Svelast operates those <strong>in</strong> Halmstad and Borlänge, <strong>of</strong><br />
which the latter one is operated on commission for Rail Combi as a part <strong>of</strong> the conventional<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> network. Dalkullan is a truly floor-to-floor service s<strong>in</strong>ce Svelast’s drivers empty<br />
the swap bodies at the Hemköp stores.<br />
DAGAB books transport assignments by use <strong>of</strong> fax, but the companies <strong>in</strong> the SJ group operate<br />
an Intranet-based <strong>in</strong>formation system. Other authorities do not f<strong>in</strong>ancially support the<br />
customer pilot, but wagons <strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> services are relieved from the fixed part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
fees for us<strong>in</strong>g the railway tracks. The customer pilot is modelled below, us<strong>in</strong>g the framework<br />
model synthesised <strong>in</strong> section 4.4. Shared resources are not numbered.<br />
174
Customer pilot “Dalkullan”<br />
Actors<br />
Activities<br />
Resources<br />
Two rail routes<br />
City roads<br />
Adm<strong>in</strong>istrative SJ Gods<br />
system<br />
DAGAB Hemköp<br />
Systems<br />
management<br />
Information system<br />
- Computers<br />
-Fax transmissions<br />
Laws and<br />
regulations<br />
Lower fees<br />
for us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the tracks<br />
Production<br />
system<br />
© J.W. 98 03 04<br />
DAGAB<br />
Svelast<br />
SJ Gods<br />
Rail Combi<br />
Svelast<br />
Fill<strong>in</strong>g at DAGAB<br />
Pick-up road haulage<br />
Transshipment<br />
Rail haulage<br />
Transshipment<br />
Delivery road haulage<br />
Empty<strong>in</strong>g at<br />
32 Hemköp stores<br />
60 <strong>in</strong>sulated swap bodies<br />
Lorries<br />
Conventional term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
2 tra<strong>in</strong> sets with rail<br />
eng<strong>in</strong>e and 8 wagons<br />
4 Light-combi term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
1 forklift truck on tra<strong>in</strong>s<br />
3 conventional term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
Lorries<br />
Delivieries<br />
from DAGAB<br />
warehouse<br />
to Hemköp<br />
stores three<br />
times a week<br />
Local<br />
distributi<br />
on by<br />
DAGAB’s<br />
own<br />
lorries<br />
and longdistance<br />
haulage<br />
by ASG<br />
Figure 8-4<br />
The customer pilot “Dalkullan”.<br />
The operations obviously depend on the performance <strong>of</strong> the comb<strong>in</strong>ed rail eng<strong>in</strong>e and forklift<br />
drivers who thus are thoroughly tra<strong>in</strong>ed before the trials commence.<br />
8.3.2 Start<strong>in</strong>g with closed loops<br />
In the second implementation phase, dedicated tra<strong>in</strong>s consist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> 20 standard flat wagons<br />
and a wagon carry<strong>in</strong>g the forklift truck will run <strong>in</strong> closed loops cover<strong>in</strong>g different Swedish<br />
regions. Term<strong>in</strong>al operations are equal to those <strong>in</strong> the customer pilot. In this phase, swap<br />
bodies up to 7.82 meters and ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers up to 20 feet are accommodated provided that<br />
they are equipped with forklift tunnels.<br />
In order to build up the <strong>freight</strong> volumes at a low bus<strong>in</strong>ess risk, part <strong>of</strong> the l<strong>in</strong>e haulage will<br />
<strong>in</strong>itially be carried out us<strong>in</strong>g Svelast’s lorries. Lorries will also be used for backup <strong>in</strong> case<br />
<strong>of</strong> breakdowns. In this phase, the Light-combi services are <strong>of</strong>fered directly by SJ Gods to a<br />
restricted number <strong>of</strong> shippers. Svelast and Rail Combi act as subcontractors to SJ Gods.<br />
For track<strong>in</strong>g and trac<strong>in</strong>g purposes, an advanced <strong>in</strong>formation system based upon identification<br />
tags on the unit loads and signall<strong>in</strong>g beacons along the side-tracks will be imple-<br />
175
mented. Us<strong>in</strong>g SJ Gods’ experience <strong>in</strong> the field 104 , EDI connections and an Intranet application<br />
will be used for exchang<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>formation with customers.<br />
8.3.3 Establish<strong>in</strong>g a basic network<br />
In the third implementation phase, the captured transport volumes will allow for the operation<br />
<strong>of</strong> a basic network <strong>of</strong> Light-combi term<strong>in</strong>als. The biggest term<strong>in</strong>als will have fixed<br />
transshipment equipment and once the number <strong>of</strong> tra<strong>in</strong>s on a route exceeds the number <strong>of</strong><br />
term<strong>in</strong>als, the forklift trucks will be positioned at the term<strong>in</strong>als, however still operated by<br />
the rail eng<strong>in</strong>e drivers.<br />
Other <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> transshipment technologies will be selected and employed <strong>in</strong> order to accommodate<br />
40-foot conta<strong>in</strong>ers and swap bodies up to 13.6 meters as well as shorter units<br />
lack<strong>in</strong>g forklift tunnels. There is no aim to develop own technology, but rather to search the<br />
market and signal to prospective developers that SJ is a potential buyer. By adopt<strong>in</strong>g an<br />
open attitude towards developers, SJ can get <strong>in</strong>to a position from which it can <strong>in</strong>fluence the<br />
<strong>development</strong> <strong>in</strong> a desired direction. One technology studied by SJ is the Mondiso Rail Term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
as described <strong>in</strong> the detached appendix.<br />
Some Light-combi tra<strong>in</strong>s will still run <strong>in</strong> the closed loops while others will operate at a<br />
fixed timetable <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g services also to occasional customers. Shippers will be <strong>of</strong>fered<br />
door-to-door or floor-to-floor services while the demand from forwarders and road hauliers<br />
is naturally restricted to term<strong>in</strong>al-to-term<strong>in</strong>al services. For the local road haulage part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
door-to-door services, SJ Gods might contract other hauliers than Svelast. Some tra<strong>in</strong>s<br />
might be dedicated to s<strong>in</strong>gle shippers, us<strong>in</strong>g normal Light-combi tra<strong>in</strong>s or German CargoSpr<strong>in</strong>ter<br />
tra<strong>in</strong>s operated <strong>in</strong> a lorry-like fashion. A CargoSpr<strong>in</strong>ter tra<strong>in</strong> is shown below.<br />
104 SJ Gods has experience from several years <strong>of</strong> trials with ID-tags on iron ore wagons <strong>in</strong> the harshest conceivable<br />
environment conditions at Malmbanan <strong>in</strong> the far north <strong>of</strong> Sweden, as well as from EDI connections to<br />
ma<strong>in</strong> customers.<br />
176
Figure 8-5<br />
An impression <strong>of</strong> how a CargoSpr<strong>in</strong>ter tra<strong>in</strong> can appear <strong>in</strong> a Light-combi<br />
service. (Source: SJ/Animage).<br />
The flexible use <strong>of</strong> tra<strong>in</strong>s requires float<strong>in</strong>g tra<strong>in</strong> plans. For floor-to-floor services, the <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
system will facilitate track<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> s<strong>in</strong>gle pallets while term<strong>in</strong>al-to-term<strong>in</strong>al services<br />
will be restricted to <strong>in</strong>formation at the ITU level. The book<strong>in</strong>g system will be developed<br />
for facilitat<strong>in</strong>g transparency for customers us<strong>in</strong>g the Internet or a dedicated Intranet<br />
between the larger actors. Status <strong>in</strong>formation will be transferred with the same media. The<br />
operations <strong>in</strong> this phase are modelled below.<br />
Operations <strong>of</strong> a basic Light-combi network<br />
Actors<br />
Activities<br />
Resources<br />
Railway tracks<br />
City roads<br />
SJ Gods<br />
Adm<strong>in</strong>istrative<br />
system<br />
Shippers<br />
Hauliers Forwarders<br />
Systems<br />
management<br />
Information system<br />
- ID tags<br />
- Computers<br />
-EDI or Intranet<br />
communication<br />
Laws and<br />
regulations<br />
Lower fees<br />
for us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the tracks<br />
Production<br />
system<br />
© J.W. 98 03 04<br />
Shippers<br />
Svelast or<br />
other hauliers<br />
Rail<br />
Combi<br />
SJ Gods<br />
Rail Combi<br />
or SJ Gods<br />
as above<br />
Svelast or other<br />
hauliers as above<br />
Consignees<br />
Fill<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Pick-up road<br />
haulage<br />
Transshipment<br />
Rail haulage<br />
Transshipment<br />
Delivery road haulage<br />
Empty<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Swap bodies, 20 and<br />
40 foot conta<strong>in</strong>ers<br />
Lorries<br />
Conventional term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
Light-combi term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
Forklift truck on tra<strong>in</strong> or<br />
at term<strong>in</strong>al, new type <strong>of</strong><br />
horizontal technology<br />
Tra<strong>in</strong>s with rail eng<strong>in</strong>e<br />
and 20 20 wagons or<br />
CargoSpr<strong>in</strong>ter units<br />
Term<strong>in</strong>al types as above<br />
Lorries<br />
Demand for<br />
transport<br />
services:<br />
- Shippers<br />
(black arrow)<br />
- Forwarders<br />
or hauliers<br />
(white arrow)<br />
Compet<strong>in</strong>g<br />
s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode<br />
<strong>transportation</strong><br />
Figure 8-6<br />
Operations <strong>of</strong> the basic Light-combi network.<br />
177
Note that SJ Gods basically <strong>of</strong>fers two different services. The black arrow illustrates the<br />
floor-to-floor services marketed to shippers, and the term<strong>in</strong>al-to-term<strong>in</strong>al services marketed<br />
to forwarders and hauliers by the white arrow. Forwarders and hauliers are only <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong><br />
systems management <strong>in</strong> the latter case, which is marked with double-framed boxes <strong>in</strong> the<br />
adm<strong>in</strong>istrative system. The modell<strong>in</strong>g takes a clear SJ perspective, which implies that the<br />
ITUs and lorries supplied by forwarders and hauliers are positioned outside the Lightcombi<br />
system.<br />
8.3.4 Extend<strong>in</strong>g the basic network<br />
In the fourth <strong>development</strong> phase, the basic network will be extended with closed loops connect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
new geographical areas <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the Oslo and Trondheim regions <strong>in</strong> Norway. Also<br />
customer-specific tra<strong>in</strong>s might be operated <strong>in</strong> this phase. The loops are connected through<br />
conventional Heavy-combi term<strong>in</strong>als operated as gateways. Schematic pictures <strong>of</strong> the extension<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Light-combi network are shown below.<br />
Loops<br />
Basic<br />
network<br />
Extended<br />
basic network<br />
Figure 8-7<br />
Three steps <strong>in</strong> the <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> the Light-combi network. (Source:<br />
SJ/Marknadsplan).<br />
As mentioned above, conventional flat wagons for conta<strong>in</strong>ers will be used to beg<strong>in</strong> with.<br />
By time, however, these will be substituted for a new type <strong>of</strong> short-coupled wagon better<br />
suited for use <strong>in</strong> the Light-combi system. Another company <strong>in</strong> the SJ Group – TGOJ, is currently<br />
develop<strong>in</strong>g one such wagon type. The proposed wagon is – as is evident from the<br />
figure below – much lighter than conventional ones. Moreover, the swap bodies/conta<strong>in</strong>ers<br />
can be more densely loaded imply<strong>in</strong>g that the load<strong>in</strong>g capacity is approximately 35 %<br />
higher and the energy consumption is up to 60 % lower compared to the use <strong>of</strong> conventional<br />
flat wagons.<br />
178
Figure 8-8<br />
Short-coupled, lightweight railway wagon facilitat<strong>in</strong>g dense load<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> swap<br />
bodies. (Source: SJ/Marknadsplan).<br />
In addition, the wagons allow for tra<strong>in</strong> speeds <strong>of</strong> up to 160 kilometres/hour. Such high<br />
speeds might not be defendable from a strict economic or logistic perspective, but high<br />
speed is vital for mix<strong>in</strong>g Light-combi tra<strong>in</strong>s with fast passenger tra<strong>in</strong>s on ma<strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>es dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
daytime.<br />
8.3.5 Connect<strong>in</strong>g Light-combi to conventional <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport<br />
In the fifth <strong>development</strong> phase, the Light-combi flows will be l<strong>in</strong>ked to the Heavy-combi<br />
network compris<strong>in</strong>g 16 domestic term<strong>in</strong>als. S<strong>in</strong>ce the Light-combi tra<strong>in</strong>s are operated <strong>in</strong> a<br />
flexible fashion, domestic consignments will be l<strong>in</strong>ked through different Rail Combi term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
from time to time. The networks for Heavy-combi and Light-combi are shown below.<br />
179
Heavy-combi term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
Light-combi term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
Figure 8-9<br />
Network modules for Heavy-combi and Light-combi as part <strong>of</strong> a vision for<br />
2007. (Source: SJ, brochure, 1998, p. 21).<br />
Through the use <strong>of</strong> gateways, also unitised flows from Cont<strong>in</strong>ental Europe, from other<br />
Nordic countries as well as from the Baltic States will be <strong>in</strong>corporated. Light-combi will<br />
also be used for h<strong>in</strong>terland transport <strong>of</strong> ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers to and from distant cont<strong>in</strong>ents<br />
through the Port <strong>of</strong> Göteborg.<br />
By l<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g different network modules, the <strong>small</strong> flows related to the Nordic countries will<br />
be co-ord<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong> order to benefit from the economies <strong>of</strong> <strong>scale</strong> so prevalent <strong>in</strong> rail <strong>transportation</strong>.<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> purpose is to extend the part <strong>of</strong> the total distance travelled by rail at the<br />
