Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW

Annals
Warsaw
University
of Life
Sciences
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76
Warsaw 2011
Contents:
SEDLIAČIKOVÁ MARIANA, MICHALKOVÁ MIROSLAVA
“Analysis of competitiveness of the chosen company”...................................................... 7
SEDLIAČIKOVÁ MARIANA, SOPKOVÁ EVA
“Taxation of general consumption in SR and (ir)responsible behavior of taxpayers”........ 12
SEDLIAČIKOVÁ MARIANA, SUJOVÁ ANDREA
“Possibilities of optimizing of Slovak regional policy in Slovakia”................................... 17
ШАРАБУРЯК АЛЁНА
“Перспективы отделки порошковыми лакокрасочными материалами”...................... 22
SLABEJOVÁ GABRIELA
“An influence of selected factors on the aspen wood surfaced roughness treated with
water based coatings – Methodology work”....................................................................... 25
1

SLABEJOVÁ GABRIELA
“An influence of selected factors on the aspen wood surfaced roughness treated
with water based coatings – Experiment results”................................................................ 29
GOGOLIN MAREK R.
“Slenderness of free sections of rafter and the shape of its cross-section as features
characterizing the structures of historic roof-frames” ........................................................ 34
ŠMIDRIAKOVÁ MÁRIA, SEDLIAČIK JÁN,
JURKOVIČ PETER, MELUS PAVOL
“Leather waste hydrolysate as a partial substitute of UF adhesive for plywood
production” ......................................................................................................................... 38
ŠMIDRIAKOVÁ MÁRIA, SEDLIAČIK JÁN,
MATYAŠOVSKÝ JÁN, DUCHOVIČ PETER
“Reduction of formaldehyde emission from plywood bonded with modified UF
adhesive”............................................................................................................................. 44
ŠMIDRIAKOVÁ MÁRIA, LAUROVÁ MARTA
“ATR-FTIR spectral analysis of modified UF adhesive”................................................... 49
STACHOWIAK-WENCEK AGATA, PRĄDZYŃSKI WŁODZIMIERZ,
KRZYWOSIŃSKA PAULINA
“VOC emissions from melamine films and finish foils”..................................................... 54
STACHOWIAK-WENCEK AGATA, PRĄDZYŃSKI WŁODZIMIERZ,
KRZYWOSIŃSKA PAULINA
“Investigations on volatile organic compounds (VOC) emissions from wood-based
materials”............................................................................................................................. 59
SUDOŁ EWA, POLICIŃSKA−SERWA ANNA
“Tests of shock absorption and vertical deformation in sports floors on wooden
structure”............................................................................................................................. 64
SUDOŁ EWA, SULIK PAWEŁ
“Water resistance of glue lines in windows made of selected exotic wood species”.......... 70
SURMA-ŚLUSARSKA BARBARA, DOBROWOLSKA EWA
“Archiv–ein Rohstoff für die Papiermaché und Papier Fabrikation”.................................. 78
SWACZYNA IRENA, KĘDZIERSKI ANDRZEJ, TOMUSIAK ANDRZEJ,
CICHY ANDRZEJ, RÓŻAŃSKA ANNA, POLICIŃSKA-SERWA ANNA
“ Hardness and wear resistance tests of the wood species most frequently used in
flooring panels ”.................................................................................................................. 82
ŚWIETLIK ANNA, SZYMONA KAROLINA, MAMIŃSKI MARIUSZ
“Lignin-based hexamine-hardened thermosetting wood adhesive –
preliminary results”............................................................................................................. 88
SZCZAWIŃSKI MIECZYSŁAW, OLKOWICZ MAGDALENA
„Analysis of the impact of the production assortment structure on the economic performance
in a furniture factory”.......................................................................................................... 92
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ZIELIŃSKA-SZWAJKA JOANNA, GÓRSKI JAROSŁAW,
SZWAJKA KRZYSZTOF
“Einfluss der Vorschub und Schnittgeschwindigkeit auf die Standzeit beim
Bohren Spanplatten”............................................................................................................ 96
ZIELIŃSKA-SZWAJKA JOANNA, GÓRSKI JAROSŁAW,
SZWAJKA KRZYSZTOF
“Einfluss von Werkzeugverschleiß auf die Oberflächenqualität bearbeitet beim Bohren
Spanplatten”........................................................................................................................ 103
SZWAJKA KRZYSZTOF
“Torque and thrust force in drilling”................................................................................... 108
SZYMANOWSKI KAROL, GÓRSKI JAROSŁAW
“Relationship between cutting speed and tool life observed for MDF milling process”.... 116
SZYMANOWSKI KAROL, GÓRSKI JAROSŁAW
“Relative machinability index of chipboard based on tool life testing”.............................. 120
SZYMAŃSKI WALDEMAR, GILEWICZ ADAM,
PINKOWSKI GRZEGORZ, CZYŻNIEWSKI ANDRZEJ
“Comparative wear analysis of modified cutters during processing of milling of
selected wood-based materials”.......................................................................................... 124
SZYMONA KAROLINA, CICHY ANDRZEJ, BORYSIUK PIOTR,
SAN H’NG PAIK, MAMIŃSKI MARIUSZ
“Selcted physical properties of furfurylated oil palm wood (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.)”..... 129
ТЕПНАДЗЕ МАРИНА
“ОЦЕНКА ВЛИЯНИЯ ТЕРМОВЛАГОПРОВОДНОСТИ НА ОБЩИЙ
ВЛАГОПЕРЕНОС В ДРЕВЕСИНЕ ПРИ ОСЦИЛИРУЮЩЕЙ СУШКЕ”................. 134
TESAŘOVÁ DANIELA, ČECH PETR
“The ecological aspect of used nature wood”..................................................................... 139
TOMCZAK ARKADIUSZ, JELONEK TOMASZ, JAKUBOWSKI MARCIN
“Wood density of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) trees broken by wind”.......................... 144
TOMCZAK ARKADIUSZ, JELONEK TOMASZ, JAKUBOWSKI MARCIN
“Modulus of elasticity of twin samples (wet and absolute dry) origin from Scots pine
(Pinus sylvestris L.) trees broken by wind”......................................................................... 149
TOMUSIAK ANDRZEJ, CICHY ANDRZEJ
“State of preservation analysis of the wooden construction of the Holiest Sacrament
altar in the right wing of the transept in the Holy Cross Church in Warsaw”..................... 154
WALISZEWSKA BOGUSŁAWA, SZENTNER KINGA,
SPEK-DŹWIGAŁA AGNIESZKA
“Basic chemical composition of selected species of bush willows”…...................…….... 160
WALISZEWSKA BOGUSŁAWA, PRĄDZYŃSKI WŁODZIMIERZ,
SIERADZKA AGNIESZKA
“Extractive substances in selected species of shrub willows”............................................. 164
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WARMBIER KRZYSZTOF, WILCZYŃSKI ARNOLD,
DANECKI LESZEK, MROZEK MIROSŁAWA
“Effect of the press closing speed on mechanical properties of particleboards with
the core layer made from willow (Salix viminalis)”........................................................... 168
WASIELEWSKI ROMAN
“Productivity of wood cutting process”.............................................................................. 172
WASIELEWSKI ROMAN
“Examination of influence of fixing circular saw on its stiffness”..................................... 176
WIELOCH GRZEGORZ, MOSTOWSKI RAFAŁ
“The new construction the exhaust fan for woodworking machine dedusting”.................. 180
WIERUSZEWSKI MAREK, GOTYCH VIKTOR
“Prefabrication for production purposes of skeleton furniture”.......................................... 184
WIERUSZEWSKI MAREK, GOTYCH VIKTOR, HRUZIK GINTER J.,
GOŁUŃSKI GRZEGORZ, MARCINKOWSKA AGNIESZKA
„Research qualitative of coniferous assortments solid wood for wood construction”........ 189
WILCZYŃSKI ARNOLD, WARMBIER KRZYSZTOF,
DANECKI LESZEK, MROZEK MIROSŁAWA
“Properties of experimental particleboards with the core layer made from willow
(Salix viminalis)”................................................................................................................. 194
WILKOWSKI JACEK, GRZEŚKIEWICZ MAREK,
CZARNIAK PAWEŁ, WOJTOŃ MICHAŁ
“Cutting forces during drilling of thermally modified ash wood”...................................... 199
WILKOWSKI JACEK, GRZEŚKIEWICZ MAREK, CZARNIAK PAWEŁ,
SIWEK IRENEUSZ, JAVOREK LUBOMIR, PAULINY DUSAN
“Influence of thermal modification of oak wood on cutting forces during milling”........... 203
WILKOWSKI JACEK, GRZEŚKIEWICZ MAREK,
CZARNIAK PAWEŁ, KLECZKOWSKI PIOTR
“Surface roughness after sanding of thermally modified oak wood”.................................. 208
WYSOCKA-ROBAK AGNIESZKA, OLEJNIK KONRAD
“The effect of chemicals addition on improvement of sack paper strength properties”..... 212
ZEMIAR JAN, ZBONČÁK RÓBERT, GAFF MILAN
“Thickness changes of cyclical pressed veneer”................................................................. 218
ZIELEWICZ WALDEMAR, KOZŁOWSKI STANISŁAW, FABISIAK EWA
“Variation of anatomical properties of shoots tall wheatgrass in the aspect of
their utilization as a substitute of wood biomass”............................................................... 223
ЗРАЖВА СЕРГЕЙ, КОСТЕНКО МАРИЯ
“Технологическая оценка древесины дуба Одесской области для виноделия”.......... 229
SUDOŁ EWA, POLICIŃSKA−SERWA ANNA
“Ageing resistance of paint coats applied on eucalyptus wood”......................................... 234
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Board of reviewers:
Bogusław Bajkowski
Piotr Beer
Ewa Dobrowolska
Jarosław Górski
Adam Krajewski
Krzysztof Krajewski
Donata Krutul
Sławomir Krzosek
Hanna Pachelska
Jerzy Smardzewski
Wacław Szymanowski
Piotr Witomski
Janusz Zawadzki
Scientific council :
Arnold Wilczyński (Poland)
Kazimierz Orłowski (Poland)
Ladislav Dzurenda (Slovakia)
Miroslav Rousek (Czech Republic)
Nencho Deliiski (Bulgaria)
Olena Pinchewska (Ukraine)
Włodzimierz Prądzyński (Poland)
Dofinansowano ze środków Ministra Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego
Polska Akademia Nauk Komitet Technologii Drewna
Warsaw University
of Life Sciences Press
e-mail: wydawnictwo@sggw.pl
SERIES EDITOR
Ewa Dobrowolska ISSN 1898-5912
Marcin Zbieć
PRINT: ZPW POZKAL
5

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 7-11
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Analysis of competitiveness of the chosen company
MARIANA SEDLIAČIKOVÁ – MIROSLAVA MICHALKOVÁ
Department of Business Economics, Technical University, Zvolen, Slovakia
Faculty of Media, Pan Europian University, Bratislava, Slovakia
Abstract: During the period, in which the world economy is today, companies, which want to be successful in
hard competitive struggle, have to analyze not only their internal but also external environment. Therefore
companies identify, who are their competitors, what are their objectives and strategy, also their strengths and
weaknesses. They analyze all their steps from preparing of production to distribution and providing of services.
The determination of competitive strategy and effort to build a competitive advantage, on which the company
will then build, should be results of these analyses. If the company wants to be prosperous and competitive, it
has to offer its products and services under the most favorable conditions, with optimal functional properties,
which faster meet the needs, desires, perceptions and consumer requirements. The aim of presented paper is
analysis of competitiveness of the selected company by Porter five competitive forces model and formulation of
proposals for the future period, not only to maintain the enterprise on the market, but also even to increase its
competitive potential.
Keywords: competitiveness, competition, Porter model, analysis, company, economical crises
INTRODUCTION
The existence of competition is necessary for the effective functioning of market
mechanism. There is no single definition of concepts of competition and competitiveness in
economic theory. The competition means the process by which market players and their
different interests and objectives meets together. Market competition affects companies
through competitive forces and also companies affect their competitors. Competitiveness is a
feature that allows the trader to succeed in competition with other businesses; and its
evaluation is therefore related to the character and conditions of this competition (Pitra,
2001).The winner is the one, who knows to apply any (competitive) advantage in the
competition and get the dominance over their competitors.
To be consistently competitive, for the company it means to create tomorrow's
competitive advantages faster than its opponent is able to copy its today’s competitive
benefits. The aim of presented paper is analyze of competitiveness of the selected company
by Porter five competitive forces model and formulation of proposals for the future period;
not only to maintain the enterprise on the market, but also even to increase its competitive
potential.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The most commonly used methods and models of competitiveness screening on the
market are: analysis of the business portfolio, the analysis of experiential effect, life cycle
analysis of products, analysis of the structure of the production program and Porter
five forces model (Mlákay, 2009). For the competitiveness analysis of the selected company,
the method Porter model of five competitive forces was chosen. The method is considered as
a method of branch analyses and it is also known as the Porter analyses.
Porter five forces model (Fig. 1) is primarily aimed at addressing of issues, how the
competitive environment affects the attractiveness of a market. The presented model and the
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analysis done on its base are one of the benchmarks for determination of the specific
competitive advantages (benefits of higher skills of competition) and specifications, it means
generic strategies. The model defines five forces that significantly affect the attractiveness of
the market (given by the market segment) and in relation to them five groups of threats.
Entry of new
businesses
Threat of new
businesses
Suppliers
Bargaining
power of
suppliers
Competitors in the
branch
and
rivalry between them
Bargaining
power of
customers
Customers
Threat of new
substitutes
Pressure of substitutes
Fig. 1 Five competitive forces by Porter (Source: Kassay, 2006)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Analyzed company engaged in production of steel, steel pipes, reparation of machines,
equipments, and spare parts for metallurgical and engineering industry. The company covers
fifteen subsidiaries operating in several European countries with diversified focus (trade,
distribution, services). The company with its wide product range appertains to the leaders in
the European markets in the branch. The dominant market segment in which the company has
the strongest position is the countries of the European Union: Czech Republic, Germany,
Poland, Italy and Hungary.
Impact and importance of the particular forces of Porter model was evaluated on the scale
from 1 to 5 (1 – the weakest effect, 5 - the strongest effect) for individual company products.
The general impact of competitive forces is given by the average value; and on this base we
assessed the situation and took the recommendations.
We came to the following results from the Porter analysis:
A. Internal rivalry between suppliers operating on the market
The company has a dominant position on the Slovak market due to precision seamless
pipes, precision welded steel pipes, and hot-rolled pipes. In Slovakia, there are small
businesses that produce lower-quality pipes and focus on different customers. Within Europe,
there are number of steel companies producing large steel pipes: Benteler, Vallourec &
Mannesmann, Arcella Mittal Ostrava, Marcegaglia, Jakl Karvina and others. Each of the
mentioned companies has diversified product range, what leads to a reduction in the intensity
of rivalry. The intensity of rivalry of the analyzed company on the European market of steel
pipes is various for each product.
B. Threat of entry of new producers on the market
We don’t assume an emergence of creation of new large enterprises in this industry due to
the lack of market capacity on the Slovak market. Slovak government creates a favourable
environment for the entry of new investors, what may mean a potential threat for the analyzed
8

company. However, we expect only a small probability of building of world companies
branch stores, because steel companies have tendencies to expand into Asian countries, China
or South American countries. There are barriers for entry of new competitors on the market;
because of it the threat of entry of a new steel company on the market is slight. The entry of
new business into the branch is very demanding for capital, equipment, etc. Established
companies use effect of learning process, experience, scale, what brings reduction of costs;
they have established distribution channels, own distribution companies, what brings increase
of barriers for the entry on the market.
C. Pressure of substitutes
Pipes from other material can be a potential substitute for steel pipes. Steel pipes are
extruded by plastic pipes in the gas industry; for medium and low pressure distribution.
Another possibility of modification of steel pipes is stainless pipes, aluminium or copper
pipes, but their rate of substitution is questionable because of their prices. Due to the excellent
properties such as hardness, strength, cutting properties, wear resistance, and heat resistance,
steel is considered to be the best material which is 100% recyclable. The threat from the side
of substitutes is rather presented by different brand or type of pipe. We can conclude that the
threat, it means power of substitutes, is low.
D. Bargaining power of customers
The bargaining power of customers is proportional to the size of purchased volumes of
production. Customers put pressure to improve quality, reduce errors, improve the properties
of used material, to shorten delivery terms and prolong maturity of the invoice. Manufacturers
of cars, who buy precision welded pipes with small diameters, require mandatory
certification. They have substantial bargaining power and push to ensure more flexibility in
prices, quotation and more favourable terms of delivery. The analyzed company customers
are mostly small but also large firms, which purchasing power is medium.
E. Bargaining power of suppliers
Suppliers of the main input (steel scrap) have stronger bargaining power than other
suppliers. Suppliers have moderate bargaining power, because there are no substitute products
of steel scrap; and the steel scrap is the strategic material, which is only in a limited amount.
The Porter analysis results in determination of the competitiveness order of the production
programme’s individual groups in the sector. As we can see from the Figure 1, the seamless
pipes can be recommended as the most favourable for further development. Split pipes and
precision welded pipes are rated as the least attractive.
Rolled pipes
Precision
seamless pipes
Welded pipes
Split pipes
Large
welded pipes
Precision
welded pipes
Internal rivalry in the branch 3,5 1,5 3 4 4 3,5
Entry of nex businesses 1,5 2 2,5 3 3 3
Possibility of substitutes 3,5 2 3 3,5 2,5 2,5
Bargaining power of suppliers 2 2 3,5 3 4 4
Bargaining power of customenrs 2,5 1,5 4 3,5 3 4
∑ 2,6 1,8 3,2 3,4 3,3 3,4
Order of the competitiveness 2. 1. 4.–5. 3. 4.-5.
Fig. 1 The Porter analyses of the selected company
9

On the base of the analysis, we suggest several ways how to increase the
competitiveness of products, and thus the company as a whole.
Measures to increase the competitiveness of products
Precision seamless pipes
Production capacity slowly comes into full utilization, as it was before the crisis. To
improve the situation, we propose to consider the possibility of extending the product range
from the view of offered sizes and formats.
Rolled pipes
Increase the share of groups of pipes with the highest profitability (boiler pipes,
standard pipes) and look for product innovation.
Welded pipes
The products are located in the middle of the evaluation scale according to Porter. The
situation is caused by not just the most modern technology used in production (call for
innovation).
Large welded pipes
Sales of large diameter welded tubes has long downward trend, which is mainly due to
obsolete technology level, but nevertheless it is profitable. We recommend looking for
specific opportunities of their application, without investing in the production program. In the
case of production unprofitability, we suggest to suppress the production segment completely
and delete it from the product portfolio, because it is not a strategic product line.
Split pipes
The company lags behind other suppliers in price level of split pipes, in length of
delivery dates as well as in the technological possibilities of production. The situation is
similar to that of welded pipes of large dimensions (it is a complementary product line). We
propose to review the pricing policy of this segment that makes the product line
uncompetitive.
Precision welded tubes
The evaluation of this relatively new product is quite negative. It is due to the fact that
our company is a newcomer as a manufacturer of welded pipes and due to a small range of
products in this line. Pipes have two main application areas: automobile industry and
energetic. Production of these precision welded pipes is unprofitable because of high costs of
purchase of steel scrap. Company can resolve this situation by purchasing of a machine for
cutting of steel scrap. The motor industry represents a great opportunity, and therefore the
company should further invest to expanding of product line for this sector. The analyzed
company obtains more bargaining power, greater opportunity to cover a single supply by one
delivery and so more customers and a relatively stable sale of products by building an overall
product portfolio for automobile industry.
CONCLUSION
The monitoring of competition should be one of the key activities of any enterprise. It
showed us from the conducted analyses of the competitiveness by Porter model, that the
company must generally pay attention to raise the level of customers` satisfaction (it means to
ensure the fulfillment of their quantitative and qualitative requirements on products inter alia),
reduce the number of complaints, find possibilities how to eliminate causes of rejection of
demands, improve quality and expand its product portfolio.
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Acknowledgement
This paper was processed in the frame of the project No. 1/0517/09 as the result of author’s
research at significant help of VEGA agency, Slovakia.
REFERENCES:
1. BIERNACKA J. 2009. The competitiveness of Polish stock-listed companies during the
global economic crisis (B). In: Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW,
Forestry and Wood Technology. ISSN 028-5704.
2. ELEXA, Ľ. 2004. Integrácia a zmeny konkurencieschopnosti firiem v SR. In: Malé
a střední podniky na prahu Evropské unie. Opava: Slezská univerzita, 2004. s. 96-103.
ISBN 80-7248-237-8.
3. HITKA, M. et. al. 2010. Podniková kultúra v riadení ľudských zdrojov. Vedecká
monografia. Zvolen: Vydavateľstvo TU vo Zvolene, 2010. 140 s. ISBN 978-80-228-2151-
3.
4. KASSAY, Š. 2006. Podnik a podnikanie: Podnikateľské prostredie. 1. vyd. Bratislava :
VEDA, 2006. 671 s. ISBN 80-224-0775-5
5. PITRA, Z. 2001. Zvyšování podnikatelské výkonnosti firmy. Praha : Ekopress, 2001. 305
6. s. ISBN 80-86119-64-5
7. PORTER, M. 1994. Konkurenční strategie. Praha: Victoria Publishing, 1994. 403 s. ISBN
80-85605-11-2.
8. POTKÁNY, M. 2010. Outsourcing v podnikoch drevospracujúceho priemyslu na
Slovensku. Vedecká monografia. Technická univerzita vo Zvolene, 2010. 79 s. ISBN 978-
80-228-2194-0.
9. SOPKOVÁ, E., KOSTIVIAROVÁ, S. 2009. The importance of business incubators in
the world and in Slovakia. In: Studia Universitatis Vasile Goldis Arad. Seria Stiinte
Economice. Anul 19/2009 Partea a III – a. Arad: 2009. s. 1 – 12. ISSN 1584-2339.
10. SUJOVÁ, A. 2010. Manažment reštrukturalizácie podniku na procesnom prístupe.
Vedecká monografia. Zvolen: Vydavateľstvo TU vo Zvolene, 2010. 63 s. ISBN 978-80-
228-2178-0.
Streszczenie: Analiza konkurencyjności wybranej firmy. W obecnych czasach światowej
ekonomii firmy chcące wygrywaćw warunkach trudnej konkurencji, muszą analizować nie
tylko swoje ewnętrzne, ale także i zenętrzne środowisko. Przedsiębiorstwa identyfikują
swoich konkurentów, ich cele i strategie oraz zalety i słabości. Analizują wszystkie kroki
począwszy od produkcji do dystrybucji produktów. Efektem tych analiz powinno być
ustalenie strategii konkurencyjności oraz wysiłki w zbudowanu bardziej konkurencyjnego
przedsiębiorstwa. Artykuł skupia się na analizie konkurencyjności wybranego przedsiębiorsta
w modelu pięciu sił Portera i ustalenie zaleceń do działań przyszłości, pozwalających nie
tylko utrzymaćfirmę na rynku, ale także zwiększyć jej potencjał konkurencyjny.
Corresponding authors:
Ing. Mariana Sedliačiková, PhD.
Mgr. Miroslava Michalková
Department of Business Economics Faculty of Media
Faculty of Wood Science and Technology Pan Europian University
Technical University in Zvolen Tomášikova 50/C
T. G. Masaryka 24 831 04 Bratislava
960 53 Zvolen Slovakia
Slovakia
mail: miroslava.michalkova@europers.sk
mail: sedliacikova@vsld.tuzvo.sk
Slovakia
phone: 00421-045-5206420
11

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 12-16
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Taxation of general consumption in SR and (ir)responsible behavior of
taxpayers
MARIANA SEDLIAČIKOVÁ – EVA SOPKOVÁ
Department of Business Economics, Technical University, Zvolen, Slovakia
Department of Corporate Economics and Management, UMB Banská Bystrica, Slovakia
Abstract: An irresponsible behavior of taxpayers is a seriously long-lasting economic problem, that all the
countries in the world try to solve. Struggle with various forms of tax evasion is not easy, because skill of the
mandatory participants knows no boundaries. The aim of this scientific analysis are selected issues of general
indirect taxation, forms, consequences of tax evasion and the importance of international cooperation in the
elimination of tax evasion. By problem solving of discharging of tax duties, we focused on value added tax,
which is one of the most important income items of the state budget of the Slovak Republic.
Keywords: tax, value added tax, the irresponsible behavior of taxpayers, tax evasion
INTRODUCTION
The value added tax is an European instrument for the taxation of final consumption.
Addressing the scientific activities on the value added tax is mainly important from two
perspectives. The first reason for the attention is its substitutability in the process of filling of
the state budget of the Slovak Republic. The second reason is that it is a general consumption
tax, which applies to all business activities including production, distribution of goods and
services. Value added tax has also its international context in the fact that the introduction of
this tax is a precondition for engaging of countries in the European Community and the
contributions of individual countries from its levying are sources of financing of the European
Union.
The aim of the presented paper is an analyses of (not) responsible behavior payers of
value added tax in the Slovak Republic, through the identification of crime and tax evasion
on VAT and international exchange of tax information.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The existence of tax evasion is based on the conflict between state interests and business.
States try to regulate, through the legislation, the conditions for eligibility, collection of taxes,
rights, obligations and penalties for taxpayers. Conversely businesses try to minimize the tax
burden, while there are many subjective approaches in the mode of taxation. Clearly we can
say that to quantify the tax evasion is extremely challenging and difficult, because this
economic category contains in itself elements of hidden and murky processes. It is possible to
proceed for the definition of evasion in the field of value added tax in terms of tax theory and
in terms of legislation. It is possible for the tax evasion to consider such behaviour of
taxpayers, which is in conflict with actual valid laws; it means that the taxpayer deliberately
refrains from fulfilling of his tax obligations in the hope that his behaviour will remain
confidential. We subscribe to the view that we know the following types of tax evasion
(Sopková, 2009): legal and illegal tax evasion. Legal tax evasions are consistent with the
intent of the creator of the law. It is possible to call them as how to use the offered
alternatives. Illegal tax evasion (illegal reduction of tax liability) is process against the
intentions of the creator of the law, but it is difficult to legally punishable. In the strict sense it
12

means „laundering” of money. A general definition of tax evasion in the Slovak legislation is
not given.
The analysis of value added tax evasion was conducted on base of secondary data
obtained in cooperation with the Tax and Customs Directorate of the Slovak Republic during
years 2004 - 2009 and on the base of analysis of primary data obtained from questionnaire
research carried out in cooperation with businesses in Slovakia. The year 2004 was chosen as
the starting year of our investigation, because our tax system has undergone several changes
in that year in connection to the entry of Slovak Republic to the European Union. By
processing of secondary data, we used the scientific method as: analysis, synthesis, induction,
deduction, comparison, and graphical display
and mathematical methods.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In accordance with the subject of the investigation, we will focus on the identification of
such forms of tax evasion, which are linked to the general indirect taxation, value added tax.
The most frequently used form of evasion that the tax administration gives special attention
are: cut items increasing the tax base, the increase of items declining the tax base, accounting
manipulation based on two accounting processes, paper and bulk stores that have an
international character.
Those forms of tax evasion on value added tax raised from the results of questionnaire
research in condition of Slovak Republic: the unauthorized deduction of so-called input tax,
the denial of so-called output tax, the shift of tax liability to another tax period, abuse of rules
of tax deduction, artificially lowering of the tax base, intra-community tax evasion (the socalled
payers disappearance), carousel tax evasion, tax evasion in the trade of motor vehicles,
tax evasions on markets and market places, non-use, respectively influence of the outcomes of
electronic cash registers and tax evasion associated with selective consumption taxes. It
occurs to the biggest tax evasion exactly by the value added tax because it allows direct cash
of finance sources from the state budget through the excess deductions.
The consequences of tax evasion can be considered from the criminal and law view. Tax
crime is any action or inaction of the taxpayer, which constitute the elements of offenses
according the Criminal Code No. 140/1961 (valid until 31 st October 2005) and according the
Criminal Code No. 300/2005 which is currently in force. Table 1 shows paragraphs that are
linked in the Penal Code to the crimes with tax issues in year 2009.
Tab. 1 Tax crimes in year 2009
Numbers of paragraphs Tax crimes Defendants Sentenced
148 a 276 Shortening the taxes and insurance premiums 137 81
148a) a 277 Curtailment of taxes and insurance premiums 98 57
148b) a 278 Non-payment of taxes and insurance premiums 71 30
(Source: www.genpro.gov.sk)
It was found the highest frequency of offenders in the first group in the year 2009, where
it was accused accompanied by both criminal laws 137 subjects, but only more than 59% of
them were convicted. Success in the second category of crimes was more than 58% and in the
third category it was sentenced just over 42% of defendants. It is evident from this valuation,
that the effectiveness of the legal system in the Slovak Republic is problematic. One can then
assume that on this fact also rely all those who have made tax evasion and are not punished.
Tax evasion are very difficult measurable, but the amount of tax arrears is pursued, quantified
13

and analyzed on the level of tax administration. Trend of all tax arrears as a form of tax
evasion broken down by type
of tax is presented in the table 2.
Tab. 2 Trend of all tax arrears according to the type of tax in years 2004 – 2009
Tax arrears according to the type
of tax (in thousand €)
31. 12.
004
31. 12.
2005
31. 12.
2006
31. 12.
2007
31. 12.
2008
31. 12.
2009
Arrears in the old tax system (valid till
1992)
173 339 105 258 90 918 83 284 63 400 54 169
Tax on personal income 311 293 241 619 209 719 211 810 211 777 210 531
Tax on corporate income 452 035 383 423 374 427 402 941 484001 463 212
Value added tax 1 084 711 1 135 000 1 111 299 1 302 463 1 398 759 1 541 592
Selective Excise 95 300 99 549 46 405 72 296 60 247 49 900
Property tax, road tax and motor
vehicle tax
115 482 110 603 109 606 83 748 68 147 63 603
Other (withholding tax, penalties from
tax audits)
6 141 5 477 4 879 4 846 4 216 3 901
Total 2 238 301 2 080 929 1 947 253 2 161 388 2 290 547 2 386 908
(Source: Slovak Tax Directorate)
The value of tax arrears on the value added tax in year 2009 compared to base year (2004)
increased by more than 42%. The proportion of value added tax arrears on all tax arrears were
more than 48% in 2004. If we compare this trend with a share of value added tax on total tax
arrears, we record negative trend, because the share of value added tax increased to more than
64% in 2009. According to the trend of kinds of tax arrears in the Slovak Republic, all arrears
have sinking tendency (when we compare years 2009 and 2004). Only the value added tax
increases in the total amount of arrears in proportion to all arrears. Therefore in economic
analysis, it is necessary to deal separately with the collection and paying of this tax.
In no area, such large losses are permitted as in the area of value added tax. The main
reason of this problem is the system of value added tax itself, especially the principle of
taxation at each stage of products and services processing. Authors Minářová (2007) and
Sujová and Sedliačiková (2010) indicate the tax system as one of the key factors that affect
the performance of the Slovak economy in the future. Multiple counting system itself,
clearing, payment and settlement between the payer and recipient and between the two
entities and the treasury enable various frauds of payers. Free movement of goods, services,
people and capital means that EU Member States are increasingly less able to fight alone
against tax evasion. Manifestations of globalization worse this problem in the internationally
measure (Mura, 2010).
In the year 2008, the European Parliament approved a Report about coordinated strategy
which aim was to improve the fight against tax frauds. The European Parliament challenged
the European Commission to take effective measures to deter, prevent and reduce the number
of tax frauds with an emphasis on value added tax. Member states have developed a control
mechanism of taxation of good of value added tax through summary statement. Tax offices of
member states use the data referred in the summary statement to check that buyers of goods
from another member state (exempt from value added tax), said the goods in their tax
statement and taxed it by domestic tax. Data from the quarterly statements, which supply the
taxpayers of value added, give away tax administrations of the member state to the European
database of summary statements (VIES), which collected the information from all member
states of the European Union.
Since 2004, when Slovakia has become a member of the European Union, it has increased
its cooperation with EU countries in the field of international exchange of information. It
14

esults from the table 3 that the Slovak Republic has started involve in the high rate to
international exchange of information, particularly in the area of value added tax (since 2004).
For the comparison, we present the number of requests for information exchange in the field
of direct
taxation, too.
Tab. 4 International exchange of tax information during years 2004 - 2009
Number of cases / Year 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Value added tax 50 917 1712 2015 2641 3196
Direct taxes 384 273 245 301 206 297
(Source: Slovak Tax Directorate)
The growth of international exchange of information presents the increase 64 times from
2004 to 2009. We see an uneven development in statistics of the exchange of information in
the field of direct taxation. There was also a rise in the exchange of tax information in the year
2004, but in the next years there was the decline in these requests. It was registered 297
applications in the filed of the exchange of direct tax information in 2009, what are 10, 8
times less than the requests for information about value added tax. The following table
illustrates the international exchange of information about value added tax according to the
source of requests
Tab. 4 International exchange of information about value added tax according to the source of
requests
Number of cases / Year 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Applicacion from abroad 25 454 701 746 1255 1393
Abroad applications 25 463 1011 1269 1386 1803
(Source: Slovak Tax Directorate)
Slovak Republic cooperate the best according to the evidence of the Tax Directorate in
2009 with: Hungary (1112 cases), the Czech Republic (953 cases), Germany (312 cases) and
Poland (269 cases). These are neighboring countries, in which is suspected more intense
business activity and cooperation. The most important effect of this international exchange of
information is its preventive effect and support of voluntary admission of tax charges. It is
necessary to change the thinking of business and draw their attention to socially responsible
business with all its positive
effects on society (Musová, 2008).
CONCLUSION
It is not possible to completely avoid the tax evasion, but it is real efforts to minimize
them. Success of minimizing of tax evasion is derived from many assumptions, of which we
consider as most important: clear, simple, and functional tax administration, relatively low
taxation progression, bearable tax burden, transparency and efficiency allocation of public
resources of the state on the one hand, and fair declaration and payment of taxes by taxpayers
on the other. However, far more significant is to change the thinking of businesses and to
implement innovative approaches to the concept of social responsibility business in condition
of taxation of final consumption in Slovak Republic.
Acknowledgement
This paper was processed in the frame of the project No. 1/0517/09 as the result of author’s
research at significant help of VEGA agency, Slovakia.
15

