Gender Equality Index Report - European Institute for Gender ...

The second sub-domain examines gender segregation, as
it continues to contribute to gender inequality in Europe
and also results in less efficient economies (Anker, 1998).
Segregation refers directly to patterns of segregation in
the labour force both horizontally and vertically. Segregation
in the labour market has been a pervasive issue over a
long period of time. Occupational, or horizontal, segregation
is defined as the concentration of women and men
in different types and levels of activity and employment,
with women being confined to a narrower range of occupations
than men. Often, the most feminised sectors are
those that provide market substitutes for services women
historically provided in the household, such as childcare,
elder care, nursing or teaching (Folbre, 2006). The segregation
of the labour market has detrimental effects on the
labour market generally because it contributes to the gender
pay gap, and impacts career advancement and access
to training (Magnusson and Nermo, 2009).
Hierarchical, or vertical, segregation refers to the underrepresentation
of women at the top of career ladders and
over-representation in roles that are deemed more menial,
with the ordering of occupations often done on the basis
of desirable attributes such as income, prestige and conditions
(Bettio and Verashchagina, 2009). Horizontal segregation
has had a tendency to shift towards fewer differences
over time, with an increase in the proportion of women
in most sectors. However, some sectors, such as science
and technology, still lag behind. Vertical segregation also
remains strong despite the increase in the number of
women entering top positions. A symbolic and very telling
example of this is the lack of progress made regarding the
number of women on company boards. Furthermore, evidence
suggests that some degree of tokenism prevails, or
that within equal job descriptions, the tasks of women and
men remain fundamentally different. Importantly, research
suggests that the power structures of the labour market
have remained largely intact despite women infiltrating all
levels and areas, with the most attractive positions still out
of reach of women (Annandale and Hunt, 2000).
The third sub-domain, quality of work, refers not only to
work participation, but also looks at the features of that
employment (COM(2001) 313 final). Indeed, the increase in
the number of jobs in response to EU policy may have been
at the expense of quality (Leschke et al., 2008), and the patterns
of segregation of the labour market may heighten
differences in the quality of jobs between men and women
(European Commission, 2009). For example, segregation
entails that women-dominated jobs may hold fewer
opportunities for training and ensuing promotion, which
in turn contributes to further segregation and a widening
of the gap (Eurofound, 2012). The nature of employment,
and thereby its quality, is being affected by new ways of
working, the rise of new Internet technologies allowing
for a greater permeability between the private and public
spheres. The greater need for flexibility on the part of organisations
has given rise to greater low-paid and less secure
types of employment, often on a part-time or temporary
basis, with positions that are filled by more women than
men (Bradley and Healy, 2008). This is gendered, as it often
entails that women become disproportionately involved
in non-standard and/or precarious work (Rubery, 2002).
Quality of work can be examined at the individual level,
but it is also possible to adopt a social (stemming from
quality of work) or an organisational (ensuring a productive
workforce) perspective (UNECE, 2010). But only the individual
perspective can be implemented in a composite indicator.
Quality of work is a multi-dimensional concept that
can be summed up under several pillars (Eurofound, 2002).
The first pillar is career and employment security. This is
very gendered because, despite their upward mobility,
women’s progress in many sectors is still very uneven due
to a ‘glass ceiling’, masculine culture and lack of transparent
promotional processes (European Commission, 2007a).
In addition, women hold a slightly higher percentage than
men of fixed-term contracts, including involuntary shortterm
contracts (European Commission, 2009). The second
pillar is that of the health and well-being of workers, where
although historically men were more exposed to women
because of their greater involvement in industrial occupations,
the gaps are now starting to close (European Commission,
2009). The third pillar concerns skills and competences,
notably their under-utilisation in work (European
Commission, 2009).
The experience of women and men within the domain
of work varies significantly, mostly to the detriment of
women because the tendency is for lower participation,
greater segregation and differences in quality of work.
Narrowing the segregation gender gap would positively
impact both women and men, as it would contribute to
reducing the gap in participation and quality. Overall, it is
important not to lose sight of the fact that quality of work
should also be improved for both women and men.
Gender Equality Index – Report
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