expense <strong>of</strong> road transport. The figure below shows a vision on how Light-combi can work<br />
together with other <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> services <strong>in</strong> ten years.<br />
180
Heavy-combi term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
Light-combi term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
Port with rail access<br />
Gateway port<br />
Freight airport<br />
Figure 8-10<br />
Connections between Heavy-combi, Light-combi and other network modules<br />
as part <strong>of</strong> a vision for 2007. (Source: SJ, brochure, 1998, p. 40).<br />
As is clear from the figure, also air <strong>freight</strong> flows will be connected to the rail network, but<br />
it is not yet clear whether this will be done with<strong>in</strong> the Light-combi network based upon<br />
swap bodies and conta<strong>in</strong>ers. An option is to design a dedicated service based upon a <strong>freight</strong><br />
version <strong>of</strong> the fast tra<strong>in</strong> X2 and <strong>small</strong>er and lighter air<strong>freight</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>ers.<br />
Nevertheless, the <strong>in</strong>ternational land transport flows are <strong>of</strong> particular significance. Together<br />
with Svelast and Rail Combi, SJ has received funds from the European Commission’s<br />
PACT programme (see section 6.2.12) for a feasibility study on how to develop the <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
l<strong>in</strong>ks.<br />
The F<strong>in</strong>nish flows will be l<strong>in</strong>ked to the Light-combi network through a gateway term<strong>in</strong>al <strong>in</strong><br />
Haparanda/Tornio and through the Port <strong>of</strong> Stockholm. Unitised flows from the Baltic States<br />
will enter the Light-combi network through the ports <strong>of</strong> Stockholm and<br />
Karlskrona/Karlshamn. Cont<strong>in</strong>ental transport flows will be l<strong>in</strong>ked through a gateway term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
<strong>in</strong> Malmö and through the ports <strong>of</strong> Trelleborg and Ystad.<br />
181
Shuttle tra<strong>in</strong>s will take ITUs between the Malmö gateway – positioned close to the abutment<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Öresund Bridge that is under construction – and Hamburg. In Hamburg, another<br />
gateway will connect the Nordic flows to the conta<strong>in</strong>er ports <strong>in</strong> Hamburg as well as to<br />
the large-<strong>scale</strong> shuttles provid<strong>in</strong>g direct connections to a wide range <strong>of</strong> European dest<strong>in</strong>ations.<br />
All-road transport can also be challenged for flows between Scand<strong>in</strong>avia and the<br />
economically important Hamburg region as such.<br />
It seems most rational to choose the giant conventional <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>al Hamburg Billwerder<br />
as gateway term<strong>in</strong>al <strong>in</strong> Hamburg. The term<strong>in</strong>al started operations <strong>in</strong> 1993 and five<br />
gantry cranes give a total technical capacity <strong>of</strong> some 335 000 lifts per year. If a significant<br />
amount <strong>of</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>ers are bound for transocean dest<strong>in</strong>ations, however, the shuttle tra<strong>in</strong><br />
might also call one <strong>of</strong> the three conta<strong>in</strong>er term<strong>in</strong>als <strong>in</strong> the Port <strong>of</strong> Hamburg.<br />
By us<strong>in</strong>g diesel-powered tra<strong>in</strong>s, it is possible to drive the tra<strong>in</strong>s directly under the cranes <strong>in</strong><br />
the gateways and elim<strong>in</strong>ate the problems with different electric currents <strong>in</strong> Sweden, Denmark<br />
and Germany. One studied option is to use tra<strong>in</strong> sets made up from coupled CargoSpr<strong>in</strong>ters.<br />
It is also possible to l<strong>in</strong>k flows to and from Denmark <strong>in</strong> this concept, follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
current plans by the DSB. These <strong>in</strong>ternational operations will obviously be co-ord<strong>in</strong>ated<br />
with railway adm<strong>in</strong>istrations or other operators <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>volved countries 105 .<br />
If the plans for European Freight Freeways 106 are realised <strong>in</strong> large <strong>scale</strong>, SJ Gods might operate<br />
the shuttle tra<strong>in</strong>s themselves. The operations <strong>of</strong> such a shuttle service connect<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
Light-combi network and Rail Combi’s conventional <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport network <strong>in</strong><br />
Scand<strong>in</strong>avia to cont<strong>in</strong>ental shuttles, transocean shipp<strong>in</strong>g and the Hamburg region are modelled<br />
below. The black bold arrow denotes the shuttle service between Malmö and Hamburg<br />
while the dashed arrows denote the connected transport services. Note that the adm<strong>in</strong>istrative<br />
system is only modelled for the core shuttle service.<br />
105 The national railway companies <strong>in</strong> the three Scand<strong>in</strong>avian countries have signed a letter <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>tent concern<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the formation <strong>of</strong> a jo<strong>in</strong>t venture, Nordic Rail International, for rail traffic between the countries and to Cont<strong>in</strong>ental<br />
Europe (Svensk Logistik, 1998, p. 4).<br />
106 Traditionally, <strong>in</strong>ternational European rail transport must <strong>in</strong>volve all national railways along the route <strong>in</strong> a<br />
relay race fashion. European Freight Freeways is an <strong>in</strong>itiative open<strong>in</strong>g up <strong>in</strong>ternational railway l<strong>in</strong>es for operations<br />
by a s<strong>in</strong>gle actor. The first freeway will be opened dur<strong>in</strong>g 1998 (SJ, www-site, 1998).<br />
182
Connect<strong>in</strong>g Scand<strong>in</strong>avian and Cont<strong>in</strong>ental <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> flows<br />
Adm<strong>in</strong>istrative<br />
system<br />
Actors<br />
SJ Gods<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ental<br />
shuttle<br />
operators<br />
Rail Combi<br />
DB Cargo<br />
Term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
Division<br />
Activities<br />
Systems<br />
management<br />
Resources<br />
Information system<br />
- ID tags<br />
- computers<br />
-EDI, Internet and <strong>in</strong>tranet<br />
communication<br />
Railway<br />
tracks<br />
City<br />
roads<br />
Production<br />
system<br />
Laws<br />
and<br />
regulations<br />
Lower<br />
fees<br />
for<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the<br />
tracks<br />
Shippers<br />
Hauliers<br />
SJ Gods<br />
Rail Combi<br />
SJ Gods<br />
Fill<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Pick-up road haulage<br />
Transshipment<br />
Rail haulage<br />
Transshipment<br />
Rail haulage<br />
Swap bodies, 20 and<br />
40 foot conta<strong>in</strong>ers<br />
Lorries<br />
Light-combi term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
Conventional <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
Light-combi tra<strong>in</strong><br />
Conventional <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> tra<strong>in</strong><br />
Malmö (conventional)<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
Demand for<br />
transport<br />
services<br />
from<br />
Scand<strong>in</strong>avia<br />
to<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ental<br />
Europe and<br />
transocean<br />
dest<strong>in</strong>ations<br />
Support<br />
from EU<br />
PACT<br />
funds for<br />
develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
connections<br />
© J.W. 98 03 07<br />
DB Cargo<br />
Term<strong>in</strong>al Division<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>ental<br />
shuttle operators<br />
Shipp<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>in</strong>es<br />
Term<strong>in</strong>al operator<br />
Port operator<br />
Rail haulage<br />
Transshipment<br />
Sea<br />
voyage<br />
Transshipment<br />
Delivery road haulage<br />
CargoSpr<strong>in</strong>ter units<br />
Hamburg Billwerder<br />
conventional term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
Full-tra<strong>in</strong> shuttles<br />
Conta<strong>in</strong>er vessels<br />
Conventional <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
Port<br />
Lorries<br />
Compet<strong>in</strong>g<br />
s<strong>in</strong>glemode<br />
<strong>transportation</strong><br />
Hauliers<br />
Consignees<br />
Empty<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Figure 8-11<br />
Connect<strong>in</strong>g Scand<strong>in</strong>avian and Cont<strong>in</strong>ental <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> flows.<br />
As is obvious from the model, connect<strong>in</strong>g network modules significantly add to complexity.<br />
This is, however, not necessarily a problem, the key is that the network modules can be<br />
operated with low complexity and local adaptation.<br />
8.3.6 Export<strong>in</strong>g the concept<br />
The sixth <strong>development</strong> phase is about “export<strong>in</strong>g” the Light-combi concept as such to new,<br />
non-Swedish, network modules. The deregulation <strong>in</strong>itiatives taken dur<strong>in</strong>g the last 10 years<br />
implies that SJ Gods actually has an option <strong>of</strong> do<strong>in</strong>g this aggressively, that is start<strong>in</strong>g own<br />
door-to-door or floor-to-floor cabotage 107 operations. Due to the state ownership, however,<br />
107 Cabotage was a central conception <strong>in</strong> the regulated European transport market, referr<strong>in</strong>g to the <strong>of</strong>fer <strong>of</strong><br />
domestic transport services <strong>in</strong> other countries than the home country.<br />
183
SJ might be restricted <strong>in</strong> its <strong>in</strong>ternational ambitions. Unlike comparable government-owned<br />
enterprises and public utilities – and despite proposals from SJ’s top management – SJ is<br />
not yet transformed <strong>in</strong>to a limited company. So far, the government has taken no steps towards<br />
the privatisation <strong>of</strong> SJ although a prospective wish for qualify<strong>in</strong>g for the European<br />
Monetary Union might change the case.<br />
Nevertheless, SJ is not formally held back from foreign adventures, but it is closer at hand<br />
that SJ exports the concept and the know-how from own operations rather than try<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
capture foreign door-to-door markets. It could be <strong>in</strong> form <strong>of</strong> jo<strong>in</strong>t ventures with other rail<br />
operators or through SJ’s <strong>in</strong>-house consultant company SwedRail AB. The latter company<br />
was formed <strong>in</strong> order to sell SJ’s experience, e.g. from the early split between <strong>in</strong>frastructure<br />
department (Banverket) and rail traffic operator (SJ). Even more plausible is that a foreign<br />
railway company with a wish for changes on the agenda, takes the <strong>in</strong>itiative <strong>in</strong> contact<strong>in</strong>g<br />
SJ if the <strong>in</strong>itial trials turn out successfully. The operations <strong>of</strong> the Light-combi services can,<br />
however, hardly be patented. The risk from SJ’s perspective is then that a foreign railway<br />
company quite simply copies the concept.<br />
Well, this implementation stage lies quite far <strong>in</strong>to the future and analys<strong>in</strong>g it further would<br />
have the character <strong>of</strong> speculation rather than analysis.<br />
8.4 WHAT TO LEARN FROM THE LIGHT-COMBI PROJECT?<br />
The rest <strong>of</strong> this chapter is aimed at discuss<strong>in</strong>g the case study <strong>in</strong> light <strong>of</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs presented<br />
earlier <strong>in</strong> the dissertation. S<strong>in</strong>ce the most <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g aspect <strong>of</strong> the Light-combi project<br />
is the way <strong>in</strong> which it is <strong>in</strong>tended to be implemented, the issue <strong>of</strong> how to overcome the<br />
effects <strong>of</strong> barriers is emphasised.<br />
8.4.1 Light-combi – a technical system, a network or a cha<strong>in</strong>?<br />
Whether Light-combi is best viewed upon as a technical system, a network or a cha<strong>in</strong> obviously<br />
depends on the purpose <strong>of</strong> the study as well as on which implementation phase that is<br />
studied. The synthesised model presented <strong>in</strong> section 4.4 that comb<strong>in</strong>es the systems perspectives<br />
– technical/hierarchical, network and channel/cha<strong>in</strong> – is found quite useful for the<br />
modell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the Light-combi implementation steps. However, with such a wide approach,<br />
the modell<strong>in</strong>g swiftly becomes severely complex. The case where the Light-combi concept<br />
is l<strong>in</strong>ked to other <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> networks – as presented <strong>in</strong> Figure 8-11 – is regarded as be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
close to the limit <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>conceivability. Modell<strong>in</strong>g even more complex transport arrangements<br />
is likely to be illustrative first after simplifications or limitations <strong>of</strong> the scope <strong>of</strong> the modell<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
184
The first implementation phases regard a closed and firmly managed system, <strong>in</strong> which the<br />
<strong>in</strong>terfaces between the system resources are quite clearly def<strong>in</strong>ed and standard equipment is<br />
employed. Hence, a pure technical approach could be useful, especially for communication<br />
between eng<strong>in</strong>eers and for <strong>in</strong>formation to a wider public. In later implementation stages,<br />
however, the commercial as well as the technological openness are widened, which adds to<br />
complexity. A network approach pay<strong>in</strong>g attention to the activities, actors and resources <strong>in</strong>volved<br />
is then probably a better choice. F<strong>in</strong>ally, when study<strong>in</strong>g the Light-combi connected<br />
to a wider range <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> network modules, a cha<strong>in</strong> approach seems plausible <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that modell<strong>in</strong>g should start out from the path <strong>of</strong> s<strong>in</strong>gle ITUs. In all, the case study fortifies<br />
the f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs from chapter 4 say<strong>in</strong>g that <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> systems are best studied<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g complement<strong>in</strong>g approaches.<br />