REFERENCES:
1. Daňové trestné činy. Dostupné na internete dňa 15. 03. 2011: < http:
//www.genpro.gov.sk/>.
2. MINÁROVÁ, M. 2007. Konkurenčné spravodajstvo ako zdroj konkurenčnej výhody
podnikov na trhu. In: Marketing v teórií, výskume a praxi. Zborník z vedeckej konferencie
s medzinárodnou účasťou. Podkylova : 2007, s. 244 – 247, ISBN 978-80-8069-957-4.
3. MUSOVÁ, Z. Spoločensky zodpovedné podnikanie – základ budovania vzťahov
so záujmovými skupinami. In: Vzťahový marketing ako nástroj konkurencieschopnosti
podniku. Bratislava : OF EU, 2008. ISBN 978-80225-2624-1.
4. MURA, L. 2010. Faktory internacionalizácie malého a stredného podnikania. In: Forum
Statisticum Slovacum. Vedecký časopis Slovenskej štatistickej a demografickej
spoločnosti, č. 2/2010, Bratislava. SŠDS s. 111-116. ISBN 1336-7420.
5. SEDLIAČIKOVÁ, M. 2010. Daňová kontrola a jej uplatnenie v praxi. In: Aktuální trendy
pro rozvoj ekonomiky a podnikání v EU, Sborník příspěvků z medzinárodní vědecké
konference. Opava : Obchodně podnikatelská fakulta v Karviné, Slezská univerzita, 2010,
s. 207 - 213. ISBN 978-80-7248-631-1.
6. SOPKOVÁ, E. 2009. Cost Effectiveness of Paying Value Added Tax from the Viewpoint
of Businesses. In: International Journal of Economic Sciences and Applied Research,
Volume 2. Greece : Kavala Institute of Technology, 2009, ISSN 1791-5120.
7. SUJOVÁ, A. 2010. Manažment reštrukturalizácie podniku na procesnom princípe.
Zvolen: TU, 2010, ISBN 978-80-228-2178-0.
8. Zákon č. 140/1961 Zb. – Trestný zákon v znení neskorších predpisov.
9. Zákon č. 511/1992 Zb. o správe daní a poplatkov a o zmenách v sústave územných
finančných orgánov v znení neskorších predpisov.
10. Zákon č. 300/2005 Z. z. – Trestný zákon v znení neskorších predpisov.
Streszczenie: Opodatkowanie konsumpcji na Słowacji i nieodpowiedzialne zachowania
podatników. Nieodpowiedzialne zachowanie podatników jest poważnym problemem, który
wszystkie kraje świata usiłują rozwiązać. Walka z różnymi formami omijania opodatkowania
nie jest łatwa, ze względu na nieograniczoną pomysłowość płacących. Celem powyższej
analizy jest określenie form opodatkowania pośredniego, konsekwencji omijania
opodatkowania i znazenie współpracy międzynarodowej w walce z tym procederem.
Soncentrowano się na podatku od wartości dodanej, będącym jednym z ważniejszych źródeł
dochodu Słowacji.
Corresponding authors:
Ing. Mariana Sedliačiková, PhD.
Ing. Eva Sopková, PhD.
Department of Business Economics Department of Corporate Economics and Management
Faculty of Wood Science and Technology Faculty of Economics
Technical University in Zvolen
Univerzita Mateja Bela
T. G. Masaryka 24 Tajovského 10
960 53 Zvolen 975 90 Banská Bystrica
Slovakia
Slovakia
mail: sedliacikova@vsld.tuzvo.sk
e-mail: eva.sopkova@umb.sk;
phone: 00421-045-5206420 phone: 00421484462713
16

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 17-21
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Possibilities of optimizing of Slovak regional policy in Slovakia
MARIANA SEDLIAČIKOVÁ - ANDREA SUJOVÁ
Department of Business Economics, Technical University in Zvolen, Slovakia
Abstract: The main aim of regional policy is a balanced trend of population in regions which is conditioned of
equal economic and social level in all regions of the state. The regional disparities are a problem in most of
states. Regional disparities bring social, economic, political and ecological problems and thereby a public
dissatisfaction. That is the reason, why it is important for the state government to monitor the development on
the regional and on the state level. The paper deals with analysis of Slovak regions on the level NUTS 3 and with
evaluation of regional disparities. The aim of the presented paper is proposal of possibilities for optimizing of
Slovak regional and economic structure and thereby to reduce the regional disparities. Proposed suggestions are
focused on investments, infrastructure, education and sources for financing the structural changes.
Keywords: regional disparities, regional policy, macroeconomic indicators, regional structure optimizing
INTRODUCTION
Slovak Republic (SR) is characterized by significant and ever-deepening regional
disparities that are given by geographically, partly historically, by native economical
development, degree of urbanization and industrialization and now they can be seen in
economic performance, level of social and educational structure. Existing differences in
particular regions of the Slovak Republic, which arose in the past and were reinforced by
structural changes in the key sectors of the economy, should be systematically solved in order
of regional disparities reduction. Support and strengthen of the less developed or of the
structural changes most affected regions fall between the priorities of regional policy of the
government. The paper deals with analysis of Slovak regions on NUTS 3 level and with
evaluation of regional disparities. The aim of the presented paper is proposal of possibilities
for optimizing of Slovak regional and economic structure and thereby to reduce the regional
disparities. Proposed suggestions are focused on investments, infrastructure, education and
sources for financing the structural changes. Propose of regional structure optimizing of
Slovakia's economy requires an analysis of the economic level of the single regions and
subsequent identification of regional disparities and regional policy tools.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
For the purpose and needs of identification of regional disparities it is necessary to
define the administrative-governing regions, which are represented in Slovakia at the level of
NUTS 3 by the municipalities, it means the higher territorial units. The number of regions at
NUTS 3 is eight: Bratislavský, Trnavský, Trenčiansky, Žilinský, Nitriansky, Banskobystrický,
Košický a Prešovský. Further, it is necessary to classify the factors affecting the regional
development, which include: natural resources, demographic structure of population,
economic activities of regions and other qualitative and quantitative factors of internal and
external environment. We have solved a fundamental issue by using the methods of
17

description, selection and systematization of information and data. By investigation of the
particular regions we used the method of analysis of individual regions and regional
disparities, the method of comparison of NUTS 3 regions in the Slovak Republic, the method
of selection of appropriate macro-economic indicators as well as the mathematical and
statistical methods used mainly by processing of statistical data from a database of regional
statistics.
Interregional disparities in the Slovak Republic were expressed and quantified by
using of regional macroeconomic indicators: the regional GDP and GDP per capita, regional
employment and unemployment, number of population and average monthly wage in the
regions and volume of foreign direct investment. Those indicators were analyzed for the
period 2005 - 2009. To give proposals of the regional economic structure optimization, we
used the methods of summarizing, deduction and synthesis of data and information found on
the basis of the realized analysis.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Regional disparities in the Slovak Republic are monitored at regional level NUTS 3.
They are characterized by certain special features that persist for longer period Indicator of
gross domestic product (GDP) is most commonly used in the frame of assessment, analysis
and evaluation of the overall development of regional disparities. This indicator is one of the
key criteria used in determination of the legitimacy of structural aid pump of the European
Union (KOŽIAK, 2008). The regional GDP per capita in current prices in the years from 2005
to 2009 is presented in the following table.
Tab. 1 Regional GDP per capita in current prices (€ millions) in the years 2005 - 2009
Region / Year 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Bratislavský 16 967 18 937 22 261 23 809 27 015
Trnavský 7 868 8 846 9 888 12 438 13 810
Trenčiansky 6 941 7 765 8 076 9 553 10 560
Nitriansky 6 541 7 409 8 119 8 758 9 548
Žilinský 6 031 6 785 7 531 8 268 9 552
Banskobystrický 6 480 6 906 6 560 7 545 8 385
Prešovský 4 574 5 017 5 379 5 585 6 225
Košický 6 703 7 390 7 716 8 605 9 333
(Source: http://px-web.statistics.sk/PXWebSlovak, own processing)
Regional structure of GDP per capita confirms the dominance of the Bratislava region,
not just the level of GDP, but also it’s dynamic of growth. Other seven regions recorded
(except Banskobystrický region in the years from 2004 to 2005) continuous moderate growth
of this indicator, but with lower dynamic of growth compared with the Bratislava region.
Trnavský region (the second best in the order) achieves only half the level of GDP per capita
and Prešovský region (the worst in the order) only a quarter level.
Unemployment rate and employment rate in the national economy are another group
of indicators that are monitored in the evaluation of regional disparities (KOŽIAK, 2008). The
following table reflects the regional unemployment rate in the years from 2005 to 2009.
18

Tab. 2 Regional unemployment rate (in %) in the years 2005 – 2009
Region / Year 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Bratislavský 5,2 4,3 4,2 3,6 4,7
Trnavský 10,4 8,8 6,5 6,2 9,1
Trenčiansky 8,1 7,1 5,7 4,7 7,3
Nitriansky 17,8 13,2 10,7 8,8 13,0
Žilinský 15,2 11,8 10,1 7,7 10,6
Banskobystrický 23,8 21,1 20,0 18,2 18,8
Prešovský 21,5 18,1 13,8 13,0 16,2
Košický 24,7 20,3 15,9 13,5 15,5
(Source: http://px-web.statistics.sk/PXWebSlovak/, own processing)
It results from the above statistical data a downward trend in unemployment in all
regions of Slovakia continuously from 2005 to 2008, while in 2009 it occurred in every region
of the SR its growth due to the economic crisis. Least job opportunities are in
Banskobystrický, Košický and Prešovský region.
The average monthly wage per employee is one of the most important economic and
social indicators, which are monitored not only at the level of the economic as a whole, but
also at level of single regions (KOŽIAK, 2008). The following table shows the regional
average nominal monthly wage in the years from 2005 to 2009.
Tab. 3 Regional average nominal monthly wage (in €) in the years 2005 - 2009
Region / Year 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Bratislavský 812,54 893,25 957,35 1 045,58 1 103,14
Trnavský 604,71 618,64 700,69 734,75 761,82
Trenčiansky 551,24 603,93 647,31 696,61 711,94
Nitriansky 529,69 579,03 636,33 690,23 704,32
Žilinský 556,52 588,30 638,78 695,31 718,00
Banskobystrický 537,19 565,92 624,91 675,30 685,56
Prešovský 484,62 539,50 597,29 634,87 659,90
Košický 595,77 662,25 713,37 755,76 772,32
(Source: http://px-web.statistics.sk/PXWebSlovak/, own processing)
The table presents that in Slovakia there are significant wage differences that grow
over time. Again, it confirms the dominance of the Bratislava region. The lowest nominal
monthly wage is in Prešovský region.
When we evaluate the development of foreign direct investment (FDI), the regional
differences are showed most markedly in comparison with all other indicators. The following
table presents regional foreign direct investment in the years from 2005 to 2009.
19

Tab. 4 Regional foreign direct investment (in thousand. €) in the years 2005 – 2009
Region / Year 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Bratislavský 13 524 248 14 496 772 18 386 927 19 979 994 23 879 092
Trnavský 1 861 529 4 445 116 3 218 428 3 302 559 3 251 024
Trenčiansky 956 128 1 141 431 1 217 314 1 562 993 1 628 475
Nitriansky 614 979 675 297 1 176 425 1 299 717 1 399 116
Žilinský 939 190 1 292 007 1 645 264 2 221 821 2 195 419
Banskobystrický 503 617 512 454 596 410 843 552 876 524
Prešovský 296 840 298 949 282 361 249 094 363 904
Košický 1 996 065 2 224 649 2 760 900 2 951 992 2 632 893
(Source: http://px-web.statistics.sk/PXWebSlovak/, own processing)
We can state that investments flow only to the Bratislavský region and the rest of
Slovakia has no chance to compete with them during the monitored period. Inflow of FDI out
of the Bratislavský region is always associated with investments to the companies or
industrial parks. Regions Prešovský and Banskobystrický are unrivaled the worst.
It is still a phenomenon of rich, respectively richer, West and poorer East according to
the latest statistical surveys in Slovakia. It is often cited so called „golden“ triangle Bratislava
- Nitra - Trnava in western Slovakia.
It is possible to propose the basic options of regional disparities reducing on the base
of the findings regional economic disparities in SR:
• Investment stimulus and guarantees for investors: to pull domestic and foreign
investors to the less attractive regions of the SR through investment stimulus and
guarantees of return the percentage of investment.
• Support from structural funds of EU: to use the European aid in favor of less
developed regions that reach a low socio-economic level.
• Infrastructure: to obtain finance sources from the European Regional Development
Fund (ERDF) to strengthen the development of transport infrastructure in undeveloped
regions, or use the concession company. In the event that the funds provided from the
ERDF for the planned construction of highways and expressways would be
insufficient, we would suggest the possibility of introduction of a toll highways model,
so called concession companies.
• The structure of educational institutions: in regions to provide an orientation of
secondary schools and universities to the existing structure of the economy and to the
possibility of the future carrier of the graduates in the regions.
• Structure of Regions: partially eliminate a wide diversity of Prešovský and
Banskobystrický regions, through the combination of regional units under the level
LAU 2 to the level of village.
CONCLUSION
Analysis results confirmed the existence of significant spatial differentiation of
economic and social levels in the Slovak Republic on the monitor level NUTS 3. Balanced,
territorial harmonious and sustainable development on the base of proposed solution is an
20

alternative that the Slovak Republic should choose in an effort to dynamically increase the
social and economic level and to near to the advanced European economics.
Acknowledgement
This paper was processed in the frame of the projects No. 1/0151/10 and No. 1/0517/09 as the
result of author’s research at significant help of VEGA agency, Slovakia.
REFERENCES
1. BIERNACKA J. 2009. Economic crisis and its influence on condition of Forte SA and
Paged SA – polish wood sector companies listed on Warsaw Stock Exchange. In: Annals
of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology. ISSN
1898-5912.
2. KOŽIAK, Radoslav. 2008. Zmierňovanie regionálnych disparít prostredníctvom
regionálnej politiky. In: Studia oeconomica, No. 34. Banská Bystrica: UMB v Banskej
Bystrici, 2008. 135 s.. ISBN 978-80-8083-573-6.
3. KOSTIVIAROVÁ, S., SOPKOVÁ, E. 2009. The importance of business incubators in the
world and in Slovakia. In: Studia Universitatis „Vasile Goldis“ Arad – Economic
Sciences, issue 1-3/2009, on www.ceeol.com. p. 1-12. ISSN 1584-2339.
4. MAIER, G., TODTLING, F. 1998. Regionálna a urbanistická ekonomika - Regionálny
rozvoj a regionálna politika. 1. vyd. Bratislava : ELITA, 1998. 313 s. ISBN 80-8044-049-
2.
5. http://portal.statistics.sk , http://www.skregions.eu/index.phpID=26
Streszczenie: Możliwości optymalizacji polityki regionalnej na Słowacji. Głównym celem
polityki regionalnej jest zbalansowanie trendu populacji w celu utrzymania równego
ekonomicznie i socjalnie poziomu poszczególnych regionów w kraju. Nierówności regionalne
są problemem w większości krajów Słowacji. Przynoszą one problemy socjalne,
ekonomiczne, polityczne i ekologiczne, a więc też i niezadowolenie społeczne. Z tego
powodu rząd musi monitorować rozwój regionalny. Praca dotyczy analizy regionów Słowacji
na poziomie NUTS 3 wraz z oceną nierówności regionalnych. Celem pracy jest propozycja
sposobu optymalizacji struktury regionalnej i ekonomicznej Słowacji oraz redukcji
nierówności regionalnych. Sugestie skupiają się na infrastrukturze, inwestycjach, edukacji i
źródłach finansowania zmian strukturalnych.
Corresponding authors:
Ing. Mariana Sedliačiková, PhD.
Department of Business Economics
Faculty of Wood Science and Technology
Technical University in Zvolen
T. G. Masaryka 24
960 53 Zvolen, Slovakia
mail: sedliacikova@vsld.tuzvo.sk
phone: 00421-045-5206420
Ing. Andrea Sujová, PhD.
Department of Business Economics
Faculty of Wood Science and Technology
Technical University in Zvolen
T. G. Masaryka 24
960 53 Zvolen, Slovakia
mail: asujova@vsld.tuzvo.sk
phone: 00421-045-5206438
21

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 22-24
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Перспективы отделки порошковыми лакокрасочными материалами
АЛЁНА ШАРАБУРЯК
Кафедра технологии деревообработки Национального университета биоресурсов и природопользования
Украины – НУБиП Украины
Abstract: Results over of experimental researches of decorative coverage by powder lacquer materials on
surface chip boards are shown.
Keywords: Lacquer materials, adhesion, heat resistance, protective-decorative properties, powder lacquer
materials, volatile organic compounds
Современные методы создания защитно-декоративных покрытий - это
качественные, стойкие и долговечные пленки, экологические материалы и технологии.
Существует большой ассортимент выбора защитно-декоративных покрытий для
древесины и древесных материалов. В зависимости от условий эксплуатации изделия
(материала) подбирается лакокрасочный материал (ЛКМ).
На сегодняшний день лакокрасочные материалы, которые состоят из
высококачественной пленки с декоративными и эксплуатационными показателями и
материалов, которые удовлетворяют экологические показателям, - это сложные
многокомпонентные системы. Некоторые из них имеют ряд обязательных
компонентов, которые вызывают негативное влияние на окружающую среду. К ним
можно отнести - органические растворители, содержимое которых колеблется в
пределах 50-70% и модификаторы (красители, катализаторы, отвердители). Наиболее
активным компонентом ЛКМ, который негативно влияет на окружающую среду,
является растворитель.
В составе ЛКМ наибольшую опасность для организма человека содержат летучие
органические соединения (ЛОС), которые выделяются в атмосферу при нанесении и
сушке покрытия. Они образуют тяжелые металлы и соединения, которые в свою
очередь загрязняют окружающую среду. В случае уменьшения объемов использования
растворителей, уменьшатся и объемы выбросов ЛОС в атмосферу во время отделки.
Выбор растворителя, его количество и рабочая вязкость готового лакокрасочного
материала зависят от природы полимера и метода нанесения.
Согласно существующих норм, концентрация ЛОС в воздухе при нанесении и
сушке ЛКМ должна находиться в рамках предельно допустимой концентрации для
данного растворителя, а при эксплуатации покрытия не превышать 40,65 мг/м 3 . Однако,
практика показала, что при использовании ЛКМ выбросы ЛОС в воздух не отвечают
требованиям экологии [1]. В Европе уже с 2004 года действуют «Постановления об
ограничении выбросов в окружающую среду летучих органических соединений из
лакокрасочных материалов», в которых отмечается, что необходимо указывать
максимальное содержимое летучих органических соединений в лакокрасочных
материалах [2].
Самые жесткие нормы выбросов ЛОС имеет Калифорния, их предельно
допустимая концентрация представляет 2,5 мг/м 3 . В Германии по нормам содержимого
органических растворителей в газообразных выбросах их уровень не должен
превышать 150 мг/м 3 , в Швеции 15 мг/м 3 и в Великобритании - 5 мг/м 3 [3] .
22

В Украине действует Закон Украины "Об охране атмосферного воздуха",
согласно которому, нормативы из содержимого ЛОС и других вредных веществ,
пересматриваются каждые пять лет, следовательно, проблема экологичности и
вредности ЛКМ достаточно остро стоит и у нас.
Опасность наиболее распространенных ЛКМ характеризуется следующими
показателями:
- содержимое ЛОС в воздухе при нанесении и сушке;
- содержимое ЛОС в воздухе при эксплуатации изделия;
- содержимое тяжелых металлов в ЛКМ.
Для достижения безопасности окружающей среды и обеспечения высокого
качества покрытий следует применять материалы и технологии нового поколения, а
именно водорастворимые и порошковые материалы. При сравнении жидких и
порошковых ЛКМ вытекают преимущества последних с точки зрения экологии и
экономики. Отсутствие растворителей способствует экономии средств и времени на
подготовку ЛКМ к использованию. Во время окрашивания достаточно лишь
одноразового нанесения, при этом потери порошкового материала не превышают 5%.
Краска, которая не попала на изделие, может использоваться повторно. Потеря жидких
ЛКМ находится в пределах 50 - 70%, к тому же их необходимо наносить трижды на
поверхность для образования стойкого защитно-декоративного слоя.
Порошковые ЛКМ начали активно развиваться с 1999 года в Великобритании на
предприятиях, производящих древесноволокнистые плиты MDF. В июле 2002 года в
Германии была запущена первая промышленная установка для отделки порошковым
покрытием мебельных деталей из древесноволокнистых плит средней плотности. В
дальнейшие годы промышленные установки аналогичного назначения были запущены
на разных предприятиях мебельной промышленности Италии, Франции, Бельгии и
Германии .
Сегодня отмечается большой потенциал порошковых покрытий для древесных
плит MDF, которые благодаря своей однородной структуре создают хорошие условия
для порошкового покрытия. Важным является подбор необходимого материала, а также
соответствующий технологический процесс, который обеспечит необходимые
качественные показатели покрытия и их малые расходы, в частности, отделку
профильных поверхностей.
Предварительные исследования, проведенных на образцах из плиты ДСП,
которые обрабатывались порошковыми ЛКМ, показали следующие результаты. При
однократном нанесении наблюдалось неровность поверхности, а при двукратном
поверхность была гладкой. Расходы краски измерялась по изменению веса образцов.
Также были произведены опыты по исследованию адгезии и теплостойкости,
результаты приведены в таблице 1.
Таблица 1
Количество
нанесенных
слоев
до
нанесения
Вес, г.
после
нанесения
Оценка адгезии* в баллах
по методу
решетчатых
надрезываний
по методу
параллельных
надрезываний
№
образца
Теплостойкость
при
температуре
± 60°С
1 1 616 623 1 1 +**
2 1 614 622 1 1 +
3 1 647 654 1 1 +
4 2 612 623 2 2 +
* - оценка адгезии проводиться за ГОСТ 15140-69 «Методы определения адгезии»
;
** - позитивный результат, испытание покрытия на «отлипание» при повышенной
температуре.
23

Опытные образцы прошли данные испытания с успешными результатами,
поскольку видимых повреждений на покрытиях не выявлено. Первые три образца
прошли на «отлично», четвертый образец имел незначительные отслаивания.
Проведенные эксперименты показывают, что у порошковых ЛКМ есть будущее для
отделки плит ДСП. Для разработки оптимального технологического процесса
необходимо провести ряд исследований режимов отделки.
REFERENCES:
1. Яремчук Л.А.,2010: Методи контролю екологічної безпеки лакофарбових матеріалів.
– Л.: Науковий вісник; 134 с.
2. Семешек Э., 2003: Производство и рынок лакокрасочных изделий на Украине и в
Европе Ж. Покраска профессиональная №2; 32 – 34.
3. Серди И.В. , 2001: Токсиколого-гигиенисеская оценка красок.- К.: Тезисов. докл.
науч. конф. «Актуальные проблемы токсикологи»;79 с.
4. http://zakon.rada.gov.ua/cgi-bin/laws/main.cginreg=2707-12
Streszczenie: Artykuł prezentuje eksperyment z lakierowaniem proszkowym nakładanym na
powierzchnie płyt wiórowych.
Corresponding author:
Aliona Sharaburiak
Department od Wood Processing
National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine,
Kyiv,vul.Geroiv Oborony 15,03041, Ukraine
alenaogn@ukr.net
24

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 25-28
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
An influence of selected factors on the aspen wood surfaced roughness
treated with water based coatings – Methodology work
GABRIELA SLABEJOVÁ
Department of Furniture and Wood Products, Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology, Technical University
in Zvolen
Abstract: An influence of selected factors on the aspen wood surfaced roughness treated with water based
coatings. This article discusses the influence of selected factors on surface roughness of aspen wood treated with
water based coatings. Selected factors are: mechanically worked surface of the wood, wood fiber direction, type
of water based coating and thickness of the paint coating film.
Key words: mechanical working of the surface wood, surface finishing , surface roughness, water based coatings
INTRODUCTION
Surface finishing is a technological process which adds to the aesthetic and quality
value of the final product. There are various possibilities as to the wood product surface
finishing: wood staining, bleaching, painting or applying impregnated paper and foil.
In order to achieve a high quality surface finish, it is necessary to choose suitable
coating paints and to reduce the surface roughness of the wood product to maximum. Surface
roughness, corrugation and a deviation from the general geometric shape of the wood product
are defined as a deviation of surface geometry. The surface geometry stands for the sum of all
macroscopic, microscopic as well as sub-microscopic irregularities.
The wood surface roughness is a result of wood morphology and the type of wood
surface processing. It influences to a great extent the choice, application and durability of the
surface finishing (Dornyak 2003).
The problematic of the surface characteristics of beech wood processed mechanically
in several different ways is closely looked at in the work of Kúdela et al. (2004), Liptáková,
Kúdela (2000). Surface roughness of beech and aspen wood processed by various mechanic
and thermal mechanic technologies (rotational molding) was analyzed by Gáborík, Žitný
(2007). The authors Fujiwara et al. (2004), Gáborík, Žitný (2007), Gurau et al. (2005),
Hendarto et al. (2006) focus especially on the surface roughness analysis of the sanded wood.
Coelho (2008) has worked out an analysis of the surface finishing and surface roughness of
beech and pine wood. His work presents both objective and subjective assessment of wood
surfaces treated with solvent and water based coatings. However, the studies of the influence
of the thermal mechanic processing of wood on its final surface roughness are relatively
scarce.
The aim of this study was to monitor the influence of water based coatings on the
final surface roughness of wood processed by various mechanic and thermal mechanic
technologies. The assessed parameters were the type of wood processing and two different
coating paints applied in two different layer thicknesses and their influence on the total wood
surface roughness.
25

EXPERIMENTAL PART
The experimental part of the study was carried out on aspen samples (Populus alba
L.) of two sizes -100 mm x 150 mm x 22 mm and 50 mm x 150 mm x 22 mm, with humidity
of 8 % ± 2 % and average density by zero humidity of ρ 0 = 420 kg/m 3 .
Surface roughness was assessed on radial-tangent surfaces and tangent surfaces both
along and across the direction of growth of wood fibres.
Several characteristics are used to express wood surface roughness (e.g. Ra, Rz, Rp,
Rm, Ry). According to the latest norm STN EN ISO 4287 for the assessment of roughness, the
main evaluation criterion would be the characteristics Ra, which is also recommended to be
backed up with some of the above mentioned criteria.
In the experiment, mean arithmetic deviation of the assessed profile Ra [μm] was
measured. According to the norm STN EN ISO 4287, Ra, the mean arithmetic deviation of a
profile is defined as the mean distance between the points of the profile and the middle line
over a given distance on the surface for which the roughness is being determined, Figure 1).
Fig. 1 Mean arithmetic deviation of a profile
L = base length (x axis placement is identical with placement of the profile mean line referring to the measured
profile section/length L)
y = profile height in a given point on the x axis
Plank surfaces have been worked applying the following methods:
Wood milling – using panel planer and pull machine
Sanding – using a band sander with sandpaper grit 60, subsequently sandpaper grit 120
Thermo-mechanic pressing – wooden planks have been processed in a heated press
(Table 1):
Table 1 : Pressing regimes
Pressing regime Time Temperature Compression [mm]
L1 2 min. 140 °C 1 ± 0,05
L2 6 min. 140 °C 1 ± 0,05
L3 10 min. 140 °C 1 ± 0,05
Table 2: Paint - coatings used for surface finishing
Thickness
Sign Paint - coating Sign 1.
coating [µm]
2.
coating [µm]
P1
ADLER Aqua Primer thix + ADLER H1 40 40 + 40 = 80
Aquakristall pluss H2 120 120 + 120 = 240
P2 2x ADLER Aquasoft CFB
H1 50 50 + 60 = 110
H2 110 110 + 110 = 220
26

Trial samples were painted on one side with one of the following water based coating
materials:
Aqua Primer thix (33,3% non-volatile substances) – basic water soluble, thixotrope,
single-component wood varnish based on polyacrylate dispersions;
Aquakristall plus CFB (31,4% non-volatile substances) – transparent, water soluble
varnish based on polymerising polyurethane-acrylate dispersions;
Aquasoft CFB (29,7% non-volatile substances) – transparent, water soluble wood
varnish based on polyurethane – acrylate co-polymer dispersions.
Coating materials were applied by pneumatic spraying on radial-tangent and tangent
surfaces of the trial samples in two different coat thicknesses.
First group samples were processed according to the system P1 which comprises a
base coat (base varnish) and a top coat (coating varnish).
Second group samples were surface-processed with a single coating material which
was used both as a base coat and a top coat. This group was labelled P2.
Exact trade names of the coating materials and products of the Adler company and
the thicknesses of dry coats are shown in the table no. 2.
Surface roughness prior to mechanic processing, prior to surface finishing (due 24
hours after mechanic processing) and eventually after application of a paint coat was
measured with a contact profilometer POCKET SURF with an irregularity sensor radius r of
0.005 mm. A standard arithmetic deviation of the assessed profile - Ra [μm] was measured.
Each sample was measured 5 times along and 5 times across wood fibres direction in
defined points distributed over a measuring distance of 5 mm. Measured values were
automatically recorded in a computer using a software application DRSNOSŤ
(ROUGHNESS) and analyzed by the mathematical – statistical software programme
STATISTICA.
LITERATURE
1. COELHO, C. L., CARVALHO, L. M. H., MARTINS, J. M., COSTA, C. A. V., MASSON, D.,
MÉAUSOONE, P. - J. 2008. Method for evaluating the influence of wood machining
conditions on the objective characterization and subjective perception of a finished
surface. In Wood Science and Technology [online]. 2008, roč. 42, č. 3, s. 181 – 195.
Dostupné na internete: http://springerlink.metapress.com/link.aspid=102511.
2. DORNYAK, O. R. 2003. Modeling of the rheological behavior of wood in compression
processes. In Journal of Engineering Physics and Thermophysics [online]. 2003, roč.
76, č. 3, s. 648 – 654. Dostupné na internete:
http://www.itmo.by/jepter/762003e/conte76.html.
3. FUJIWARA, Y., FUJII, Y., SAWADA, Y., OKUMURA, S. 2004. Assessment of wood
surface roughness: comparison of tactile roughness and three-dimensional parameters
derived using a robust Gaussian regression filter. In J Wood Sci [online]. 2004, roč.
50, č. 1, s. 35–40. Dostupné na internete:
http://springerlink.metapress.com/link.aspid=110257.
4. GÁBORÍK, J., ŽITNÝ, M. 2007. The influence of rotary smoothing on the quality of
wood surface. In Annals of Warsaw Agricultural University. Forestry and Wood
Technology. No 61. Warsawa, 2007, s. 230 – 232. ISSN 0208-5704.
5. GURAU, L., MANSFIELD – WILLIAMS, H., IRLE, M. 2005. Processing roughness of
sanded wood surfaces. In Holz Roh- Werkst [online]. 2005, roč. 63, č. 1, s. 43 – 52.
Dostupné na internete: http://springerlink.metapress.com/link.aspid=102503.
27

6. HENDARTO, B., SHAYAN, E., OZARSKA, B., CARR, R. 2006. Analysis of roughness of a
sanded wood surface. In The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing
Technology [online]. 2006, roč. 28, č. 7 – 8, s. 775 – 780. Dostupné na internete:
http://springerlink.metapress.com/link.aspid=102823.
7. LIPTÁKOVÁ, E., KÚDELA, J. 2000. Vlastnosti povrchu bukového dreva pri rôznom
spôsobe mechanického opracovania. In.: Trieskové a beztrieskové obrábanie dreva
2000. Starý Smokovec – Tatry, Technická univerzita vo Zvolene 2000, s. 107–116.
ISBN 80-228-0952-7.
This contribution was supported by the Scientific Grant Agency of the Ministry of
Education SR and the Slovak Academy of Sciences (Grant No. 1/0329/09, Grant No.
1/0565/10).
Streszczenie: Wpływ wybranych czynników na jakość powierzchni osiki wykańczanej
wyrobami wodorozcieńczalnymi. Praca dotyczy chropowatości powierzchni drewna osiki
pokrywanej wyrobami wodorozcieńczalnymi, brano pod uwagę: jakość powierzchni przed
wykończeniem, kierunek włókien, typ wyrobu lakierniczego, grubość filmu substancji
lakierniczej.
Corresponding author:
Gabriela SLABEJOVÁ
Department of Furniture and Wood Products
Faculty of Wood Sciences Technology
Technical University in Zvolen
T.G. Masaryka 2117/24
960 53 Zvolen, Slovak Republic
slabejova@vsld.tuzvo.sk
28

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 29-33
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
An influence of selected factors on the aspen wood surfaced roughness
treated with water based coatings – Experiment results
GABRIELA SLABEJOVÁ
Department of Furniture and Wood Products, Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology, Technical University
in Zvolen
Abstract: An influence of selected factors on the aspen wood surfaced roughness treated with water based
coatings. When evaluating the quality of surface treatment it is vital to get familiar with the wood geometry,
namely its roughness. In the experiment was evaluated arithmetic deviation of the profile - the Ra parameter for
surfaces milled, grinded and pressed. These surfaces were modified with water based coatings.
Keywords: mechanical working of the surface wood, surface finishing , surface roughness, water based coatings
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Obtained values of the mean arithmetic deviation Ra were evaluated by a 4 – factor
analysis in the statistical software programme STATISTICA. Influence of the following
factors on final wood surface roughness was observed: wood surface processing, coating
material, thickness of coating layer, direction of wood fibres, and eventually interaction of all
the above mentioned factors.
Influence of the mechanic and thermo-mechanic processing on roughness of wood
surface prior to and after mechanic processing and after surface processing is shown in graphs
in Fig. no. 2 and 3. The graphs clearly show that the influence of mechanical processing of
wood on its surface roughness along as well as across wood fibres is statistically important.
The lowest Ra values were obtained for the pressed wood samples, the highest values for
milled surfaces.
Application of water soluble coating materials significantly decreased the average
roughness along wood fibres on milled and sanded surfaces (Fig. no. 2). The average
roughness of the L1 and L2 pressed surfaces slightly increased after surface processing, and
slightly decreased for the L3 pressed profiles.
29

Fiber direction - longitudinal
Ra before mechanical w orking
Ra after Finishing treatment
Ra after mechanical w orking
3
2,5
Ra [μm]
2
1,5
1
0,5
0
Wood milling Sanding L1 - Thermomechanic
pressing
m echanical w orking
L2 - Thermomechanic
pressing
L3 - Thermomechanic
pressing
Fig.2: Mean arithmetic deviation of the profile Ra, by different mechanical surface treatment of wood
Surface roughness measured across wood fibres after surface processing decreased in
all assessed profiles but L2.
Influence of the type of coating material and thickness of the coating layer on the
final wood surface roughness can be seen if Fig. no. 4 and 5. Fig. no. 4 shows average surface
roughness values for the P1 and P2 surfaces for layer thickness H1. Fig. no. 5 shows average
roughness values for the P1 and P2 surfaces for the layer thickness H2. The graph in Fig. no.
4 proves that the average surface roughness of H1 aspen profiles (coating layer of 80 – 110
μm) processed in several different ways is much lower for the coating material P1 (base coat
+ top coat) than for P2. Difference between P1 and P2 average surface roughness is less
distinct for the H2 layer thickness (220 – 240 μm, Fig. no. 5). Milled surfaces show similar
average surface roughness for both P1 and P2 coating material. Surface roughness of sanded
surfaces is lower for P2 coating material; pressed surfaces show lower surface roughness
when treated with P1 coating material.
Figures no. 4 and 5 prove that all tested coating materials closely contour the surface
of all mechanically and thermo-mechanically processed aspen samples. Surface roughness
decreases with growing thickness of the coating layer, but no statistically significant
difference in surface roughness elimination has been observed among individual samples
surface-processed in different ways
30