8.4.2 How does Light-combi comply with the requirements for<br />
<strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport?<br />
As is obvious from the top rank<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the evaluation <strong>in</strong> chapter 7, Light-combi is well <strong>in</strong><br />
l<strong>in</strong>e with the stated requirements for <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transshipment technologies.<br />
What is thrill<strong>in</strong>g with the concept, however, is that it is consciously developed tak<strong>in</strong>g a systems<br />
approach rather than start<strong>in</strong>g out from a re-<strong>in</strong>vented piece <strong>of</strong> transshipment technology.<br />
In fact, the role <strong>of</strong> the transshipment technology is played down emphasis<strong>in</strong>g how a<br />
simple and well-proven technology can be used <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>novative way.<br />
In fact, the list <strong>of</strong> requirements outl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> section 7.1 is very close to the one actually ly<strong>in</strong>g<br />
beh<strong>in</strong>d the Light-combi project. It could thus be suggested that the list is produced for fitt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Light-combi imply<strong>in</strong>g that the evaluation is biased. The essence <strong>of</strong> the list <strong>in</strong> section<br />
7.1, however, was orig<strong>in</strong>ally published (WOXENIUS and LUMSDEN, 1994) long before<br />
the Light-combi project started. It would be presumptuous to state that the published list<br />
has <strong>in</strong>fluenced the project, but the correspondence between the requirement lists, at least<br />
confirms that this research is not totally wrong. The reason for the congruence could be referred<br />
to the fact that the requirements prevalent <strong>in</strong> Sweden are similar to those prevalent<br />
for the advocated <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> network modules.<br />
Is the Light-combi concept then suitable only <strong>in</strong> Scand<strong>in</strong>avia? My answer is no, s<strong>in</strong>ce the<br />
flexible way <strong>in</strong> which the Light-combi network can be implemented and operated implies<br />
that it could be serviceable <strong>in</strong> several <strong>of</strong> the countries, whose preconditions for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport were analysed <strong>in</strong> section 6.2. It is also suitable for several <strong>of</strong> the network operation<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciples outl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> section 4.2.1. As is clear from the description <strong>of</strong> the implementation<br />
phases, the Light-combi services can be produced us<strong>in</strong>g the corridor, the fixed routes<br />
as well as the flexible routes designs. Hence, the flexibility implies that operators fac<strong>in</strong>g<br />
quite different preconditions can benefit from the ideas beh<strong>in</strong>d Light-combi.<br />
185
8.4.3 How are barrier effects treated?<br />
There is no doubt that a wide range <strong>of</strong> barriers hamper the <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> the Light-combi<br />
concept. Neither are there doubts about that SJ has the <strong>in</strong>tention <strong>of</strong> attack<strong>in</strong>g the barrier effects<br />
consciously. In this section, the measures undertaken, planned or anticipated, are analysed<br />
<strong>in</strong> light <strong>of</strong> the theoretical approaches <strong>of</strong> how to overcome the barrier effects presented<br />
<strong>in</strong> section 5.3.<br />
It can be stated that the barrier hamper<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> Swedish <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport<br />
the most is the lack <strong>of</strong> formal system leadership. No actor except Rail Combi is truly committed<br />
to prioritis<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport before s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode <strong>transportation</strong>. Much <strong>of</strong> Rail<br />
Combi’s effort is also <strong>in</strong> va<strong>in</strong> s<strong>in</strong>ce the owner SJ has refused the company the right to market<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> services directly to shippers. The reason is that SJ Gods and other companies<br />
<strong>in</strong> the SJ group should market to shippers and that such market<strong>in</strong>g by Rail Combi<br />
would upset the forwarders and hauliers buy<strong>in</strong>g services from Rail Combi. Hence, the<br />
company depends on the will <strong>of</strong> forwarders, shipp<strong>in</strong>g agents, hauliers and SJ Gods to use<br />
its term<strong>in</strong>al-to-term<strong>in</strong>al services.<br />
The forwarder ASG seemed committed to use <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport as long as the company<br />
was a member <strong>of</strong> the SJ family but its use <strong>of</strong> Rail Combi’s services has been significantly<br />
reduced s<strong>in</strong>ce SJ sold out. SJ keeps say<strong>in</strong>g that <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> is the future for rail transport,<br />
but it is not an exaggeration to state that SJ Gods more energetically promote wagonload<br />
rail transport than <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. S<strong>in</strong>ce the responsibility is now gradually transferred<br />
from Staff Corporate Plann<strong>in</strong>g and Strategic Development to SJ Gods, it will be <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to study whether the new service can attract the needed attention.<br />
The <strong>in</strong>itial creation <strong>of</strong> a closed system and the <strong>in</strong>tention to control the transport cha<strong>in</strong> under<br />
one management, also <strong>in</strong> com<strong>in</strong>g implementation phases, implies that SJ addresses this<br />
lack <strong>of</strong> system leadership with high priority. Concern<strong>in</strong>g technology, the implementation<br />
plan clearly <strong>in</strong>dicates that SJ plans to change technology <strong>in</strong> course <strong>of</strong> time dur<strong>in</strong>g the system’s<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestment cycle. SJ’s priority is not to develop own technology but to conform firmly<br />
to regulations, standards and prevail<strong>in</strong>g technologies. In addition, technologies developed<br />
by others are <strong>in</strong>vestigated for prospective future use <strong>in</strong> the system. SJ then takes on a role<br />
<strong>of</strong> technology purchaser rather than technology developer. SJ has adopted this philosophy<br />
also <strong>in</strong> other <strong>development</strong> projects, e.g. when buy<strong>in</strong>g the X2 concept from ABB Traction 108<br />
and develop<strong>in</strong>g it <strong>in</strong>to the commercial fast-tra<strong>in</strong> passenger service X2000. A new feature <strong>of</strong><br />
the X2 project was actually that SJ bought the tra<strong>in</strong>s based upon system and functional<br />
specifications rather than upon ready blue pr<strong>in</strong>ts produced by SJ. In all, it can be stated that<br />
108 Now part <strong>of</strong> the company Adtranz.<br />
186
through the successive extension <strong>of</strong> commercial as well as technological openness, many<br />
barriers can be treated simultaneously.<br />
Moreover, the employment <strong>of</strong> the low-bed transformer wagon is an example <strong>of</strong> the strategy<br />
to optimise sets <strong>of</strong> resources together and, f<strong>in</strong>ally, SJ applies the strategy to obta<strong>in</strong> an exemption.<br />
In this case an exemption is obta<strong>in</strong>ed for handl<strong>in</strong>g ITUs with a forklift truck underneath<br />
the overhead contact l<strong>in</strong>e, which has previously been strictly forbidden. The reason<br />
for the exemption is that the lift height is mechanically blocked.<br />
In summary, most <strong>of</strong> the strategies for overcom<strong>in</strong>g the effects <strong>of</strong> barriers are encompassed<br />
<strong>in</strong> SJ’s <strong>development</strong> scheme.<br />
8.5 CONCLUSIONS<br />
What are then the prospects <strong>of</strong> Light-combi? Is it yet another futile attempt to challenge allroad<br />
transport? Or is it a new and vital approach to the Catch 22 <strong>of</strong> comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
operations <strong>in</strong> a <strong>small</strong> <strong>scale</strong> with the utilisation <strong>of</strong> the economies <strong>of</strong> <strong>scale</strong> so prevalent <strong>in</strong> rail<br />
<strong>transportation</strong>? I s<strong>in</strong>cerely believe <strong>in</strong> the latter and the far-reach<strong>in</strong>g plans described <strong>in</strong> section<br />
8.3 <strong>in</strong>dicate that SJ is earnestly committed. The fact that the plans are positively received<br />
by a wide range <strong>of</strong> prospective customers and other stakeholders also po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> the<br />
direction <strong>of</strong> success. Anyhow, other great <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>in</strong>itiatives have failed, but it will certa<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
be <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g to follow the outcome <strong>of</strong> this one!<br />
187
9 A CONCLUDING SCENARIO<br />
The character <strong>of</strong> the present research makes it difficult to conclude <strong>in</strong> a few sentences,<br />
summ<strong>in</strong>g up the results <strong>of</strong> a detailed analysis. Instead, I have chosen to conclude the analytic<br />
elements <strong>in</strong> the end <strong>of</strong> the chapter they appeared <strong>in</strong>. In addition, many <strong>of</strong> the loose<br />
ends were picked up <strong>in</strong> the last chapter that was formulated <strong>in</strong> a conclud<strong>in</strong>g fashion with<strong>in</strong><br />
the framework <strong>of</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>gle <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> concept.<br />
This provides for dedicat<strong>in</strong>g this last chapter to a scenario synthesised from the f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
from the systems analyses and the analytic elements. In this way I believe that the chapter<br />
is more <strong>in</strong>formative and that the render<strong>in</strong>g adds more than just a summary <strong>of</strong> the different<br />
results. The scenario treats the future <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport on a European <strong>scale</strong>, and it is<br />
deeper than the brief ones presented <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>troductions <strong>of</strong> chapters 6 and 7. The dissertation<br />
is then brought to an end by discuss<strong>in</strong>g the prospects and validity <strong>of</strong> this scenario.<br />
The research object <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is clearly <strong>in</strong> focus <strong>in</strong> this chapter. Conclusions<br />
concern<strong>in</strong>g the research process applied <strong>in</strong> my doctoral work are presented <strong>in</strong> the form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
detached postscript that is available upon request.<br />
9.1 A SCENARIO FOR FUTURE EUROPEAN<br />
INTERMODALISM<br />
Based upon my general knowledge <strong>of</strong> the system, the systems analyses and the analytic<br />
elements presented <strong>in</strong> earlier chapters, I assert that the European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
system will follow four ma<strong>in</strong> <strong>development</strong> l<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> order to compete successfully with s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode<br />
road transport also over medium distances <strong>of</strong> 200 – 500 kilometres. All <strong>development</strong><br />
l<strong>in</strong>es do not aim for the medium distances, but it is still vital for the competitiveness<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport that services with different characteristics can be co-ord<strong>in</strong>ated.<br />
Economies <strong>of</strong> <strong>scale</strong> are clearly present <strong>in</strong> railway <strong>transportation</strong> and the <strong>in</strong>tegration <strong>of</strong> different<br />
services can facilitate that the economies can be utilised.<br />
The first <strong>development</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e relates to the large flows over relatively long distances. For obvious<br />
reasons, these services are most economically produced with direct tra<strong>in</strong>s between<br />
end term<strong>in</strong>als and they will employ well proven large-<strong>scale</strong> transshipment technology.<br />
The second and third <strong>development</strong> l<strong>in</strong>es are far more <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g; how should the substantial<br />
market for transport over medium distances – 200 to 500 kilometres – be approached? The<br />
second <strong>development</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e aims for the part <strong>of</strong> this market that <strong>in</strong>volves densely populated<br />
areas generat<strong>in</strong>g large flows concentrated along arteries. This market will be approached by<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g services where tra<strong>in</strong>s make frequent but short stops at road-rail transshipment<br />
term<strong>in</strong>als along corridors. The large flows and the high frequencies imply that the services<br />
188
can compete for short-distance transport, but as a bonus also for transport<strong>in</strong>g ITUs over<br />
longer distances on connections with too <strong>small</strong> flows for direct tra<strong>in</strong>s.<br />
The third <strong>development</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e regards <strong>small</strong> and dispersed flows over medium distances. The<br />
key to improved competitiveness <strong>in</strong> this part <strong>of</strong> the market is to firstly renew all <strong>of</strong> the tra<strong>in</strong><br />
operations system. However, also the employed transshipment technology must be renewed<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce that is a prerequisite for implement<strong>in</strong>g advanced tra<strong>in</strong> operation pr<strong>in</strong>ciples.<br />
The fourth <strong>development</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e is roll<strong>in</strong>g highway services where complete lorry comb<strong>in</strong>ations<br />
are driven onto low-built rail wagons. The purpose <strong>of</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g this expensive solution with an<br />
unsatisfactory net to tare weight ratio, is to overcome hurdles related to the geography or<br />
the <strong>in</strong>frastructure, or use the drivers’ sleep<strong>in</strong>g hours productively. The concept does not<br />
quite fulfil the def<strong>in</strong>ition <strong>of</strong> an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> service used <strong>in</strong> this dissertation, but it is still <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />
here as it is generally discussed together with the downright <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> concepts.<br />
For obvious reasons, what lies <strong>in</strong> the future cannot be scientifically proved. Nevertheless,<br />
the scenario is firmly based upon the studies presented <strong>in</strong> chapters 4 to 8 as well as upon<br />
my achieved general knowledge <strong>of</strong> European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. Parts <strong>of</strong> the scenario are<br />
previously published (WOXENIUS, 1997/b, 1997/c and 1998) and thus exposed to potential<br />
criticism.<br />
As the last years <strong>of</strong> my research have been directed towards operational and technical matters<br />
rather than towards organisational ones, the scenario is focused on the network operation<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and the transshipment technologies. It is not aimed at l<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g out an ideal future<br />
situation, but rather at form<strong>in</strong>g a realistic op<strong>in</strong>ion <strong>of</strong> how the system must be changed<br />
<strong>in</strong> order to survive and capture market shares from s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode road transport, also over<br />
distances as short as 200 kilometres. It is very hard to judge the time needed for the transition<br />
but the scenario roughly covers the com<strong>in</strong>g ten years.<br />
9.1.1 Long and heavy direct tra<strong>in</strong>s for large flows<br />
Economic efficiency calls for direct shuttle tra<strong>in</strong>s wherever significant flows can be<br />
achieved. There is obviously no po<strong>in</strong>t to ply on term<strong>in</strong>als when the tra<strong>in</strong> is already full with<br />
unit loads bound for another term<strong>in</strong>al, but the question that arises, however, is; how large<br />
flows are needed for direct tra<strong>in</strong> services?<br />
Some railways, e.g. Swedish State Railways (SJ) (Transportjournalen, 1996, p. 6 and<br />
1997/b, p. 27), want to operate significantly longer and heavier tra<strong>in</strong>s, mirror<strong>in</strong>g the experiences<br />
<strong>in</strong> America. Primarily, this concerns the system tra<strong>in</strong>s with ore, steel, wooden products<br />
etc. On a European <strong>scale</strong> – due to the new generation <strong>of</strong> huge post-panamax conta<strong>in</strong>er<br />
vessels – this issue is also important to rail feeder services with maritime conta<strong>in</strong>ers as<br />
more efficient land transport services are needed.<br />
189
Nevertheless, implement<strong>in</strong>g larger tra<strong>in</strong>s requires a very difficult transitional period. Pass<strong>in</strong>g<br />
tracks, signall<strong>in</strong>g systems etc. must be changed before really long tra<strong>in</strong>s can be implemented,<br />
which calls for gradual implementation and restrictions to certa<strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>es or network<br />
modules. Weight is another foreseen problem, as unit loads will be more densely packed on<br />
the tra<strong>in</strong>s.<br />
Together with <strong>in</strong>creased tra<strong>in</strong> capacity, the frequency will ga<strong>in</strong> significance. As passenger<br />
transport is transferred to dedicated high speed l<strong>in</strong>es and <strong>freight</strong> transport gets higher priority,<br />
the night-leaps must give way for a much more flexible tra<strong>in</strong> operat<strong>in</strong>g system. Expensive<br />
wagons and term<strong>in</strong>als must be utilised more efficiently and new <strong>in</strong>formation technology<br />
will facilitate flexible timetables for <strong>freight</strong> tra<strong>in</strong>s. Furthermore, demand will change<br />
towards more advanced transport services. Modal split, due to environmental concern and<br />
saturation on the roads and <strong>in</strong> the air, will force <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> road-rail transport to <strong>of</strong>fer a<br />
higher transport quality to meet the demand for these new goods categories. Consequently,<br />
daily departures will probably not be sufficient for direct tra<strong>in</strong> services <strong>in</strong> the future.<br />
The direct tra<strong>in</strong> operations are relatively simple to arrange and the complexity is not too<br />
severe.<br />
9.1.2 Corridor tra<strong>in</strong>s cross<strong>in</strong>g Europe<br />
In addition to the direct tra<strong>in</strong>s, fixed <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> tra<strong>in</strong> sets will run along high-density corridors<br />
and make frequent but short stops at road-rail term<strong>in</strong>als and ports. These tra<strong>in</strong>s aim for<br />
a dual transport market; less dense flows over long distances and dense flows over short<br />
distances. By approach<strong>in</strong>g the comb<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> these flows, the services can attract the<br />
amount <strong>of</strong> <strong>freight</strong> needed for high frequencies and for utilis<strong>in</strong>g economies <strong>of</strong> <strong>scale</strong>.<br />
The stops at term<strong>in</strong>als need to be short <strong>in</strong> order not to prolong the total transit times<br />
severely. This requires the employment <strong>of</strong> fast transshipment technologies with high capacity,<br />
yet at a low cost per move. Time-consum<strong>in</strong>g shunt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> s<strong>in</strong>gle wagons must be<br />
avoided. Instead, unit loads will be transshipped between tra<strong>in</strong>s at the ma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tersections<br />
between corridors. To beg<strong>in</strong> with, this will be a way <strong>of</strong> utilis<strong>in</strong>g today’s conventional term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
better dur<strong>in</strong>g daytime.<br />
Along the corridors, fixed tra<strong>in</strong> sets will operate at a high frequency accord<strong>in</strong>g to a tight<br />
and precise schedule. The schedule must be strictly held – tra<strong>in</strong>s cannot wait for arriv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
lorries – but through the high frequency, road transport companies will use the services <strong>in</strong><br />
the way passengers use the underground railway; if one fail to catch a tra<strong>in</strong> there will soon<br />
be another one to catch. Other tra<strong>in</strong>s will be made up <strong>of</strong> self-propelled modules like the<br />
German CargoSpr<strong>in</strong>ter that will jo<strong>in</strong> some other modules along the corridor for a distance<br />
and then depart for other corridors or side-tracks. The speed <strong>of</strong> tra<strong>in</strong>s will facilitate mix<br />
with passenger tra<strong>in</strong>s on railway l<strong>in</strong>es dur<strong>in</strong>g the day.<br />
190
Tra<strong>in</strong>s call at term<strong>in</strong>als approximately every 100 kilometres. Few hauliers will use the alternative<br />
for just one stop, but the high frequency and the possibility <strong>of</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport for two or more stops make this k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> service more competitive over shorter distances<br />
than today’s over-night services. A corridor connect<strong>in</strong>g A and Z as well as the term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
<strong>in</strong> between is shown <strong>in</strong> the figure below.<br />
A<br />
V<br />
X Y Z<br />
B C D<br />
Figure 9-1<br />
Example <strong>of</strong> a corridor with <strong>in</strong>termediate term<strong>in</strong>als and some alternative<br />
transport arrangements.<br />
In the example, hauliers’ demand for service overlap, which can facilitate a satisfactory resource<br />
utilisation on the ma<strong>in</strong> part <strong>of</strong> the corridor. Shippers, hauliers or forwarders can<br />
book capacity <strong>in</strong> the tra<strong>in</strong> with short notice through up-to-date and transparent <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
systems. With such an efficient book<strong>in</strong>g system and a dynamic tra<strong>in</strong> plan, term<strong>in</strong>al Y has<br />
not to be called.<br />
Corridors are not restricted to north-south or east-west directions but will rather be <strong>in</strong>troduced<br />
wherever there is a demand for it. When the demand <strong>in</strong>creases, certa<strong>in</strong> relations<br />
along the l<strong>in</strong>e will obviously be served also by direct tra<strong>in</strong>s as described above. Hence, the<br />
corridor tra<strong>in</strong>s serve a purpose <strong>of</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g up volumes for more economical direct tra<strong>in</strong><br />
services, and they back up direct tra<strong>in</strong> services, that cannot be ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed due to decrease<br />
<strong>in</strong> flows.<br />
The tra<strong>in</strong>s will accommodate a wide range <strong>of</strong> unit load types but technology is kept strictly<br />
standardised for efficiency reasons. The focus will be on swap bodies and conta<strong>in</strong>ers comply<strong>in</strong>g<br />
with the future “modular-concept” <strong>of</strong> 25.25 m, and semi-trailers will gradually be<br />
phased out <strong>of</strong> the system.<br />
This class <strong>of</strong> service <strong>in</strong>volves more complexity than the direct tra<strong>in</strong>s as it <strong>in</strong>volves several<br />
term<strong>in</strong>als and that perfect tim<strong>in</strong>g is vitally important. This implies a need for stricter management,<br />
especially for the tra<strong>in</strong> operations.<br />
191
9.1.3 Regional solutions for the short, <strong>small</strong> and dispersed flows<br />
The biggest challenge <strong>of</strong> European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is to compete on the medium transport<br />
distances, typically between 200 and 500 kilometres, with relatively dispersed flows –<br />
a market that today is totally dom<strong>in</strong>ated by s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode road transport.<br />
Beside the direct tra<strong>in</strong> shuttle services and the corridor tra<strong>in</strong>s, I assert that there will emerge<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport services tailor-made for the actual preconditions on the served market.<br />
The purpose is to take care <strong>of</strong> the secondary flows <strong>of</strong> unit loads and build up flows for new<br />
corridor and direct tra<strong>in</strong> services. Regard<strong>in</strong>g the high barriers for implement<strong>in</strong>g new operation<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and technologies, it is not realistic to expect one homogeneous and general<br />
European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> system <strong>in</strong> the com<strong>in</strong>g years. Without strict adaptation to the prevail<strong>in</strong>g<br />
conditions on local and regional markets, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport can never compete with road<br />
transport unless the rules <strong>of</strong> the game concern<strong>in</strong>g the market, the taxes and the legislation<br />
change significantly.<br />
Demand for environmentally friendly <strong>transportation</strong> will affect the demand positively, but<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport can not solely rely on the environmental friendl<strong>in</strong>ess. Once lorry eng<strong>in</strong>es<br />
can be made more energy efficient and discharge less emissions, their currently superior<br />
operational efficiency might actually make them superior also from an environmental<br />
perspective. Moreover, on a local level, neighbours to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als protest aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />
the <strong>in</strong>creased traffic and the local disturbances. This implies that some present term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
have to operate dur<strong>in</strong>g restricted hours and others have to be relocalised. New term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
will be built outside city centres or be designed for less noise emissions 109 .<br />
The large flows <strong>in</strong> Germany facilitate that most <strong>of</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> will be arranged<br />
as direct connections, but the <strong>in</strong>dustrial concentration along the river Rh<strong>in</strong>e and<br />
other <strong>in</strong>land waterways will imply complement<strong>in</strong>g services along corridors. The focus is to<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegrate <strong>transportation</strong> on roads, on railway tracks and on <strong>in</strong>land waterways. Furthermore,<br />
Germany is heavily populated with <strong>in</strong>dustry, particularly concentrated to areas such as the<br />
Ruhr area. This means that space for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als is limited and, due to road congestion,<br />
the size <strong>of</strong> pick-up areas will rather be determ<strong>in</strong>ed by road haulage time than distance.<br />
The French rail network is – as is much <strong>of</strong> the society as a whole – largely centred on Paris,<br />
which assumes the function <strong>of</strong> a national hub. A hub-and-spoke network is then almost<br />
axiomatic, and the CNC’s custom <strong>of</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g such a network will spread to other operators.<br />
The <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system <strong>of</strong> France is today merely a domestic phenomenon<br />
and almost all <strong>in</strong>ternational traffic can be referred to as transit between Germany and the<br />
109 Certa<strong>in</strong> technologies, e.g.; Noell’s Mega Hub, Krupp’s Fast Handl<strong>in</strong>g System and Tuchschmid’s Compact<br />
Term<strong>in</strong>al, have been shown <strong>in</strong> versions with huge noise protect<strong>in</strong>g hoods.<br />
192
Iberian Pen<strong>in</strong>sula (ibid., p. 1). Further emphasis on technical and <strong>in</strong>frastructural harmonisation<br />
will facilitate that a larger share <strong>of</strong> the French trade will pass the borders on steel<br />
wheels rather than on rubber wheels.<br />
In the UK, true road-rail <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport has existed on a <strong>small</strong> <strong>scale</strong> although the<br />