6
5
4
Fiber direction - cross
Ra before mechanical w orking
Ra after Finishing treatment
Ra after mechanical w orking
Ra [μm]
3
2
1
0
Wood milling Sanding L1 - Thermomechanic
pressing
m echanical w orking
L2 - Thermomechanic
pressing
L3 - Thermomechanic
pressing
Fig.3: Mean arithmetic deviation of the profile Ra, by different mechanical surface treatment of wood
The 4-factor statistical scatter analysis of the measured Ra characteristics supports
the theories of Gáborík, Žitný (2007), Jourdain et al. (1999), Kúdela et al. (2004), Liptáková,
Kúdela (2000), Móza (2007) which claim that the anatomical direction influences quality of
wood surface (i.e. its roughness, too) to a great extent. The analysis also supported the theory
of Liptáková, Kúdela (2000) which compares milled, sanded, microtome- and hydroknifeprocessed
wood surfaces and proves that different surface processing has a significant impact
on the wood surface roughness. To broaden the spectrum, our study has focused on
comparison of milled, sanded and pressed surfaces.
From results of statistic evaluation it results, that on resultant roughness surface
making- up by water the diluting texture cloth has a very statistically prominent influence:
- interaction between the mechanical wrought and the direction of libriforming fibre,
- interaction between the mechanical wrought, type of the texture cloth and the
thickness texture film,
- interaction between the mechanical wrought of the surface wood, the texture cloth, the
thickness of texture film and the direction of wood fibres.
Thickness of the paint coating film H1
Coating P1
Coating P2
4
3,5
3
Ra [μm]
2,5
2
1,5
1
0,5
0
Wood milling Sanding L1 - Thermomechanic
pressing
L2 - Thermomechanic
pressing
L3 - Thermomechanic
pressing
m echanical w orking
Fig.4: Mean arithmetic deviation of the profile Ra (measured after finishing treatment), by different mechanical
surface treatment of wood for selected types of coating materials
31

Thickness of the paint coating film H2
Coating P1
Coating P2
Ra [μm]
1
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
Wood milling Sanding L1 - Thermomechanic
pressing
m echanical w orking
L2 - Thermomechanic
pressing
L3 - Thermomechanic
pressing
Fig.5: Mean arithmetic deviation of the profile Ra (measured after finishing treatment), by different mechanical
surface treatment of wood for selected types of coating materials
The roughness can be characterized as a central arithmetic variance Ra, which we
definited as a factor of the quality assurance of surface modification. The surface modification
quality is evaluated by many facilities: aspecting, mechanical, chemical and resistance.
On base summarily reviews of this facilities, the producer can characterize texture
matters and give recommendation for their using in concrete conditions.
From results of measuring the roughness it results, that surfaces with texture system
P1had low
The low roughness surface is achieved by the first ground coat, onto which has been
applied texture stuff Aqua Primer thix, which has good fullness.
CONCLUSION
The aim of work has been study of the influence texture stuff by water fluxing on
the roughness of the surface aspen wood. We analyzed changes of the roughness aspen
surface wood by tangent -radial surfaces depending on: kind of mechanical and
thermo/mechanical wood working, the type of texture stuff and two different thickness
texture coat.
On base choosing experiment and the statistical evaluation measured values we
found out the next conclusion:
- from the choosing ways of the mechanical and thermo/mechanical treatment of the surface
aspen wood, the low average avalues Ra has been achieved the pressed surfaces.
- the low average avalues Ra after surfaced treatment by the long way we achieved grinding
and pressed surfaces and by the cross way there were grinding surfaces
- near high thickness texture film values RA has been falling down at all texture stuff. Ratio
between the accruing thickness of texture film and the decreasing rough is not possible to
generalize for all kind of surfaces treatments.
- statistically important differences on the roughness surface between different treatmented
surfaces of aspen wood do not eliminate surfaces treatment has been made by the
choosen water diluting texture stuff with the thickness texture stuff into 240 um.
32

LITERATURE
1. GÁBORÍK, J., ŽITNÝ, M. 2007. The influence of rotary smoothing on the quality of
wood surface. In Annals of Warsaw Agricultural University. Forestry and Wood
Technology. No 61. Warsawa, 2007, s. 230 – 232. ISSN 0208-5704.
2. JOURDAIN, CH., DWYER, J., KERSELL, K., MALL, D., MCCLELLAND, K., SPRINGATE,
R., WILLIAMS, S. 1999. Changing nature of wood products – what does it mean for
coatings and finish performance. In Journal of Coatings Technology [online]. 1999,
roč. 71, č. 3, s. 61 – 66. Dostupné na internete: http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-
54546330.html.
3. KÚDELA, J., LIPTÁKOVÁ, E., GINDL, M. 2004. On the Wetting Behaviour of Different
Treated Beech Wood Surfaces. In Proceedings of the 2 nd International Symposium on
Wood Machining, 2004, s. 467 – 473. ISBN 3-9501315-2-3.
4. LIPTÁKOVÁ, E., KÚDELA, J. 2000. Vlastnosti povrchu bukového dreva pri rôznom
spôsobe mechanického opracovania. In.: Trieskové a beztrieskové obrábanie dreva
2000. Starý Smokovec – Tatry, Technická univerzita vo Zvolene 2000, s. 107–116.
ISBN 80-228-0952-7.
5. MÓZA, M. 2007. Štúdium povrchu dreva a kvality povrchovej úpravy po aplikácii
vybraných náterových látok. Diplomová práca, DF TU vo Zvolene, 2007, 97s.
This contribution was supported by the Scientific Grant Agency of the Ministry of
Education SR and the Slovak Academy of Sciences (Grant No. 1/0329/09, Grant No.
1/0565/10).
Streszczenie: Wpływ wybranych czynników na jakość powierzchni osiki wykańczanej
wyrobami wodorozcieńczalnymi. Jakość powierzchni drewna określano za pomocą
parametrów chropowatości. Brano pod uwagę średnie odchylenie profile od wartości średniej
Ra, dla powierzchni struganych, szlifowanych oraz prasowanych. Takie też powierzchnie
były pokrywane wyrobami wodorozcieńczalnymi.
Corresponding author:
Gabriela SLABEJOVÁ
Department of Furniture and Wood Products
Faculty of Wood Sciences Technology
Technical University in Zvolen
T.G. Masaryka 2117/24
960 53 Zvolen, Slovak Republic
slabejova@vsld.tuzvo.sk
33

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 34-37
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Slenderness of free sections of rafter and the shape of its cross-section as
features characterizing the structures of historic roof-frames.
MAREK R. GOGOLIN
Institute of Technology, Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz
Abstract: Slenderness of free sections of rafter and the shape of its cross-section as features characterizing the
structures of historic roof-frames. The paper presents the results of research on the selected parameters
characterizing structured of roof-frames executed in the period from 13 th to 19 th century. Indicators such as the
slenderness of the longest free sections of rafters and the proportions of dimensions of their cross-sections were
taken into consideration and confronted with the guidelines published in old construction handbooks. It was
assumed, that the analysis of those parameters will allow for defining the characteristic features of the
carpenters’ workshop in the discussed period.
Keywords: old roof frames, rules of calculations
This is to consider geometric properties of rafters as the most weight-bearing members
of every roof-frame. The proper performance of those elements is determined by such
parameters as the biggest free length as well as the shape and magnitude of their crosssections.
Old-times builders obviously did not know the precise rules of static calculations
applied today, however they obeyed certain rules, the reminiscences of which can e found in
19 th -century construction manuals. The Menzel manual of the year 1842 1 gives simple
methods of calculating the dimensions of wooden structures. It appears from the text, that for
the rafter-type members the ratio between their free length to the height of cross-section – that
is the slenderness of the free section – should be comprised between 18 and 20, and the ratio
between the height and width of the cross-section should be from ca. 1,14 to 1,25. In another
19 th -century manual, by A. Zabierzowski 2 the rules of making such calculations have been
described in more detail. Their analysis leads to a conclusion, that their starting point was the
free length of a given member, and basing on that by simple calculation the height and then
the width of its cross-section were reckoned. The resulting values of the discussed parameters
are similar to those in Menzel’s work, equalling 16 – 20 and 1,12 – 1,17 respectively. Such
differences, however small could be – which of course requires evidencing in course of
separate research – a proof of slightly different approach of Polish and German builders to
construction calculations. However, without going deeper into this issue, one can assume, that
considering such parameters, as the ratio between the free length of a rafter section and the
height of its cross-section, that is the slenderness L/h as well as the ration between the height
and width of that cross-section h/b could have considerable cognitive value, giving an idea of
applying defined dimensional proportions of roof-frame members by the builders. Graphic
presentation of the character of variability of those parameters over the years is given in
Fig. 1, in which the first diagram (a) refers to the ratio between the height and width of the
cross-section of rafters, the second one (b) to the slenderness of their free sections. One can
1 Menzel C.A, Die Hölzernen Dachverbindungen in ihrem ganzen Umfange. Halle, 1842, p. 177 and further.
2 Zabierzowski A., Przewodnik praktyczny dla budujących. Warszawa, 1857, p. 269 and further.
34

notice, that over the subsequent years and centuries the b/h indicator was contained is
relatively close limits 1 – 1,3 exceeding the latter value only in two cases.
Fig. 1: The values of selected geometric parameters of rafters: a – h/b of cross-sections,
b – slenderness of rafters
The slenderness parameter changed in different way. From the late 13 th to the late 16 th
century it oscillated within the 7 – 13 limit (with scarce exceptions) keeping over that period
the average value of ca.10. From the mid-17 th century the range of variability of that indicator
35

ises, together with its value, that in mid-19 th century reaches the average of ca. 17. The above
remarks give only a general outlook of the discussed issue, since the necessity of its more
thorough consideration.
In two analysed 13 th -century roof frames the attitude of carpenters towards defining
the cross-sections of timbers was – as the two frames were built over two parts of the same
edifice – the same. In spite of different structural types of principals/trusses the proportions of
dimensions of cross-sections are identical and measure 1,25, thus approaching the upper limit
of that parameter value known in the literature 3 . In both structures, there are very similar,
equalling ca. 10, quotients of free length of rafters and height of cross-section, the parameter
that defines slenderness of the free section of a rafter.
Rafters of the 14 th -century trusses are also characterised by small variability of the
discussed parameters. In majority of analysed roof-frames the quotients of free length of
rafters and height of cross-section are similar and oscillate within close limits (+/- 14%)
around 10, that is the same value as for the 13 th -century structures. Proportions of dimensions
of rafter cross-section for those structures vary from 1,2 (which is the value lowest than
defined for 13 th -century structures) to 1,3 (which is close to values for the structures of the
previous century). Only one structure characterises with distinctly different features, since this
indicator equals 1,6. In the same roof-frame also the other indicator differed from the values
characteristic of the majority of 14 th -century structures.
In 15 th century the slenderness of free sections of rafters undergo further
differentiation. In king-post roof-frames, that were almost the only ones built, for rafters of
full principals/trusses in lengthwise-reduced structures it oscillates within the 6,3 – 10,5
limits, while for rafters of non-full trusses 9,3 – 14,1. For unreduced roof-frames this
parameter is comprised within the 7,0 – 13,2. In the only described rafter-frame of that time it
equals 6,5. The cross-sections of almost all 15 th -century roof-frames are close to square. In
half of the structures the parameters defining the shape of cross-section equals 1,0, which
matches the square, in subsequent four of them in equals 1,2 and reaches higher values only in
two cases.
In 16 th -century king-post roof-frames both discussed indicators defining the rafter
properties are considerably different. It is worth noticing, that in one of the analysed
structures (in the non-full truss of a mixed roof-frame) the indicator defining slenderness of a
free section of the rafter in the principal/truss reaches the value of 18,0, that is it rises much
above the values encountered in the roof-frames built in the previous century. One can also
notice a tendency towards using rectangular cross-sections, which is expressed by a respective
parameter oscillating within the 1,1 – 1,3 limits.
In 17 th century, when the principal/truss structures undergo much differentiation, the values of
parameter defining slenderness of free sections of rafters are also comprised within broad
limits. For king-post principals/trusses they oscillate within the 8,0 – 10,0 limits in free roofframes
and 7,0 – 10,2 for roof-frames with closed trusses. Similar value (10,4) characterises
rafters of a principal/truss in a purlin and queen-post structure. This indicator assumes higher
values for rafters of non-full truss of a free king-post, lengthwise-reduced roof-frame (11,5) as
well as for rafters of a rafter-and-collar roof-frame, two queen-post structures and one queenand-king-post
roof-frame, for which it is close to 14. Parameter describing the shape of
rafters’ cross-section is diverse, with prevailing square or off-square ones (8 from 11
structures), which is expressed by the parameter’s value h/b equaling 1,0 or 1,1. Such is the
situation in rafters of all but one king-post roof-frames, in two mixed structures and one
queen-post roof-frame. In the remaining three structures the cross-section of rafters is
rectangular, expressed by the parameter’s value contained within the 1,25 – 1,4 limits.
3 Menzel C.A, op. cit.
36

The 18 th -century roof frames are with no exception the queen-post structures. Rafters
of their principals/trusses characterize with indicators of slenderness of free sections
comprised within 13,5 – 21,6 limits. In roof-frames of standing queen-posts that parameter
oscillates within 13,5 – 17,0 limits, thus the average value is higher, then in 17 th -century roofframes.
In structures of reclining queen-posts the free section of rafters are still more slender,
which is expressed by the indicator close to 21. Rafters of all roof-frames of standing queenposts
have rectangular cross-sections expressed by the h/b indicator comprised within the 1,25
– 1,3 limits. Thus they are distinctively different from rafters of roof-frames of reclining
queen-posts, that have square cross-sections.
Queen-post and purlin roof-frames executed in 19 th century include rafters of diverse
slenderness of free sections and diverse shape of cross-section. In two structures of standing
queen-posts the first of those parameters assumes values 13,0 and 18,5, that is similar to
rafters of the 18 th -century roof-frames. In structures of reclining queen-posts the situation is
opposite, the slenderness indicator is low, equaling 9,6, that is comparable with values
common in Medieval structures.
REFERENCES:
1. MENZEL C.A, Die Hölzernen Dachverbindungen in ihrem ganzen Umfange. Halle,
1842, p. 177 and further
2. ZABIERZOWSKI A., Przewodnik praktyczny dla budujących. Warszawa, 1857, p.
269 and further.
3. GOGOLIN M. R.: Więźby dachowe kościołów pomorskich od XIII do połowy XIX
wieku. Bydgoszcz, 2008
Streszczenie: Smukłość swobodnych odcinków krokwi i kształt jej przekroju poprzecznego
jako cechy charakteryzujące konstrukcje historycznych więźb dachowych. W artykule
przedstawiono wyniki badań nad wybranymi parametrami, charakteryzującymi konstrukcje
więźb dachowych powstałych w okresie XIII – XIX w. Wzięto pod uwagę takie wskaźniki,
jak smukłość najdłuższych odcinków swobodnych krokwi oraz proporcje wymiarowe ich
przekroju poprzecznego i skonfrontowano je z zaleceniami zamieszczanymi w dawnych
podręcznikach budowlanych. Uznano, że analiza tych parametrów pozwoli na zdefiniowanie
charakterystycznych cech warsztatu wykonawczego cieśli w rozpatrywanym okresie.
Corresponding author:
Uniwersytet Kazimierza Wielkiego w Bydgoszczy,
Instytut Techniki, Katedra Konstrukcji Drewnianych;
ul. Chodkiewicza 30, 85-064 Bydgoszcz
e-mail: argus@ukw.edu.pl
37

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 38-43
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Leather waste hydrolysate as a partial substitute of UF adhesive for
plywood production
MÁRIA ŠMIDRIAKOVÁ – JÁN SEDLIAČIK – PETER JURKOVIČ – PAVOL MELUS
Technical University, Zvolen, Slovakia
VIPO a.s. Partizanske, Slovakia
Abstract: Chemical stability, water resistance and the strength of glued joint of plywood are the important
properties of any adhesive. This paper deals with UF adhesives modified with glutaraldehyde (GA) and collagen.
GA was added to the UF adhesive to increase its structural stability. Collagen was added in the form of acid
hydrolysate. The hydrolysate is chrome tanned leather waste; we searched the possibility to use the waste as a
partial substitute of the adhesive. Shear strength was measured according to the EN 314-1,2: 1993 standard. The
obtained results showed that simultaneous presence of collagen and GA in the UF adhesive mixture increased
the shear strength of glued joints. The leather hydrolysate can be used as the additive to UF adhesives.
Utilisation of leather hydrolysate as the secondary industrial raw material in UF adhesive production can be the
positive contribution to the environment.
Keywords: UF adhesive, collagen, leather hydrolysate, glutaraldehyde, plywood, shear strength
INTRODUCTION
Modifying the adhesive we can improve physical-chemical properties of the adhesives
and the quality of glued joints – from the view point of the strength of joints, water resistance,
and content and emission of formaldehyde. We searched a possibility to use a natural
polymer–collagen at adhesive modification. Chrome tanned leather waste is a dumping and
the form, which is produced in, is a ballast in the environment (Cr 3+ compounds). Protein
hydrolysates from chrome tanned leather waste can be used as the secondary raw material in
modification of adhesives. As UF adhesives are widely used, using hydrolysates in adhesives
production can positive affect the environment and give positive economically outcome.
LANGMAIER et al. (2004, 2005) researched hydrolysate of chrome tanned leather waste
obtained through enzymatic hydrolysis. Non-isothermal thermogravimetry was applied to
study condensation kinetics of dimethylol-urea and its mixtures with various mass contents of
urea, hydrolysate, or acid curing agent.
Waste utilized as the secondary raw material was tested by DUKARSKA and LECKA
(2008). PUR foam waste was added into MUPF and PF adhesives. Authors searched a
possibility to make exterior plywood glued with modified melamine adhesive.
Glutaraldehyde is a chemical substance often researched; it is assumed that GA is
completely inbuilt into the structure of hardened adhesive. MAMINSKI et al. (2007)
researched MUF adhesive, GA was added into hardener as 50 % water solution. Shear
strength of birch specimens glued with modified adhesive was markedly higher when
compared with reference sample. There was pointed at the fact, that GA form direct chemical
bonding with chemical compounds of wood; that can significantly influence the strength of
glued joint. It was confirmed by increased percentage of cohesively fractured samples,
modified adhesive exhibited much stronger interaction adhesive–wood.
Wood is a hydroscopic material due to hydrophilic character of cellulose,
hemicelluloses and lignin. Proteins are able to bond cellulose; this is employed at purification
and separation of various protein types onto cellulose (SHPIGEL et al. 2000). POLUS-
RATAJZAK et al. (2003) researched chemical changes of proteins in interaction with
cellulose and lignin with infrared spectroscopy. Changes in spectra showed the chemical
interaction between peptide chain and reactive groups on cellulose and lignin chains. Very
38

interesting is the research on the proteins that have a role in underwater adhesion produced by
marine mussels. Research efforts have focused on identifying the genes responsible for the
adhesive proteins and strategies for producing natural adhesives similar to the native mussel
adhesive proteins (SILVERMAN 2007). The adhesives are known for their superior strength
and durability compared with man–made materials. They are ecological and can bind various
materials.
In our experiments, we researched influence of chosen modifying agents (hydrolysed
collagen (HC) in combination with activator AG based on glutaraldehyde) on network
formation and the structure of cured UF adhesive. We expect modified adhesives to be
stronger and more reactive due to large number of –NH 2 groups involved into reactive
mixture by HC. Glutaraldehyde can strengthen the cured adhesive structure, mechanical
strength, elasticity, water resistance and chemical stability.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In experimental work we tested UF and MUF adhesives and hardener R-60. Natural
polymers were added into adhesives in form of skin collagen hydrolysate. The hydrolysate
was a liquid: collagen content 26 %, solid content 43 %, and pH = 5.2. Hardener was
modified with activator (AG) based on glutaraldehyde (VIPO a.s.). AG was added into
hardener R-60 in amount 1 % (Hr1), 3 % (Hr3), or 5 % (Hr5).
Plywood was prepared from beech or birch veneers; adhesive spread 160 g.m -2 ,
temperature 105 °C (UF), 130 °C (MUF), specific pressure 1.8 MPa, pressing time 5 minutes.
Shear strength was measured according to EN 314-1,2 standard. Measured values of shear
strength were evaluated by one-factor statistical analysis ANOVA on the level α = 0.05.
UF adhesive with activator AG
Firstly, we evaluated influence of added hardener on strength and stability of glued
joints. Results of shear strength for plywood specimens conditioned for adhesive class Nr.1
are given in table 1.
Tab. 1 Shear strength according to EN 314-1,2 standard for adhesive class Nr.1
Adhesive
mixture
Average
Shear
strength
[MPa]
Standard
deviation
[MPa]
Coefficient
of
variation
[%]
Measured
value min.
[MPa]
Measured
value max.
[MPa]
number
[pcs]
UF+HrR 1.78 0.39 22.08 1.01 2.87 18
UF+Hr1 1.93 0.42 21.71 1.12 2.62 20
UF+Hr3 1.93 0.29 15.05 1.42 2.40 20
UF+Hr5 2.05 0.45 21.78 1.17 2.70 19
Shear strength of all tested specimens in adhesive class Nr.1 reached required shear
strength 1.0 MPa. Shear strength of joints glued with UF adhesive with modified hardener
was a little higher in comparison with shear strength of joint glued with standard adhesive.
AG in adhesive mixture positively influenced shear strength – shear strength of joints glued
with mixture with the highest content of AG was the highest. Based on one-factor analysis,
we can say that factor “adhesive mixture”, does not influence plywood shear strength statistic
significantly. Adding AG into adhesive mixture shear strength was raised, but not statistic
significantly (fig. 1).
Specimens conditioned for adhesive class Nr.2 collapsed when boiled. UF adhesive
joints with AG stay being classified in adhesive class Nr.1. Expected possibility to classify
modified adhesive joints in adhesive class Nr.2 was not confirmed.
39

Similar experiments were carried by MAMINSKI et al. (2007). Authors found out that
shear strength increased with increasing amount of added GA up to 9 wt. %, GA addition
above that value resulted in decrease of shear strength by the plasticization effect.
UF adhesive with AG and HC
Proteins are the base of some adhesives, so in the second step, we tested influence of
collagen hydrolysate (HC) on shear strength and water resistance of glued joints. Hydrolysate
added is partial substitute of some part of the adhesive, and at the same time, it is an additive
that can markedly influence physical-chemical properties of the adhesive and adhesive joint.
HC was added into the adhesive with Hr3 in amount of 3 %, 5 % or 8 %. Shear strength after
conditioning for adhesive class Nr.1 are given in tab. 2.
Tab. 2 Shear strength according to EN 314-1,2 standard for adhesive class Nr.1
Adhesive mixture Average
Shear
strength
[MPa]
Standard
deviation
[MPa]
Coefficie
nt of
variation
[%]
Measured
value min.
[MPa]
Measured
value
max.
[MPa]
number
[pcs]
UF+Hr3 2.48 0.34 13.84 1.95 3.08 23
UF+ Hr3+ 3%HC 2.12 0.44 20.73 1.45 2.74 21
UF+ Hr3+ 5% HC 2.28 0.49 21.70 1.52 3.04 21
UF+ Hr3+ 8% HC 1.86 0.37 19.72 1.19 2.41 21
Shear strength of all tested specimens, in adhesive class Nr.1, met the standard and
exceeded required value of 1.0 MPa. HC added in three tested levels little decreased shear
strength when compared with reference sample. The highest value of shear strength reached
adhesive mixture with 5 % HC. The influence of HC on shear strength was evaluated by onefactor
statistical analysis; factor “adhesive mixture” influenced plywood shear strength
statistics significantly. In fig.2 we can see that highest value of shear strength was measured
at sample without HC and lowest value at sample containing 8 % HC. According to Duncan
test, the influence of adhesive mixture containing 8 % HC onto shear strength of glued joint is
different statistical significantly when compared with others mixtures (containing HC in
amount of 0 %, 3 % and 5 %, as well).
As specimens conditioned for adhesive class Nr.2 collapsed at boiling test, reference
sample, and samples glued with adhesive mixture with Hr3 and HC have to be classified as
adhesive class Nr.1. Expected possibility to classify the adhesive mixtures with AG and HC in
class Nr.2 was not confirmed.
40

2,4
Ver tic alba rs den ote 0,9 5 c o nf iden c e inter v al s
2,3
2,2
2,1
šmyk
2,0
1,9
1,8
1,7
1,6
1,5
UFTvR UFTv1 UFTv3 UFTv5
lz
Fig.1 Hardener with activator AG
šmyk
2,8
2,7
2,6
2,5
2,4
2,3
2,2
2,1
2,0
1,9
1,8
1,7
1,6
1,5
Vertical bars denote 0,95 confidence intervals
UFTv3R UF3HKTv3 UF5HKTv3 UF8HKTv3
lz
Fig.2 UF adhesive with AG and HC
41

CONCLUSION
Based on the evaluation of shear strength of adhesive joints glued with modified UF
adhesive, we can conclude that activator based on glutaraldehyde influences – improves shear
strength of adhesive joints.
Although shear strength of adhesive joint glued with modified UF adhesive with
activator and collagen hydrolysate was lowered when compared with standard UF adhesive,
all adhesive joints met the standard of 1.0 MPa. Strength of adhesive joint with 8 % HC was
markedly lower, but still we can think over this addition, measured strength met the standard.
More experiments should be done on research of the adhesive mixture. Adding 8 % of
collagen hydrolysate into the UF adhesive we added relatively large volume of water. It is
important to adapt viscosity of the adhesive in gluing technology to supply sufficient adhesive
spread.
Acknowledgement: This work has been supported by the Slovak Scientific Grant Agency
under the contract No. VEGA 1/0517/09, project APVV-VMSP-P-0044-07 and SK-RO-0022-
10.
This publication was prepared as a part of the project „Application of Knowledge-based
Methods in Designing Manufacturing Systems and Materials” co-funded by the Ministry of
Education, Research and Sport of the Republic within the granted stimuli for Research and
development from the State Budget of the Slovak Republic pursuant to Stimuli for Research
and Development Act. No. 185/2009 Coll. And the amendment of Income Tax Act No.
595/2003 Coll. in the wording of subsequent in the wording of Act. No. 40/2011Coll.
REFERENCES
1. LANGMAIER, F. et al. 2005. Curing urea-formaldehyde adhesives with hydrolysates of
chrome-tanned leather waste from leather production. In International Journal of
Adhesion and Adhesives. 2005, 25, p. 101-108.
2. DUKARSKA, D., LECKA J. 2008. Polyurethane foam scrap as MUPF and PF filler in the
manufacture of exterior plywood. In Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences. No.
65. SGGW Warszawa. 2008. ISSN 1898-5912, p. 14– 19.
3. MAMINSKI, M.L. et al. 2007. Glutaraldehyde-modified MUF adhesive system -
Improved hot water resistance. In Holz Roh Werkst. 2007, 65, p. 251-253.
4. SHPIGEL. E., et al. 2000. Expression purification and applications of staph. Protein
A fused to cellulose-binding domain. In Biotechnol. Appl. Biochem. 2000, 31, p. 197-203.
5. POLUS-RATAJCZAK, I., MAZELA, B., GOLINSKI P. 2003. The chemical interaction
of animal origin proteins with cellulose and lignin in wood preservation. In Annals of
Warsaw Agricultural University. No. 53. SGGW Warszawa, 2003, p. 296– 299.
6. SILLVERMAN, H.G., ROBERTO, F.F. 2007. Understanding Marine Mussel Adhesion.
In Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2007, 9, p. 661-681.
42

Streszczenie: Hydrolizat odpadów skórnych jako częściowy zamiennik kleju mocznikowego w
produkcji sklejki. Stabilność chemiczna, odporność na wodę I wytrzymałość połączenia
sąesencjonalnymi własnosciami każdego kleju. Artykuł dotyczy kleju mocznikowego
modyfikowanego aldehydem glutarowym (GA) i kolagenem. Dodatek GA zwiększa
stabilnośćstrukturalną kleju mocznikowego. Kolagen dodano w formie hydrolizatu
kwasowego. Do sporządzenia hydrolizatu użyto garbowanych związkami chromu odpadów
skórnych, szukano możliwości użycia odpadów jako częściowego substytutu kleju.
Wytrzymałość na ścinanie mierzono zgodnie z normą EN 314-1,2: 1993. Wykiki badań
wskazują że jednoczesna obecność hydrolizatu i GA w kleju mocznikowym zwiększa
wytrzymałość na ścinanie połączeń. Utylizacja hydrolizatu skórnego w kleju UF może mieć
pozytywne skutki dla środowiska.
Corresponding authors:
Ing. Mária Šmidriaková
Doc. Ing. Ján Sedliačik, PhD.
Technical University
T.G. Masaryka, 24
960 53 Zvolen
Slovakia
e-mail: smidriak@vsld.tuzvo.sk
janos@vsld.tuzvo.sk
Ing. Peter Jurkovič, PhD.
Ing. Pavol Meluš, PhD.
VIPO a.s
Ul. Gen Svobodu 1069/4
958 01 Partizánske
Slovakia
e-mail: pjurkovic@vipo.sk
pmeluš@vipo.sk
43

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 44-48
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Reduction of formaldehyde emission from plywood bonded with modified
UF adhesive
MÁRIA ŠMIDRIAKOVÁ – JÁN SEDLIAČIK – JÁN MATYAŠOVSKÝ
– PETER DUCHOVIČ
Technical University, Zvolen, Slovakia
VIPO a.s. Partizanske, Slovakia
Abstract: Chemical stability of UF adhesives is an important hygienic property. This paper deals with chemical
stability of UF adhesives modified with glutaraldehyde (GA) and collagen. GA was added to the adhesive to
increase the structural stability of the adhesive. Collagen was added in the form of acid hydrolysate; the
hydrolysate is chrome tanned leather waste. Formaldehyde content in plywood was measured through FESYP
method; and formaldehyde emission from cured UF adhesive film was measured through “chamber method”
according to the STN 49 0030 and STN EN 717-1 standards. The results showed that simultaneous presence of
collagen and GA in the UF adhesive mixture reduced the amount of formaldehyde in plywood, and reduced the
formaldehyde emission from cured UF adhesive film, as well.
Keywords: UF adhesive, formaldehyde emission, collagen, hydrolysate, glutaraldehyde, plywood
INTRODUCTION
The world research on aminoplastic adhesives is mainly aimed at the problem of
formaldehyde and emissions from glued materials. At hardening of adhesives, acid hardeners
accelerate formation of both types of internal cross links in the structure of the adhesive (less
stable dimethylene-ether links and more stable methylene links), but at the same time they
influence transformation of dimethylene-ether links to the methylene ones. Lowering the
number of dimethylene-ether links in cured adhesive film of aminoplastic we can lower the
formaldehyde emission.
One of researched chemical substances for modification of adhesives is
glutaraldehyde. There is assumed that glutaraldehyde is inbuilt into the structure of hardened
adhesive and so its emission becomes negligible. In recent years, research on modification of
adhesives has been also aimed at utilization of products that are easy to get and using them
the costs in adhesive production can be reduced at sustainable quality of joints. Chrome
tanned leather waste contain collagen hydrolysate; it bears a number of amino-groups known
for their reactivity with formaldehyde.
ZHANG et al. (2010) find out that low molar ratio urea-formaldehyde (UF) resins
modified by various modifiers showed lower free formaldehyde content and higher water
resistance. TOHMURA et al. (2001) investigated six melamine-urea-formaldehyde (MUF)
adhesives synthesized with different F/ (M+U) and M/U molar ratios. The formaldehyde
emission from plywood decreased as the F/ (M+U) molar ratio decreased and the M/U molar
ratio increased. The lower formaldehyde emission from cured MUF resins with higher M/U
molar ratio might be ascribed to the stronger linkages between triazine carbons of melamine
than those of urea carbons. The melamine contributed to strong cross-linking linkages in the
cured resin structures, leading to lower formaldehyde emission and better bond performance.
RINGENA et al. (2006) and PARK et al. (2009) tested hydrolytic durability of cured
UF, MUF, and MUPF adhesives by gravimetric analysis; they measured hydrolytically
induced mass loss and the amount of liberated formaldehyde. Authors pointed at the fact that
hydrolytic stability of cured adhesive (in vitro) is different from the stability of the adhesive
in wood composites (in situ). Hydrolytic degradation of the resin can cause cleavage linkages
44

within the adhesive network It is assumed that in the first grade of degradation N-methylol
groups are dissociated at the end of the chain, and later formaldehyde is released from inside
of the structure of macromolecule.
Perforator method is most often used laboratory method for determination of released
formaldehyde. ROFFAEL et al. (2010) tested samples glued with UF adhesive after
conditioning in the environment with different values humidity. Systematic investigations into
the influence of moisture content on the perforator value showed that the relation between
moisture content and perforator values can be represented by a straight line. The emission in
the chamber rose with increasing (measured uncorrected) perforator value.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
In experimental work we tested UF and MUF adhesives and hardener R-60. Natural
polymers were added into adhesives in the form of skin collagen hydrolysate (HC). The
hydrolysate was a liquid: collagen amount 26 %, solid content 43 %, pH = 5.2. Hardener was
modified with activator (AG) based on glutaraldehyde (VIPO a.s.). Activator was added into
hardener in amount 1 %, 3 %, or 5 %.
Plywood was pressed from beech or birch veneers; adhesive spread 160 g.m -2 ,
temperature 105 °C (UF), 130 °C (MUF), specific pressure 1.8 MPa, pressing time 5 minutes.
Formaldehyde content determined by FESYP method according to STN EN 120 standard, dry
mater content according to STN EN 322 standard, formaldehyde emission from glued boards
by chamber method according to STN 49 0030 and EN 717-1.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Formaldehyde content in plywood glued with UF and MUF adhesives with modified
hardener (Hr1 and Hr3) are presented in table 1.
Tab. 1 Formaldehyde content in plywood glued with UF and MUF adhesives with AG
Adhesive mixture Requirement of the
standard [mg/100g a.d.]
fd content
[mg/100g a.d.]
fd content
relative value [%]
UF + HrR 2.08 100
UF + Hr1 1.90 91
UF + Hr3 8,0
1.98 95
MUF + Hr1 3.14 -
MUF + Hr3
3.89 -
From the obtained results, we can see that AG influences the quality of glued joint.
Addition of 1 % AG resulted in decrease of formaldehyde content by 9 %, the addition 3 %
AG in decrease by 5 %. The situation of MUF adhesives is very similar to UF adhesives;
lower content of AG caused the lower content of formaldehyde.
Further experiments were aimed at research on the influence of collagen hydrolysate
on the formaldehyde content in plywood. HC was added into adhesive mixture in the amount
of 5 %. The results are given in table 2.
Tab. 2 Formaldehyde content in plywood glued with UF adhesive with AG and HC
Adhesive
mixture
Requirement of the
standard [mg/100g a.d.]
fd content
[mg/100g a.d.]
fd content –
relative value [%]
UF+ HrR 2.08 100
UF +Hr1 + 5% HC 1.78 85
UF +Hr3 + 5% HC 8,0
1.54 74
UF +Hr5 + 5% HC
1.89 91
45