Channel Tunnel is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly used for conta<strong>in</strong>er and swap body tra<strong>in</strong>s. The reason for the<br />
modest market share <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is that the road <strong>transportation</strong> system is dom<strong>in</strong>ated<br />
by semi-trailers, but the railway load<strong>in</strong>g gauge does not allow these semi-trailers to<br />
be loaded on standard pocket wagons for semi-trailers. New <strong>in</strong>itiatives will work for <strong>development</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> dedicated semi-trailer wagons and a relatively <strong>small</strong> extension <strong>of</strong> the current<br />
load<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>of</strong>ile. The first wagon has been shown on full <strong>scale</strong> and, consequently, UK <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
has opportunities for <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g its market share <strong>in</strong> the com<strong>in</strong>g years.<br />
Also other European countries and regions will develop national/regional systems rather<br />
than wait until all national systems have matured for true <strong>in</strong>tegration. Instead, gateway term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
will be used <strong>in</strong> order to l<strong>in</strong>k different network modules 110 . As mentioned above, direct<br />
tra<strong>in</strong>s will obviously go directly between term<strong>in</strong>als regardless <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong> which countries<br />
these are localised, but the secondary flows will be l<strong>in</strong>ked through gateway term<strong>in</strong>als at the<br />
rim <strong>of</strong> the network modules. This is current practice for transport over different rail gauges,<br />
like the borders between France and Spa<strong>in</strong> as well as between Sweden and F<strong>in</strong>land, but that<br />
practice will spread. Current <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als will serve as gateways with the added<br />
benefit <strong>of</strong> serv<strong>in</strong>g as a connect<strong>in</strong>g node, also to direct full tra<strong>in</strong>s and corridor tra<strong>in</strong>s. Hence,<br />
any regional network modules can be l<strong>in</strong>ked with direct tra<strong>in</strong>s rather than through the regional<br />
modules <strong>in</strong>-between.<br />
The figure below shows an image <strong>of</strong> how national and regional <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
systems can work together through gateways all over Europe. The network modules are designed<br />
for tak<strong>in</strong>g on the challenge <strong>of</strong> medium distance transport with relatively dispersed<br />
flows that today are totally dom<strong>in</strong>ated by s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode road transport. The large flows over<br />
longer distances will for obvious reasons still go directly between orig<strong>in</strong> and dest<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
term<strong>in</strong>als or along large-flow corridors, thus short-circuit<strong>in</strong>g the general network. Most<br />
gateway term<strong>in</strong>als will be able to handle network, corridor and direct tra<strong>in</strong>s.<br />
110 The th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g about the gateway function <strong>of</strong> term<strong>in</strong>als is shared, e.g., with the European Commission<br />
(1997/e, p. 8): “Term<strong>in</strong>als and nodes will function as <strong>in</strong>terfaces between high volume transport corridors and<br />
low volume regional and local networks”.<br />
193
Germany: Corridors along the <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />
zones are trafficked by fixed tra<strong>in</strong> sets at<br />
high frequences.<br />
Benelux: Further focus on h<strong>in</strong>terland<br />
transport <strong>of</strong> ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers. The Betuwe<br />
l<strong>in</strong>e connects Rotterdam with the Ruhr<br />
area.<br />
The UK: At a comparatively low cost, a<br />
corridor is extended for semi-trailer<br />
traffic with special wagons.<br />
France: Most cities are connected via a<br />
large-<strong>scale</strong> hub <strong>in</strong> Paris.<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> and Portugal: The wide<br />
gauge necessitates transshipments<br />
at the French border.<br />
The European Commission<br />
contributes to the establishment<br />
<strong>of</strong> an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> network.<br />
Sweden and Norway:<br />
A basic network is<br />
complemented with<br />
loop tra<strong>in</strong>s us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>small</strong><strong>scale</strong><br />
technologies.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>land: A corridor along the<br />
coast is connected to ma<strong>in</strong>land<br />
Europe us<strong>in</strong>g ferries to Sweden<br />
and Germany. F<strong>in</strong>land takes a<br />
role as gateway to Russia.<br />
The Baltic States: A corridor<br />
along the coast is connected to<br />
Central Europe via Poland.<br />
Eastern Europe: A corridor<br />
from Gdynia to Verona <strong>of</strong>fers an<br />
alternative north-south l<strong>in</strong>k.<br />
= Gateway between<br />
network modules<br />
= Rail l<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Italy: Two corridors are used for<br />
the major part <strong>of</strong> Italy’s flows<br />
and for the l<strong>in</strong>k to Greece.<br />
= Ferry cross<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Figure 9-2<br />
Examples <strong>of</strong> gateways between national/regional network modules <strong>in</strong> a<br />
future European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system.<br />
In the long run, the services will be aimed at swap bodies, ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers, pallet-wide conta<strong>in</strong>ers<br />
and <strong>small</strong>er <strong>freight</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>ers. However, <strong>in</strong> countries where road transport is currently<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ated by semi-trailers, e.g. the UK, Spa<strong>in</strong>, Belgium and France (see Table 5-3),<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> services will encompass these for a rapid capture <strong>of</strong> market shares. The ability<br />
<strong>of</strong> the <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> transshipment technologies – which are listed <strong>in</strong> the detached appendix –<br />
to meet the demands <strong>of</strong> these new tra<strong>in</strong> operation pr<strong>in</strong>ciples is analysed <strong>in</strong> section 6.1.<br />
The <strong>in</strong>dividual network modules are designed for low complexity, but when co-ord<strong>in</strong>ated<br />
with other network modules and other types <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> services, complexity rises dramatically.<br />
This is, however, only when seen as a whole <strong>transportation</strong> system. From the<br />
perspective <strong>of</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>gle network module, co-ord<strong>in</strong>ation implies merely some extra<br />
adm<strong>in</strong>istration and that the ITUs are delivered to a gateway term<strong>in</strong>al for further transport by<br />
rail rather than to a regular <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> term<strong>in</strong>al for further transport by road.<br />
9.1.4 Ro-Ro services for overcom<strong>in</strong>g geographical and<br />
<strong>in</strong>frastructural hurdles<br />
As a complement to the above services, technically based upon swap bodies and conta<strong>in</strong>ers,<br />
low-built rail wagons will take full lorry comb<strong>in</strong>ations and semi-trailers that are driven onboard<br />
over ramps. The technology is far from new – it was for long the standard <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
technology <strong>in</strong> the USA – but the restricted load<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>of</strong>iles <strong>in</strong> Europe is one <strong>of</strong> the reasons<br />
for the limited use <strong>in</strong> the Old World. Bad utilisation <strong>of</strong> drivers and roll<strong>in</strong>g stock as well as a<br />
low net to gross weight ratio are other reasons. Moreover, from a railway perspective this<br />
194
could be regarded as surrender to s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode road transport s<strong>in</strong>ce the rail mode is restricted<br />
to an <strong>in</strong>frastructural role. Nevertheless, several improvements <strong>of</strong> such roll<strong>in</strong>g highway<br />
technologies have recently been presented.<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> field <strong>of</strong> application is, and will be, where geography calls for it, e.g. to get<br />
through mounta<strong>in</strong>s and across seas. Additionally, such roll<strong>in</strong>g highway services will be<br />
used for overcom<strong>in</strong>g highway sections hampered by congestion and for utilis<strong>in</strong>g the sleep<strong>in</strong>g<br />
hours <strong>of</strong> drivers. All the above purposes imply a need for very high frequencies. Tak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the obvious disadvantages <strong>in</strong>to account, however, it will be restricted to the above purposes<br />
and by time be replaced with true <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> concepts, not carry<strong>in</strong>g rubber wheels and idle<br />
drivers around.<br />
The complexity is kept on a low level by design<strong>in</strong>g for maximum technological and commercial<br />
openness. Almost anyth<strong>in</strong>g on wheels can be accommodated and the adm<strong>in</strong>istration<br />
can be limited to sell<strong>in</strong>g tickets like any passenger service.<br />
9.1.5 Summary <strong>of</strong> the scenario<br />
In summary, I assert that the European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong> system will develop towards:<br />
• meet<strong>in</strong>g the new demand for higher transport quality as <strong>freight</strong> is transferred from air<br />
and all-road services<br />
• flexible use <strong>of</strong> resources 24 hours a day<br />
• for large and long flows; further focus on direct tra<strong>in</strong> shuttle services<br />
• for large but shorter flows and for long but dispersed flows; corridor tra<strong>in</strong>s cross<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Europe at high frequencies accord<strong>in</strong>g to strict schedules with short and frequent stops at<br />
term<strong>in</strong>als with horizontal transshipment underneath the overhead contact l<strong>in</strong>e<br />
• for short, <strong>small</strong> and dispersed flows; new and locally adapted network operation pr<strong>in</strong>ciples<br />
and transshipment technologies <strong>in</strong> different modules l<strong>in</strong>ked through gateway term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
• for overcom<strong>in</strong>g geographical and <strong>in</strong>frastructural hurdles; roll<strong>in</strong>g highway services with<br />
high frequencies<br />
195
• decreased importance <strong>of</strong> national borders, however <strong>in</strong> a gentle pace<br />
• larger tra<strong>in</strong>s, ma<strong>in</strong>ly feeder tra<strong>in</strong>s carry<strong>in</strong>g ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers<br />
• <strong>in</strong>creased concern for local environment around term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
Reth<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g concern<strong>in</strong>g network operat<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and new technologies adapted to the<br />
new pr<strong>in</strong>ciples is clearly required <strong>in</strong> order to develop <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>in</strong>to a serious<br />
alternative to s<strong>in</strong>gle-mode road transport.<br />
Bimodal technologies such as RoadRailer and Coda-E are not part <strong>of</strong> the scenario s<strong>in</strong>ce I<br />
believe that they will not play a significant role <strong>in</strong> the future European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> system.<br />
The bimodal technologies <strong>in</strong>volve benefits <strong>of</strong> good weight and volume utilisation well on<br />
the tracks and the conversion between road and rail modes is accomplished by the lorry<br />
drivers at very simple term<strong>in</strong>als. However, these advantages cannot fully make up for the<br />
disadvantages <strong>of</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g dedicated semi-trailers carry<strong>in</strong>g extra weight and costs. Moreover, a<br />
tra<strong>in</strong> made up <strong>of</strong> bimodal semi-trailers is not suitable for call<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>termediate term<strong>in</strong>als<br />
along the route and the bogies cannot easily be repositioned without the semi-trailers.<br />
The bimodal concept is then restricted to balanced flows on direct connections and to shipp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the production <strong>of</strong> a factory to an urban area for distribution. The concept is suitable for<br />
a s<strong>in</strong>gle operator controll<strong>in</strong>g the flows, but hardly as a general system where hauliers can<br />
use the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> services at will.<br />
9.2 ARE THERE PROSPECTS FOR THE SCENARIO?<br />
One question rema<strong>in</strong>s to be addressed; is the scenario valid? In other words; will there be<br />
preconditions for a comeback for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> services with wide area coverage, or will the<br />
current trend <strong>of</strong> aim<strong>in</strong>g for an ever-<strong>small</strong>er part <strong>of</strong> the transport market cont<strong>in</strong>ue? Will the<br />
outl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>development</strong> then stop by the first <strong>development</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e with direct tra<strong>in</strong>s between<br />
Hamburg and Munich, and between Rotterdam and Milan, or will <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, f<strong>in</strong>ally,<br />
be able to challenge road transport also on more important transport markets?<br />
For two reasons, I focus the discussion on the third layer <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> services – the locally<br />
adapted network modules. First, these <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> modules are the priority <strong>of</strong> the dissertation,<br />
and, second, the other three layers are already present or well under way. The<br />
first layer <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g direct tra<strong>in</strong>s, has been present for long and, accord<strong>in</strong>g to STONE<br />
(1997, p. 3), will be further focused as the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> networks are now split up <strong>in</strong>to a set<br />
<strong>of</strong> direct connections. The reason is that the actors limit their services to the potentially<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>itable market for high volumes over long distances. The second layer, regard<strong>in</strong>g corridor<br />
tra<strong>in</strong>s for the comb<strong>in</strong>ed market <strong>of</strong> high volumes over short distances and <strong>small</strong> volumes<br />
over long distances, is not yet realised, but German State Railways (DB AG) have revealed<br />
plans for implement<strong>in</strong>g a network <strong>of</strong> such corridor tra<strong>in</strong>s. The Ro-Ro services <strong>of</strong> the fourth<br />
196
layer have a long history and after some years <strong>of</strong> decl<strong>in</strong>e, roll<strong>in</strong>g highway operators now<br />
report <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g volumes (UIRR, 1997, p. 9).<br />
Consequently, part one; two and four <strong>of</strong> the scenario can be regarded as valid. I also assert<br />
that chapters 5 to 7 and the detached appendix show that the scenario is technically feasible.<br />
I then choose to br<strong>in</strong>g up two non-technical topics for discussion. The first one is the<br />
market conditions <strong>in</strong> a wider perspective, concern<strong>in</strong>g transport policies <strong>in</strong> general and the<br />
competition with road haulage <strong>in</strong> particular. The second topic is the market conditions <strong>in</strong> a<br />
narrower perspective, concern<strong>in</strong>g which type <strong>of</strong> actor that is most likely to lead the <strong>development</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> the <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> network modules.<br />
9.2.1 Transport policy and market conditions<br />
Many people hope – and some truly believe – that Elvis Presley will return to the stage. In<br />
fact, the bookmakers’ odds for a live performance by “the K<strong>in</strong>g” at the last Eurovision<br />
Song Contest were lower than those for a Norwegian victory. Still, the hopes for Elvis’<br />
comeback are not based upon reality and neither is the belief <strong>of</strong> a comeback <strong>of</strong> widespread<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport with the “bus<strong>in</strong>ess-as-usual” approach currently applied by authorities.<br />
The difference between the comebacks, however, is that Elvis is dead and buried but <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport is not yet exterm<strong>in</strong>ated. But can it survive and prosper?<br />
I obviously believe that <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> is ready for a comeback <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e with the presented scenario.<br />
But how come that I am still positive after first have l<strong>in</strong>ed out the dissatisfaction <strong>of</strong><br />
the present situation <strong>in</strong> chapters 1 and 4 and then described the substantial barriers aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />
chang<strong>in</strong>g it to the better, <strong>in</strong> the first half <strong>of</strong> chapter 5? Well, the analysis <strong>in</strong> the second part<br />
<strong>of</strong> chapter 5 showed that there are approaches for limit<strong>in</strong>g the effects <strong>of</strong> the barriers aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />
technological renewal. Chapters 6 and 7 then <strong>in</strong>dicated that there are technical preconditions<br />
for establish<strong>in</strong>g locally adapted network modules. There are both network operation<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and a palette <strong>of</strong> transshipment technologies to choose from, the latter <strong>of</strong> which is<br />
clearly shown <strong>in</strong> the detached appendix. Properly comb<strong>in</strong>ed they have the potential <strong>of</strong> fulfill<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the requirements <strong>in</strong> most <strong>of</strong> the European countries. In chapter 8 and <strong>in</strong> this chapter,<br />
it is suggested how the operations <strong>of</strong> the network modules can be co-ord<strong>in</strong>ated with each<br />
other and with other types <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> services. Consequently, there are reasons for assert<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that it is technically possible to change the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport system to the better.<br />
But will any actor see commercial reasons for compet<strong>in</strong>g with all-road transport over medium<br />
distances? Well, chapter 8 showed that Swedish State Railways earnestly develops a<br />
concept that seems to have the potential <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g viable not only from a technical po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong><br />
view but possibly also from a commercial one. If <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport can succeed<br />
<strong>in</strong> Sweden with its relatively <strong>small</strong> and dispersed flows, there should be prospects also<br />
for most other European countries.<br />
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Is it then that easy that the scenario will come true as a normal <strong>in</strong>dustrial evolution? Or<br />
does it take a revolution? I certa<strong>in</strong>ly th<strong>in</strong>k that an evolutionary <strong>development</strong> is preferable.<br />
From a technical and economical perspective, I have frequently argued that new pieces <strong>of</strong><br />
technology ought to be implemented gradually. The issue to discuss <strong>in</strong> this section, however,<br />
is whether the present transport policies will be appropriate for <strong>in</strong>duc<strong>in</strong>g the advocated<br />
<strong>development</strong>, or if a quite different approach must be taken.<br />
Actually, I have a simple answer to the question: if there was an equal sign between spoken<br />
and applied transport policy, <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport would have grand prospects for a comeback!<br />
Unfortunately, there is presently not much <strong>of</strong> correspondence between talk and action<br />
<strong>in</strong> the field.<br />
Rail transport policy is actually not most important for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, but road transport<br />
policy is. Passivity would actually be preferred to the present situation. The bombastic<br />
talk about “fair and efficient pric<strong>in</strong>g” and the perpetual promises <strong>of</strong> impos<strong>in</strong>g taxes upon<br />
road transport seems to be noth<strong>in</strong>g but seeds that never germ<strong>in</strong>ate. While rail transport policy<br />
to me seems clear, sufficiently rational and above all <strong>of</strong> a long-term nature, road transport<br />
policy is a field where everybody seems to know what has to be done, but nobody dare<br />
to do it. When Swedish road transport policy is concerned, I no longer analyse, I despair.<br />
However, contrary to many others, I do not blame the M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Transport and Communications<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce they do not seem to be <strong>in</strong> charge.<br />
Admittedly, <strong>freight</strong> transport policy is truly sensitive and it is tightly <strong>in</strong>terwoven with <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />
policies, but for how long will we believe that a semi-trailer tractor can actually be<br />
driven susta<strong>in</strong>ably to the current market price? In fact, I would be happy to drive my personal<br />
car at that price level, yet I don’t have to pay a driver.<br />
Presently, it seems that the political path chosen is to subsidise <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport rather<br />
than levell<strong>in</strong>g the play<strong>in</strong>g field. It is not the best <strong>of</strong> solutions, but it is a satisfactory one.<br />
But how should the available money be spent? As was elaborated <strong>in</strong> section 5.1.1, a related<br />
problem <strong>in</strong> this field is that the <strong>in</strong>tense activity <strong>of</strong> the European Commission may make national,<br />
regional and local authorities passive <strong>in</strong> their support <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. The<br />
legislation should obviously be harmonised at a European level, but there is a certa<strong>in</strong> problem<br />
concern<strong>in</strong>g the scope <strong>of</strong> jurisdiction. With the pr<strong>in</strong>ciple <strong>of</strong> subsidiarity 112 follows that<br />
the Commission concentrates on <strong>in</strong>ternational <strong>transportation</strong>, while it is at the local and re-<br />
112 The pr<strong>in</strong>ciple <strong>of</strong> subsidiarity (closeness) was <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> the Treaty <strong>of</strong> Maastricht and it means that decisions<br />
<strong>in</strong> fields <strong>in</strong> which the <strong>in</strong>stitutions <strong>of</strong> the European Union do not possess exclusive competence, shall be<br />
taken at the lowest efficient level, i.e., by national, regional or local authorities. Decisions should only be taken<br />
at a union level if it <strong>in</strong>creases the goal atta<strong>in</strong>ment. The term is politically disputed due to the facts that the def<strong>in</strong>ition<br />
is not precise and that it is unclear who is to decide which decisions it encompasses (Nationalencykloped<strong>in</strong>,<br />
1995/a, p. 393).<br />
198
gional levels that effort must be spent <strong>in</strong> order to facilitate for <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport on medium<br />
distances.<br />
Now, if EU money should be spent, why spend them on support<strong>in</strong>g shuttles to and from the<br />
Port <strong>of</strong> Rotterdam? It these shuttles cannot be operated with pr<strong>of</strong>its without EU support,<br />
why even bother to discuss <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport as an earnest alternative to road transport?<br />
If the shuttles from Milan to Rotterdam should be regarded as a substitution for road transport<br />
at all, it is more likely that it is the distance from Milan to Genoa and not to Rotterdam<br />
that is substituted. Moreover, the trade beh<strong>in</strong>d the shuttles is not even <strong>in</strong>tra-European. Another<br />
risk <strong>of</strong> support<strong>in</strong>g very long direct tra<strong>in</strong> shuttles is that the very objectives <strong>of</strong> the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
policy – the modal shift from road to rail – may be violated. Many <strong>of</strong> the longdistance<br />
shuttles are obviously predatory with<strong>in</strong> the rail sector s<strong>in</strong>ce they convert conventional<br />
rail transport to <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport.<br />
The standpo<strong>in</strong>ts presented above are quite negative. It is then appropriate to submit also<br />
some positive proposals to be considered for future transport policies. The first concerns<br />
the modular system based upon 25.25 m long vehicles, which is to be implemented <strong>in</strong> Sweden<br />
and F<strong>in</strong>land <strong>in</strong> 2003 113 . This is clearly a step <strong>in</strong> the right direction. It is a good opportunity<br />
for encourag<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport by pass<strong>in</strong>g a regulation compensat<strong>in</strong>g hauliers<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport for the related weight and volume disadvantages. Hence, it is<br />
here suggested that the new rules should be <strong>in</strong> force only for vehicles carry<strong>in</strong>g ITUs. This<br />
will most likely <strong>in</strong>crease the number <strong>of</strong> unit loads <strong>in</strong> the transport system, which opens up<br />
the <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>of</strong>fer also for occasional use and lowers the barriers for develop<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
services over medium distances.<br />
The second proposal concerns standardisation that – if the scenario presented above is<br />
plausible –is most immediate for the resources that cross module borders, i.e. unit loads and<br />
to some extent rail wagons. However, <strong>in</strong> order to facilitate economical production series,<br />
also transshipment technologies should be standardised to a certa<strong>in</strong> degree. Then operators<br />
can choose from a palette <strong>of</strong> proven technologies at reasonable prices and also benefit from<br />
experiences ga<strong>in</strong>ed by operators <strong>of</strong> other modules. The analyses <strong>in</strong> chapter 6 and the<br />
evaluation <strong>in</strong> chapter 7 are suggested as <strong>in</strong>puts to such a standardisation effort.<br />
In short: miracles are not required for realis<strong>in</strong>g the scenario, but action <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e with what<br />
everybody seems to know is!<br />
113 Such rules have also been advocated for a core road network <strong>in</strong> Cont<strong>in</strong>ental Europe (IRU, 1996/b and<br />
Volvo, pamphlet, 1996).<br />
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9.2.2 Who is likely to take the <strong>in</strong>itiative?<br />
This research primarily focuses pr<strong>in</strong>ciples for network operations and transshipment technologies.<br />
It is shown here that the <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> these physical parts <strong>of</strong> the system can be<br />
addressed by apply<strong>in</strong>g an eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g approach. The <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> the actor structure,<br />
however, follows vastly different and less predictable rules. In the licentiate thesis, the<br />
European <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport <strong>in</strong>dustry was modelled us<strong>in</strong>g a systems approach, but the<br />
analysis was restricted to a description <strong>of</strong> a static state and its historical orig<strong>in</strong>. Modell<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
dynamic <strong>in</strong>dustry is difficult and predict<strong>in</strong>g its <strong>development</strong> is severely difficult.<br />
The limit <strong>in</strong> scope allowed for <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the actor structure <strong>in</strong> the scenario <strong>of</strong> a particular<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> concept <strong>in</strong> chapter 8, but it is deliberately omitted <strong>in</strong> the wider scenario presented<br />
<strong>in</strong> this chapter. This does not mean that I do not have an op<strong>in</strong>ion, but it means that<br />