We can say that HC included in adhesive mixture markedly reduced formaldehyde
content in glued material. While the board glued with UF adhesive with hardener Hr1 showed
the reduction of formaldehyde by 9 %, HC added into the adhesive caused the lowering of
formaldehyde content by 15 %. As for the adhesive mixture with Hr3, the mentioned values
were 5 % and 26 %. The interesting is the fact that lower AG content results in stronger
decrease of formaldehyde in the adhesive mixture without protein (without HC). In adhesive
mixture with protein, it is better if the AG content is higher. We can see this tendency only
when compare Hr1 to Hr3. The sample glued with adhesive with HC and Hr5 showed higher
formaldehyde content.
Based on our experiments examining also other properties of adhesive joints, we
continued the experiments with UF adhesive and Hr3. We measured formaldehyde emission
from boards glued with the adhesive containing HC in the amount 3 %, 5 %, or 8 % (fig. 1).
fd emission
(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
UF-R UF+3%HC UF+5%HC UF+8%HC
Adhesive mixture
Fig. 1 Emission of formaldehyde dependent on the amount of added HC
As we can see, addition of HC in researched range (3–8 %) results in reduction of
formaldehyde emissions when compared with reference sample (R with no additive). The
adhesive mixture with highest content of HC (8 %) reached the lowest value of formaldehyde
emission. All boards met the standard, they reached the emission value E < 0.124 mg/m 3 and
all of them can be classified in emission class E1.
We assume that between the adhesive and the chains of natural polymer (HC present
in the adhesive mixture) direct chemical bond is formed; that can be manifested by changed
properties of cured adhesive. ESSAWY et al. (2009) researched physical-chemical properties
of UF adhesives modified with polyamidoamines. Authors expected modifiers to change the
network structure of cured adhesive (due to a high number of –NH 2 functional groups). The
adhesives showed higher strength and chemical stability, as well. Protein added in the form of
hydroysate can immediately influence the content of free formaldehyde in the adhesive. Free
amino-groups of protein are able to react with free formaldehyde molecules, they bond them,
and so they prevent the emission of formaldehyde. Another positive influence of HC for
adhesive curing is an acid reaction medium (HC was added as water solution with pH = 5.2).
Acid curing agents increase the rate of formation of both types of cross-links, and at markedly
influence transformation of dimethylenether cross-links into methylene ones.
Similar experiments were carried by LANGMAIER et al. (2004, 2005). They applied
non-isotherma gravimetry to study the condensation kinetics of dimethylol-urea (DMU) with
urea and with the hydrolysate (H) of chrome tanned leather waste. Authors stated that
addition of a mass fraction 0.05 H to DMU reduces a rate of formation of unstable
dimethylene ether cross-links in favor of more stable methylene bonds by 20–30 %.
Hydrolysate lowered ratio of oxy–methylene bonds to methylene bonds in favor of methylene
bonds at a ratio of about 1: 2. This was detected also at curing in neutral environment.
We assume that glutaraldehyde included in activator AG is incorporated into cured
adhesive structure and replaces dimethylen-ether cross-links with its 5-carbon chain. The
46

chain is not hydrolytically degraded. Hydrolysis is well known for unstable dimethylen-ether
bonds and results in formaldehyde emissions from cured resin. MAMINSKI et al. (2006)
studied a possibility to improve adhesive properties and properties of hardener using
glutaraldehyde. They stated hypothesis, that glutaraldehyde added will form 5-carbon crosslinks
in the adhesive network; this way also water resistance of adhesive can be improved.
When summing all the experiments, we can say that simultaneous presence of both
components (activator AG based on glutaraldehyde, and collagen hydrolysate HC) gives the
best environment for curing and good results from the point of view of content and emissions
of formaldehyde (fig. 2).
100
100
fd
content -
relative
value (%)
80
60
40
20
fd
emissionrelative
value (%)
80
60
40
20
0
HrR Hr1 Hr3
0
HrR Hr1 Hr3
UF adhesive mixture
UF adhesive mixture
adhesive without HC
adhesive with 5 % HC
adhesive without HC
adhesive with 8 % HC
Fig. 2 Content of formaldehyde in plywood and emissions of formaldehyde when various
UF adhesive mixtures were used
CONCLUSION
In conclusion we can say that:
• the best results of formaldehyde content in plywood were achieved by UF adhesive
mixture containing Hr3 and 5 % HC,
• the lowest emission from glued material was measured at UF adhesive mixture with
Hr3 and 8 % HC.
Simultaneous presence of both components in the UF adhesive mixture both reduced the
amount of formaldehyde in plywood, and reduced the formaldehyde emission from cured UF
adhesive film. As for the UF adhesives are widely used, utilization of secondary raw materials
(skin collagen hydrolysates) in adhesive production can positively influence the environment
and be economically interesting.
Acknowledgments
This paper was worked out in the frame of the project VEGA 1/0517/09 and projects APVV-
0521-07 and APVV-0773-07.
REFERENCES
1. LANGMAIER, F. et al. 2004. Curing of urea-formaldehyde adhesives with collagen type
hydrolysates under acid condition. In Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry. 2004,
76, p. 1015-1023.
2. LANGMAIER, F. et al. 2005. Curing urea-formaldehyde adhesives with hydrolysates of
chrome-tanned leather waste from leather production. In International Journal of
Adhesion and Adhesives. 2005, 25, p. 101-108.
3. MAMINSKI, M.L., PAWLICKI, J., PARZUCHOWSKI, P. 2006. Improved water
resistance and adhesive performance of a commercial UF resin blended with
glutaraldehyde. In The Journal of Adhesion. ISSN 0021-8464, 2006, 82, p.629-641.
47

4. PARK, B.D., LEE, S.M., ROH J.K. 2009. Effects of formaldehyde/urea mole ratio and
melamine content on the hydrolytic stability of cured urea-melamine-formaldehyde resin.
In Eur. J. Wood. Prod. 2009, 67, p. 121–123.
5. RINGENA, O. et al. 2006. Estimating the hydrolytic durability of cured wood adhesives
by measuring formaldehyde liberation and structural stability. In Holz als Roh- und
Werkstoff. 2006, 64, p. 321–326.
6. STN EN 120: 1995: Drevné materiály. Zisťovanie obsahu formaldehydu. Extrakčný
postup zvaný „perforátorová metóda“.
7. STN EN 322: 1995: Dosky z dreva. Zisťovanie vlhkosti.
8. STN EN 717-1: 2005: Dosky na báze dreva. Zisťovanie uvoľnenia formaldehydu. Časť 1:
Emisia formaldehydu zisťovaná komorovou metódou.
9. TOHMURA, S., INOUE, A., SAHARI, S.H. 2001. Influence of the melamine content in
melamine-urea-formaldehyde resins on formaldehyde emission and cured resin structure.
In J. Wood Sci. 2001, 47, p. 451- 457.
10. ZHANG, S.F. et al. 2010. Study on properties of modified low molecular ratio ureaformaldehyde
resins (I). In Advanced Material Research. 2010, 113-116, p. 2016-2010.
Streszczenie: Redukcja emisji formaldehydu ze sklejki klejonej modyfikowaną żywicą
mocznikową. Stabilność chemiczna żywicy mocznikowej stanowi jej istotną własność
higieniczną. Praca dotyczy stabilności chemicznej kleju mocznikowego modyfikowanego
aldehydem glutarowym oraz kolagenem. Aldehyd glutarowy został dodany do kleju w celu
zwiększenia stabilności strukturalnej. Kolagen został dodany w formie hydrolizatu
kwasowego, pochodzącego z odpadów po garbowaniu skór. Zawartość formaldehydu
zmierzono zgodnie z normami STN 49 0030 oraz STN EN 717-1. Wykazano, że równoczesna
obecność kolagenu oraz GA w żywicy mocznikowej zmniejsza ilość formaldehydu oraz
redukuje jego emisję z utwardzonej żywicy.
Corresponding authors:
Ing. Mária Šmidriaková
Doc. Ing. Ján Sedliačik, PhD.
Technical University
T.G. Masaryka, 24
960 53 Zvolen
Slovakia
e-mail: smidriak@vsld.tuzvo.sk
janos@vsld.tuzvo.sk
Ing. Jan Matyašovsky,PhD
Ing.Peter Duchovič
VIPO a.s
Ul. Gen Svobodu 1069/4
958 01 Partizánske
Slovakia
e-mail: jmatyasovsky@vipo.sk
pduchovic@vipo.sk
48

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 49-53
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
ATR-FTIR spectral analysis of modified UF adhesive
MÁRIA ŠMIDRIAKOVÁ 1 , MARTA LAUROVÁ 2
1 Department of Furniture and Wood Products, 2 Department of Chemistry and Chemical Technologies, Faculty of
Wood Sciences and Technology, Technical University in Zvolen, Slovak Republic
Abstract: This report deals with stability and toxicity of urea-formaldehyde (UF) adhesives for woodworking
industry. ATR FTIR method was used to research UF adhesive modified by glutaraldehyde (GA). The
glutaraldehyde was added to UF resin to increase structural stability of the adhesive. FTIR spectra of UF
adhesives, UF and GA blends hardened at temperature 100 °C are presented in the paper. Formaldehyde released
from the adhesive is harmful. Collagen solution was chosen as reaction agent to decrease UF adhesive toxicity.
Measured FTIR spectra of UF adhesive modified with collagen hydrolysate approved the creation of bonds
between formaldehyde and collagen.
Keywords: UF resin, adhesive, collagen, glutaraldehyde, FTIR
INTRODUCTION
As the aminoplastic adhesives are widely used in woodworking industry, problems of
chemical stability of the adhesives, resistance against hydrolysis, and formaldehyde emissions
are the main themes of modern research on urea-formaldehyde (UF) adhesives. To influence
the quality of curing and the structure of cured resin various substances are added into
adhesives. A way of modification of the adhesives is adding such substances, which bond free
formaldehyde and so prevent releasing formaldehyde from glued materials (SEDLIAČIK
2005).
At hardening of UF adhesives, acid hardeners influence transformation of dimethyleneether
links (less stable bonds) to the methylene links (more stable bonds). Lowering the
number of dimethylene-ether links in cured adhesive film of aminoplastic, it is possible to
lower the formaldehyde emission. One of examined chemical substances used for modifying
aminoplastic adhesives is glutaraldehyde (GA). There is assumed that GA can be inbuilt into
the structure of hardened adhesive and so replace less stable dimethylene-ether links with its
5-carbon chain (MAMINSKI et al. 2006).
In recent years, research on modification of adhesives has been also aimed at utilization
of products that are easy to get, and using them the costs in adhesive production can be
reduced. Chrome tanned leather waste contains collagen hydrolysate. Collagen (protein) bears
a number of amino-groups that are known for their reactivity with formaldehyde.
In our experiments we researched chosen additives and their influence on curing of UF
adhesive. We measured and compared FTIR spectra of additives, standard UF adhesive and
the adhesive modified with glutaraldehyde and collagen.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
In experimental work we researched UF adhesive KRONORES CB and hardener R-60.
Natural polymers (skin collagen hydrolysate HK79) were added into the adhesive in amount
of 5 %. The hydrolysate was a liquid containing collagen (26 %). Solid content of the
hydrolysate was 43 %, pH = 5.2. Hardener was modified by addition of activator based on
glutaraldehyde (GA) (VIPO a.s.) in amount of 3 %.
FTIR spectra were measured with FTIR spectrometer NICOLET iS10 (Thermo
Scientific). Collagen hydroysate was researched in liquid form. Formaldehyde (0.2 g 37 %
water solution) was added into 10 grams of HK. The mixture was conditioned at temperature
of 20 °C for 16 hours. Parallel sample was boiled for 5 minutes (to approximate conditions at
49

plywood pressing). Spectra of liquid samples were measured immediately after reaction time.
Spectra of hardened adhesive samples were measured on tablets.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
FTIR spectrum of collagen hydrolysate (HK) is shown in figures 1. In spectral interval
1650–1400 cm -1 , the spectrum was characterized by two strong absorption bands (1626
and 1458 cm -1 ) and in spectral interval 1350–1000 cm -1 by four mediate bands (1337, 1246,
1157 and 1083 cm -1 ).
In interval 3800–2500 cm -1 there is a wide absorption band that according MILATA et
al. (2007) indicate the existence of peptide bonds (–CO–NH–) in solution (3400 – 3480 cm -1 )
and hydrogen bonds (inter and intra–molecular bonds NH, OH).
The measured infrared spectrum of collagen hydrolysate used for modification of UF
adhesive correlated very well with the spectra measured by BELBACHIR et al. (2009). They
compared spectra measured for various collagen types in four spectral intervals: υ(C=O)
(1700–1600 cm -1 ), δ(CH 2 ) and δ(CH 3 ) (1480–1350 cm -1 ), υ(C–N) and δ(N–H) (1300–1180
cm -1 ), υ(C–O) and υ(C–O–C) (1100–1005 cm -1 ). Comparing the spectra of collagen and the
mixture of collagen and formaldehyde (fig. 1), we investigated interaction of formaldehyde
with collagen hydrolysate.
Fig. 1 FTIR spectrum of collagen hydrolysate after reaction with formaldehyde.
The change in spectral curve is evident in interval 1550 cm -1 , and a new band and
increased absorption is evident in interval 1160–1080 cm -1 . Intensity of band in HK spectrum
at 1626 cm -1 , characteristic for amines, lowered after reaction with formaldehyde and at the
same time intensity of bands at 3346 cm -1 increased (–OH groups; intra and inter–molecules
hydrogen bonds). It can be considered the result of possible chemical interaction between
researched substances and a product containing higher number of –OH groups. Samples
conditioned at temperature 100 °C showed more intensive bands at 1550 cm -1 ; we can assume
that the reaction rate at higher temperature is higher.
Comparing the spectra of standard UF adhesive with UF modified with HK, high
similarity is noticeable (fig. 2).
50

Fig. 2 FTIR spectrum of UF adhesive and UF adhesive with collagen hydrolysate.
Some differences are evident in bands intensity in interval 2800–2950 cm -1 , where two
new bands appeared (–CH 2 – groups) (MILATA et al. 2007, ESSAWY et al. 2009), changed
intensity of spectral band at 1600 cm -1 (primary amides) (BELBACHIR et al. 2009),
and intensive band at 1438 cm -1 . The band in interval 1590–1450 cm -1 is resolved into two
absorption bands: 1538 cm -1 υ(C=O) (carboxyl acids) and 1547 cm -1 υ(C=O) (peptide bonds –
NH–CO–NH–). The peak 1338 cm -1 disappeared. Weak change of the spectra appeared in
interval 1000–1150 cm -1 ; it can point at reduced number of C–O–C bonds in UF adhesive.
Comparing the spectra of standard UF adhesive and UF modified with GA (fig. 3) we
can see high similarity in „fingerprints“ interval.
Fig 3 FTIR spectra of UF adhesive and UF adhesive with GA
Some differences are found in interval 2980–2820 cm -1 , where two distinguishable
bands are shown. According to MILATA et al. (2007) and ESSAWY et al. (2009) strong
bands in interval 2950–2850 cm -1 belong to alkanes and their –CH 2 – groups, and in interval
2900–2700 cm -1 to aldehydes (–CHO). We assume that main structure of cured UF adhesive
was changed when GA was added. GA is able to react with free aminogroups of the adhesive
and incorporate into the structure of cured adhesive; 5-carbon chain contributes to the
strength, hydrophobic properties, and stability of adhesive network. The assumption was
51

confirmed by the fact that the peak at 1720 cm -1 from the spectrum of GA (carbonyl group
C=O) disappeared from the spectrum of cured adhesive.
The sample of cured UF adhesive with GA and HK gave the spectral curve shown in
fig. 4. The spectrum showed all of above mentioned differences. The band at 1720 cm -1 was
not present; we assume that GA was incorporated into the structure of cured UF adhesive.
At 1544 cm -1 there is the band, which was not in the spectrum of collagen. The presence
of it we can explain by possible formation of structures of C–OH during the reaction of free –
NH 2 groups with aldehydes. This is confirmed by decreased intensity of band at1630 cm -1
when compared with the band at 1544 cm -1 ; this reflects decreased number of free –NH 2
groups.
Fig 4 FTIR spectra of UF adhesive and UF adhesive with GA and HK
Based on our experiments, it is very hard to qualify the measure of how the particular
components of such a complicated system (macromolecule of cured adhesive, present peptide
chains, and presence of standard and modified hardener) are bonded by chemical links. It
would also be interesting to know how all the system works on the wood surface.
CONCLUSION
The final adhesive mixture is a mixture of two adhesives – aminoplastic and protein.
The curing of UF adhesive is combined with network formation of protein. At the same time,
we assume the direct chemical bonding between macromolecules of protein and the resin. The
assumption was confirmed with recognizing the structure of cured adhesive mixture by FTIR
spectroscopy method. Evaluating the spectra of particular systems present in final adhesive
mixture we can confirm that proteins from collagen hydrolysate react with their free –NH 2
groups with free formaldehyde and bond it by covalent chemical link. At 1544 cm -1 there is a
band, which was not visible in the spectrum of collagen. We can consider this fact as a result
of formed C–OH structures at reaction of free –NH 2 groups with aldehydes. The same is
confirmed by reduced absorption at 1630 cm -1 , which is the result of decrease of –NH 2
groups. Also the ratio of unstable dimethylen-ether links in the structure of cured UF adhesive
lowered. Glutaraldehyde present in adhesive mixture was inbuilt into the structure of
adhesive, the band at 1720 cm -1 indicating (C=O) group of GA disappeared from the spectrum
of cured UF adhesive.
52

REFERENCES
1. BELBACHIR, K., NOREEN, R., GOUSPILLOU, G. 2009. Collagen types analysis and
differentiation by FTIR spectroscopy. In Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2009, 395, p. 829-837.
2. BRYAN, M.A. et al. 2007. FTIR studies of collagen model peptides: Complementary
Experimental and simulation approaches to conformation and unfolding. In J. Am.
Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 25, p. 7877-7884.
3. ESSAWY, H.A., MOUSTAFA, A.A.B., ELSAYED N.H. 2009. Improving the
performance of urea-formaldehyde wood adhesive system using dendritic
poly(amidoamine)s and their corresponding half generations. In Journal of Applied
Poymer Science. 2009, 114, p. 1348-1355.
4. MAMINSKI, M.L., PAWLICKI, J., PARZUCHOWSKI, P. 2006. Improved water
resistance and adhesive performance of a commercial UF resin blended with
glutaraldehyde. In The Journal of Adhesion. ISSN 0021-8464, 2006, 82, p.629-641.
5. MILATA, V., SEGĽA, P. 2007. Vybrané metódy molekulovej spektroskopie.
Bratislava: Vydavateľstvo STU, 2007.416s. ISBN 978-80-227-2618-4
6. SEDLIAČIK, J. 2005. Procesy lepenia dreva, plastov a kovov. Zvolen: TU, 2005. 221 s.
ISBN 80-228-1500-4.
Acknowledgement: This work has been supported by the Slovak Scientific Grant Agency
under the contracts No. VEGA 1/0517/09.
Streszczenie: Analiza spektralna ATR-FTIR modyfikowanej żywicy mocznikowej. Praca
dotyczy stabilności i toksyczności klejów mocznikowych dla przemysłu drzewnego.
Testowano żywicę modyfikowaną aldehydem glutarowym, dodanym w celu zwiększenia
stabilności strukturalnej. Używano kolagenu w celu zmniejszenia toksyczności żywicy
mocznikowej, potwierdzono powstawanie wiązań pomiędzy kolagenem oraz formaldehydem.
Corresponding author:
Dr. Mária Šmidriaková
Department of Furniture and Wood Products
Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology,
Technical University in Zvolen,
T.G. Masaryka 24, 960 53 Zvolen, Slovak Republic
e-mail: smidriak@vsld.tuzvo.sk
www.tuzvo.sk
Ms. assoc. prof. Marta Laurová,
Department of Chemistry and Chemical Technologies
Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology,
Technical University in Zvolen,
T.G. Masaryka 24, 960 53 Zvolen, Slovak Republic
e-mail: laurova@vsld.tuzvo.sk
www.tuzvo.sk
53

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 54-58
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
VOC emissions from melamine films and finish foils
AGATA STACHOWIAK-WENCEK, WŁODZIMIERZ PRĄDZYŃSKI, PAULINA
KRZYWOSIŃSKA
Faculty of Wood Technology, Institute of Chemical Wood Technology, Poznań University of Life Sciences,
Abstract: VOC emissions from melamine films and finish foils. The paper presents results of investigations on
VOC emissions from melamine films and finish foils, i.e. materials used to refine surface of wood-based
materials. Compound adsorption was carried out on the Tenax TA solid sorbent. Volatile organic compounds
were analysed with the assistance of gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry and thermal
desorption (GC/MS/TD). It was concluded, on the basis of the obtained research results, that the tested finishing
materials were characterised by relatively low levels of noxious emissions.
Keywords: Volatile organic compounds (VOC), Emission, Melamine films, Finish foils , Wood-based materials,
Chamber studies, GC/MS/TD
INTRODUCTION
The quality of air inside buildings as well as the health of their users are influenced by
all kinds of finishing materials found there, including articles manufactured from wood and
wood-based materials. Sometimes, their quantities are very considerable and, when combined
with insufficient air exchange, can contribute to air contamination. Apart from solid wood,
materials in common use include: particleboards, MDF and HDF finished with laminates or
artificial veneers. These materials are used to manufacture, among others, furniture, wall and
floor panels, skirting boards and doors.
Considerable amounts of attention was devoted to investigations of VOC emissions
from wood-based materials (Baumann et al. 1999, 2000; Stachowiak-Wencek and
Prądzyński 2005; Kim et al. 2006, 2007; Ohlmeyer et al. 2008; Toftum et al. 2008) but little
information can be found in the literature on the subject about VOCs released from materials
used to finish wood surfaces, i.e. laminates and finish foils (Wiglusz et al. 2002; Gaca and
Dziewanowska-Pudliszak 2005).
The objective of the investigations was to determine quality and quantity of VOCs
liberated by melamine films and finish foils. The investigations made it possible to determine
the impact of decorative products on VOC emissions from finished wood-based materials.
MATERIALS AND METODS
Investigations were conducted on melamine films and finish foils which were
manufactured on the base of 70 g/m 2 grammage papers imitating the structure of different
wood species. The investigated melamine films were from 0.113 to 0.125 mm thick, whereas
the thickness of the applied finish foils ranged from 0.100 to 0.115 mm. The examined
materials were obtained from a Polish manufacturer. A detailed list of the main raw materials
used for the production of the tested materials is presented in Table 1.
54

Table 1. List of main raw materials used to manufacture the examined melamine films and
finish foils in kg/m 2 (on the basis of the manufacturer’s information)
Melamine films
Finish foils
Decor paper 1m 2 Decor paper 1m 2
Urea-formaldehyde resin 0.12 kg Urea-formaldehyde resin 0.0354 kg
Melamine resin 0.083 kg Melamine resin 0.0150 kg
Triethanolamine 0.0005 kg Acrylic resin 0.0192 kg
Butanol 0.0036 kg Diethylene glycol 0.0005 kg
Polyglycol 2000 0.0004 kg Waterborne lacquer 0.0185 kg
Diethylene glycol
0.0002 kg
Investigations of VOC emissions were carried out in a glass chamber of 0.225 m 3 volume in
which the following conditions were maintained: temperature 23 +/- 1°C; relative humidity -
45 +/- 2%; chamber load - 1m 2 /1m 3 ; air exchange - 1/h. After 24 hours, air from the chamber
was collected into tubes packed with one layer Tenax TA (120 mg). Analytes adsorbed on the
bed were released with the aid of a thermal desorber. Released analytes were transferred as a
narrow band to the front of a chromatographic column, and then to a mass spectrometer.
Parameters of the TD/GC/MS analytical system are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Conditions for analytes determinations with the use of a TD/GC/MS technique
Elements of the system
Parameters
Gas chromatograph
TRACE GC, Thermo Quest.
Column
RTX – 624 Restek Corporation, 60m x 0,32mm ID;
D f – 1,8 m: 6% cyanopropylophenyl, 94% dimethylopolysiloxane
Detector Mass spectrometer (SCAN: 10 – 350)
Injector
Thermal desorber connected with sorption microtrap;
Rinsing gas: argon 20 m 3 min -1 ;
Microtrap
Sorbent: 80 mg Tenax TA/30 mg Carbosieve III;
Desorption temperature: 250C during 90 s.
Carrier gas Helium: 100 kPa, 2 cm 3 min -1 .
Temperature setting 40C during 2 min, 7C min -1 to 200C, 10C min -1 to 230C, 230C
during 20 min
Compound identification: Compounds were identified by comparing the obtained mass
spectra with the spectra stored at the NIST 98 library and then confirmed by collating mass
spectra and retention times of the identified compounds with the spectra and retention times
of appropriate standards.
Quantitative analysis: The quantitative analysis of volatile organic compounds emitted from
the examined surfaces was carried out using the method of addition of 4-bromofluorobenzene
standard which was applied in the amount of 50 ng onto the tube with the sorbent.
55

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The obtained results are collated in Tables 3 and 4.
Table 3. Concentration of VOCs from melamine films
Compounds CAS a number
Chamber air concentration [µg/m 3 ]
L1 L2 L3
Acetone 67-64-1 5.8 3.9 ND b
1-butanol 71-36-3 31.4 58.8 105.0
Toluene 108-88-3 13.4 10.8 8.6
Ethylene glycol 107-21-1 10.3 15.8 28.8
Hexanal 66-25-1 7.6 4.6 ND b
α-pinene 80-86-8 8.6 58.8 ND b
3-carene 13466-78-9 5.3 ND b ND b
Others 32.2 30.0 29.3
TVOC 115 183 172
a
- Chemical Abstract Service; na b - not detectable; TVOC – sum of all VOCs
Table 4. Concentration of VOCs from finish foils
Compounds CAS a number
Chamber air concentration [µg/m 3 ]
F1 F2 F3
Toluene 108-88-3 10.3 8.2 10.1
Ethylene glycol 107-21-1 72.2 27.2 59.3
α-pinene 80-86-8 11.0 10.8 10.2
3-carene 13466-78-9 7.7 7.1 5.5
others 14.6 6.8 12.9
TVOC 116 60 98
a
- Chemical Abstract Service; TVOC – sum of all VOCs
The performed quantitative analysis revealed that the total emission of VOCs from the
tested melamine films was determined at a higher level than from finish foils. Melamine films
were found to release into the air from 115 to 183 µg/m 3 of organic compounds, while finish
foils – from 60 to 116 µg/m 3 .
On the basis of qualitative analyses, it was found that the examined melamine films
released into the ambient air compounds belonging to ketones, alcohols, glycols, aromatic
hydrocarbons and terpenes, whereas emissions from finish foils were made up of a smaller
spectrum of compounds. Finish foils released mainly compounds belonging to glycols,
aromatic hydrocarbons and terpenes. 1-butanol was the compound that was released in the
highest quantities by melamine films. Its concentrations ranged from 31.4 to 105.0 µg/m 3 .
Moreover, the examined films also liberated significant quantities of ethylene glycol whose
quantities fluctuated from 10.3 to 28.8 µg/m 3 . Ethylene glycol was also a characteristic
constituent of emissions released by finish foils. They were found to liberate higher than the
examined melamine films quantities of this compound fluctuating between 27.2 and
72.2 µg/m 3 .
The examined materials emitted terpenes, mainly α-pinene and 3-carene. Terpene
emissions are characteristic for materials manufactured on the basis of different wood species
(Sundin et al. 1992; Risholm-Sundman et al. 1998; Baumann et al. 1999). Similar
compounds from finish foil were identified by Gaca and Dziewanowska-Pudliszak (2005).
56

CONCLUSION
1. Investigations of VOC emissions from decorative materials, i.e. melamine films and finish
foils demonstrated differences both with respect to the quality and quantity of compounds
released by them.
2. The examined finishing materials were characterised by a relatively low level of VOC
emissions. Melamine films released slightly more volatile compounds (115 to 183 µg/m 3 )
than the tested foils (60 to 116 µg/m 3 ).
3. Melamine films released into the ambient air a wider spectrum of organic compounds in
comparison with finish foils.
4. The performed qualitative analysis revealed that the dominant constituent of emissions
released by melamine films was 1-butanol, while in the case of finish foils – ethylene
glycol. The concentration of 1-butanol in the air collected from the chamber fluctuated at
the level of 31.4 to 105.0 µg/m 3 and constituted from 31 to 61% of all emissions. The
concentration of ethylene glycol released from the finish foils in largest quantities and
constituted 27.2 to 72.2 µg/m 3 making up 45 to 62% of all compounds.
REFERENCES
1. BAUMANN M.G.D., BATTERMAN S.A., ZHANG G.-Z., 1999: Terpene emissions
from particleboards and medium fiberboards products, Forest Products Journal vol. 49
(no. 1): 49-56.
2. BAUMANN M.G.D., LORENZ L.F., BATTERMAN S.A., ZHANG G.-Z., 2000:
Aldehyde emissions from particleboards and medium density fiberboards products,
Forest Products Journal vol. 50 (no. 9): 75-82.
3. GACA P., DZIEWANOWSKA-PUDLISZAK A., 2005: Volatile organic compounds
(VOC) emission of selected wood species and other materials applied in furniture
manufacture, Drewno-Wood vol. 48 (no.173): 119-125.
4. KIM G.H., CHO J.S, RA J.B., PARK J.Y., 2006: Volatile organic compounds
emissions from radiata pine MDF as a function of pressing variables. Forest Products
Journal vol. 56 (no. 7/8): 91-95.
5. KIM S., KIM J.A., AN J.Y., KIM H.J., KIM S.D., PARK J.C., 2007: TVOC and
formaldehyde emission behaviors from flooring materials bonded with environmentalfriendly
MF/PVAc hybrid resins. Indoor Air vol.17 (no. 5): 404-415.
6. OHLMEYER M., MAKOWSKI M., FRIED H., HASH J., SCHÖLER M., 2008:
Influence of panel thickness on the release of volatile organic compounds from OSB
made of Pinus sylvestris L., Forest Products Journal vol. 58(no. 1/2): 65-70.
7. RISHOLM-SUNDMAN M., LUNDGREN M., VESTIN E., HERDER P., 1998:
Emissions of acetic acid and other volatile organic compounds from different species
of solid wood. Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 56: 125-129.
8. STACHOWIAK-WENCEK A., PRĄDZYŃSKI W., 2005: Emission of volatile
organic compounds from furniture surfaces finished with lacquer coatings, Acta Sci.
Pol., Silv. Colendar. Rat. Ind. Lignar., vol. 4 (no. 2): 177-185.
9. TOFTUM J., FREUND S., SALTHAMMER T., WESCHLER C.J., 2008: Secondary
organic aerosols from ozone-initiated reactions with emissions from wood-based
materials and a “green” paint, Atmospheric Environment 42: 7632-7640.
10. WIGLUSZ R., NIKEL G., IGIELSKA B., SITKO E. 2002: Volatile organic
compounds emissions from particleboard veneered with decorative paper foil,
Holzforschung 56: 108-110.
57

Streszczenie: Emisja VOC z filmów melaminowych oraz folii finish. W pracy przedstawiono
wyniki badań emisji VOC z filmów melaminowych oraz folii finish, materiałów stosowanych
do uszlachetniania powierzchni tworzyw drzewnych. Adsorpcję związków przeprowadzono
na sorbencie stałym Tenax TA. Lotne związki organiczne analizowano za pomocą
chromatografii gazowej sprzężonej z spektrometrią masową oraz termiczną desorpcją
GC/MS/TD. W oparciu o uzyskane rezultaty stwierdzono, że badane materiały
uszlachetniające charakteryzowały się stosunkowo niskim poziomem szkodliwych emisji.
Corresponding author:
Agata Stachowiak-Wencek
Institute of Chemical Wood Technology
ul. Wojska Polskiego 38/42
60-637 Poznań
e-mail: agates@up.poznan.pl
58

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 59-63
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Investigations on volatile organic compounds (VOC) emissions from woodbased
materials
AGATA STACHOWIAK-WENCEK, WŁODZIMIERZ PRĄDZYŃSKI, PAULINA
KRZYWOSIŃSKA
Faculty of Wood Technology, Institute of Chemical Wood Technology, Poznań University of Life Sciences,
Abstract: Investigations on volatile organic compounds (VOC) emissions from wood-based materials. The
study presents results of investigations on VOC emissions from raw particleboards as well as particleboards
finished with decorative materials such as: melamine films and finish foils. The performed qualitative and
quantitative analyses of VOCs in ambient air were carried out with the assistance of GC/MS/TD technique.
Compound adsorption was carried out on the Tenax TA solid sorbent. It was found that raw wood-based
products released into ambient air considerably more volatile substances than finished materials, i.e. those
covered with melamine films and finish foils.
Keywords: Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC), Emission, Particleboards, Chamber studies, GC/MS/TD
INTRODUCTION
The impact of harmful factors on human health constitutes the object of numerous
investigations by specialists. Staying in contaminated rooms can lead to a wide range of
different health problems, among others: headaches, disturbances in memory and
concentration, irritations, allergies, diseases of the respiratory system or even neoplasmic
diseases. Ailments resulting from prolonged stays in contaminated internal environment are
often referred to as: building related illnesses (BRI) or sick building syndrome (SBS).
Compounds identified inside building responsible for health problems are volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), inorganic compounds, dusts, aerosols as well as biological
contaminations such as fungi, moulds and microorganisms. VOCs can be emitted from many
sources which cause that these compounds are under special control of sanitary institutions.
Among sources of VOC emissions are, among others, articles manufactured by the furniture
industry. One of the basic raw materials employed in the wood sector comprises wood-based
materials. Investigations of VOC emissions revealed that these compounds can lead to
temporary air contamination in buildings (Brown 1999; Mogens 2001; Guo et al. 2002;
Wiglusz et al. 2002; Roffael 2006; Ohlmeyer et al. 2008). Precise analysis of contaminations
emitted from products as well as recognition of mechanisms of their release makes it possible
to undertake appropriate measures leading to reduction in their quantities and improvement of
air hygiene inside buildings.
The objective of the presented experiments was to determine the quality and quantity
of volatile organic compounds emitted from selected wood-based materials. Investigations
were carried out on both unfinished wood-based materials as well as materials coated with
laminates (melamine films) and artificial veneer (finish foils).
METHODOLOGY
The experimental material included:
Raw particleboards of 8, 15 and 18 mm thickness and of respective 640 – 705 kg/m 3
density and 5,0 - 5,5% moisture content. The boards product is a combination of fine
wood particles and UF-resin pressed into panels. The particleboards is suitable for
interior.
59

particleboards of 18 mm thickness laminated on both sides (3 kinds of laminates
imitating the structure of different wood species),
particleboards of 18 mm thickness covered on both sides with artificial veneer (3 kinds
of finish foils imitating the structure of different wood species).
Investigations were conducted on melamine films and finish foils which were
manufactured on the base of 70 g/m 2 grammage papers.
The examined articles were manufactured in Poland by one of the leading producers of
wood-based materials. After their manufacture, particleboards were cut into smaller panels
measuring 280 x 200 mm and wrapped tightly in polyethylene foil for the time of transport.
Prior to their placing in the research chamber, their narrow edges were secured by lowemission
aluminium foil.
Investigations of VOC emissions were carried out in a glass chamber of 0.225m 3 volume in
which the following conditions were maintained: temperature 23 +/- 1°C; relative humidity -
45 +/- 2%; chamber load - 1m 2 /1m 3 ; air exchange - 1/h. After 24 hours, air from the chamber
was collected into glass tubes filled with Tenax TA (120 mg). Analytes adsorbed on the
Tenax TA were released with the aid of a thermal desorber. VOCs analysis was performed
with the assistance of gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry in conditions
presented in Table 1.
Table 2. Parameters of the analytical system TD/GC/MS
Elements of the system
Parameters
Gas chromatograph
TRACE GC, Thermo Quest.
Column
RTX – 624 Restek Corporation, 60m x 0,32mm ID;
D f – 1,8 m: 6% cyanopropylophenyl, 94% dimethylopolysiloxane
Detector Mass spectrometer (SCAN: 10 – 350)
Injector
Thermal desorber connected with sorption microtrap;
Rinsing gas: argon 20 m 3 min -1 ;
Microtrap
Sorbent: 80 mg Tenax TA/30 mg Carbosieve III;
Desorption temperature: 250C during 90 s.
Carrier gas Helium: 100 kPa, 2 cm 3 min -1 .
Temperature setting 40C during 2 min, 7C min -1 to 200C, 10C min -1 to 230C, 230C
during 20 min
Compound identification: Compounds were identified by comparing the obtained mass
spectra with the spectra stored at the NIST 98 library and then confirmed by collating mass
spectra and retention times of the identified compounds with the spectra and retention times
of appropriate standards.
Quantitative analysis: The quantitative analysis of volatile organic compounds emitted from
the examined surfaces was carried out using the method of addition of 4-bromofluorobenzene
standard which was applied in the amount of 50 ng onto the tube with the sorbent.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Detailed results of investigations of the quality and quantity of VOCs emitted from the
examined particleboards are presented in Tables 2, 3 and 4.
60

Table 2. The VOCs concentration from raw particleboards of different thicknesses
Chamber air concentration [µg/m 3 ]
Compounds CAS a number
Board thickness [mm]
8 15 18
Acetone 67-64-1 125.7 765.8 565.8
Pentanal 110-62-3 35.6 185.6 191.3
Toluene 108-88-3 8.8 11.5 24.2
1-pentanol 71-41-0 16.7 58.0 38.4
Hexanal 66-25-1 218.0 2253.3 1427.4
α-pinene 80-86-8 41.1 149.9 350.2
3-carene 13466-78-9 9.8 36.8 114.9
Limonene 138-86-3 ND b ND b 11.3
Others 3.3 15.9 25.8
TVOC 459 3477 2749
a – Chemical Abstract Service; ND b – not detectable; TVOC – sum of all VOCs
Table 3. The VOCs concentration from laminated particleboards
Compounds CAS a number
Chamber air concentration [µg/m 3 ]
Board 1L Board 2L Board 3L
Acetone 67-64-1 188.8 169.2 94.9
Pentanal 110-62-3 74.8 84.8 55.8
Toluene 108-88-3 24.6 26.0 18.8
Hexanal 66-25-1 302.6 356.7 264.3
α-pinene 80-86-8 140.3 116.8 100.5
3-carene 13466-78-9 28.3 23.3 19.6
Others 49.0 35.9 33.9
TVOC 808 813 588
a – Chemical Abstract Service; TVOC – sum of all VOCs
Table 4. The VOCs concentration from particleboards covered with finish foils
Compounds CAS a number
Chamber air concentration [µg/m 3 ]
Board 1Fm Board 2F Board 3F
Acetone 67-64-1 302.8 904.3 304.0
Pentanal 110-62-3 40.9 78.0 46.0
Toluene 108-88-3 20.6 11.6 9.8
1-pentanol 71-41-0 ND b 39.1 ND b
Hexanal 66-25-1 147.7 205.1 40.7
α-pinene 80-86-8 74.6 29.1 1.9
3-carene 13466-78-9 9.2 5.5 11.2
Others 26.4 24.3 24.3
TVOC 622 1297 438
a – Chemical Abstract Service, ND b – not detectable, TVOC – sum of all VOCs
The total concentration of volatile organic compounds (TVOC) in the air collected
from the chamber filled with raw particleboards ranged from 459 to 3477 µg/m 3 . From among
unfinished boards subjected to investigations, the highest emissions of volatile organic
compounds were recorded in 15 mm thick particleboards, while the lowest – in 8 mm thick
particleboards.
VOC emissions from the tested particleboards covered with decorative materials, i.e.
melamine films and finish foils, were found to be much lower in comparison with unfinished
18 mm thick particleboards which were used as the raw material for the manufacture of
melamine film and artificial veneer finished boards. The amounts of VOCs released by
61

laminated particleboards released from 588 to 813 µg/m 3 , whereas from those covered with
the finish foils – from 438 to 1297 µg/m 3 .
Analysing the obtained research results, it was noticed that the tested wood-based
materials both in raw form as well as those finished with melamine films and finish foils
released into air compounds belonging to ketones, aldehydes, alcohols, aromatic
hydrocarbons as well as terpenes. Aldehydes turned out to be the dominant group of
compounds with respect to their quantities released from raw and laminated particleboards.
The proportion of aldehydes in the total emission in the case of unfinished boards ranged
from 55 to 70% of all released compounds, while in the case of laminated particleboards –
from 47 to 55%.
Particleboards finished with finish foils released the highest quantities of ketones which made
up 49 to 70% of all emissions. From among all the identified compounds, the tested materials
released into the ambient air the highest quantities of acetone and hexanal. Acetone emissions
from raw boards ranged from 125.7 to 765.8 µg/m 3 , whereas those of hexanal was higher and
fluctuated from 218.0 to 2253.3 µg/m 3 . Laminated particleboards as well as those covered
with finish foils released much smaller quantities of these compounds. Acetone emission in
the case of laminated particleboards ranged from 94.9 to 188.8 µg/m 3 , while of hexanal - from
264.3 to 356.7 µg/m 3 . Acetone was determined to be released in the highest amounts from the
tested wood-based materials finished with finish foils as its emissions fluctuated from 302.8
to 904.3 µg/m 3 .
All wood-based materials also released significant quantities of terpenes, primarily, of α-
pinene and 3-carene. Terpene emissions from laminated particleboards as well as those
covered with finish foils, similarly to other compounds, were distinctly lower in comparison
with 18 mm thick raw particleboards which constituted the base material for finished boards.
The total concentration of terpene from 18 mm thick raw particleboards was determined at the
level of 476.4 µg/m 3 , from laminated boards from 120.1 to 168.6 µg/m 3 and from boards
covered with finish foils from 13.1 to 83.8 µg/m 3
CONCLUSIONS
1. The performed GC/MS analysis revealed that emissions were made up of compounds
classified as aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, aromatic hydrocarbons as well as terpenes.
Aldehydes and ketones constituted a dominant group with respect to their quantities.
2. The performed investigations of particleboards of different thickness ranging from 8 to
18 mm failed to exhibit a significant impact of board thickness on VOCs concentrations.
From among the tested particleboards, 15 mm thick boards turned out to release the
highest quantities of VOCs.
3. Covering particleboards with laminates or finish foils reduced significantly quantities of
volatile substances released by them. Board lamination resulted in a decrease of emissions
of VOCs by about 77-83%, while finishing them with a finish foils – by about 63 to 87%.
REFERENCES
1. BROWN S.K., 1999: Chamber Assessment of formaldehyde and VOC emissions from
wood-based panels, Indoor Air 9: 209-215.
2. GUO H., MURRAY F., SHUN-CHENG L., 2002: Emissions of total volatile organic
compounds from pressed wood products in an environmental chamber, Building and
Environment 37: 1117-1126.
3. MOGENS K.H., 2001: Health evaluation of volatile organic compounds (VOC)
emissions from wood and wood-based materials, Arch. Environm. Health. vol.56 (no.
5): 419-432.
62

4. OHLMEYER M., MAKOWSKI M., FRIED H., HASCH J., SCHÖLER M., 2008:
Influence of panel thickness on the release of volatile organic compounds from OSB
made of Pinus sylvestris L., Forest Products Journal. vol. 58 (no. 1/2): 65-70.
5. ROFFAEL E., 2006: Volatile organic compounds and formaldehyde in nature, wood
and wood based panels, Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 64: 144-149.
6. WIGLUSZ R., NIKEL G., IGIELSKA B., SITKO E. 2002: Volatile organic
compounds emissions from particleboard veneered with decorative paper foil,
Holzforschung 56: 108-110.
Streszczenie. Emisja VOC z filmów melaminowych oraz folii finish. Praca przedstawia
wyniki badań emisji VOC z płyt wiórowych surowych oraz pokrytych materiałami
uszlachetniającymi tj. filmami melaminowymi oraz foliami finish. Analizy lotnych związków
organicznych (VOC) w powietrzu pod względem jakościowym i ilościowym dokonano za
pomocą techniki GC/MS/TD. Adsorpcję związków przeprowadzono na sorbencie stałym
Tenax TA. Stwierdzono, że tworzywa drzewne nieuszlachetnione wydzielają do powietrza
znacznie większe ilości substancji lotnych niż produkty uszlachetnione tj. pokryte filmami
melaminowymi i foliami finish.
Corresponding author:
Agata Stachowiak-Wencek
Institute of Chemical Wood Technology
ul. Wojska Polskiego 38/42
60-637 Poznań
e-mail: agates@up.poznan.pl
63

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 64-69
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Tests of shock absorption and vertical deformation in sports floors on
wooden structure
EWA SUDOŁ, ANNA POLICIŃSKA−SERWA
Department of Structures and Building Elements, Building Research Institute − ITB
Abstract: Tests of shock absorption and vertical deformation in sports floors on wooden structure. The paper
presents test results for selected properties of sports floors on wooden structure that determine the safety of their
use. Shock absorption and vertical deformation have been determined for area−elastic floor with wooden
surface, area−elastic floor with synthetic surface and two combined−elastic floors with synthetic surface. The
test results have proven compliance with the requirements of PN−EN 14904:2009 as regards the verified
properties. Respective solutions, however, have revealed variations in the properties that resulted from
differences in the structure and types of applied components.
Keywords: sports surface, indoor surface for sport area, wood, floor, shock absorption, vertical deformation,
EN 14904, safety in use
INTRODUCTION
Sports floors are currently a standard asset in any kind of sports facilities, from school gyms,
dedicated to children’s amateur practice of many disciplines, to sports facilities where
international basketball, volleyball or handball competitions are held [2].
Requirements for surfaces in all indoor sports facilities, including floors on wooden
structures, are defined by PN−EN 14904:2009 [5]. It addresses floors meant for practising
many sports disciplines – multi−sports use, including all types of team and physical education
games, though excluding surfaces for indoor tennis. The requirements presented in PN−EN
14904:2009 relate to surfaces and surface systems which include both their supporting and
upper layers, whether prefabricated, produced in situ or a combination of the two. The
following types of sports surfaces are differentiated [1, 5]:
area−elastic sports floor (Mj), in which a relatively large area of deflection is created
around the force application point after applying a force,
point−elastic sports floor (P), in which a deflection is created at the force application point
or close to it after applying a force,
combinated−elastic sport floor (K) with a point−elastic top layer, in which both a local
and a larger deflection are created after applying a force,
mixed−elastic sports floor (Ms) with a synthetic area−stiffening component.
Sports floors on wooden structure are usually surfaces type Mj or K.
Sports floors are subject to dynamic loads when in use, due to which they are exposed to
complex impacts. Desired components of the interaction are vertical deformation under load,
the ability to absorb impact and the energy restitution of the impact, i.e. the amount of energy
returned to a sport−person from the surface on witch he/she is performining. The ability of a
surface to absorb an impact, considering the safety of a sportsman’s movement apparatus, is
one of the most important feature of sorts surface. Along with vertical deformation and
friction, which determines adequate adhesion of sports footwear to the floor, it conditions the
safety in use a given floor. Table 1 shows the requirements of PN−EN 14904:2009 regarding
these properties.
64

Safety requirements for using sports floors [5]
Property Requirement according to PN−EN 14904:2009
Shock absorption
Vertical deformation
Friction
force reduction: 25−75%,
no individual result should differ from the mean value by more than 5 units
5 mm
average value of the pendulum: 80−110,
no individual result should differ from the mean value by more than 4 units
Table 1
Regarding the value of shock absorption and vertical deformation, Table 2 differentiates the
following levels for floors type Mj and K.
Table 2
Levels of shock absorption and vertical deformation for floors type Mj and K [5]
Level*
Mj (area−elastic)
Type of sports floor
Absorption of shock R
3 40% R < 55%
4 55% R < 75%
Vertical deformation D
K (combined−elastic)
3 1.8 mm D < 3.5 mm 1.8 mm D < 5.0 mm
0.5 mm D p ** < 2.0 mm
4 2.3 mm D < 5.0 mm 2.3 mm D < 5.0 mm
0.5 mm D p ** < 2.0 mm
* no level below 3 is anticipated for floors type Mj and K
** D p – deflection of a point−elastic top layer
EXPERIMENT
Four models imitating the real floor structure, composed of all the layers provided for by a
given system and assembled according to it, have been tested, namely:
Floor 1, type Mj, on a cross grid of glued laminated pinewood, laid on flexible pads of
elastic rubber fixed under the bottom joists at mid−span between cross joints, using a
polyurethane glue. Joists spaced 500500 mm were connected using bolts and a glue.
Planking of single−layer 12 mm thick OSB−3 board with joints above the joists, fixed to
the joists with steel stitches. Top surface of solid floor elements made of O class ash, with
tongues and grooves, 22 mm thick, size 70500 mm. The floor elements fixed for OSB
by means of glue and steel stitches. The PUR varnish coat;
Floor 2, type Mj, on a cross grid of solid pinewood, laid on flexible pads of elastic rubber
fixed under the bottom joists at mid−span between cross joints. 10020 mm joists,
spaced 250 mm (top)500 mm (bottom), connected using steel stitches. Planking of
double−layer 12 mm thick OSB−3 board with joints laid offset, fixed to each other and to
the joists with steel stitches. Synthetic top surface, based on synthetic resins, in the form
of a mastic and PUR overlayment. The PUR varnish coat;
Floor 3, type K, whose grid structure is analogous to floor 2, with planking of
double−layer 10 mm thick OSB−3 board with joints laid offset, fixed to the joists with
steel stitches. Multilayer synthetic top surface, with the total thickness of 6 mm, consisting
65

of a rubber granulate mat, adhered to the substrate using the PUR adhesive, a filler and the
PUR overlayment. The PUR varnish coat.
Floor 4, type K, analogous to floor 3, though the top surface layer does not include a
rubber granulate mat, which resulted in reducing the thickness to 2 mm.
The tests were conducted for models sized 3.53.5 m, according to the standards referred to
in PN−EN 14904:2009, namely:
shock absorption – PN−EN 14808:2006 [3], at the points shown in Figure 1,
vertical deflection – PN−EN 14809:2006+AC:2007 [4], at the points as above.
I
II
Fig. 1. Test point: I – between joists, II – at a crossing of joists, III – on a joist
RESULTS
The test results (mean values) are shown in Graphs 1 and 2. Detailed results of selected tests
are included in Table 3.
III
Graph 1. Results of shock absorption tests
66

Graph 2. Results of vertical deformation tests
Analysis of the data shown in Graphs 1 and 2 reveals that the properties of particular solutions
differed, which resulted both from differences in structure of the floors and from the
components used. The best values of shock absorption were reported for floor no. 2, type K.
The result of 66% allowed to assign it to the highest level, i.e. 4. The other floors (1, 3 and 4)
yielded results 12, 15 and 17 percentage points lower, respectively. The results obtained
corresponded to level 3. Similar relations were observed with respect to vertical deformation.
The highest deflection (2.6 mm) was recorded for floor 2. Deflections in the other solutions
resulted 2.3, 2.2 and 2.0 mm for floors no. 1, 3 and 4, respectively. The results obtained
correspond to level 4 for floors no. 1 and 2, and to level 3 for floors no. 3 and 4.
It should be noted that floors no. 2, 3 and 4 have the same structure of the grid, so the test
results were determined by type of the planking and the surface layer. The absence of the
rubber granulate mat (4 mm thick) in floor no. 4 resulted in reducing the shock absorption by
2 percentage points and the vertical deflection by 0.2 mm as compared to floor no. 3.
Nevertheless it should be stressed that, in spite of the differences observed, all the tested
solutions met the requirements of PN−EN 14904:2009 regarding the properties in question.
It also deserves mentioning that sports floors, apart from having the properties presented in
this paper, should also, as observed in the introduction, have adequate friction and meet
technical requirements related to their sports function (adequate behaviour of a vertically
bounced ball). They should also be durable in use other than practising sports, i.e. associated
with, among others, moving the platforms or backstops (resistance to rolling load, abrasion,
indentation and impact), properly react to fire and emissions of hazardous substances
(formaldehyde and pentachlorophenol) and show other properties related to the comfort of use
(specular reflection).
67

Type of tests
point
I
III
III
I
III
II
I
III
II
I
III
II
Number of
measurement
Detailed results of shock absorption − floor 1, type Mj
Maximum
force for
measurement,
N
1 2692
2 2716
3 2709
1 3101
2 3116
3 3122
1 3261
2 3278
3 3269
1 2842
2 2863
3 2860
1 2843
2 2894
3 2886
1 3258
2 3258
3 3273
1 2839
2 2830
3 2830
1 2842
2 2956
3 2993
1 3263
2 3251
3 3273
1 2915
2 2864
3 2900
1 2938
2 2999
3 3020
1 3349
2 3371
3 3373
Mean value of
maximum forces at
measurement point
F t , N
2712
3119
3274
2861
2895
3266
2830
2974
3262
2882
3009
3372
Mean value of
maximum forces
measured on concrete
substrate F r , N
6632
6629
6627
6581
6581
6605
6579
6541
6593
6584
6567
mean value
(after eliminating the
first value): 6589
Table 3
Shock
absorption R,
%
59
53
50
57
56
50
57
55
50
56
54
49
mean value 54
68

CONCLUSIONS
The tested sports floors on wooden structure − area−elastic floor with wooden surface,
area−elastic floor with synthetic surface and two combined−elastic floors with synthetic
surface − have proven compliance with PN−EN 14904:2009 as regards shock absorption
(levels 3 or 4) and vertical deformation (level 3 or 4).
Floor structure and type of components have had a significant influence on the tested
parameters.
No fundamental differences between the properties of the area−elastic floors and the
combined−elastic ones have been observed.
REFERENCES
1. Policińska−Serwa A., Sulik P.: Wymagania na wewnętrzne nawierzchnie sportowe;
Materiały Budowlane, 6/2009; 5859;
2. Policińska−Serwa A., Sudoł E.: Wymagania dotyczące podłóg do obiektów
sportowych; Materiały Budowlane, 9/2010, 3537;
3. PN−EN 14808:2006 Nawierzchnie terenów sportowych. Wyznaczanie amortyzacji;
4. PN−EN 14809:2006+AC:2007 Nawierzchnie terenów sportowych. Wyznaczanie
odkształcenia pionowego;
5. PN−EN 14904:2009 Nawierzchnie terenów sportowych. Nawierzchnie kryte
przeznaczone do uprawiania wielu dyscyplin sportowych. Specyfikacja.
Streszczenie: Badania amortyzacji siły i odkształcenia pionowego podłóg sportowych o
konstrukcji z drewna. W pracy zaprezentowano wyniki badań nad wybranymi
właściwościami podłóg sportowych o konstrukcji
z drewna, decydującymi o
bezpieczeństwie ich użytkowania. Określono amortyzację siły i odkształcenie pionowe
podłogi powierzchniowo sprężystej o nawierzchni z drewna, powierzchniowo sprężystej o
nawierzchni syntetycznej oraz dwóch podłóg sprężystych kombinowanych o nawierzchni
syntetycznej. Rezultaty badań potwierdziły zgodność z wymaganiami PN−EN 14904:2009, w
zakresie sprawdzanych cech, przy czym poszczególne rozwiązania wykazały zróżnicowane
właściwości, wynikające z różnic w konstrukcji i rodzaju użytych komponentów.
Corresponding author:
Ewa Sudoł
Anna Policińska−Serwa
Building Research Institute
Department of Structures and Building Elements
02656 Warsaw, ul. Ksawerów 21
email: e.sudol@itb.pl
a.serwa@itb.pl
69

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 70-77
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Water resistance of glue lines in windows made of selected exotic wood
species
EWA SUDOŁ, PAWEŁ SULIK
Department of Structures and Building Elements, Building Research Institute − ITB
Abstract: Water resistance of glue lines in windows made of selected exotic wood species. The paper presents
test results for water resistance of glue lines of 2K PVAC/Al(NO 3 ) 3 , EPI, and PUR adhesives and respectively
white meranti, eucalyptus and sapele wood. The glue lines were assessed for their shear strength after soaking in
water, as well as for their delamination degree and shear strength decrease after delamination test. The results
obtained were compared with relevant national and European criteria for semi−finished products used in
windows, during which the following glue lines proved compliant: EPI and PUR − white meranti wood,
PVAC/Al(NO 3 ) 3 , EPI and PUR − eucalyptus wood, and PUR − sapele wood. At the same time it was also
observed that strength of glue lines in the control samples of white meranti products had not complied with
national requirements.
Keywords: joinery, wooden window, water resistance, glue line, adhesive, EPI, PUR, PVAC, exotic wood, white
meranti, eucalyptus, sapele
INTRODUCTION
Recent years have seen a clear increase of interest in exotic wood species. Now it is used not
only in the manufacture of furniture or elements of garden architecture, but also as an
engineering material [3]. In the 90s of the last century, it became known also in building
joinery, though only the Asian red meranti (Shorea spp.) had been introduced to industrialscale
manufacturing. Problems with its quality and uninterrupted deliveries became an
impulse to seek alternative solutions [4].
The window industry is interested in many types of wood. However, when a new type of
wood is introduced to manufacture, this should always be done after a series of aspects that
determine the reliability and durability of a final product have been analysed. Considering that
structural elements of modern windows are normally made of glued laminated wood, one of
the principal properties determining the usability of a given species in window is its
gluability. This property seems particularly important in wood coming from outside Europe,
which is rich in side components like resins, essential oils, waxes, fats, colourants, protein
substances etc. These are frequently whose varied and complex chemical composition
adversely affects the gluing process. Those components usually hinder wettability of the
glued surfaces or inhibit solidification of adhesives [1, 2, 5, 7].
A window, like any external element of a building, is exposed to direct environmental impacts
– it is subject to the activity of wind, rainwater, steam, varying temperatures, and solar
radiation. These cause, to a larger or smaller extent, indirectly or directly, changes both in a
given adhesive substance, which forms a cohesive layer of the glue lines, and in the degree in
which it bonds with the substrate in adhesive layers. It is assumed that one of the most
important factors determining the durability of glue lines is water [10]. This paper presents
test results for water resistance of glue lines in the semi-finished products meant for windows
that formed part of the work completed at the ITB for the internal development project no.
NR04 0001 06, titled “Usability of selected exotic wood species for window manufacturing”.
70

EXPERIMENT
On the basis of the data from reference literature, private experiences, and exhausting
consultations with the industry, the following, among others, wood species were selected for
the tests (names and codes in accordance with PN−EN 13556:2005 [16]):
white meranti (Shorea spp. section Anthoshorea), SHWM.
eucalyptus (Eukaliptus grandis), not included in PN−EN 13556
sapele (Entandrophragma cylindricum Sprague), ENCY.
Wood of all these species had quality corresponding with class J2 according to PNEN
942:2008 [15], humidity of 913%, and average density of 395 kg/m 3 (white meranti),
540 kg/m 3 (eucalyptus), and 710 kg/m 3 (sapele).
Glue lines were made using the following adhesives, selected from the current market offer
dedicated to windows:
two−component PVAC with a 5% (pbw) addition of a hardener based on Al(NO 3 ) 3 ,
hereinafter referred to as the 2K PVAC/Al(NO 3 ) 3 ,
two−ccomponent PVAC with a 15% (pbw) addition of a polyisocyanate hardener,
hereinafter referred to as the EPI,
one−component PUR glue, hereinafter referred to as the PUR.
Basic properties of the adhesives, on the basis of their producers’ specification sheets, are
given in Table 1. All the adhesives were classified by their producers as consistent with
durability class D4 according to PNEN 204:2002 [13] and declared resistant to the
temperature of 80°C when tested in accordance with PN-EN 14257:2007 [17].
Property, unit
Table 1. Properties of the adhesives used for the tests
2K PVAC/Al(NO 3 ) 3
PVAC
dispersion
hardener
Al(NO 3 ) 3
ingredient type
Adhesive type
PVAC
dispersion
EPI
isocyanate
hardener
Density, g/cm3 1.06 1.25 1.5 1.25 1.1
Brookfield apparent
viscosity, mPas
Dry matter content,
%
PUR
9,000 no data 11,000 300 4,000
51 62 60 no data 99
pH 5 1 7 no data no data
Glued laminated semi−finished products were prepared under industrial conditions. Wood in
the form of lamellae, whose cross−sections measured approx. 8620 mm and the length was
10001200 mm, underwent planing. Directly afterwards, gluing was carried out applying the
technology used in normal manufacturing conditions and taking into consideration the
adhesives manufacturers’ guidelines. Principal parameters of the gluing are shown in Table 2.
71

Parameter, unit
Application method
Table 2. Principal parameters of the gluing process
Adhesive type
2K PVAC/Al(NO 3 ) 3 and EPI
PUR
using a roller glue spreader, on one side
Amount of application, g/m 2 165 120
Pressing pressure, MPa 0.6 0.8
Pressing time, min. 75 90
The glued laminated elements made in this way, after more than ten days of seasoning,
provided test samples.
Two independent series of tests were conducted:
one using the national method, based on PN−B−03156:1997 [12] and applied for a
number of years at the ITB in procedures for assessing the usability of wooden
semi−products for window manufacturing (UA GS III.11/2003 [11]),
one following the guidelines of the latest European specification FprCEN/TS
13307−2:2009 [18].
In compliance with PN−B−03156:1997, the shear strength of glue lines was determined after
seasoning the samples in normal climate for 7 days and soaking in water with the temp. of
202C for 4 days. The control samples, seasoned in normal climate for 7 days, were also
tested.
According to FprCEN/TS 133072:2009, tests of the glue lines’ resistance to changes of
humidity covered verification of the degree of delamination after the delamination test and the
reduction of shear strength after the same test.
The delamination test consisted in submitting the samples that were 50 mm long, 50 mm wide
and 60 mm high (3 layers, 20 mm each) to the following sequence of impacts:
160.5h of soaking in water with the temp. of 202C,
241.5h of drying inside a drying tunnel, at 502C and the air flow velocity of 2 m/sec.,
1−2 h of seasoning in normal climate (temp. 202C, relative humidity 65±5%).
Directly after applying these impacts, the samples were thoroughly assessed visually for cases
of delamination within seams. Both cross−sections were subject to the check. Potential cases
of delamination on lateral surfaces were not taken into account. Delamination meant only
such cracks in glue lines into which a 0.2 mm thick tongue of a clearance gauge could be
easily inserted to the depth of at least 1 mm. The tongue was held at the distance of 65 mm
from its end. The length of all areas of delamination was measured using a slide caliper, with
the accuracy of 0.1 mm. The delamination degree was calculated for every sample according
to the following:
D = (J 0 / J ) 100 [%]
where:
J 0 − sum of the lengths of delaminated glue lines at both cross−sections of a given sample,
mm
J − total length of glue lines at both cross−sections of a given sample, mm.
Directly after determining the degree of delamination, strength tests were performed in
accordance with PN−EN 392:1999 [14] to determine shear strength of the glue lines. An
analogous test was conducted for the control samples, seasoned in normal climate for 7 days.
72

The data obtained were used to calculate changes in the resistance R S :
R S = (f vd / f vr ) 100 [%]
where:
f vd − mean shear strength of glue lines following the delamination test, MPa
f vd − mean shear strength of glue lines in the samples not subjected to the impacts, MPa.
RESULTS
The results of the shear strength tests (mean values) for glue lines, with the values of standard
deviation taken into account in the form of error bars, are shown in Graphs 1 and 3, as
contrasted against the requirements contained in UA GS III.11/2003 (marked with the
horizontal line). Graphs 2 and 4 show the WFP values.
9.0
Graph 1. Shear strength of glue lines
as contrasted against the requirements of UA GS III.11/2003 − control samples
Graph 2. Wood failure percentage (WFP) − control samples
An analysis of the results shown in Graphs 1 and 3 confirms the data from reference literature
about the dependence of strength and water resistance of glue lines both on the kind of
adhesive and wood species [1, 2, 5, 6, 9]. Regarding the requirements presented in UA GS
III.11/2003, all tested glue lines had water resistances adequate for windows. It should be
stressed at this point that the relevant requirements on the resistance after the seasoning in
normal climate were not met by glue lines of all types of adhesives and white meranti wood.
73

3.2
Graph 3. Shear strength of glue lines
as contrasted against the requirements of UA GS III.11/2003 – samples after soaking in water
Graph 4. Wood failure percentage (WFP) – samples after soaking in water
The degree of delamination after the delamination test (mean values along with elementary
statistical estimation) is shown in Table 3 next to the requirements FprCEN/TS
13307−2:2009. Acceptable values of delamination are calculated taking into consideration the
mean densities of respective species. The requirements shown relate to the value D l , being the
upper confidence limit, with k=0.580.
Table 3. Degree of delamination of glue lines
Wood species
white meranti
eucalyptus
sapele
Results of testing the degree of delamination
Adhesive type
D s D l
% % %
2K PVAC/Al(NO 3 ) 3 0 0 0
EPI 0 0 0
PUR 0 0 0
2K PVAC/Al(NO 3 ) 3 0 0 0
EPI 0 0 0
PUR 0 0 0
2K PVAC/Al(NO 3 ) 3 18 15 27
EPI 28 17 38
PUR 1 2 3
Requirements
for D l according
to FprCEN/TS
13307−2:2009
6
11
16
74

Table 4 presents results of decrease of shear strength of glue lines after the delamination test.
Mean strength values are presented for glue lines in control samples and after the
delamination test, along with the standard deviation and WFP values. The results were
contrasted against the requirements of FprCEN/TS 13307−2:2009. Acceptable value of
changes in strength R s were determined considering the mean densities of respective wood
species.
Table 4. Decrease shear strength of glue lines after the delamination test
Wood
species
white
meranti
eucalyptus
sapele
Results of testing for shear strength of lines
Adhesive type f vr s WFP f vr s WFP R S
MPa MPa % MPa MPa % %
2K PVAC/Al(NO 3 ) 3 8.2 0.7 100 6.5 1.6 80 79
EPI 8.4 0.5 80 8.2 0.8 70 97
PUR 7.6 0.5 100 9.5 1.1 100 124
2K PVAC/Al(NO 3 ) 3 9.5 1.2 100 10.3 2.5 70 109
EPI 10.1 1.0 90 10.5 1.7 60 103
PUR 14.8 1.2 100 11.5 1.5 100 78
2K PVAC/Al(NO 3 ) 3 16.1 2.0 50 5.9 4.8 20 37
EPI 14.4 0.5 80 6.4 2.1 40 44
PUR 12.2 1.4 20 13.6 0.4 90 111
Requirements
for R S according
to FprCEN/TS
13307−2:2009
88
79
67
Results of the tests performed in accordance with FprCEN/TS 13307−2:2009 confirmed the
dependency of glue lines’ resistance to changes in humidity on both adhesive type and wood
species. Glue lines of respective adhesives and different wood species, yielded various
degrees of delamination and decrease in shear strength after the delamination test.
No delamination was observed in glue lines of all the adhesives in question and white meranti
and eucalyptus wood. As regards the glue lines in the sapele semi−finished products, only the
PUR adhesive provided the resistance to delamination compliant with the requirements of
FprCEN/TS 13307−2:2009. The glue lines of the PVAC/Al(NO 3 ) 3 and EPI yielded a degree
of delamination that considerably exceeds the acceptable value.
The test results of shear strength decrease following the delamination test were, in most cases,
in correlation with the degree of delamination. As regards the glue lines of EPI and PUR
adhesives − white meranti wood, PVAC/Al(NO 3 ) 3 and EPI adhesives − eucalyptus wood, and
PUR adhesive − sapele wood, the reduced strengths complied with the requirements of
prCEN/TS 13307−2:2009. The glue lines of PUR adhesive − eucalyptus wood yielded a
reduction in strength that slightly exceeds the acceptable limit. Considering, however, the
nature of the deterioration, it should be concluded that the test result was determined by the
quality of wood and not by the glue line as such. The result obtained was found acceptable.
The glue lines of PVAC/Al(NO 3 ) 3 and EPI adhesives − sapele wood, for which an
unacceptable degree of delamination was observed, as well as the glue lines of
PVAC/Al(NO 3 ) 3 adhesive – white meranti wood also yielded strength reductions that were
non−compliant with the requirements.
While comparing the results provided by the two methods, it was observed that only the glue
lines in white meranti semi−finished products, found non−compliant with the requirements of
UA GS III.11/2003, complied with the criteria set forth in FprCEN/TS 13307−2:2009. The
decisive factor for the difference was the strength of glue lines in the control samples, a
75

property that is not directly included in the European specification. Taking into consideration
the cohesive nature of destroying the samples in these tests (WFP was approx. 90%,
regardless of the adhesive type), it can be concluded that the strength is determined by the
strength of the white meranti wood species, which is assured by its low density. The decisive
factor in assessing the this solution will be the results of functionality and usability tests of the
windows.
The second difference was observed for glue lines of EPI adhesive and sapele wood, which
were found good according to the ITB’s criteria, though they did not meet the ones set forth in
FprCEN/TS 13307−2:2009. Considering the fact that this specification is still being
developed, and thus the presented criteria are provisional, the final conclusions will be drawn
when climatic tests are finished for the windows, during which also the glue lines in question
are to be assessed.
CONCLUSIONS
The test results presented in this paper have allowed coming to the following conclusions:
The gluability of the tested wood species varied according to type of adhesive applied, the
results of which were different strength and water resistances of the glue lines.
Some types of the adhesives discussed in this paper, in the view of water resistances of
glue lines, were found adequate for use in the manufacture of windows from the wood
species studied herein.
The following glue lines had the water resistance required under the national and
European standards:
EPI and PUR adhesives – white meranti wood,
PVAC/Al(NO 3 ) 3 , EPI, and PUR adhesives – eucalyptus wood,
PUR adhesive – sapele wood.
Considering the fact that the control samples’ strength of all types of adhesives and white
meranti wood was below the value required for window semi−products, the results of
functional and usability tests of windows will be decisive for these solution.
Water resistance of glue lines of EPI adhesive and sapele wood, which was found
insufficient according to the criteria of FprCEN/TS 13307−2:2009, will be ultimately
assessed after studying the results of the climatic tests for windows.
REFERENCES
1. Alamsyah E., Nan L., Yamada M., Taki K., Yoshida H. (2006): Bondability of
tropical fast−growing tree species. I: Indonesian wood species; Jap. Wood Res. Soc.
53, 4046;
2. Hwang G., Tang J. Noguchi M. (1993): Gluing Properties of HighDensity
Hardwoods; Makuzai Gakkaishi, 39 (3), 363367;
3. Kozakiewicz P., Kościelniak C., Zakrzewska−Rudzińska W. (2008): Badania
właściwości i innowacyjne zastosowania drewna egzotycznego w Polsce; Przemysł
drzewny 59 (4), 1823;
4. Krawczyk S. (2006): Chropowate losy kantówki; Okna, Drzwi, Fasady Forum
branżowe; 42 (10), 13;
5. Krystofiak T., Proszyk S., Dobrowolski J. (1997): Badania sklejalności wybranych
gatunków drewna egzotycznego przy użyciu klejów PVAC i PUR. Materiały II.
Międzynarodowego Seminarium nt. Nowości w dziedzinie klejów stosowanych do
stolarki budowlanej 05.11.1997, Poznań; 99104.
6. Krystofiak T., Proszyk S., Lis B. (2004): Studies upon resistance to ageing tests of
glue lines from PVAC adhesives applied in building woodworking industry; V.
76