the op<strong>in</strong>ion is an educated guesswork rather than an op<strong>in</strong>ion thoroughly founded <strong>in</strong> research.<br />
Nevertheless, this section is dedicated to discuss<strong>in</strong>g which type <strong>of</strong> actor that is<br />
likely to lead the <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> the <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> network modules.<br />
As is frequently po<strong>in</strong>ted out <strong>in</strong> this dissertation, a severe problem for develop<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport systems is the technical and commercial complexity <strong>of</strong> the current <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
transport system. In order to cope with these complexities, the <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> operations suggested<br />
here must be very tightly managed, which is not likely to be successful if several<br />
actors with disparate goals take part. Moreover, the need for local adaptation requires that<br />
the system operator is perfectly aware <strong>of</strong> the shippers’ needs, but also that it can charge for<br />
the value added that well adapted <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> services can provide. Hence, radical improvements<br />
are only reachable when a strong actor can “eng<strong>in</strong>eer” a door-to-door or floorto-floor<br />
system and at the same time control the important shipper contacts.<br />
For these reasons, I honestly doubt that the advocated network modules will emerge with<strong>in</strong><br />
the framework <strong>of</strong> the current actor structure. Road and rail transport companies have no<br />
impressive record <strong>of</strong> co-operation, and negotiations on how to distribute costs and benefits<br />
<strong>in</strong>duced by the needed changes will most likely kill their potential will to co-operate.<br />
Consequently, it is appropriate that a s<strong>in</strong>gle actor – or actor group with common management<br />
and objectives – takes the <strong>in</strong>itiative <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g each <strong>of</strong> the regional network modules<br />
advocated <strong>in</strong> this dissertation. But which type <strong>of</strong> actor will have the ability and be will<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to take on the challenge?<br />
Many, not least the European Commission, enterta<strong>in</strong> hopes for that new entrants will<br />
emerge on the scene and start to <strong>of</strong>fer <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> services. However, high <strong>in</strong>itial costs,<br />
large economies <strong>of</strong> <strong>scale</strong>, lack <strong>of</strong> worked up market shares and the <strong>in</strong>dustry’s currently low<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>itability keep new entrants away. Also the lack <strong>of</strong> long-term transport policies refra<strong>in</strong><br />
from private <strong>in</strong>vestments. One exception is that American companies try to practice their<br />
200
domestic <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> experiences <strong>in</strong> Europe. The general trend, though, is that the already<br />
active European actors f<strong>in</strong>d new markets or extend their service <strong>of</strong>fers. The present actors<br />
also form alliances, such as NDX, TARES and European Rail Shuttle 114 , <strong>in</strong> order to get access<br />
to critical resources or worked up shipper contacts. These <strong>in</strong>itiatives all aim for pick<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the cherries <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, e.g. the large-<strong>scale</strong> shuttles for transport between<br />
conta<strong>in</strong>er ports and their h<strong>in</strong>terland. Hence, such <strong>in</strong>itiatives do not capture market shares<br />
from road transport but primarily from exist<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> services.<br />
For <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> services, I s<strong>in</strong>cerely doubt that new actors, <strong>in</strong>experienced <strong>in</strong> the transport<br />
market, will enter the scene. With the present unclear market conditions, no sensible person<br />
would <strong>in</strong>vest private capital <strong>in</strong> the establishment <strong>of</strong> such <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> services.<br />
How about the forwarders? Well, the typical forwarders do not take a particular <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong><br />
how the goods are moved between their term<strong>in</strong>als. The haulage is, for historical and practical<br />
reasons, generally outsourced to hauliers, railways, shipp<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>in</strong>es and airl<strong>in</strong>es. The forwarders’<br />
prime assets are then the consolidation term<strong>in</strong>als, the vital shipper contacts, the<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation systems and the agreements with sub-contracted transport companies. In <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong><br />
services, the assets also <strong>in</strong>clude ITUs. Furthermore, most <strong>of</strong> the forwarders are historically<br />
closely related to all-road transport and several are still owned by haulier <strong>in</strong>terests.<br />
Consequently, I doubt that the forwarders will lead the <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> network modules<br />
for <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport. They will, however, follow the <strong>development</strong> carefully,<br />
try to <strong>in</strong>fluence it and, whenever it is convenient, use the services.<br />
The hauliers then? Positive factors <strong>in</strong>clude that their core bus<strong>in</strong>ess is to move goods that is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten loaded <strong>in</strong> ITUs, many have experiences <strong>in</strong> local haulage <strong>in</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport<br />
cha<strong>in</strong>s and that the road haulage activity is important <strong>in</strong> the advocated network modules.<br />
Anyway, the negative factors clearly outweigh the positive ones. Although the “trucker<br />
mentality” looses significance, it is still present and so is the hauliers’ mistrust <strong>of</strong> the railways.<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> hamper<strong>in</strong>g factor is, however, the <strong>small</strong> size <strong>of</strong> hauliers. Very few <strong>of</strong> them,<br />
and ma<strong>in</strong>ly those with a history connected with the national railways, serve full regions or<br />
nations. Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, the hauliers are not likely to diversify to extend their operations to<br />
railway tracks.<br />
Would ICF or the UIRR be <strong>in</strong>terested? Well, ICF has a long tradition <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g restricted to<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport, and its operations are representative <strong>of</strong> the first <strong>development</strong><br />
l<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g direct tra<strong>in</strong>s over long distances. In addition, the national railways<br />
114 NDX is a jo<strong>in</strong>t venture between the National Railways <strong>of</strong> the Netherlands (NS) German State Railways (DB<br />
AG) and American CSX Intermodal. TARES <strong>in</strong>cludes HUPAC, ICF, CEMAT and the American railroad Norfolk<br />
Southern. European Rail Shuttle is a co-operation between the conta<strong>in</strong>er shipp<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>in</strong>es P&O Nedlloyd, Maersk<br />
and Sea-Land and NS Cargo as an operat<strong>in</strong>g partner.<br />
201
own the company, and it will face problems if it tries to compete head-to-head on what can<br />
be regarded as part <strong>of</strong> the core bus<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> its owners. Also the UIRR is hampered by<br />
its ownership structure. Its majority owners are road transport companies and it is not likely<br />
that the UIRR receives a mandate for canvass<strong>in</strong>g shippers with door-to-door services. Consequently,<br />
ICF and the UIRR will probably be forced to stick to their lasts as wholesaler <strong>of</strong><br />
direct tra<strong>in</strong> services.<br />
Left are then only the national railways. I th<strong>in</strong>k they represent the only actor group that is <strong>in</strong><br />
a position <strong>of</strong> lead<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>development</strong> <strong>of</strong> the <strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> network modules. Many <strong>of</strong> them<br />
suffer severely from try<strong>in</strong>g to comply with EU directive 91/440 on competition and revitalisation<br />
<strong>of</strong> railways, and they do not seem too confident <strong>in</strong> the future. Yet, together with<br />
their subsidiaries 115 , they typically possess some assets and qualifications necessary for tak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
on the challenge:<br />
• Physical resources that are needed as base for gradual implementation, e.g. rail eng<strong>in</strong>es,<br />
rail wagons, lorries, ITUs and transshipment equipment.<br />
• Land <strong>in</strong> conjunction to side-tracks, ma<strong>in</strong>ly from discont<strong>in</strong>ued general cargo term<strong>in</strong>als.<br />
• Access to track capacity.<br />
• Market organisation and worked-up customer contacts, although currently ma<strong>in</strong>ly concern<strong>in</strong>g<br />
wagonload transport.<br />
• Long experience from technical and systems <strong>development</strong>.<br />
• Experiences from, and some control <strong>of</strong>, other types <strong>of</strong> <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> services.<br />
• Experiences from co-operat<strong>in</strong>g with other railway operators <strong>in</strong> a relay fashion.<br />
Develop<strong>in</strong>g competitive <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport might actually be what is needed for vitalis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the <strong>freight</strong> operations <strong>of</strong> the national railways. Conventional wagonload transport is severely<br />
unpr<strong>of</strong>itable <strong>in</strong> many countries. Besides captur<strong>in</strong>g all-road transport volumes, the<br />
<strong>small</strong>-<strong>scale</strong> network modules can then be a measure for keep<strong>in</strong>g the wagonload volumes on<br />
the tracks, however loaded <strong>in</strong> ITUs. When the railways have taken the <strong>in</strong>itiative and built<br />
up a service, forwarders are likely to jo<strong>in</strong> as partners or customers. If they do that deliberately<br />
or if they feel extorted does not matter.<br />
The Light-combi project described <strong>in</strong> chapter 8, is a good example on how a s<strong>in</strong>gle national<br />
railway can challenge road transport <strong>in</strong> the market segment <strong>of</strong> <strong>small</strong> and dispersed flows<br />
115 The most important subsidiaries <strong>in</strong> this respect are their conta<strong>in</strong>er transport companies, such as Transfracht,<br />
CNC and Italconta<strong>in</strong>er, but also hauliers support<strong>in</strong>g conventional rail transport, wagon pools, term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
companies and market<strong>in</strong>g organisations.<br />
202
over short distances. If the project turns out successfully, it can warrant <strong>in</strong>vestments also <strong>in</strong><br />
other European countries, many <strong>of</strong> which face far more favourable preconditions.<br />
In short, I do not believe that the locally adapted network modules can be developed with<strong>in</strong><br />
the current actor structure. Neither do I believe that new actors, <strong>in</strong>experienced <strong>in</strong> the field,<br />
will enter and <strong>of</strong>fer services. The <strong>in</strong>vestments are simply too extensive with the current<br />
market conditions. The national railways are regarded as the only actors controll<strong>in</strong>g the assets<br />
and expertise needed for the aggressive measures that need to be taken.<br />
It should, however, be kept <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d that the whole field <strong>of</strong> renew<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> <strong>transportation</strong><br />
systems is a very delicate and complex matter. The systems designers as well as <strong>in</strong>ventors<br />
should be humble before the <strong>in</strong>terrelations with<strong>in</strong> the system and not th<strong>in</strong>k that one s<strong>in</strong>gle<br />
technology or a s<strong>in</strong>gle service should solve all problems and certa<strong>in</strong>ly not with<strong>in</strong> a short<br />
period <strong>of</strong> time.<br />
Anyway, I truly believe that it is time to kiss the current <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> era, characterised by<br />
the over-night transport between mammoth term<strong>in</strong>als, goodbye; and enter an era <strong>in</strong> which<br />
<strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport is an earnest alternative to all-road transport also on medium distances.<br />
It rema<strong>in</strong>s to be seen whether this will be a pr<strong>in</strong>ce’s kiss that wakes the Sleep<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Beauty or if it will be a Judas kiss.<br />
203
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OTHER REFERENCES<br />
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117 World Wide Web sites are dated here s<strong>in</strong>ce they change regularly. Paper copies <strong>of</strong> the cited sites are kept<br />
by the author.<br />
220
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222
AUTHOR INDEX<br />
In the ma<strong>in</strong> text, references hav<strong>in</strong>g more than two authors are referred to us<strong>in</strong>g the first author’s<br />
name followed by et al. The names <strong>of</strong> co-authors <strong>of</strong> such references are thus not<br />
spelled out <strong>in</strong> the text. In this author <strong>in</strong>dex, they are listed together with the page <strong>in</strong> the reference<br />
list that they appear on. Search<strong>in</strong>g by the first author name <strong>of</strong> the reference facilitates<br />
track<strong>in</strong>g also <strong>of</strong> co-authors. Editors <strong>of</strong> reports consist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> several articles can be<br />
found <strong>in</strong> the same manner.<br />
A<br />
ADJADJIHOUE 32, 33<br />
AGUADO 142<br />
ALFARO 108<br />
ARBNOR 25, 36, 42<br />
B<br />
BAYLISS 65<br />
BJERKE 25, 36, 42, 49<br />
BJÖRKMAN 102, 113<br />
BJÖRNLAND 60, 132, 157, 223<br />
BLANCHARD 46<br />
BLINGE 49<br />