Sympózium Drevné Kompozitné Materiály; wyd. Technická Univerzita vo Zvolene,
Zvolen; 209212;
7. Proszyk S., Przybylak A. (1986): Wpływ ubocznych składników drewna na
utwardzanie środków wiążących i uszlachetniających. Wyd. AR w Poznaniu;
8. Sudoł E., Sulik P. (2010): Shear strength of glue line of PVAC adhesives and selected
wood species; Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences SGGW, Forestry and
Wood Technology No 72; wyd. SGGW, 293297;
9. Wang S.Y. (1977): Studies in the physical and mechanical properties of wood
imported from South−Eastern Asian Countries. Experimental Forest of National
Taiwan University, Bulletin No 116, s. 373 – wg Wood Industry Abstracts t. 6/5, poz.
993;
10. Zenkteler M. (1996): Kleje i klejenie drewna; wyd. AR w Poznaniu;
11. UA GS III.11/2003 dotyczące wymaganych właściwości półfabrykatów z drewna
iglastego klejonego warstwowo, stosowanych do produkcji stolarki budowlanej
zewnętrznej − opracowanie wewnętrzne Instytutu Techniki Budowlanej w Warszawie.
12. PN−B−03156:1997 Konstrukcje drewniane. Metody badań. Nośność złączy
klejonych;
13. PN−EN 204:2002 Klasyfikacja klejów termoplastycznych do drewna przeznaczonych
do połączeń niekonstrukcyjnych;
14. PN−EN 392:1999 Drewno klejone warstwowo. Badanie spoin klejowych na ścinanie;
15. PN−EN 942:2008 Drewno w stolarce budowlanej. Wymagania ogólne;
16. PN−EN 13556:2005 Drewno okrągłe i tarcica. Terminologia stosowana w handlu
drewnem w Europie;
17. PN−EN 14257:2007 Kleje. Kleje do drewna. Oznaczanie wytrzymałości na
rozciąganie połączeń zakładkowych w podwyższonej temperaturze (WATT `91);
18. FprCEN/TS 13307−2:2009 Laminated and finger jointed timber blanks and
semi−finished profiles for non−structural uses. Part 2: Production control.
Streszczenie: Wodoodporność połączeń klejowych w stolarce okiennej z wybranych
gatunków drewna egzotycznego. W pracy zaprezentowano rezultaty badań nad
wodoodpornością połączeń z klejów 2K PVAC/Al(NO 3 ) 3 , EPI oraz PUR i drewna
odpowiednio damarzyk, eukaliptus oraz sapeli. Określono wytrzymałość połączeń klejowych
na ścinanie po zanurzeniu w wodzie oraz stopień rozwarstwienia i spadek wytrzymałości
połączeń na ścinanie po teście delaminacji. Uzyskane wyniki zestawiono z odnośnymi
kryteriami krajowymi i europejskimi dla półfabrykatów do stolarki okiennej, stwierdzając
zgodność w odniesieniu do połączeń z klejów EPI oraz PUR i drewna damarzyk, klejów
PVAC/Al(NO 3 ) 3 , EPI oraz PUR i drewna eukaliptus, a także kleju PUR i drewna sapeli.
Zauważono jednocześnie, że wytrzymałość połączeń w kontrolnych próbkach półfabrykatów
z drewna damarzyk nie spełniła wymagań krajowych
Corresponding authors:
Ewa Sudoł
Paweł Sulik
Building Research Institute
Department of Structures and Building Elements
02656 Warszawa, ul. Ksawerów 21
email: e.sudol@itb.pl
p.sulik@itb.pl
77

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 78-81
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Archiv–ein Rohstoff für die Papiermaché und Papier Fabrikation
BARBARA SURMA-ŚLUSARSKA 1) , EWA DOBROWOLSKA 2)
1)
Institut für Papierherstellung und Druck der Technischen Universität Lodz
2)
Lehrstuhl für Holzkunde und Holzschutz, Fakultät für Holztechnologie, Warschauer Naturwissenschaftliche
Universität – SGGW
Abstract: Archiv – ein Rohstoff für die Papiermaché und Papier Fabrikation. In der Arbeit wurde die
Verwendung von Archivalien als Rohstoff für die Papiermaché- und Papierfabrikation besprochen. Zitierte
Literaturquellen beweisen, dass dies eine allgemeine Praxis in Europa war, dass nicht nur Kriege, aber auch
Geldmangel, Unwissenheit usw. zur Verarbeitung von Archivmaterial geführt haben. Am Anfang des 19. Jh. gab
es schon z. B. in England Fabriken, die alte Druckschriften und alte Manuskripte zu Papier von vortrefflicher
Qualität verarbeitet haben.
Schlüsselwörter. Archivmaterial, Papier, Rohstoff.
Mit dem Namen Papiermachéwaren bezeichnet man eine Gruppe von
Industrieerzeugnissen, deren Herstellung durch Formen mit der Hand oder Bossiergriffeln,
Eindrücken in Formen aus Schwefel, Holz, Gips, Metall, Gießen oder Pressen in geeigneten
Formen mit oder ohne Überdruck einer aus aufweichenden Papierabfällen, Holz- oder
Strohstoff- Cellulose in Verbindung mit Bindemitteln wie Leim, Gelatine, Stärke, Dextrin
oder harzigen Substanzen, sowie auch Gips, beschwerenden Stoffen, wie Kreide, Kaolin und
Farbekörpern, erfolgt.
Andés 1900.
In der Kunst Ost-Asiens fand Papiermaché seine früheste Verwendung u.a. auch für
Großplastiken, vor a. in Japan im 8. Jh. Seit der 2. Hälfte 15. Jh. war dieses Material auch in
den Niederlanden und im Elsass im Gebrauch. Im 18. Jh. wurden Büsten und Statuen daraus
geschaffen. Unter a. schöner Festsaal mit Dekorationen aus Papiermaché im Schloss
Ludwigslust (erbaut zwischen 1764 und 1776).
Die Verwendung von Papiermaché im Schloss Ludwigslust war aus der Not der leeren
Staatskasse geboren und durch den Überfluss an Altpapier ermöglicht – Altakten des
Herzogtums Mecklenburg-Schwerin.
Der Cheflakai Johann Georg Bachmann schuf 1764 die Basis für die „Papp-Fabrique “
Zur Verfertigung der überaus reichen Innenausstattung waren: mehrere Lagen Altpapier,
Kleister, Leimwasser, Formen und natürlich Material für die Oberflächenveredelung (...) die
Utensilien, mit denen feuchte Papiermasse in Form gebracht wurde.
„Papierzeit“
Die Pappenmacher, schreibt de La Lande im Jahre 1764, würden Materien genug
haben, wenn ihnen die Buchhändler um einen billigen Preiß alle Bücher, die in Rießen
verkaufet werden, überließen; da man aber vor dergleichen sechsmal mehr bey den
Gewürzkrämern und Butterhändlern bekömmt; so sind die Pappenmacher gezwungen, mit
denen zufrieden seyn, welche nicht zum Einwickeln dienen (...). Es sind nur die schädlichen
und verbotenen Bücher, welche die Pappenmacher, seit der Zeit, da es bey der Policey sie
nicht mehr zu verbrennen weislich eingeführet worden ist, zu Nutze zu machen pflegen. Man
läßt sie bey einen Pappenmacher zerreißen, und gleich darauf erweichen, welchem man sie
nach dem Preiß der Abschnittsel überläßt.
Die Möglichkeit der Umarbeitung des bereits genutzten Papiers, hat H. Hofr.
Claproth* in einem Aufsatze [Claproth 1774], der auf Papier aus einem noch mit
78

Mönchsschriften gedruckten Buche gedruckt ist, erwiesen. Der Vortheil scheint inzwischen
nicht erheblich seyn zu können, theils weil man, zumal wenn man nicht alte Bücher von
besserem als jetzt gebräuchlichem Papiere nimmt, doch nur schlechte graue Waare erhält,
wozu die nötigen Lumpen überflüssig zu haben sind, theils auch weil die Kosten der
Umarbeitung gegen den Preis der Makulatur zu hoch steigen.
Darüber berichteten ausführlich im Jahre 2009 Surma – Ślusarska B, und Matejak M.
Im 19. Jh. gab es schon Fabriken, die besondere Einrichtungen für die Verwendung von
Altpapier getroffen haben, auch sind eigene Papiersortieranstalten entstanden, die, in
ähnlicher Weise wie die Lumpensortieranstalten arbeitend, große Mengen gleichartiger
Altpapiersorten aufstapeln, denn natürlich erhält das Material erst Wert, wenn man große
Mengen gleichartigen Materials - Makulatur, besonders die Schreibakten, alte Bücher und
Buchbinderabfälle waren schon immer in beschränktem Maße als Rohstoff für Papier
Handelsartikel, und wurden nach Klemm [1904] besonders für Aktendeckel und Graupappen
benutzt - zur Wiederverwendung bereit hat.
Nach Rüst [1838]: Auch die alten abgenutzten Papiere, seien sie auch noch so alt und
mit irgend einer Tinte oder Schwärze beschrieben oder bedruckt, hat man wieder zu Papier
umzuarbeiten versucht und einen mehr oder weniger guten Erfolg erlangt...
Die ungeleimten, oder auch in der Bütte geleimten alten Papiere zeigen keine Schwierigkeiten
beim Umarbeiten; sie lösen sich vollkommen in dem Holländer auf und geben Papier von
derselben Qualität, als sie früher waren, wenn sie sonst nicht zu sehr beschmutzt und zerstört
sind. Die in Leimwasser getauchten alten Papiere lassen sich etwas schwieriger verarbeiten,
weil sie zuvor durch Kochen im Wasser und durch Unterwerfung einer mehrtägigen
Maceration von dem enthaltenen Leim befreiet werden müssen.
Obgleich diese verschiedene Arbeiten mehr Arbeitslohn verursachen, viel Zeit und
einigen Materialaufwand kosten, so ist es doch nicht ohne Vortheile, alte Papiere
umzuarbeiten, da man sie zu billigen Preisen haben kann, und das daraus gefertigte Papier
eine besondere gute Consistenz erhält.
79

Die Idee, alte Papiere umzuarbeiten, scheint in Frankreich entstanden zu sein; allein
die Engländer, die sich alle nützlichen Erfindungen anzueignen suchen, haben auch diese
nicht unberücksichtigt gelassen. Im Jahre 1800 entstand zu Bermondsey, neun Meilen von
London, eine Fabrik, in welcher das Umarbeiten alter Papiere im Grossen betrieben wird.
Man verwandelt daselbst alte Druckschriften und alte Manuscripte zu einem Papier von
vortrefflicher Qualität, so dass man es von dem gewöhnlichen Papiere nicht unterscheiden
kann. Das in dieser Fabrik angewendete Verfahren wird geheim gehalten. Die in der Fabrik
angewendeten Pressen zeichnen sich durch ihre ausserordentliche Kraft und durch den
sinnreichen Mechanismus, welcher sie bewegt, aus. Man findet daselbst drei Trockenräume
und eine Trockenkammer, die nach allen Richtungen von kupfernen Röhren durchschnitten
ist, in denen Wasserdämpfe cirkuliren. In dieser Trockenkammer kann das Papier zu allen
Jahreszeiten getrocknet werden, und die Temperatur steigt in denselben bis auf 35 o R. Die
ganze Fabrik ist in jeder Hinsicht grossartig, ihre Mühlentheile werden durch eine
Dampfmaschine von fünfundzwanzig Pferdekräften in Bewegung gesetzt, und ihre übrigen
Arbeiten beschäftigen etwa siebenhundert Menschen, Männer, Weiber und Kinder. Es werden
jährlich ungefähr eine Million Pfund altes Papier verarbeitet, und wöchentlich fünf- bis
sechshundert Riess Papier angefertigt.
Einige Altpapier verarbeitenden Fabriken und Altpapiersortieranstalten sortierten
gesondert Akten, die Papierfabrik Paul Steinbock, Frankfurt a.d.O. sortierte unter anderem
besonders Schreibakten und Druckbücher, und die Papiersortierungsanstalt Josef Schimek, in
Berlin O. sortierte u.a. besonders Akten und Skripturen. (nach Papier-Zeitung 1902) 2011
schreibt Eduard von Habsburg-Lothringen folgendes über Archive: “Vielleicht ist das Archiv
(zur Geschichte des Schlosses) nämlich überhaupt beinahe leer, weil im Jahre 1805 unter
Napoleon bei der Besetzung ein Feuer ausgebrochen ist. Oder weil 1945 sowjetische Truppen
einzogen, vier Jahre im Schloss hausten und dabei alles als Heizmaterial verbrannten... Oder
die Vorbesitzer des Schlosses „starben aus“ oder verkauften das Schloss im Jahr 1840,
woraufhin alle Quellen entweder verlorengegangen sind oder in irgendeinem Palais in einer
fernen Stadt ruhen.“
Oder eine englische, französische, deutsche oder andere Fabrik das Archiv als „Alte
Papiere“ nach den Ratschlägen von Hofr. Claproth verarbeitete oder ein Schlossherr das
Archiv in der „Papp-Fabrique„ der späteren Herzoglichen Cartonfabrique Ludwigslust zu
Pappmaché verarbeiten ließ, oder...
LITERATURVERZEICHNIS
1. ANDÉS, L, E. 1900. Die Fabrikation der Papiermaché und Papierstoff-Waaren. Wien,
Pest, Leipzig.
2. CLAPROTH, Justus 1774: Eine Erfindung aus gedrucktem Papier wiederum neues
Papier zu machen und völlig heraus zu waschen. Barmeier, Göttingen
3. KATALOG „Papierzeit“ ©Klartext –Verlag , Essen 1997
4. LANDE, de la Joseph Jerom Francois, 1764: Die Kunst Pappen zu machen von Herrn
de la Lande: In: Schauplatz der Künste und Handwerke, oder vollständige
Beschreibung derselben verfertiget oder gebilliget von denen Herren der Akademie
der Wissenschaften zu Paris. Mit vielen Kupfertafeln. Dritter Band. In das Teutsche
übersetzt und mit Anmerkungen versehen, von Johann Heinrich Gottlob von Justi,
Königlichen Großbrittanischen Bergrathe und Ober=Policey=Commisario, der Königl.
Großbrittanischen Societät zu Wissenschaften zu Göttingen und der Churfürstl.
Bayerischen Academie der Wissenschaften zu München Mitgliede. Dritter Band.
Berlin, Stettin und Leipzig bey Johann Heinrich Rüdigern 1764
80

5. PAPIER UND SCHREIBWAREN ZEITUNG. 1902. Wien Kaiser.
6. PHYSIKALISCH=ÖKONOMISCHE BIBLIOTHEK, worinnen von den neuesten
Büchern, welche die Naturgeschichte, Naturlehre, und die Land- und Stadtwirtschaft
betreffen, zuverlässige und vollständige Nachrichten ertheilet wurden. Johann
Beckmann- Göttingen: Vanderhoek & Ruprecht. 1770 – 1806 . VI. S. 126.
7. RÜST W., A. 1838: Die mechanische Technologie. Dritte Abtheilung. Die
Papierfabrikation und die technischen Anwendungen des Papiers. Berlin. In der
Nicolai`schen Buchhandlung.
8. SURMA- ŚLUSARSKA B., MATEJAK M., 2009: Erfindungen, aus gedrucktem
Papier neues Papier zu machen. Annals of Warsaw Agricultural University of Life
Sciences. Forestry and Wood Technology No. 67; s. 245– 25
Streszczenie: Archiwa – surowiec do wytwarzania papieru mache i papieru. W pracy omówiono
na podstawie danych zawartych w fachowej literaturze źródła pochodzenia makulatury stosowanej do produkcji
papieru mache i papieru. Stwierdzono, że znacząca bazą surowcową do wytwarzania papieru z makulatury były
archiwa, w skład których wchodziły różnego rodzaju dokumenty od rękopisów książek po spisy ewidencyjne
ludności, dokumentację biurową itp. Niszczenie zasobów archiwalnych w Europie wiązało się nie tylko z
wojnami i innymi klęskami, ale również ich masowym przerobem na masy włókniste do wyrobu papieru mache i
papieru. Opisane zostały sposoby pozyskiwania, segregowania i przerobu archiwów w celu uzyskania
odpowiedniej jakości makulatury do produkcji papieru.
Corresponding authors:
prof. dr hab. Barbara Surma-Ślusarska
Instytut Papiernictwa i Poligrafii, Politechnika Łódzka
90-925 Łódź, ul. Wólczanska 223
bsurma@p.lodz.pl
prof. dr hab. Ewa Dobrowolska
Wydział Technologii Drewna, SGGW w Warszawie
02-776 Warszawa, ul. Nowoursynowska 159
ewa_dobrowolska@sggw.pl
81

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 82-87
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Hardness and wear resistance tests of the wood species most frequently
used in flooring panels
IRENA SWACZYNA, ANDRZEJ KĘDZIERSKI, ANDRZEJ TOMUSIAK, ANDRZEJ
CICHY, ANNA RÓŻAŃSKA,
Department of Construction and Technology of Final Wood Products, Warsaw University of Life Sciences –
SGGW
ANNA POLICIŃSKA-SERWA
Building Research Institute.
Abstract: Hardness and wear resistance tests of the wood species most frequently used in flooring panels. The
hardness and wear resistance tests of the wood species most frequently used in flooring panels show that
hardness is closely related to wood density, whereas the correlation of wear resistance is lower, with a very high
coefficient of variation.
Keywords: wood hardness, wear resistance, flooring tiles
INTRODUCTION
Aesthetics is an important feature of wood applied in antique, decorative flooring.
Aesthetic perception is formed by the visual impression of the patterns of the flooring
elements layout, of the wood structure of the applied species, their colour and surface
finishing quality. The kind of wood that was most frequently used in South-eastern Poland in
decorative, antique wooden flooring dated to the 1st half of 19th century was oak wood. The
floors that had an especially representative character were made of numerous, often very
exotic wood species, and their choice depended, most of all, on their decorative qualities. In
the Łańcut Castle, apart from oak, fossil oak, elm, ash, beech, sycamore maple, hornbeam,
birch and alder, also the wood of walnut and mahogany was used. Quite seldom the wood of
taxus would appear – as veneer (Manor House in Witkowice) [Swaczyna, Kędzierski,
Różańska, Szymczyk, Tomusiak, Rżewska 2010]. In the Hunting Lodge in Julin, geometric
flooring tiles combine oak with hornbeam and oak with ash [Różańska, Swaczyna 2011].
Usually, the flooring in manor houses is made either of oak alone (manor houses in
Tarnowiec and Falejówka, manor house outbuilding in Kolbuszowa), or oak with pine (manor
house in Przewrotne and Bieździedza) [Różańska, Tomusiak Beer 2011]. In such case, the
oak wood was used to make the frames marking the square pattern, whereas pine was used to
fill in the centre. Sporadically, at the end of the 19th century, panels with oak framing and
with centre made of ash or birch can be found (Manor House in Niwiskie). The parquet
planks were usually made of oak (Lodge in Julin, manor houses in Dydnie and Falejówka) or
ash (manor house in Przewrotne). Different wear level may be observed in the case of
different wood species [Swaczyna, Tomusiak, Kędzierski, Koryciński, Policińska-Serwa
2009]. It is especially visible in the tiles of the Castle in Łańcut. Therefore, we have
undertaken to investigate the mechanical properties that have a significant influence on the
flooring usage, that is: hardness and wear resistance of the wood species that are most
frequently found in antique flooring.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Hardness tests
The hardness and wear resistance tests were conducted in accordance with the PN-EN
1534 standard. The samples used for the tests were of square shape, minimum c.a. 50 mm
82

long and with the normative thickness, made of pine, oak, fossil oak, cherry, sycamore maple,
walnut, ash and mahogany wood. The tests were carried out by the Brinell method, with a
hardness tester of the company CV Instruments 3000LDB. . The test consisted of indenting a
10 mm ball into the wooden element being subject to the test, with the force of 1kN and
during the time specified in the standard. For each indentation, the hardness was calculated in
accordance to the formula (1). The number of indentations for each wood species was 15. The
samples were acclimatized in the same conditions as for the wear resistance tests.
2F
HB (1)
2 2
DD
D d
where:
HB – Brinell hardness [N/mm 2 ]
F – nominal force [N]
D – ball diameter [mm]
d – permanent indentation diameter [mm]
Moreover, the characteristic value of hardness was calculated in accordance with the
formula (2):
X k = m-(t 0,5·s) (2)
where:
m – medium hardness value
t 0,5 – t Student coefficient for a 5% one-sided interval load
s – standard deviation
Wear resistance tests
The wear resistance was measured with the Taber method in accordance with the PN-
EN ISO 5470-1:2001 standard. The test was based on the loss of thickness and loss of mass of
the tested samples after 1 thousand revolutions of the wheel. The load amounted to 1000 g,
test temperature was of 22,3°C, and air humidity - 54,6 %. The samples were acclimatized
before the test. The tested samples had the dimensions of: 100x100x8 mm and were made of
the wood species included in the research. The abrasion took place in the radial and tangential
sections. In accordance with the standard, 6 tests were conducted. The samples were made of
the same wood species as in the case of the hardness test.
Density tests
Moreover, we have decided to test dry wood density. For this purpose, the wood species
samples corresponding to the standard were weighed and measured after having dried them.
The density was calculated in accordance with the formula (3).
m
(3)
where:
m – mass of a dry sample [kg]
V – sample volume [m 3 ]
Ρ – density [kg/m 3 ]
V
TEST RESULTS
The results of the hardness tests of the tested wood species are presented in Table no
1, the results of the wear resistance tests – in Table no 2, and the results of the density tests –
in Table no 3.
83

Table 1. Results of hardness tests of the specific wood species tested.
Wood
species
Hardness
test
direction
Medium HB
hardness
value
[N/mm 2 ]
Standard
deviation, S
[N/mm 2 ]
Coefficient
of variation,
V [%]
Characteristic
value of
hardness
[N/mm 2 ]
Oak
radial 33,2 7,1 21,3 20,7
tangential 30,5 3,7 12,1 24,0
Fossil oak
radial 20,8 3,7 17,8 14,3
tangential 26,9 2,7 10,1 22,1
Pine
radial 20,0 3,4 16,8 14
tangential 17,9 1,8 9,9 14,7
Cherry
radial 27,6 1,5 5,4 25,0
tangential 42,3 6,0 14,2 31,7
Sycamore radial 22,9 1,7 7,5 19,9
maple tangential 29,1 3,4 11,6 23,1
Walnut
radial 28,6 2,1 7,4 24,9
tangential 26,2 1,6 6,1 23,4
Ash
radial 26,9 2,5 9,3 22,5
tangential 23,3 2,8 12,0 18,4
Mahogan radial 20,8 0,8 3,8 19,4
y tangential 23,9 1,0 4,1 22,1
Medium
characteristic
value of
hardness
[N/mm 2 ]
22,35
18,2
14,35
28,35
21,5
24,15
20,45
20,75
Table 2. Results of wear resistance tests of the specific wood species that were tested.
Medium
Wood Loss of: thickness [mm] /
Standard deviation Coefficient of
value
species
mass [g]
[mm] / [g] variation [%]
[mm]/[g]
Oak
loss of thickness 0,18 0,03 14,0
loss of mass 0,204 0,035 17,5
Fossil oak
loss of thickness 0,19 0,04 21,0
loss of mass 0,283 0,033 11,6
Pine
loss of thickness 0,28 0,04 13,8
loss of mass 0,34 0,09 26,1
Cherry
loss of thickness 0,17 0,05 33,1
loss of mass 0,25 0,02 8,6
Sycamore loss of thickness 0,17 0,04 22,4
maple loss of mass 0,26 0,03 13,0
Walnut
loss of thickness 0,14 0,06 43,1
loss of mass 0,24 0,04 18,2
Ash
loss of thickness 0,19 0,06 32,7
loss of mass 0,24 0,03 12,4
Mahogany
loss of thickness 0,23 0,04 15,5
loss of mass 0,34 0,07 21,3
84

Table 3. Results of density tests of the specific wood species tested.
Wood species
Dry wood density
[kg/m 3 ]
Standard deviation
[kg/m 3 ]
Coefficient of
variation
[%]
Oak 605,6 26,8 4,4
Fossil oak 595,0 11,5 1,7
Pine 529,0 20,7 3,9
Cherry 662,3 12,6 1,9
Sycamore maple 544,5 15,2 2,8
Walnut 552,8 53,3 9,6
Ash 550,2 21,4 3,9
Mahogany 546,3 10,1 1,8
RESULT ANALYSIS
The above-mentioned tests show that the hardness of the tested wood species is diverse.
The highest characteristic value of hardness for radial and tangential directions was observed
in the case of cherry (28,35 N/mm 2 ), next was walnut (24,15 N/mm 2 ) and oak (22,35 N/mm 2 ).
The lowest hardness was observed in the case of pine (14,35 N/mm 2 ). What draws attention is
the high dispersion of test results for such species as oak (12,1% - 21,3%) and fossil oak
(17,8% - 10,1%). Relatively low dispersion of results can be seen in the case of exotic species
such as mahogany (3,8% - 4,1%) and walnut (6,1% - 7,4%). In general it can be concluded
that hardness is closely associated with wood density. The highest characteristic hardness was
obtained for cherry, which has the highest density, and the lowest hardness was observed in
the case of pine wood, whose dry wood density had the lowest value. Linear regression
function between hardness and density was determined in the form: y = 0,0627x - 14,68, and
the correlation coefficient equals 0,69, which shows how strong is the relation between them.
The wear resistance tests revealed a very high coefficient of variation. It amounts to
43% for the loss of thickness in the case of walnut wood, and 26,1% for the loss of mass in
the case of pine wood. The lowest loss of mass was observed in the case of walnut wood -
0,14 mm, and the highest in case of pine wood - 0,28 mm. After analysing the loss of mass it
can be concluded that the lowest loss occurs in the oak wood - 0,204 g, and the highest in the
pine wood - 0,34 g. Linear regression function between loss of mass and wood density was
determined in the form: y = -0,0005x + 0,5591, and the correlation coefficient equals 0.41. In
general, it is worth noting that wear resistance is correlated with wood density; however, this
correlation is not as significant as in the case of hardness. It is more related with the
anatomical structure of wood and with the fact if the wood is an exotic species or if it is
coniferous or broadleaf.
In practice, the choice of wood for decorative flooring was not always driven by
practical considerations.
Technically, the best kind of wood for flooring is the oak ring-porous wood, taken from
the heartwood. It is durable: hard, resistant to abrasion, flexible and containing tannins that
make it more resistant to microbiological factors. It is easily processed and smooth surface
can be obtained. The growing percentage share of summerwood is positively correlated with
wood’s durability, hardness, shrinkage and wear resistance. The share of summerwood
usually tends to grow together with the width of growth rings, for this reason the growth rings
are a reference indicator of the technical properties of oak wood [Korzeniowski 1956].
Another popular wood species in the manor houses of South-eastern Poland is coniferous
wood – mostly pine. It is used for the elements that fill in the oak frames, because the
hardness of this wood is significantly smaller and its structure is less even. These features
85

cause faster and less even wear of the flooring. The tangential section and the simultaneous
appearance of sapwood and heartwood in the wear layer of the flooring is especially
unfavourable in this respect. Pine wood, in turn, is perfect for flooring planks for white floor,
because of its properties. Among other species of coniferous wood used for flooring
manufacture, larch wood of slow growth is desirable, but its application is limited due to the
fact that it is rarely found. Larch wood hardness and wear resistance is similar to oak wood,
but its resistance to compression across fibres is two times lower. The depth of finishing
material penetration is analogous to oak wood [Korzeniowski 1956]. Larch wood has higher
cleavability and lower resistance properties than oak wood.
The wood used to manufacture flooring is wood of medium growth (3-4 rings for each
1 cm of the radius) and wood of slow growth (>4 rings for each 1 cm of the radius), because
of lower wear of the cutting edge of the tools used for its processing. Moreover, this kind of
wood has more uniform structure, so the wear of the flooring surface is more evenly
distributed. The best wood is the one that is straight-grained, because it helps to avoid
spallings and surface roughness during the profile cutting. Sapwood is inadmissible on the
front surface of the flooring elements. The most valuable kind of wood is oak heartwood from
the radial section with large pith rays (lustre).
The ring-porous wood of ash and elm also has a lot of lustre, although it is less intense.
Their aesthetic advantage consists of clearly visible rings, diverse pattern and dark, ashenbrown
colour of heartwood. The wood of these species is hard, mechanically resistant and
flexible. Thin sapwood is not a problem for the usage, although it is not applied on the front
surface of the flooring elements.
For highly decorative flooring, the wood of fossil oak was used. Fossil oak is sensitive
to changes in temperature and air humidity in the environment. As a kind of wood that
remained under water, it requires specialist and long-lasting drying methods after it is taken
out similarly to other archaeological wood, called “wet”.
In accordance to the tests of decorative flooring performed in situ in the Łańcut Castle,
the fossil oak used within them is less durable than the light oak. Its hardness, assessed with
the Brinell method with a 5 mm ball hit with the force of 40 N, is 19% higher for light oak
than for fossil oak [Swaczyna, Tomusiak, Kędzierski, Koryciński, Policińska-Serwa 2009].
CONCLUSIONS
1. In accordance to the test results, hardness is closely associated with wood density, and
the coefficient of correlation amounts to 0,69.
2. There is some relation between wear resistance and density, but it is not as significant
as in the case of hardness, and the coefficient of correlation amounts to -0,41.
REFERENCES
1. KORZENIOWSKI A. 1956: Posadzki drewniane [Wooden flooring], Warszawa
2. KRZYSIK F.1978:Nauka o drewnie (Wood Science). PWRiL, Warszawa
3. RÓŻAŃSKA A., TOMUSIAK A., BEER P. 2011: Influence of Climate on Surface
Quality of Antique Wooden Flooring in Manor House. Proceeding of the 20 th
International Wood Machining Seminar, Skellefte, Sweden June 7-10
4. RÓŻAŃSKA A., SWACZYNA I. 2011: Characteristics of Interior Decor of Hunting
Lodge in Julin, in Surface Quality Aspects. Proceeding of the 20 th International Wood
Machining Seminar, Skellefte, Sweden June 7-10
5. SWACZYNA I., TOMUSIAK A., KĘDZIERSKI A., KORYCIŃSKI W.,
POLICIŃSKA SERWA A. 2009: Indentation and abrasion resistance of decorative
wooden flooring of the Castle in Łańcut [in:] Ann.WULS-SGGW, For. And Wood
Technol., no 69.
86

6. SWACZYNA I., KĘDZIERSKI A., RÓŻAŃSKA A., SZYMCZYK A., TOMUSIAK
A., RŻEWSKA Z. 2010: Design of wooden flooring in historical buildings in
Kolbuszowa County. Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences- SGGW, No 71
7. PN-EN ISO5470-1/2001 Taber abrasion testing
8. PN-EN 1534 Brinell hardness testing
Streszczenie: Badanie twardości i ścieralności gatunków drewna najczęściej stosowanych w
taflach posadzkowych Z przeprowadzonych badań twardości i ścieralności gatunków drewna
najczęściej stosowanych w taflach posadzkowych wynika, że twardość jest ściśle związana z
gęstością drewna, ścieralność zaś wykazuje mniejszą korelację przy bardzo dużym
współczynniku zmienności.
Corresponding authors:
Andrzej Tomusiak E – mail: andrzej_tomusiak@sggw.pl
Andrzej Kędzierski E – mail: andrzej_kedzierski@sggw.pl
Andrzej Cichy E – mail: andrzej_cichy@sggw.pl
Anna Różańska E – mail: anna_rozanska@sggw.pl
Department of Construction and Technology of Final Wood Products
Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego (University of Life Sciences)
02-787 Warszawa, ul. Nowoursynowska 166, Poland
Anna Policińska-Serwa E – mail: a.serwa@itb.pl
87

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 88-91
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Lignin-based hexamine-hardened thermosetting wood adhesive –
preliminary results
ANNA ŚWIETLIK, KAROLINA SZYMONA, MARIUSZ MAMIŃSKI*
Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Abstract: Lignin-based hexamine-hardened thermosetting wood adhesive – preliminary results. The bonding
properties of two adhesive systems based on two types of lignin of various origin were compared. Mechanical
tests showed that the type of a lignin strongly affected shear strength of the adhesive joints.
Keywords: lignin, thermosetting, wood adhesive
INTRODUCTION
For some time environmental policy has been imposing growing interest in bio-based
adhesives that manifests in an intensified research on those types of renewable resources,
however numerous papers concerning lignin, tannin or carbohydrates utilization in adhesive
technology were published already decades ago (Olivares et al. 1988, El-saied et al. 1984,
Custers et al. 1979, Pizzi and Scharfetter 1978, Pizzi 1977, Saayman and Oatley 1976,
McKenzie and Yuritta 1972).
Lignin is an abundant renewable reservoir of aromatic compounds. Lignin resources
generated by paper industry only are estimated on 30 million tones annually (Hatakeyama and
Hatakeyama 2010) and still remain underutilized in terms of adhesive technology. Additional
amounts of lignin come from cellulosic ethanol plants – 0.5 kg per 1 L. Moreover, it is
estimated that ca. 1-2% of lignin is converted into derivate-products (Lora and Glasser 2002).
The rest is burnt for energy.
In terms of adhesives, numerous studies have been reported in literature so far (El
Mansouri et al. 2007, Çetin and Özmen 2002, Sanjuan et al. 1999), however poor
reproducibility of bonding effects, due to variable properties of lignin from various sources,
was the main drawback (Jones 2007).
In this work adhesive performance of two types of lignin was compared. Chemical
composition of the lignins and functional group abundance were not made due to the
preliminary nature of the experiments. Unmodified, neat lignins were cured in alkaline
conditions and used for wood bonding.
EXPERIMENTAL
Two types of lignin were used in experiments: L1 - commercial alkaline low-sulfonate
lignin purchased from Aldrich (cat. no. 471003, average M w = 10000, 4% sulfur) and L2 –
industrial softwood lignin from the sulfite process. 33 wt% aqueous solution of hexamine was
used as a hardener.
Lignin (1.5 g) was dissolved in water (2.3 g), then pH 10 was adjusted with 33%
NaOH and hexamine (5 wt% based on total solution weight) was added. When thoroughly
mixed the adhesive was applied on solid beech specimens of dimensions 300 x 50 x 5 mm 3 .
Wood density 697 ± 15 kg/m 3 and 5.2% moisture content. Bonding was performed in hot
press at 180ºC for 10 min. Due to preliminary nature of the studies, bonding conditions were
88

not a subject of optimization. Adhesives without hardener in the formulation were used as
references.
Specimens were subjected to dry shear strength tests according to EN 205 after 7-day
conditioning in normal climate.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
As the data shown in Fig. 1 indicate the highest dry strength (6.5 N/mm 2 ) was
observed for the L1 series which denoted hexamine-cured low-sulphonate lignin, while the
strength observed for the uncured reference series (L1 ref.) was 70% lower (1.9 N/mm 2 ).
When the results for the industrial lignin are concerned (L2 series), it is clear that
presence of the hardener in the adhesive formulation did not affect the shear strengths of the
bond line, since the strengths of the cured (L2) and of the uncured (L2 ref.) series were
comparable and the differences were statistically insignificant– 1.08 and 1.15 N/mm 2 ,
respectively. Therefore, it seems that curing progress is dependent on the lignin type and its
chemical functionality which are a subject of further investigations.
7
6
shear strength (N/mm 2 )
5
4
3
2
1
0
L1 L1 ref. L2 L2 ref.
Fig. 1 Dry shear strengths of the lignin based adhesives
Since those findings are of preliminary nature, a detailed discussion of the phenomena
is not reasonable and possible now. However, certain assumptions may be made. The
obtained results are consistent with the reports on hardly repeatable bonding results when
lignins of various origin and, subsequently, various structure are involved. Having in mind
that lignin molecule mainly consists of phenylpropane units (Fig. 2), some of the moieties are
highly reactive toward hexamine, while other exhibit no reactivity at all. It seems that the
aromatic moieties bearing no deactivating methoxyl groups are possible cross-linking nodes.
89

CH 2
OH
CH
CH 2
CH 2
OH
CH
CH 2
CH 2
OH
CH
CH 2
OH
OH
OCH 3
CH 3
O OCH 3
OH
1 2 3
Fig. 2 Schematic representation of phenylpropane units present in lignin:
1 – 4-hydroxyphenyl, 2 – guaiacyl, 3 – syringyl (El Mansouri et al. 2011)
CONCLUSIONS
It was shown that hexamine-cured lignin was applicable as a thermosetting adhesive
for wood bonding, however the origin of the lignin determines its chemical structure that was
a key factor affecting the bonding results and ambiguous performance of the two compared
adhesive systems was observed. Further, detailed studies including analysis of molecular
structure of lignin used in adhesive formulation are necessary.
REFERENCES
1. ÇETIN N.S., ÖZMEN N.I. (2002) Use of organosolv lignin in phenol-formaldehyde
resins for particleboard production: II. Particleboard production and properties. Int.
J. Adhes. Adhes. 22: 481486
2. CUSTERS P., RUSHBROOK R., PIZZI A., KNAUFF C.J. (1979) Industrial
applications of wattle-tannin/urea-formaldehyde fortified starch adhesives for dampproof
corrugated cardboard. Holzforsch Holzvert 31: 131-133
3. EL MANSOURI N.-E., PIZZI A., SALVADÓ J. (2007) Lignin-based wood panel
adhesives without formaldehyde. Holz Roh Werkst. 65: 65-70
4. EL MANSOURI N.-E., YUAN Q., HUANG F. (2011) Characterization of alkaline
lignins for use in phenol-formaldehyde and epoxy resins. BioResources. 6: 2647-2662
5. EL-SAIED H., NADA A.M., IBRAHEM A.A., YOUSEF M.A. (1984) Waste liquors
from cellulosic industries. III. Lignin from soda-spent liquor as a component in
phenol-formaldehyde resin. Die Angewante makromolekulare Chemie 122: 169-181
6. EN 205 (2005) Test methods for wood adhesives for non structural applications—
Determination of tensile strength of lap joints
7. HATAKEYAMA H., HATAKEYAMA T. (2010) Lignin Structure, Properties, and
Applications. Adv. Polym. Sci. 232: 1
8. JONES D. (2007) Review of existing bioresins and their applications. Report for
Building Research Establishment Ltd.
9. LORA J.H., GLASSER W.G. (2002) Recent industrial applications of lignin: A
sustainable alternative to nonrenewable materials. J. Polym. Environ. 10: 39
10. MCKENZZIE A.W., YURITTA J.P. (1972) Starch tannin corrugating adhesives.
Appita 26: 30-34
90

11. OLIVARES M., GUZMAN J.A., NATHO A., SAAVEDRA A. (1988) Kraft lignin
utilization in adhesives. Wood Sci. Technol. 22: 157-165
12. PIZZI A (1977) Hot-setting tannin-urea-formaldehyde exterior wood adhesives.
Adhes. Age 20: 27-29
13. PIZZI A., SCHARFETTER H.O. (1978) The chemistry and development of tanninbased
adhesives for exterior plywood. J Appl Polym Sci 22:1745-1761
14. SAAYMAN H.M., OATLEY J.A. (1976) Wood adhesives from wattle bark extract.
Forest Prod. J. 26: 27-33
15. SANJUAN R., RIVERA J., FUENTES F.J. (1999) Evaluation of adhesive mixtures of
phenol-formaldehyde and organosolv lignin of sugarcane bagasse. Holz Roh Werkst.
57: 418
Streszczenie: Klej do drewna na podstawie lignin sieciowanych heksaminą – wyniki badań
wstępnych. Porównano właściwości klejące dwóch klejów otrzymanych na podstawie dwóch
lignin o różnym pochodzeniu. Badania wytrzymałościowe wykazały, że rodzaj ligniny jest
czynnikiem decydującym o wytrzymałości połączeń klejonych.
Corresponding authors:
Anna Świetlik
Faculty of Wood Technology
Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
159 Nowoursynowska St.
02-776 Warsaw, Poland
Karolina Szymona
Faculty of Wood Technology
Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
159 Nowoursynowska St.
02-776 Warsaw, Poland
Mariusz Mamiński
Faculty of Wood Technology
Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
159 Nowoursynowska St.
02-776 Warsaw, Poland
e-mail: mariusz_maminski@sggw.pl
91

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 92-95
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Analysis of the impact of the production assortment structure on the
economic performance in a furniture factory
MIECZYSŁAW SZCZAWIŃSKI; MAGDALENA OLKOWICZ
Department of Technology, Organisation and Management in Wood Industry; Warsaw University of Life
Sciences;
Abstract: Analysis of the impact of the production assortment structure on the economic performance in a
furniture factory The proposed model has a standard form of a polynomial in which an explanatory (exogenous)
variable is net operating profit increment in relation to total offer of a plant, or what would be recommended, in
relation to particular types of products. Explanatory variables are hypothetical the most important relationships
expressing impact on a level and changes in the value of function that is expounded. A relatively low value of a
random variable indicates accuracy of selection these variables and that variables number was sufficient (E ξ=0).
Keywords: verification method, production assortment structure, furniture, new product;
INTRODUCTION
Furniture factories, as well producers of other manufactured products, are forced by
market conditions for continuous verification of assortment structure of offered products.
Manufacturers aim at achieving the highest possible net profit from the business. On financial
result the most impact exerts operating profitability of production turnover in the particular
phase of the economic cycle. In the furniture industry, success on the market largely
determines appearance of furniture corresponding to the current, although rapidly changing,
trends. The furniture in the assortment of furniture factory have different positions in the
product life cycle courses. A handbook's course of this cycle is determined by phases, which
are shaped by market, beginning from product implementation through (usually extended)
period of maturity until the decline [3].
Furniture factories, as well as other manufacturing companies, should be interested in
verifying the structure of production aimed at disclosure of whose life cycle ends. The
declining profitability of the item from sale, which is going to disappearance of operative
profit margin, also could tell us about that.
The proposed method of analyzing the structure of production may allow it to
conclusively verify and disclose products that should be converted to products that could
better meet market requirements in a particular phase of economic cycle. Confirmation of
your choice accuracy may be higher production operating profitability of a new type of
furniture.
THE ANALYSIS METHOD OF THE CHANGES IMPACT OF A MARKET OFFER IN A
FURNITURE FACTORY ON THE VALUE INCREMENTS OF NET OPERATING
PROFIT
The proposed method of analysis uses a quantitative approach to the impact of a chain
(series) from partial factors on the level and dynamics of net operating profit in the considered
period.
In case you do not have the data to calculate unit cost of each product, calculation can
encompass the whole production, but because of this, precision of cost-effectiveness analysis
may suffer.
The model of a multivariate analysis is a polynomial in which the expounded
(endogenous) variable may be net operating profit increment of total production, or, if
92

possible, increment of this profit from the production of every kind and type of product. This
increment depends on influence of some factors (possibly large number), that can be
determined quantify and verified statistically, what the proposed model provides, and which
has a form of a polynomial (a function of several variables).
The general form of the polynomial:
where:
Y expounded (endogenous) variable;
a 1 free term of the polynomial being graph intersection of y = f (Xi) with the axis of the
explanatory (exogenous) variable (Y);
X i value ,,i" of the explanatory variable of the polynomial, i ;
ξ the explanatory (exogenous) variable value of the polynomial, expressing influence of
unknown factors on a value of the expounded (endogenous) variable Y, E ξ = 0;
The expounded variable of the polynomial is a net operating profit increment from
total production sold, or, if this is possible, in relation to particular types of products.
The value of the expounded variable is defined by dependencies for an entire
enterprise:
where:
increment of net operating profit during a considered period [pln];
increment of gross profit during a considered period (before taxation) [pln];
coefficient of company share in gross profit (f 2010 = 0,81);
With reference to particular products, an increment of profits is signified by the index
which is a number of the product, e.g. j .
In the previous, the last year article, there was a small but significant error, which has
distorted a form of the function determining the value of an expounded variable in the model.
The was described in an erroneous way [2].
For this reason, the function of the expounded value for the case of analysis relating to
the particular products with a number ,,j”, is below quoted again:
where:
increment of gross profit during a considered period (before taxation) from sales of
a product with a number ,,j” [pln];
unit cost of production of the ,,j” product, after start and after finish a measured
period;
price of sales of the ,, j” product, after start and after finish a measured period;
size of production of the ,,j” product, after start and after finish a measured
period (in natural units);
93

supply increment of the ,,j” product, after start and after finish a measured
period;
j reference number of product in a factory offer.
The explanatory variables values of the polynomial, which quantitatively express
factors that are shaping the expounded variable ( ), can be determined by
relationships indicated below. The more variables we assume and the more accurate we
choose it, the expected value of the measured factors, expressed as a random variable ξ, will
be closer to zero (E ξ=0).
Boards of companies, which can have access to detailed data, will have a better chance
of accurate verification of the production structure using the proposed model.
Explanatory variables of the polynomial can thus be determined by the following
relationships [1]:
1. The share of income from sales of new products from the ,,j” group in total income from
the sale of that ,,j” products group:
,,j” group;
the ,,j” group;
, net income (without VAT) from sales of new products from the
total net income (without VAT) from sales of new products from
2. The share of net profit (after taxation) from sales of new products from the ,,j” group in
total net profit from that ,,j” products' group:
, own costs of new products production from the ,,j” group;
total own costs of products production from the ,,j” group;
3. The net income from sales of new products from ,,j” group on a worker who is involved
in new products development from the ,,j" group:
; number of employees involved in the development of new
products from the ,,j” group;
4. The net profit (after taxation) from sales of new products from the ,,j” group per
employee involved in the development of new products from the ,,j” group:
;
5. The share of investment to develop and implement new products from the ,,j” group in
total investment outlays:
; investment outlays to develop and implement new products from
the ,,j” group;
94

I total investment outlays;
6. The share of sales costs in the unit production cost of new products:
; unit cost of sales of new products with the number ,,j”;
unit cost of production of new products with the number ,,j”;
The impact of economic situation changes can express the relation of national income
increment in the country, and therefore:
7. The rate of national income increment in the measured period:
; rate of national income increment;
national income in earlier period;
national income in later period;
The time period covered by the study, preferably in the sections of the quarterly or
even monthly, should be as long as required to provide satisfactory statistical reliability. We
are dealing with a sort of compromise between labour intensity of research and the
expectations associated with statistics. The cases of the selection of explanatory variables, the
weight of their influence, and, what is important, the smallest value of ξ, are presented
similarly.
REFERENCES:
1. RUTKOWSKI I., 2006: Metodyczne i kompetencyjne uwarunkowania rozwoju nowego
produktu w przedsiębiorstwach przemysłowych; Seria: Prace habilitacyjne;
Wydawnictwo Akademii Ekonomicznej w Poznaniu, Poznań;
2. SZCZAWIŃSKI M., OLKOWICZ M., 2010: The verification method of the production
assortment structure in the furniture factory; Ann. WULS-SGGW, For and Wood
Technol. No 72, 2010, 317 - 319;
3. SZYMANOWSKI W., SZCZAWIŃSKI M., 2005: Elementy nauki o przedsiębiorstwie;
SGGW, Warszawa;
Streszczenie: Analiza wpływu zmian struktury asortymentowej produkcji na wyniki
ekonomiczne fabryki mebli Proponowany model ma standardową postać wielomianu, w
którym zmienną objaśnianą jest przyrost zysku operacyjnego netto zarówno całości oferty
zakładu, lub też, co należałoby rekomendować, w odniesieniu do poszczególnych typów
wyrobów. Zmiennymi objaśniającymi są hipotetycznie najistotniejsze relacje wyrażające
wpływ na poziom i zmiany wartości funkcji objaśnianej. O trafności doboru tych zmiennych i
wystarczającej ich liczbie świadczy względnie mała wartość zmiennej losowej (E ξ = 0).
Corresponding authors:
dr Mieczysław Szczawiński, mgr inż. Magdalena Olkowicz
Warsaw University of Life Sciences; Department of Technology, Organisation and Management in Wood
Industry; ul. Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warszawa, Poland
e-mail: mieczyslaw_szczawinski@sggw.pl; e-mail: magdalena_olkowicz@sggw.pl
95

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 96-102
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Einfluss der Vorschub und Schnittgeschwindigkeit auf die Standzeit beim
Bohren Spanplatten
JOANNA ZIELIŃSKA-SZWAJKA 1) , JAROSŁAW GÓRSKI 1) KRZYSZTOF SZWAJKA 1)
1) Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw Agriculture University – SGGW
Zusammenfassung: Einfluss der Vorschub und Schnittgeschwindigkeit auf die Standzeit beim Bohren
Spanplatten. Der Beitrag stellt die Auswirkungen von Schnittgeschwindigkeit und Vorschub auf die Standzeit
beim Bohren Melamin Spanplatte. Um die Wirkung von Schnittgeschwindigkeit und Vorschub auf die Standzeit
Haltbarkeit Tests wurden 18 mit verschiedenen Schnittgeschwindigkeiten und Vorschübe durchgeführt
bestimmen.
Stichworte: Bohren, Spanplatten Melamin, Vorschub, Schnittgeschwindigkeit, Standzeit
EINLEITUNG
Eines der größten Probleme in der Behandlung von Spanplatten ist die Auswahl der
Schnittparameter. Aufgrund der Gleichzeitigkeit von den Erwartungen der besten
Behandlungsergebnisse wie: Genauigkeit, Kosten und Leistung muss ein Gleichgewicht der
oft sehr widersprüchlichen Begriffe. Zum Beispiel ist wegen der Genauigkeit der Behandlung
für die Auswahl von kleinen Feeds angezeigt, und das ist zu Leistungseinbußen verbunden.
Bearbeitungsprozess sollte so sein, dass bei möglichst geringen Kosten durch den Empfänger
erhalten wurde geforderten Qualität bearbeitete Komponenten und deren Ausführungszeit
überschreitet nicht die Zeit, in den Vertrag angegeben.
Grob gesagt, können Sie davon ausgehen, dass die Optimierung von Schneiden der
richtigen Auswahl der technologischen Parameter der Schnitt beinhaltet: a p , f i v c
Auswahl der Vorschubgeschwindigkeit muss daher die erforderliche Oberflächenqualität bei
maximal mögliche Effizienz der Behandlung.
Auswahl der Schnittgeschwindigkeit durch den angenommenen Standzeit, dh die Zeit, nach
der die Klinge geschärft oder ersetzt wird. Eine Erhöhung der Schnittgeschwindigkeit erhöht
die Prozesseffizienz ist wahr, aber es reduziert die Standzeit und erfordern häufige Austausch
oder Schärfen.
In der Literatur und ist viel Informationen über die Auswahl der Wirtschaftsteilnehmer
Geschwindigkeit und maximale Effizienz zu finden [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. Dieses Problem wurde in
den frühen zwanzigsten Jahrhunderts interessiert, Taylor [1].
Taylor schlug vor, dass die Haltbarkeit natürlich abhängig von der Geschwindigkeit der
Schneide, die ein Power-Funktion durch einen einfachen Doppelklick logarithmische in das
System in der Form von Gleichung (Gleichung 1) beschrieben wird:
v
T
C
c
v
k
(1)
METHODIK UND ERGEGNISSE
Die Studie wurde mit dem CNC-Bearbeitungszentrum. Buselatto JET 100
durchgeführt. Das Material wurde W2201 Melamin Spanplatte 18 mm dick (Abb. 1)
behandelt. Als Werkzeug verwendet, um Löcher FABA Hartmetall HW Ø10mm Durchmesser
ø10 K0500012 (Abb. 1) zu bohren.
96

Bild 1. Werkstück und Werkzeuge.
Bearbeitungsparameter von denen die Studie durchgeführt wurden, sind in Tabelle 1
zusammengefasst
Tafel 1.Bearbeitungsparameter.
Werkzeug
-Nummer
Vorschub
[mm/obr]
1. 376.8
2. 376.8
3. 314
Schnittgeschwindigkeit
[m/min]
4.
0.2
251.2
5. 188.4
6.
125.6
7. 376.8
8. 376.8
9. 314
10.
0.25
251.2
11. 188.4
12.
125.6
13. 376.8
14. 376.8
15. 314
16.
0.3
251.2
17. 188.4
18.
125.6
Wie in der Tabelle, einschließlich Haltbarkeit Tests 18 Werkzeuge vorgestellt. Als
Indikator für Werkzeugverschleiß wurde zu Beginn VB max Flanke angenommen. (Abb.2).
Bild 2. Werkzeuge und Verschleißkriterien.
Werkzeugverschleiß Kriterium angenommen wurden VB max =0,2 (mm) [7].
Verbrauchsmessung wurde am Mikroskop Bank gemacht.
97

Basierend auf der Umfrage ergaben sich folgende Ergebnisse für die Proben mit einem
Kern Kriterium der Abstumpfung VB max . Die Ergebnisse dieser Messungen sind in Tabellen
zusammengefasst (Tabelle 2, 3, 4) jeweils für jede der drei Vorschübe und präsentiert in
grafischer Form (Abb. 3, 4, 5).
Tafel 2. Zusammensetzung Schnittgeschwindigkeiten und Standzeit – Vorschub 0.2[mm/obr]
v c (m/min) 376.8 376.8 314 251.2 188.4 125.6
T(min) 13.67 15.62 21.08 32.18 46.80 105.22
Bild 3. Standzeitdiagram – Vorschub 0.2[mm/obr]
Tafel 3. Zusammensetzung Schnittgeschwindigkeiten und Standzeit – Vorschub 0.25[mm/obr]
v c (m/min) 376.8 376.8 314 251.2 188.4 125.6
T(min) 9.46 9.46 15.12 21.25 35.35 75.41
Bild 4. Standzeitdiagram – Vorschub 0.25[mm/obr]
98

Tafel 4. Zusammensetzung Schnittgeschwindigkeiten und Standzeit – Vorschub 0.3[mm/obr]
v c (m/min) 376.8 376.8 314 251.2 188.4 125.6
T(min) 13.67 15.62 21.08 32.18 46.80 105.22
Bild 5. Standzeitdiagram – Vorschub 0.3[mm/obr]
Dann werden die gewonnenen Ergebnisse bzw. für jeden Feed, um eine doppeltlogarithmischen
Diagramm (Abb. 6, 7, 8).
Bild 6. Standzeitdiagram – Vorschub 0.2[mm/obr]
99

Bild 7. Standzeitdiagram – Vorschub 0.25[mm/obr]
Bild 8. Standzeitdiagram – Vorschub 0.3[mm/obr]
Mit der Methodik der Erstellung einer einfachen Satz nach Taylors Regression. Die
Bezeichnung dieser Linie erlaubt die Bestimmung der Gleichung Konstanten C v Taylor und
k. Das erhaltene Ergebnis bilden die folgende Gleichung:
100

Tafel 5. Die daraus resultierende Form der Taylor-Gleichung
Vorschub (mm/obr) Taylor-Gleichung
0.2
v c
T
1737
-1.76
0.25
0.3
v c
T
1318
v c
T
1000
-1.86
-2.02
Angesichts der beobachteten Auswirkungen auf Futterwert der Standzeit in der
weiteren Analyse wurde beschlossen, eine erweiterte Form der Taylor-Gleichung verwenden
berücksichtigt den Wert die Vorschub. Um zu bestimmen, diese Abhängigkeit Ergebnisse in
allen 18 Proben wurde eine doppelt-logarithmischen Diagramm aufgetragen, und dann C v und
einfache Richtungs-Faktor k:
Bild 9. Standzeitdiagram. Z uwzględnieniem posuwu
Ernennung k i C v erlaubt, die Gleichung der Form zu bestimmen:
-1,88
v
1,6
T c
f
2
1288
Bestimmung der Gleichung hat die genauen Auswirkungen des Vorschub auf die
Standzeit erlaubt. Wie bei den abnehmenden Wert des Futters zu sehen ist erhöht Standzeit.
Basierend auf der obigen Gleichung kann die Schnittgeschwindigkeit für den
Berichtszeitraum Standzeit und Futtermitteln und umgekehrt zu bestimmen. Diese
Abhängigkeit kann verwendet werden, um die Schnittgeschwindigkeit Bereich, eine
bestimmte Art von Werkzeug und Werkstück zu testen.
101

ANWENDUNGEN
Die Ergebnisse dieser Studie zeigen deutlich, dass es einen signifikanten Einfluss
sowohl auf die Schnittgeschwindigkeit und Vorschub auf die Stabilität der das
Schneidwerkzeug. Mit der Mit der Zunahme der beiden Schnittgeschwindigkeit und
Vorschub verringert die Standzeit und Schneiden im Gegenteil. Allerdings, wenn die
Schnittgeschwindigkeit Effekt größer ist.
LITERATUR
1. TAYLOR FW., 1907: On the art of cutting metals, Trans. ASME.; 28:31-35.
2. VAN LUTTERVELT CA, CHILDS THC, JAWAHIR IS, KLOCKE F, VENUVINOD
PK., 1998: Present situation and future trends in modeling of machining operations, Ann.
CIRP.; 47(2):587-626.
3. JAWAHIR IS, WANG X., 2007: Development of hybrid predictive models and
optimization techniques for machining operations, J. Mat. Proc. Technol.; 185:46-59.
4. JEMIELNIAK K., 1998: Obróbka skrawaniem, Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki
Warszawskiej.
5. WILKOWSKI J., DUBIS M., CZARNIAK P., 2010: Influence of cutting speed on tool
life during of laminated particleboard drilling, Annals of Warsaw University of Life
Sciences – SGGW Forestry and Wood Technology No 72 2010 463-467
6. ZIELIŃSKA-SZWAJKA J., GÓRSKI J., 2010: Schnittgeschwindigkeitseinfluß auf die
Standzeit den Fräser, Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Forestry
and Wood Technology No 72 2010 527-530
Streszczenie: Wpływ posuwu i prędkości skrawania na trwałość narzędzia przy wierceniu
płyty wiórowej. W artykule przedstawiono wpływ prędkości skrawania oraz posuwu na
trwałość ostrza narzędzia skrawającego przy wierceniu płyty wiórowej laminowanej. W celu
określenia korelacji między prędkością skrawania i posuwem a trwałością ostrza
przeprowadzono 18 prób trwałościowych ze zróżnicowanymi prędkościami skrawania i
wartościami posuwu.
Corresponding authors:
Joanna Zielińska-Szwajka
Faculty of Wood Technology
Warsaw Agricultural University
02-776 Warsaw
Nowoursynowska 159 str.
Poland
jzielinska@poczta.onet.pl
Jarosław Górski
Faculty of Wood Technology
Warsaw Agricultural University
02-776 Warsaw
Nowoursynowska 159 str.
jaroslaw_gorski@wa.home.pl
Krzysztof Szwajka
Faculty of Wood Technology
Warsaw Agricultural University
02-776 Warsaw
Nowoursynowska 159 str.
kszwajka@poczta.onet.pl
102

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 103-107
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Einfluss von Werkzeugverschleiß auf die Oberflächenqualität bearbeitet
beim Bohren Spanplatten
JOANNA ZIELIŃSKA-SZWAJKA 1) , JAROSŁAW GÓRSKI 1) KRZYSZTOF SZWAJKA 1)
1) Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw Agriculture University – SGGW
Zusammenfassung: Einfluss von Werkzeugverschleiß auf die Oberflächenqualität bearbeitet beim Bohren
Spanplatten. Der Beitrag stellt die Auswirkungen der Werkzeugverschleiß auf die Oberflächenqualität bearbeitet
beim Bohren Melamin Spanplatte.
Stichworte: Bohren, Spanplatten Melamin, Werkzeugverschleiß, Oberflächenqualität bearbeitet
EINLEITUNG
Melamin Spanplatte ist eine der am häufigsten verwendeten Materialien, zusätzlich zu
MDF und Furnier in der Möbelindustrie. Bohren ist eine häufig auftretende Betrieb in die
Herstellung von Möbeln, mit Aufmerksamkeit auf die Notwendigkeit für die nachträgliche
Montage-Kit Möbel. Während der Bohrarbeiten in Spanplatten Melamin gibt es eine Tendenz
zur Ablösung des Materials unter dem Einfluss der Schnittkräfte. In der Literatur wird Bohren
Holzwerkstoffe nicht viel Aufmerksamkeit [12, 11, .13, 10] gegeben, während der Prozess der
Bohrungen von Verbundwerkstoffen und Metallen wurde und wird intensiv untersucht.
Dippon [12] analysiert die Modellierung von orthogonalen Schnitt MDF. Der Autor
führte eine Reihe von verschiedenen Studien zum Wissen über die Bearbeitung von MDF zu
vertiefen, wobei der Schwerpunkt vor allem auf die Schnittkräfte und Reibungskräfte.
Lin [11] die Bearbeitbarkeit von MDF untersucht. Laut dem Autor einen signifikanten
Einfluss auf die Eigenschaften der Bearbeitung ist die Dichte der Platte.
Dann Philbin und Gordon [10] untersucht den Einsatz von PKD (polykristalliner Diamant) in
Bearbeitung MDF. Laut den Autoren ist der Hauptvorteil der Verwendung von PKD-
Werkzeug Leben mehr, die sich aus ihrer verbesserten Eigenschaften gegenüber
herkömmlichen Materialien, Werkzeuge.
Zhao und Ehmann [9] beschrieben den ursprünglichen experimentellen Studien über die
Anwendung von einer neuen Generation von Bohrern. Laut den Autoren einer neuen Lösung
führte zu einer Verringerung der Kräfte und Momente beim Bohren.
Davim eine Studie versucht, die Beziehungen zwischen Schnittparameter und Laminat
am Eingang und Ausgang Delamination beim Bohren MDF bestimmen.
Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass, um eine größere Effizienz und Schneiden zu erreichen bei
gleichzeitiger Minimierung der Dissektion für höhere Schnittgeschwindigkeiten verwendet
werden soll.
Schichtung ist der größte Schaden während des Bohrens der Spanplatte beobachtet.
Aufgrund dieser Schichtung entstehen Faktor in der erheblichen Qualität der Oberfläche
Material für strukturelle Anwendungen.
Eine Analyse der Literatur zeigt, dass nur wenig Aufmerksamkeit auf das Problem der
Ablösung beim Bohren von laminierten Holzwerkstoffen bezahlt wurde.
In der Literatur, mit einer Reihe von Assessment-Material um das Loch Delamination,
können Sie arbeiten, wo die Autoren Indikatoren zur Messung der maximalen Durchmesser
der beobachteten Aufspaltung formstabil bestimmen die Fläche [1, 2] basieren. Vor kurzem
jedoch einige Autoren in ihren Studien, häufiger anwenden, um das dimensionslose
Verhältnis Schichtung zu bewerten. Die Arbeit von Chen [6] angewendet dimensionslose
103

Verhältnis der maximale Durchmesser des beschädigten Bereich um das Loch (F d ), die als
das Verhältnis der maximalen Durchmesser (D max ) bestimmt wird Delamination Bereich der
Nennweite (D nom ) zugrunde:
D
max
Fd
(1)
Dnom
oder einem ähnlichen Indikator für den Anteil Volumen von Oberflächenschäden:
F
A
Amax
(2)
A
wo: A max [mm 2 ] ist ein Gebiet mit der Randzone und Schichtung verbunden A nom [mm 2 ] ist
ein Bereich der Nennweite (D nom ).
Davim und Reis und andere [4, 7], auch dimensionslose Verhältnisse in ihren Studien.
Indicators (D RAT ), gefolgt von Meht eingeführt, die als das Verhältnis der maximalen
Durchmesser D MAR berechnet wird Delamination Zone der nominalen Fläche A AVG , wie in
Gleichung (3) gezeigt.
nom
D
MAR
DRAT
(3)
A
AVG
Durao [8] und Bhatnagar [3] verwendet ein Indikator basierend auf (F d ), sondern nach
(1), kann eine gewisse Inkonsistenz bemerken. Scope der Schichtung kann der unebenen und
nie einen ausführlich in das gesamte Spektrum der aktuellen Dissektion am Rand des Loches.
Diese Fehler können durch die Einführung des Kriteriums-basierte (D RAT ) oben genannten
durch die Beziehung (3) ausgeglichen werden. Die Arbeit Romoli und Dini [5] Die Autoren
verwendeten eine Schichtung Index (DF), und es ist Beziehung definiert (4), wo A del Bereich
der Dissektion (Abb. 2) ist, ist A nom der nominalen Oberfläche der Bohrung.
DF
A
A
A
* 100%
del nom
(4)
nom
Bild 1. Grafische Darstellung der konventionellen Indikatoren der Schichtung.
Schichtung Indikatoren entweder durch (3) und (4), in der Tat, es spiegelt nicht das wahre
Bild der Schäden gegeben, sie definieren die nur einen Teil beschädigt Oberfläche im
Verhältnis zum Par des Lochs. Wenn die Rate in Gleichung (1) beschrieben nicht
berücksichtigt Größenbereich Schäden um das Loch, und nur der maximale Durchmesser des
Schadens im Fall der Indikatoren (3) und (4) nicht über die Informationen, die sie gaben uns
einen Zeiger (F d ).
104

METHODIK UND ERGEGNISSE
Die Tests wurden auf einem CNC-Bearbeitungszentrum Buselatto JET100, die eine
maximale Spindeldrehzahl 12.000 dirigierte U / min. Als Werkstück, in einem Bohrvorgang
getestet, verwendet Drei-Schicht-Spanplatte (Tabelle 1) mit einer Dicke von 18 mm (Abb. 2a)
Tafel 1.. Mechanische und physikalische Eigenschaften von Spanplatten in der Studie verwendet.
Zugfestigkeit Biegefestigkeit Elastizitätsmodul Luftfeuchtigk Dichte
(N/mm 2 )
(N/mm 2 )
(N/mm 2 )
eit (%) (kg/m 3 )
Spanplatte n >0.35
>013 ≥1600 5-13 650
Norm EN 319 EN 310 EN 310 EN 322 EN 323
Die Studie verwendet eine typische Bohrer Hartmetall K20 mit einem Durchmesser von
10 mm (Abb. 2b), FABA ist für die Verarbeitung von Holzwerkstoffen auf CNC-Maschinen.
Bild 2. Werkstück und Werkzeug.
Tabelle 2 zeigt die Bearbetungsparameter (Schnittgeschwindigkeit und Vorschub) in der
Studie verwendet.
Tafel 2. Bearbeitungsparameter.
Vorschub
Probennummer
br)
Schnittgeschwindigkeit
(m/s)
Drehzahl
(min -1 )
(mm/o
1 0.30 3.14 6000
2 0.30 3.14 6000
3 0.30 3.14 6000
Eine Analyse der Literatur lässt sich in mehrere Techniken, die nützlich sein, zu
analysieren und berechnen Sie die Fläche von Schäden in Composites Bohrarbeiten unterteilt
werden kann. In diesem Papier wurden ein digitales Bild der Delamination Gebiet um das
Loch analysiert, um die Größe des Eingangs-Bits in das Werkstück zu bestimmen.
Delamination Bereich wurde durch die Digitalisierung des Bildes und seiner weiteren
Verarbeitung erhalten. Abbildung 3 zeigt eine schematische Darstellung der Bildverarbeitung
Verfahren zu erhalten Delamination Gebiet um das Loch.
Bild 3. Digitale Bildverarbeitung in LabVIEW a) das digitale Bild, b) Bild nach der Behandlung.
105

Basierend auf der Umfrage, für die Behandlung von Spanplatte Löcher für das Schneiden
der oben die folgenden Ergebnisse für Proben mit einem Kern Kriterium der Abstumpfung
VBmax (Abb. 4 und 5) zu bohren. Für die Bewertung der Oberfläche, als Indikatoren für die
Schichtung, wurde beschlossen, Gleichung (1) verwenden und (2), weil sie sind die am
häufigsten verwendete Indikator zur Delamination zu bewerten.
Bild 4. Wirkung von Werkzeugverschleiß auf Delamination Verhältnis F A
Bild 5. Wirkung von Werkzeugverschleiß auf Delamination Verhältnis F d
In den Abbildungen 4 und 5 zeigt die Wirkung von Werkzeugverschleiß auf
Delamination Index (F A und F d) mit einer konstanten Vorschub von 0,3 (mm / obr). Bei der
Interpretation der Verlauf der beiden Indikatoren lässt sich schließen, dass es eine deutliche
Wirkung auf den Werkzeugverschleiß Werte der beiden Indizes zu brechen. Im Fall des Index
(F d ), haben die Bestimmung Koeffizienten für die drei Schneidwerkzeuge hoch und
vergleichbar zwischen den aufeinanderfolgenden Werkzeug Wert. Außerdem auf der
Grundlage dieser Indikatoren der Schichtung kann geschlossen werden, dass es so eine
unverwechselbare Form der um das Loch Delamination werden.
106

LITERATUR
1. W. Kőnig, C. Wulf, P. Graß, H. Willerscheid, Machining of fibre reinforced plastics,
Annals of the CIRP 34 (1985) 537–547.
2. V. Tagliaferri, G. Caprino, A. Diterlizzi, Effect of drilling parameters on the finish and
mechanical properties of GFRP composites, International Journal of Machine Tools and
Manufacture 30 (1) (1990) 77–84.
3. N. Bhatnagar, I. Singh, D. Nayak, Damage investigations in drilling of glass fiber
reinforced plastic composite laminates, Materials and Manufacturing
Processes19(6)(2004)995–1007.
4. J. P. Davim, P. Reis, Study of delamination in drilling carbon fiber reinforced plastics
(CFRP) using design experiments,Composite Structures 59 (4) (2003) 481–487.
5. L. Romoli, G. Dini, Experimental study on the influence of drillwear in CFRP drilling
process, in:Proceedings of the Sixth CIRP International Conference on Inteligent
Computation in Manufacturing Engineering, Naples, Italy, July 2008.
6. W. C. Chen, Some experimental investigations in the drilling of carbon fiber- reinforced
plastic (CFRP) composite laminates ,International Journal of Machine Tools &
Manufacture 37 (8) (1997) 1097–1108.
7. J. P. Davim, P. Reis, Drilling carbon fiber reinforced plastics manufactured by
autoclave — experimental and statistical study, Materials & Design 24 (5) (2003) 315–
324.
8. L. M. P. Durao, A. G. Magalhaes, A. T. Marques, J. Manuel, R. S. Tavares, Effect of
drilling parameters on composite plates damage, in: Proceedings of the International
Conference HSIMP 2007—High Speed Industrial Manufacturing processes, Senlis,
France, November 2007.
9. Zhao, H., Ehmann, K.F., 2002. Development and performance analysis of new spade bit
designs. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 42, 1403–1414.
10. Philbin, P., Gordon, S., 2006. Recent research on the machining of wood-based
composite materials. Int. J. Mach. Machinab. Mater. 1, 186–201.
11. Lin, R.J., Van Houts, J., Bhattacharyya, D., 2006. Machinability investigation of
medium-density fibreboard. Holzforschung 60, 71–77.
12. Dippon, J., Ren, H., Amara, F.B., Altintas, Y., 2000. Orthogonal cutting mechanics of
medium density fibreboards. For. Prod. J. 50, 25–30.
13. Engin, S., Altintas, Y., Amara, F.B., 2000. Mechanics of routing medium density
fibreboard. For. Prod. J. 50, 65–69.
Streszczenie: Wpływ zużycia narzędzia na jakość powierzchni obrobionej przy wierceniu
płyty wiórowej . W artykule przedstawiono wpływ zużycia narzędzia na jakość powierzchni
obrobionej przy wierceniu płyty wiórowej melaminowanej.
Corresponding author:
Joanna Zielińska-Szwajka
Faculty of Wood Technology
Warsaw Agricultural University
02-776 Warsaw
Nowoursynowska 159 str.
Poland
jzielinska@poczta.onet.pl
107