BOWERSOX 91, 95<br />
BRUNSSON 22, 25<br />
BRYNE 132<br />
BUKOLD 7, 17, 19, 20, 26, 30, 51, 52, 53, 100,<br />
109, 132, 139, 140, 146, 148, 206, 208, 210,<br />
216, 218, 220, 223<br />
BURNS 47<br />
C<br />
CARRARA 145<br />
CASTI 42, 44, 45<br />
CHALMERS 24<br />
CHECKLAND 43, 48<br />
CHRISTOPHER 60, 75, 209<br />
CHURCHMAN xi, xiii, 6, 24, 42, 45, 48, 49, 50,<br />
51, 61, 79, 83, 84, 85, 95, 99<br />
COOPER 59, 60, 79, 99, 100, 209<br />
D<br />
DANIELSSON 16<br />
DAVIS 49<br />
DEBOER 91, 95<br />
E<br />
EDER 49<br />
EKLUND 218<br />
F<br />
FAULKS 211<br />
FLOOD 65<br />
G<br />
GADDE 55<br />
GELLMAN 100<br />
GRÜBLER 100<br />
H<br />
HANREICH 117, 143<br />
HELLGREN 126<br />
HELMROTH 87, 90<br />
HERTZ 24, 71, 72<br />
HINDLEY 133<br />
HOULIHAN 59<br />
HUBKA 49<br />
HUGHES 51<br />
HULTÉN 27, 155, 213<br />
HULTKRANTZ 76<br />
HÅKANSSON 55<br />
1
HÖLTGEN 145<br />
J<br />
JACKSON 42, 47<br />
JENSEN 32, 76, 79, 80, 82<br />
JONES 59<br />
JÖNSSON 168<br />
K<br />
KANFLO 110<br />
KING 116, 140, 214<br />
KROON 168<br />
L<br />
LIEB 65<br />
LJUNGEMYR 100<br />
LJUNGHILL 132<br />
LUMSDEN 65, 68, 70, 74, 85, 95, 101, 110, 111,<br />
216<br />
LUNDBERG 173<br />
LÖFSTEN 24<br />
M<br />
MANHEIM 26, 68, 69, 70, 77<br />
MARCHETTI 100<br />
MAYNTZ 51<br />
MORLOK 14<br />
MULLER 91, 95<br />
N<br />
NIERAT 14<br />
P<br />
PERSSON 23, 24, 116<br />
PORTER 24, 79<br />
PROFFITT 58<br />
R<br />
REILLY 30, 46, 47<br />
RUTTEN 26, 46<br />
S<br />
SAMUELSSON 26<br />
SEIDELMANN 138<br />
SIMERT 121<br />
SJÖGREN 6, 48<br />
SJÖHOLM 32, 90<br />
SJÖSTEDT 30, 32, 42, 64, 65, 66, 67, 70, 90,<br />
126, 216<br />
SONDERMANN 110<br />
SPASOVIC 14<br />
STALKER 47<br />
STEFANSSON 218<br />
T<br />
TARKOWSKI 77, 87<br />
TAVASSZY 86, 100<br />
TURTON 87<br />
V,W<br />
WILSON 42, 45<br />
WOXENIUS i, 8, 13, 18, 32, 58, 61, 74, 93, 95,<br />
101, 103, 109, 111, 113, 117, 126, 155, 168<br />
Y<br />
YIN 28, 77<br />
YU 43, 46, 47, 64<br />
2
APPENDIX A: INTERMODAL TRANSSHIPMENT<br />
TECHNOLOGIES DEVELOPED IN EUROPE<br />
European <strong>development</strong> projects referred to <strong>in</strong> section 6.2. Most <strong>of</strong> the technologies are described<br />
<strong>in</strong> detail <strong>in</strong> the detached appendix.<br />
Development project Countries Wag. Dedicated requirement issue Dev. phase<br />
ACTS A, B, CH, D, D Small-<strong>scale</strong>/bulk and ISOconta<strong>in</strong>ers<br />
Operational<br />
L, NL<br />
Berglund’s G2000 RoRo S D Small <strong>scale</strong> transfer <strong>of</strong> lorries Design<br />
and ITUs through <strong>in</strong>ternal<br />
equipment<br />
Bimodal System (different D, DK, N, D Small-<strong>scale</strong> transfer Operational<br />
brand names)<br />
NL, I, UK<br />
Blatchford Stag UK S Small-<strong>scale</strong>/ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers Operational<br />
lorry-to-ground or to rail wagon<br />
CarConTra<strong>in</strong> PLUS S D Small-<strong>scale</strong> transfer Prototype<br />
Cha<strong>in</strong>-lifts and Hook-lifts (different<br />
B, FIN, L, D Small-<strong>scale</strong>/ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers Operational<br />
brand names)<br />
NL, S<br />
lorry-to-ground or to rail wagon<br />
Commutor System F, NL D Fast transfer/hub-technology Abolished/<br />
parts soon<br />
operational<br />
C-sam, +box, LLB DK, N, S D Small-<strong>scale</strong> transfer <strong>of</strong> <strong>small</strong> Abolished<br />
conta<strong>in</strong>ers without transshipment<br />
equipment<br />
DEMAG gantry crane, Aachen D S Gantry crane transshipp<strong>in</strong>g Design<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Technology<br />
under the overhead contact<br />
l<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Firema Twist wagon I D Small <strong>scale</strong> transfer <strong>of</strong> full lorries<br />
Design/ prototype<br />
FlexiWaggon S D Small <strong>scale</strong> transfer <strong>of</strong> full lorries<br />
Design<br />
Hochste<strong>in</strong> System D D Small-<strong>scale</strong> horizontal transfer Design<br />
Jenbacher’s Roll<strong>in</strong>g Shelf A D Automated transfer without unit Design<br />
loads<br />
Kombiflex S D Small-<strong>scale</strong> transfer Design<br />
Kombi-Lifter D D Swap body transfer on a simple<br />
Pilot-runs<br />
term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
Krupp Fast Handl<strong>in</strong>g System D S Fast transfer on <strong>small</strong> surface Prototype<br />
Kölker-Thiele ALS D D Horizontal semi-trailer transfer Prototype<br />
Light-combi S D/S Small-<strong>scale</strong> transfer and <strong>in</strong>novative<br />
network design<br />
Commercial<br />
pilot<br />
Logistikbox D D/S Small boxes door-to-door Halted<br />
(floor-to-floor)<br />
LogMan’s Conta<strong>in</strong>er FTS D D Small-<strong>scale</strong> horizontal transfer Design<br />
Mannesmann Transmann D S Conventional handl<strong>in</strong>g under<br />
electric catenary<br />
Build<strong>in</strong>g<br />
plans<br />
Modalor F S Small <strong>scale</strong> semi-trailer transfer<br />
Design<br />
Explanations for the Wagon column: S = Standardised; D = Dedicated; n. ap. = not applicable.<br />
The table is cont<strong>in</strong>ued on the next page.<br />
1
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued from the last page.<br />
Development project Countries Wag. Dedicated requirement issue Dev. phase<br />
Mondiso Rail Term<strong>in</strong>al NL D Horizontal ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>er transfer<br />
Prototype<br />
Multi-berces F D Small-<strong>scale</strong>/bulk and ISOconta<strong>in</strong>ers<br />
Operational<br />
Noell Fast Transs. System D S Fast transfer on <strong>small</strong> surface Design<br />
Noell Mega Hub Concept D S Large <strong>scale</strong> transfer on <strong>small</strong><br />
surface<br />
Build<strong>in</strong>g<br />
plans<br />
NS Cargo’s Small Cont. Syst. NL S Transfer <strong>of</strong> <strong>small</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>ers Impl. plans<br />
Pentaplan High Capacity Term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
A S Large <strong>scale</strong> transfer on <strong>small</strong> Design<br />
surface<br />
Piglet UK D Small-<strong>scale</strong>/use <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>frastr. Design<br />
R<strong>in</strong>ger System D D Small-<strong>scale</strong> horizontal transfer Design<br />
Roland System Schiene-<br />
D D Small-<strong>scale</strong>/bulk and ISOconta<strong>in</strong>ers<br />
Operational<br />
Strasse (RSS)<br />
Roll<strong>in</strong>g Highway<br />
A, CH, DK, D Small-<strong>scale</strong>/use <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>frastr. Operational<br />
F, I, UK<br />
Shwople UK D Horisontal transfer <strong>of</strong> semitrailers<br />
Design<br />
Side-Load<strong>in</strong>g Trailer (different A, D, FIN, S, S Small-<strong>scale</strong>/ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers Operational<br />
brand names)<br />
UK<br />
lorry-to-ground or to rail wagon<br />
Small Scale Term<strong>in</strong>al Concept S D Small-<strong>scale</strong> transfer Feasib.<br />
study<br />
Stackable Swap-Bodies D N.ap. Top-lift/<strong>small</strong> surface Operational<br />
Stenhagen’s System S D Small-<strong>scale</strong> transfer Prototype<br />
Supertrans S D Fast transfer on simple term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
Design<br />
T.R.AI 2000/FL.I.H.T.T. I/I, F D Automated transfer with or Prototype<br />
without unit loads<br />
The Wheelless System FIN D Multimodality, simple term<strong>in</strong>al Design<br />
Thrall EuroSp<strong>in</strong>e UK D Small-<strong>scale</strong>/use <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>frastr. Prototype<br />
Thyssen CTS D S Fast transfer on <strong>small</strong> surface Abolished<br />
Tiphook System UK (FIN) D Small-<strong>scale</strong>/use <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>frastructure<br />
Exoperational<br />
TTT-system FIN D Small-<strong>scale</strong>/Swap bodies and Abolished<br />
ISO-conta<strong>in</strong>ers<br />
Tuchschmid’s Compact Term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
CH S Large <strong>scale</strong> transfer on <strong>small</strong> Design<br />
surface<br />
ULS D S Small-<strong>scale</strong> transfer Prototype<br />
Wieskötter System D D Swap body transfer on a simple<br />
Design<br />
term<strong>in</strong>al<br />
Explanations for the Wagon column: S = Standardised; D = Dedicated; n. ap. = not applicable.<br />
2
APPENDIX B: THE WEIGHT CRITERION METHOD<br />
A weight criterion method is found useful when carry<strong>in</strong>g out an evaluation <strong>of</strong> alternative<br />
solutions accord<strong>in</strong>g to several criteria s<strong>in</strong>ce the method forces the analyst to perform a thorough<br />
comparison <strong>in</strong> order to assess the alternatives as objectively as possible. It is best<br />
suited for evaluations whith a large number <strong>of</strong> criteria that cannot be ranked trivially. The<br />
evaluation method was orig<strong>in</strong>ally developed for evaluat<strong>in</strong>g alternative solutions <strong>in</strong> the mach<strong>in</strong>e<br />
design process (BJAERNEMO, 1983) but it is rather general and it has previously<br />
been used for evaluat<strong>in</strong>g <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport technologies 118 . The method is described step<br />
by step below.<br />
DEFINE THE CONDITIONS OF THE EVALUATION SITUATION<br />
The first step is to def<strong>in</strong>e the conditions <strong>of</strong> the evaluation situation. This should be carried<br />
out thoroughly every time, s<strong>in</strong>ce it is a common mistake to use old references that do not fit<br />
the actual problem.<br />
MAKE LISTS OF DEMANDS AND CRITERIA<br />
The next th<strong>in</strong>g to do is to make a list <strong>of</strong> requirements that are specified as demands or criteria.<br />
Demands have to be fulfilled and do not have to be weighted. Cost is not used as a criterion<br />
<strong>in</strong> the first steps <strong>of</strong> the method.<br />
LIST THE ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS<br />
A list <strong>of</strong> alternative solutions that satisfy the demands is generated. These are evaluated<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st the demands. Those solutions that satisfy the demands are listed for further evaluation.<br />
WEIGHT THE CRITERIA AGAINST EACH OTHER<br />
This is one <strong>of</strong> the crucial steps <strong>in</strong> the method. The evaluator weighs the criteria aga<strong>in</strong>st each<br />
other <strong>in</strong> order to decide how important the different criteria are. The criteria are coded with<br />
letters and are compared <strong>in</strong> pairs. A matrix is designed (shown on the next page):<br />
118 Evaluat<strong>in</strong>g horizontal <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transshipment technologies: JÖNSSON and KROON (1990).<br />
Evaluat<strong>in</strong>g alternatives to a s<strong>in</strong>gle <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> technology: GOLDBECK-LÖWE and SYRÉN (1993).<br />
Evaluat<strong>in</strong>g causes for transport damages <strong>in</strong> an <strong><strong>in</strong>termodal</strong> transport system: LINDAU et al. (1993).<br />
1
Table AB-1 Weight criterion matrix, example. Text and numbers <strong>in</strong> bold pr<strong>in</strong>t refer to the<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>al form; other numbers are part <strong>of</strong> the example.<br />
Criteria<br />
A B C D E Corr P i k i (p i /Σp i )<br />
A -0 2 (AB) 2 (AC) 0 1 1 6 0.24<br />
B -2 2 1 1 3 5 0.20<br />
C -4 0 0 5 1 0.04<br />
D -1 2 (DE) 7 8 0.32<br />
E -4 9 5 0.20<br />
Σ: 25 1.00<br />
If criterion A is more important than B, the number 2 is put <strong>in</strong> the cell AB. If they are equal<br />
<strong>in</strong> importance, the number 1 is put <strong>in</strong> the cell. If B is more important than A, the number 0<br />
is put <strong>in</strong> the cell. All cells <strong>in</strong> the matrix are filled out us<strong>in</strong>g the same procedure. A correction<br />
factor, corr, with odd numbers is put <strong>in</strong> a column.<br />
Every column is summed up and the plus sign <strong>of</strong> the sum is changed to a m<strong>in</strong>us sign. The<br />
rows, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g corr, are then summed up with their proper signs giv<strong>in</strong>g the row sums. The<br />
P i -column is added up and the sum shall equal the squared number <strong>of</strong> criteria. The weight<br />
factor, k i , can now be calculated as k i = P i /Σ P i . The sum <strong>of</strong> all k i :s, Σ k i , will equal 1.00 if<br />
the matrix is properly filled out.<br />
EVALUATE THE ALTERNATIVES ACCORDING TO THE DEFINED<br />
CRITERIA<br />
In order to evaluate the alternative solutions, a new matrix is set up <strong>in</strong> which the evaluator<br />
scores the alternatives accord<strong>in</strong>g to the degree <strong>of</strong> fulfilment aga<strong>in</strong>st each criterion. The<br />
scor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>scale</strong> used <strong>in</strong> this example is:<br />
3 The alternative fulfils the criterion well<br />
2 The alternative is likely to fulfil the criterion<br />
1 The alternative is not likely to fulfil the criterion<br />
0 The alternative cannot fulfil the criterion at all<br />
2
Table AB-2<br />
Evaluation matrix, example.<br />
Alternative 1 Alternative 2 Alternative … Alternative n<br />
Criteria K i fulfilment<br />
k i *fulf.<br />
ment<br />
Fulfilment<br />
k i *fulf.<br />
ment<br />
fulfilment<br />
k i *fulf.<br />
ment<br />
fulfilment<br />
k i *fulf.<br />
ment<br />
A 0.24 3 0.72 2 0.48 3 0.72 2 0.48<br />
B 0.20 2 0.40 3 0.60 2 0.40 2 0.40<br />
C 0.04 2 0.08 3 0.12 1 0.04 3 0.12<br />
… 0.32 2 0.64 2 0.64 2 0.64 1 0.32<br />
n 0.20 1 0.20 1 0.20 0 0.00 1 0.20<br />
Σ 1.00 10 2.04 11 2.04 9 1.80 9 1.52<br />
The <strong>scale</strong> can be altered to obta<strong>in</strong> greater detail <strong>in</strong> the evaluation. The ki*fulfilment <strong>of</strong> the<br />
alternatives is calculated and the columns are summed up. Note that alternatives 1 and 2<br />
have the same product rat<strong>in</strong>g although number 2 has more po<strong>in</strong>ts. The evaluation table can<br />
obviously be designed <strong>in</strong> other ways, e.g. through transpos<strong>in</strong>g the rows and columns if the<br />
number <strong>of</strong> solutions is greater than the number <strong>of</strong> criteria.<br />
FINAL EVALUATION AND DECISION<br />
At this stage it becomes clear how well the alternatives satisfy the criteria and hereby also<br />
the probability <strong>of</strong> solv<strong>in</strong>g the problem at hand. In this last step, the costs <strong>of</strong> each alternative<br />
are estimated. The f<strong>in</strong>al decision is based upon the k i *fulfilment-rate and the cost <strong>of</strong> the different<br />
solutions. A ratio can then be calculated but the decision is not necessarily the most<br />
cost-efficient one, other aspects are likely to <strong>in</strong>fluence the choice.<br />
3