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 108-115
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Torque and thrust force in drilling
KRZYSZTOF SZWAJKA
1) Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Abstract: Model torque and thrust force in drilling. A theoretical model to predict thrust force and torque in
drilling is presented. The method consists of determining the continuous distributions of thrust and torque along
the lip and the chisel edge of a twist drill. The calculation uses the oblique cutting model for the lip and the
orthogonal cutting model for the chisel edge. Thrust and torque are obtained in terms of the geometric features of
the drill, the cutting conditions and the properties of the machined material.
Keywords: Theoretical model, drilling; thrust force, torque
INTRODUCTION
Drilling is probably the most important conventional mechanical process associated with
chipboard processing. In the furniture industry, for instance, large quantities of holes have to
be drilled due to the use of connections, handles and hinges. A considerable part of the current
research effort in this field is still being devoted to major process-optimization issues such as
the most appropriate cutting parameters or tool geometries.
Chipboard drilling require different process parameter optimization approaches: in the
former process, the smoothness of the surface processed and tool wear are equally important;
in chipboard drilling, the former parameter is prioritized over the latter given the difficulty to
drill laminate without producing unacceptable cracks.
A suitable model would assist in a focused selection of the most appropriate feed rates,
spindle speeds and geometrical cutting tool shapes. A detailed review of dynamic cutting
models is provided in Ehmann et al. [1].
The study of drilling has often presented some difficulties which are linked to the
complex geometry of the twist drill (Fig. 1). In practice, generally empirical equations are
used to calculate thrust force and torque. These equations are very approximate, because they
do not take all the cutting parameters into account. They often use only the feed speed and the
diameter of the drill.
Figure 1. View showing geometric data of a twist drill.
108

Few theoretical works have been undertaken on drilling. Bera and Bhattacharya [2]
described the first attempt to use a cutting model to determine torque and thrust in drilling.
They analyzed the whole drill and considered that the chisel edge acted as an indenting tool
and the lip as a cutting tool. They assumed that the resultant force per unit length of the lip is
constant.
They assumed that the resultant force per unit length of the lip is constant. Williams [3]
recognised the significance of the feed on the resultant velocity and on altering the cutting
geometry. In making predictions of torque and thrust, Williams argued that a portion of the
drill acted as an orthogonal cutting edge because the cutting velocity is assumed to be
perpendicular to the cutting edge.
In 1972 Armarego and Cheng [4] proposed an approach to predict thrust and torque
during drilling for a conventional drill and a modified drill in order to simplify the
calculations. The method of calculation used the orthogonal cutting model and the oblique
cutting model, and was also used in 1979 by Wiriyacosol and Armarego [5]. Basically, this
method consists of dividing the cutting edges into a limited number of cutting elements.
These elements were assumed to be oblique cutting edges on the cutting lip and orthogonal
cutting edges on the chisel edge. The calculation used empirical equations established from
orthogonal cutting tests. In most of the methods mentioned above, the major problem was to
choose the number of cutting elements, and to determine the empirical equations for some
cutting parameters.
More recently Watson [6–10] initially used practically the same method, with a different
geometry. He developed a model for the chisel edge and the lip from the orthogonal cutting
model and the oblique cutting model, respectively. The author initially used the same
principle which consisted of dividing drill edges into a number of elementary cutting edges.
Watson [7] recognised that the chips front the lips and the chisel edges are continuous across
their width and that continuity imposes a restriction on the possible variation of the chip flow
angle across those edges.
Other works have been interested in particular drilling operations, such as deep hole
drilling [11,12], using an experimental model, and drilling with a three-cutting-edge drill
[13,14]. Most of the models for drilling presented above were based on experimental
measurements.
MODEL OF DRILLING
The model that will be studied in this work uses the geometry of a conventional twist
drill. It is based on an analysis of the thrust and the torque continuity, from the force
distribution along the cutting edges. It uses no preliminary experimental results. The purpose
of the study is to establish predictive formulae to calculate thrust amid torque of drilling.
This theoretical model is based on the development of the shear zone model established
by Oxley [15] for the cutting of metals, in the two cutting parts of a twist drill via the lip and
the chisel edge. It is a purely analytical method, which makes it possible to determine thrust
and torque according to the geometry of the tool and the cutting conditions. Although several
investigations on drilling [2,3] have used the orthogonal cutting model to describe the
deformation of the machined material about the lip and the chisel edge, other authors [4,5]
have shown that the oblique cutting model gives a better approximation of the cutting
mechanism for the lip. Concerning the chisel edge, its geometry does not set any major
problem for the modelling of thrust and torque, except for the zone situated in the vicinity of
the drill centre which will be discussed further in the article.
Before developing this model, it is necessary to give a geometrical characterization of a
standard twist drill. Indeed, the form of a standard twist drill is characterized by the symmetry
around its axis, and the type of sharpening. The three sharpening types most used for twist
109

drills are described in the work of Armarego and Wright [16]. They are defined by
geometrical parameters which depend on the cutting geometry of the two active parts of the
twist drill, the lip and the chisel edge. These parameters are: 2κ r : point angle, τ: chisel edge
angle, 2w: lip spacing.
Parameters defined above are illustrated by Figure 1; they constitute the basic data for the
determination of the necessary parameters used in the drilling force calculations.
The method used for the calculation of thrust and torque on the cutting lip of the drill
consists of determining the element of the thrust dF l , and the element of the torque dM l for an
element dl of the lip at an arbitrary point M on the edge, situated at a radius r from the drill
axis. Force distributions along the lip are obtained using geometrical parameters, cutting
conditions and properties of the machined material. Because of the symmetry around the drill
axis the study will be done for one lip. The cutting geometry at a point M (Fig. 2) is such that
the cutting speed and the tangent to the cutting edge at this point are not perpendicular.
Consequently, an analysis using oblique cutting is a better approach to describe the cutting
process on this part of the drill.
Figure 2. Edge geometry at a cutting point on the lip.
The geometry described in the work of Wiriyacosol and Armarego [5] for a conventional
twist drill will be used to determine, according to the position of the cutting point M,
trigonometrical relationships between the different angles. The speed of any point M on the
edge situated at a radius r from the drill axis is also determined. The drilling investigations
[4–10] have used existent models of orthogonal cutting and oblique cutting. Those models
were based on the same technique of dividing the edges of the drill into elementary cutting
edges, and applying thereafter on those edges, the oblique cutting model and the orthogonal
cutting model.
The model proposed in this work was inspired by the previously mentioned works and
takes the whole cutting edge into account. The notion of the number of elements is
suppressed, as well as the preliminary experimental tests, which were necessary in the works
mentioned above. This new model is continuous and predictive.
110

Determination of necessary parameters for the calculation of thrust and torque
Increments of thrust dF pr and torque dM pr are determined by supposing that the cutting
geometry is approximately static (f

Calculation of the thrust force and the torque distributions
f sinr
cos
t1
(9)
2
Determination of the increments dF l and dM pr at point M (Fig. 3) is undertaken using the
oblique cutting model established by Oxley [15]. The basis of this model is to analyze the
stresses along the shear plane and the tool/chip interface so that the resultant force transmitted
by the shear plane and the interface are in equilibrium. The thrust force element dF l and the
torque dM pr are determined in terms of the differential force dF C in the direction parallel to
the cutting speed V c , the differential force dF T in the direction perpendicular to the cutting
speed and to the cutting edge at point M, and the differential force dF R in the direction
perpendicular to dF C and dF T as shown by Fig. 3. The differential element of shear force dF s
is given for an element of the lip dl by:
ks
t1
dl
dFs
(10)
sin
where, n is the normal shear angle and k s is the shear flow stress along the shear plane. n
and k s are calculated using the model of Oxley [15]. Replacing t 1 and dl by their respective
expression given in Eqs. (8) and (9), gives the following formula:
f cos
r
dFs
ks
dr
(11)
2 sin
2 2
n r w
Then it is possible to determine force components dF C ’ , dF T ’ , dF T
’
and
dF
dF
n
cos( )
(Fig. 3):
'
n n
C
dFs
(12)
sinn
sin( )
'
n n
T
dFs
(13)
cosn
' 2 ' 2 1
dFC
dFT
sinn
tgc
'
dFR
(14)
2
where dF ’ C is normal to the cutting edge and situated in the plane of the cutting edge and the
cutting speed, dF ’ T is normal to the machined surface and dF ’ R is normal to dF ’ C and dF ’ T .
Elements of force dF C , dF T and dF R are then given by the following formulae:
and
dF
C
'
'
dF cos dF sin
(15)
C
R
'
dFT dF T
(16)
dF
R
'
'
dF cos dF sin
(17)
R
C
where dF C and dF R are perpendicular and situated in the plane of dF ’ C and dF ’ R . dF C and dF R
’
make respectively an angle λ with dF C and dF ’ ’
R . Elements of forces dF T and dF T are
identical. From these elements of forces at point M, the thrust force element dF l and the
torque element dM pr are found from the following formulae:
2 2
2 2 1
dFl
dFT
dFC
cos
dFR
sin
sinn
n
sin
r
dFC
sin
dFR
coscos
r
2
(18)
dM
l
rdF C
(19)
Substituting for the various force elements, the following formulae are obtained.
112

dFl
dr
k
with
n n
r c n r
f cos
A
s
1
2sin
cos
2 2
n
n
r w
A1 sin
sin
tg
sin
cos
and
dM
l
f cos
r
ks
A2
dr 2 sin
cos
2
n
n
r w
A cos
cos tg
sin
sin
with
2 n n c n
.
Besides the geometrical data of the drill and the cutting parameters at point M, it is necessary
to know the normal friction angle λ n , between the tool and the chip, the normal shear angle n ,
the chip flow angle η c and the relationship between the chip thickness and the cutting depth.
The determination of these parameters is made from the shear zone model in oblique cutting
[15]. Each parameter is a linear or non linear function of radius r which defines the distance
from the cutting point to the drill axis. At each cutting point, tile oblique cutting model is
applied. An iterative calculation is used to obtain tile normal shear angle n . The convergence
of the iteration allows the determination of the parameters quoted above. This operation is
undertaken for all values of r in the range [d 1 /2, d/2] so as to cover the entire lip.
Calculation of the total thrust force and the total torque
In calculating the shear angle, cutting forces etc. at a point M, the given information will be
the tool normal rake angle λ n , the cutting speed V c , and the thickness t 1 , together with the
thermal and flow stress properties of the work material and the initial temperature of the
work. The method of calculation uses the same iterations on the shear angle n and the
temperature along the shear zone T AB as in the model of Oxley [15]. Knowing those elements
of force and torque determined previously, which are given according to the position of point
M, the total cutting force and torque are obtained by integrating the dM l and dF l expressions,
from the boundary between the lip and the chisel edge to the periphery of the drill.
d
r
2
(20)
(21)
2
dFl
Fl
2 dr
(22)
dr
M
l
d1
2
d
2
dM
l
2 dr
(23)
dr
d1
2
dF l
/ dr , and / dr are replaced by their respective expressions, the following formulae are
obtained:
d
dM l
sin
r
cos
r
sin
sin
cos dr
2
f
Fl 2 ks
n n
r
r
d
2sinn
cos
2
n
r w
M
l
1
2
d
2
f sin
r
cos
2
ks
cos
n n
sin
cos
d 2
1
2
n
n
dr
r
2
r
w
2
2
(24)
(25)
113

CONCLUSION
The idea of considering the lip as a series of elementary edges [3–9], which has been
applied in the preceding works, does not take the mechanical reality of the cutting mechanism
into account. Indeed, according to experimental observations, the chip is not fragmented
along its width. For the cutting edges, the variation of the cutting parameters is significant,
and cannot be neglected on an elementary cutting edge. Thus, the presented method is
realistic and makes it possible to analyze the cutting process without any approximation that
might introduce additional errors.
LITERATURE
1. K.F. Ehmann, S.G. Kapoor, R.E. Devor, I. Lazoglu, Machining process modeling: a
review. Journal Manufacturing Science Engineering, 119, (1997): 655–663.
2. S.K. Bera, A. Bhattacharyya, Mechanics of drilling process, Journal Inst. Engineering
(India) ME 6 46 ,(11), (1966): 265–276.
3. R.A. Williams, A theoretical and experimental study of the mechanics of the drilling
process, PhD thesis, University of South Wales, 1968.
4. E.J.A. Armarego, C.Y. Cheng, Drilling with rake face and conventional twist drills. i:
Theoretical investigation, Int. J. Mach. Tool Des. Res. 12 (1972) 17.
5. S. Wiriyacosol, E.J.A. Armarego, Thrust and torque prediction in drilling from a
cutting mechanics approach, Annals of the CIRP, 28 (1), (1979) 87.
6. A.R. Watson, Geometry of drill elements, Int. J. Mach. Tool Des. Res. 25 (3) (1985)
209–227.
7. A.R. Watson, Drilling model for cutting lip and chisel edge ad comparison of
experimental and predicted results. i—initial cutting lip model, Int. J. Mach. Tool Des.
Res. 25 (4) (1985) 347–365.
8. A.R. Watson, Drilling model for cutting lip and chisel edge ad comparison of
experimental and predicted results. ii—revised cutting lip model, Int. J. Mach. Tool
Des. Res. 25 (4) (1985) 367–376.
9. A.R. Watson, Drilling model for cutting lip and chisel edge ad comparison of
experimental and predicted results. iii—drilling model for chisel edge, Int. J. Mach.
Tool Des. Res. 25 (4) (1985) 377–392.
10. A.R. Watson, Drilling model for cutting lip and chisel edge and comparison of
experimental and predicted results. iv—drilling tests to determine chisel edge
contribution to torque and thrust, Int. J. Mach. Tool Des. Res. 25 (4) (1985) 394–404.
11. B.J. Griffiths, R.J. Grieve, Modeling complex force systems, part 1: The cutting and
pad forces in deep drilling, Trans. ASME, J. Eng. Ind. 115 (1993) 169–176.
12. B.J. Griffiths, R.J. Grieve, Modeling complex force systems, part 2: A decomposition
of the pad forces in deep drilling, Trans. ASME, J. Eng. Ind. 115 (1993) 177–183.
13. H.-T. Huang, Prediction of thrust and torque for multifacet drills (mfd), Trans. ASME,
J. Eng. Ind. 116 (1994), 1–7.
14. H.-T. Huang, Analysis of clearance and rake angles along cutting edge for multifacet
drills (mfd), Trans. ASME, J. Eng. Ind. 116 (1994) 8–16.
15. P.L.B. Oxley, Modeling machining processes with a view to their optimization,
Robobotics and Computer Integrated Manufacturing 4 (1988), 103–119.
114

16. J.A. Armarego, J.D. Wright, An analytical study of three point grinding methods for
general purpose twist drills, Annals of the CIRP 29 (1) (1980), 5–10.
Streszczenie: Model momentu i siły w procesie wiercenia. W artykule przedstawiono
teoretyczny model do przewidywania siły skrawania i moment przy wierceniu. Metoda polega
na wyznaczeniu rozkładu siły i momentu wzdłuż krawędzi wiertła. Do obliczeń zastosowano
model ortogonalnego skrawania. Siłę i moment uzyskuje się w zależności od cech
geometrycznych narzędzia, warunków skrawania i właściwości obrabianego materiału. W nie
uwzględniono wpływu ścina wiertła.
Corresponding author:
Krzysztof Szwajka
Faculty of Wood Technology
Warsaw Agricultural University
02-776 Warsaw
Nowoursynowska 159 str.
kszwajka@poczta.onet.pl
115

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 116-119
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Relationship between cutting speed and tool life observed for MDF milling
process
KAROL SZYMANOWSKI , JAROSŁAW GÓRSKI
Wood Mechanical Processing Department, Warsaw University of Life Sciences– SGGW
Abstract: Relationship between cutting speed and tool life observed for MDF milling process. In this article the
effect of cutting speed on tool life was presented. During the experiments a single point tool (milling head) was
used. According to the empirical data the “cutting speed – tool life” curve was determined.
Keywords: milling, tool life, cutting speed
INTRODUCTION
The milling of MDF is a very often used in the wood industry, especially in furniture
manufacturing, machining process. During manufacturing a high level of cutting performance
and long life of cutting tools are the most important from practical point of view. Both above
things (cutting performance and tool life) are closely related to cutting speed [Porankiewicz
1993, Stefaniak 1970]. The basic aim of this paper is to analyze the relationship between
cutting speed and tool life observed for MDF milling process.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experiments were made by means of the standard CNC milling centre (BUSELLATO
JET 130). In the study the milling head from FABA company was used (Fig.1). Diameter of
milling head (i.e. cutting diameter) was 40mm. The milling head was single point tool.
Cutting wedge was made of standard carbide - KCR08. The tool wedge angle was 76 degrees.
During the experiments the grooving process was done. The depth of the groove was 6 mm
and the length was 2800 mm (Fig.2). The tool wear was monitored using the VBmax
indicator (maximum width of wear observed on clearance face of cutting edge). VBmax
indicator was monitored by means of the workshop microscope (Mitutoyo TM-505). The
arbitrarily adopted tool-life criterion was VBmax = 0,2 mm. The experiments were done
using the five cutting speed and constant feed per revolution. Total range of cutting condition
is specified in Tab.1. The relationship “cutting speed – tool life” was determined by means of
on the results of six tests (six cutting wedge were used).
Tab.1 Milling parameters
116

Fig.1 Milling cutter
Fig.2 Grooves made in MDF particleboard
RESULTS
The basic results of the experiments are shown in Fig.3. This figure contains different
tool wear curves which were observed for five different cutting speeds. It is very clear that the
greater cutting speed the faster progress in tool wear. This observation is especially evident
when the tool wear indicator (VBmax) was above 0,15 mm (Fig.3). These data were a base of
tool life determination. Fig.4 shows the relationship between cutting speed and tool life. The
non-linear trend of above relationship (i.e. “cutting speed – tool life” curve) was determined.
Fig. 3. Value of tool wear indicator (VBmax) as a function of time for different cutting speed
117

Fig. 4. Relationship between cutting speed and tool life
CONCLUSION
The results of the study allow to formulate the following conclusion: the greater
cutting speed of MDF milling the faster progress in tool wear. The non-linear trend of this
relationship was observed.
118

REFERENCES
1. JEMIELNIAK K.,1998: Obróbka skrawaniem” Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki
Warszawskiej”
2. PORANKIEWICZ B.,1985: Wybrane problemy z narzędzi skrawających do obróbki
drewna. Wydawnictwo Akademii Rolniczej w Poznaniu
3. PORANKIEWICZ B., 2003: Tępienie się ostrzy i jakość przedmiotu obrabianego w
skrawaniu płyt wiórowych. Roczniki Akademii Rolniczej w Poznaniu, Rozprawy
Naukowe, zeszyt 341, Poznań.
4. STEFANIAK W.,1970: Wpływ szybkości skrawania na tępienie się ostrzy pił tarczowych z
nakładkami z węglików spiekanych przy piłowaniu płyt wiórowych. Folia For. Pol.
B,9:66-77
Streszczenie: Zależność między prędkością skrawania a trwałością narzędzia podczas
frezowania płyt MDF. W artykule omówiono wpływ prędkości skrawania na trwałość
narzędzi. Podczas eksperymentów wykorzystywano narzędzie jednoostrzowe (głowicę
frezową). Na podstawie danych empirycznych wyznaczono krzywą odzwierciedlającą
zależność między prędkością skrawania a trwałością narzędzia.
Acknowledgement: This paper was prepared within the project” Machinability of wood
materials”, which was financed by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education
(grant No. NN309007537).
Corresponding authors:
Karol Szymanowski
Faculty of Wood Technology SGGW,
Wood Mechanical Processing Department,
ul. Nowoursynowska 159,
02-776 Warsaw,
Poland
e-mail: karol_szymanowski@sggw.pl
Jarosław Górski
Faculty of Wood Technology SGGW,
Wood Mechanical Processing Department,
ul. Nowoursynowska 159,
02-776 Warsaw,
Poland
e-mail: jaroslaw_gorski@sggw.pl
119

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 120-123
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Relative machinability index of chipboard based on tool life testing
KAROL SZYMANOWSKI, JAROSŁAW GÓRSKI
Wood Mechanical Processing Department, Warsaw University of Life Sciences– SGGW
Abstract: Relative machinability index of chipboard based on tool life. This article presents the experimental
study of wood-based materials machinability. During the experiment two materials were machined: MDF (as a
reference material) and raw chipboard (as a tested materials). The conventional, relative machinability index was
determined. The effect of cutting speed was taking into account.
Keywords: machinability, wood-based materials, tool life, cutting speed
INTRODUCTION
The machinability is a very specific technological feature of material which can be
defined in a most simply way as a vulnerability to machining process [Górski, Podziewski,
Szymanowski 2010]. According to Jemielniak [1998] or Dmochowski [1980] one of the most
important (essential for engineering practice) criterion of machinability is tool life.
The conventional machinability means that all experimental procedures must be
realized in cutting conditions which are conventional, identical for each of the tested
materials. Relative conventional machinability means that some reference material must be
adopted. For this reference material 100% machinability index should be assumed. During
comparative tests of the machinability of different materials it is possible to apply quite
simple procedure. For example the relative machinability index of tested material X can be
determined as follows [Górski, Podziewski, Szymanowski 2010]:
M X = (T X /T S ) 100% (1)
where:
M X – calculated machinability index of material X,
T X - tool life determined for the tested material X,
T S - tool life determined for the reference (standard) material S.
The aim of the paper is to determine the relative machinability index of raw chipboard.
As a reference material the medium-density fibreboard (MDF) was adopted.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
During the experiment two materials were machined: MDF (as a reference material)
and raw chipboard (as a tested materials). Machinability index of MDF (as a reference
material) was assumed as 100%. Both boards had a thickness of 18mm. Machining was done
by means of standard CNC machine (BUSELLATO JET 130). The tool was milling head
(diameter 40mm) supplied by FABA company. There was one knife made of carbide (type of
carbide was KCR08) in the tool. The machining operation was grooving (the depth of the
groove was 6 mm). Research was conducted with the use of the five speeds of the spindle and
a constant feed per revolution (Tab.1). To determine the degree of tool wear, the VBmax
indicator (maximum width of wear observed on clearance face of cutting edge - Fig.1) was
120

used. The criterion of blunting was adopted at the level of 0,2 mm. VBmax indicator was
observed by means of the workshop microscope (Mitutoyo TM-505).
The relationship between tool life and cutting speed was taken into account. So the
classic Taylor formula was used:
T = C (V) k (2)
where:
T – tool life [min],
V – cutting speed [m/s],
k, C – constants.
Tab.1 Milling parameters used in the study
Fig.1. General view of tool wear indicator - VB max
RESULTS
The basic results of experiments are shown in Fig. 2. It is worth noting that this is a
double logarithmic scale chart. Trends observed for both material are analogical (the higher
level of the cutting speed the lower tool durability), strong linear (coefficients of
determination were equal 0,98 and 0,92) and almost parallel. However it is very clear that tool
121

life observed for MDF is longer than for raw chipboard. On the base of experimental results
the Taylor formulas for both materials were determined:
T MDF = 515000 (V) -2,38 (3)
T X = 4550 (V) -2,14 (4)
where:
T MDF – tool life observed for MDF [min]
T X – tool life observed for raw chipboard [min]
V – cutting speed [m/s]
Consequently the relative machinability index of raw chipboard can be determined,
according to formula (1), as follows:
M X = (T X /T MDF ) 100 [%] = 0,88 (V) 0,24 [%] (5)
Above relationship can be illustrated by means of Fig.3. In the cutting speed range
which was taking into account (20,9 ÷ 37,7 m/s) the relative machinability index of raw
chipboard is between 1,8 % and 2,1 %. Generally speaking the average value of the relative
machinability index of raw chipboard was about 2 %.
Fig.2. Double logarithmic scale chart which illustrates relationship between cutting speed (V [m/s])
and tool life (T [min])
Fig.3. Relationship between cutting speed (V [m/s]) and relative machinability index of chipboard
(Mx [%])
122

CONCLUSIONS
1. Relationships between tool life and cutting speed observed for the MDF and for raw
chipboard are analogical. The classic Taylor formula turned out to be enough useful to
describe it.
2. However the tool life observed for MDF was longer (about 50 times) than for raw
chipboard. So the relative machinability index of raw chipboard based on tool life was
about 2 %.
REFERENCES
1. GÓRSKI J., PODZIEWSKI P., SZYMANOWSKI K.: 2010: Fundamentals of
experimental studies of wood and wood based materials machinability. Wood machining
and processing- product and tooling quality development. SGGW
2. DMOCHOWSKI J., 1980: Obróbka skrawaniem i obrabiarki. PWN
3. JEMIELNIAK K.,1998: Obróbka skrawaniem” Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki
Warszawskiej”
Streszczenie: Względny wskaźnik skrawalności płyty wiórowej oparty na badaniach trwałości
narzędzia. W artykule przedstawiono badania dotyczące skrawalności materiałów
drewnopochodnych. W trakcie eksperymentu skrawano dwa materiały: MDF (jako materiał
referencyjny) i surową płytę wiórową (jako materiał badany). Ustalono konwencjonalny,
względny wskaźnik skrawalności. Wpływ prędkości skrawania na trwałość narzędzia
posłużył do określenia wskaźnika.
Acknowledgement: This paper was prepared within the project” Machinability of wood
materials”, which was financed by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education (No.
NN309007537 grant).
Corresponding author:
Karol Szymanowski
Faculty of Wood Technology SGGW,
Wood Mechanical Processing Department,
ul. Nowoursynowska 159,
02-776 Warsaw,
Poland
e-mail: karol_szymanowski@sggw.pl
123

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 124-128
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Comparative wear analysis of modified cutters during processing of milling
of selected wood-based materials
WALDEMAR SZYMAŃSKI 1 , ADAM GILEWICZ 2 , GRZEGORZ PINKOWSKI 1 , ANDRZEJ
CZYŻNIEWSKI 2
1 Department of Woodworking Machinery and Basis of Machine Construction, Poznań University of Life Sciences
2 Institute of Mechatronics, Nanotechnology & Vacuum Technique, Koszalin University of Technology
Abstract: Comparative wear analysis of modified cutters during processing of milling of selected wood-based
materials. This study presents comparative investigations of durability of cutters covered with different variants
of antiwear coatings. The impact of hard coatings spread on faces of cutters on the wear of cutting edges during
the process of milling of chipboards and MDFs was investigated. Every time, the wear of the cutting edge caused
by milling chipboards and MDFs was determined in the area of the same cutter utilising the entire length of the
main milling edge which guaranteed the same characteristics of the applied coating. The edge wear surface area
was measured using, for this purpose, a surface analyser. It was established that milling chip boards and MDFs
of similar mean density using cutters made from high-speed steel covered with antiwear coatings of different
characteristics caused, for each of the examined cutting edges, at least over 50 times greater wear during
chipboard milling. The character of the obtained wear curves makes it possible to assume that the applied milling
method will allow initial assessment of edge durability, especially in the case of MDF and will make it possible,
on this basis, to plan the timetable of investigations.
Keywords: antiwear coatings, milling, cutting edge wear, chipboard, MDF
INTRODUCTION
At the present time, in the case of furniture industry, mainly such furniture board
materials as chipboards and MDFs are used to manufacture constructions of furniture bodies.
Elements exerting a decisive impact on both efficiency and quality of furniture body
production include all factors from the so called WM/PO/T (woodworking machine –
processed object - tool) system. The choice of the constituent elements of this system is
a resultant of the production technology advancement. The factor that exerts a decisive impact
on processing results is the condition and durability of the cutting edge. Many processing
operations are carried out employing heads of different mounting systems of milling cutters.
Cutters are most frequently manufactured from such materials of high-speed steel (HSS) and
cemented carbide (HM). These materials are very popular and are characterised by defined
possibilities regarding exploitation durability. Covering cutters with various antiwear coatings
aims at increasing durability of cutter edges as well as improvement of the functional values
regarding better milling results. Investigations in this field have been carried out by
researchers for many years [3-5, 7].
Klimczyk et al. [2] reported that among possible ways of modification of composite
coatings are multilayers composed of two or more layers manufactured from various materials
and added that, in recent years, the interest in production of multilayers based on chromium
nitride increased markedly. In their publication, Gilewicz et al. [1] concluded that tools with
CrCN/CrN multilayer coatings improved the quality of the processed wood surface in
comparison with cutters without coatings, while Szymański et al. [6], in their article, maintain
that covering tools with hard antiwear multilayer CrCN/CrN-type coatings improves cutting
edge durability during pinewood milling.
An important problem associated with investigations on durability of cutting edges in
laboratory conditions is their time- and material consumption. Within the framework of the
presented experiments, an attempt was made to accelerate the cycle of the cutting edge wear
using HSS cutters covered with selected variants of composite coatings to mill chipboards and
124

MDFs and to obtain data regarding possibilities of utilisation of this kind of cutters for milling
selected wood-based materials.
The objective of investigations was to compare durability of cutting edges of cutters
for milling heads used for milling chipboards and MDFs. The experimental cutters were made
from high-speed steel (HSS) with edges modified with four kinds of antiwear coatings of
varying architecture.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Investigations were performed on a bottom-spindle woodworking machine (Felder).
Prior to the initiation of investigations, geometric and static accuracy of the woodworking
machine was checked. During milling, the local device for chip removal was applied.
Investigations were conducted using 40x30x3 mm cutters (FABA), of 45 o tool angle,
manufactured from high-speed steel SW 18 onto which special antiwear coatings were
applied. Cutters were mounted in a three-edge, cylinder mill head by means of clips.
A 16 mm thick MDF and a three-layer 12 mm thick chipboard were used in the
performed experiments. Milling was carried out on specially prepared board panels 250 mm
wide and 2 m long. Mean densities of experimental boards were as follows: MDF - ~740
kg/m 3 and chipboard - ~785 kg/m 3 .
The designations of the experimental cutters with four variants of antiwear coatings
were as follows: C1 cutter – a Cr 2 N + CrN monolayer, C2 cutter – a CrN/CrN + TiAlN/TiAlN
multilayer, DLC cutter – amorphous carbon and W-DLC cutter – a nanocomposite coating.
The antiwear coatings were developed and spread on cutters at the Centre of Vacuous-Plasma
Technology of the Institute of Mechatronics, Nanotechnology & Vacuum Technique of
Koszalin University of Technology.
Narrow planes of both medium densuty and chip boards were milled with milling
heights of H = 16 mm in the case of MDF and H = 12 mm of chipboard. The remaining
parameters were as follow: thickness of the milled layer h = 1 mm, spindle rotational speed -
n = 6000 min -1 , feed speed - v f = 6.3 m · min -1 (three-rolled Felder feed device was applied),
milling speed - v c = 35.8 m · s -1 and feed per cutting edge - p z = 1.05 mm.
Milling investigations on both the MDF and chip boards were conducted using the
same cutters utilising optimally the entire length of the upper milling edge. This research
approach allowed unequivocal comparative reference to the characteristics and architecture of
the applied antiwear coatings.
Cutting edge wear measurements were carried out on a modernised surface analyser
ME10 (Carl Zeiss Jena) workstation. Utilisation of this profilograph made it possible to obtain
high measurement density on the entire area of the cutting edge. A special measuring stylus of
25 µm rounding radius and 3 mm length of the measuring edge as well as a µDAQ-Lite
measuring module were employed which were coupled with a PC and special software.
Cutters were mounted in a repeatable manner in a specially designed grip. The registered wear
profiles were recorded as ASCII files. The employed software allowed comparison of
diagrams from different stages of investigations and calculation of areas of the cutting edges.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 presents types and characteristics of coatings applied onto cutting edges of
cutters used in the described investigations.
125

Table 1. Types and characteristics of antiwear coatings used in experiments
Cutter C1 C2 DLC W-DLC
Type of coating monolayer multilayer amorphous nanocomposite
Coating composition Cr 2 N+CrN CrN/CrN+TiAlN/TiAlN
amorphous
carbon
Nanocrystalline separations of
wolfram carbides (WC)
in amorphous matrix of
hydrogenated carbon (a - C : H)
Coating thickness [µm] 2.38 3.43 1.8 2.9
Coating hardness[GPa] 24 18 41 19.3
Surface roughness Ra [µm] 0.1 0.33 0.2 0.06
Figure 1 shows calotest friction track of the selected C1 and C2 coatings of applied
onto cutters used in experiments.
Fig. 1. Calotest friction track of the C1 and C2 coatings
The diagram (Fig. 2) presents research results of cutters cutting edge wear covered
with different combinations of antiwear coatings applied in the discussed experiments
depending on the milling distance in the course of milling of MDF and chip boards.
126

Fig. 2. Dependence of the cutting edge area in the milling distance function for cutters with different architecture
of antiwear coatings during milling of MDF and chipboard
The presented diagram (Fig. 2) shows a distinctly greater wear of all the examined
cutting edges from high-speed steel covered with different antiwear coatings in the course of
milling of the experimental chipboard than of the MDF. Both the chipboard as well as the
MDF were milled using the same cutting edge utilising the entire length of the main milling
edge (Fig. 3). The observed wear areas of the cutting edges show that, in the case of
chipboard processing, the wear of each of the examined cutting edges was distinctly greater
(at least by more than 50 times) in comparison with the milling of the MDF. The performed
analysis of edge durability (Fig. 2) makes it possible to conclude that the best results were
obtained for the cutting edge of the W-DLC cutter with the nanocomposite coating and for the
cutting edge of the DLC cutter with the amorphous coating, both in the course of MDF and
chipboard milling.
a
b
c
Fig. 3. Wear images of cutting edges of the DLC cutter: left side – chipboard (5 m); right side – MDF (50 m); a –
wear profilogram, b – cutting edge of a cutter, c – general view of the cutter
CONCLUSIONS
The milling of chipboards and MDF of similar mean densities with cutting edges of
high-speed steel covered with antiwear coatings of different characteristics and architecture
caused, in the case of each of the examined edges, over 50 times greater wear in the course of
chipboard milling.
The comparison of cutting edges of the experimental cutters made of high-speed steel
and modified using four different variants of antiwear coatings used in this investigation
revealed that the W-DLC cutter with a nanocomposite coating was characterised by the best
durability during machining of the chipboard and MDF.
The character of the obtained individual wear curves made it possible to conclude that
the applied method of milling of wood-based materials using cutting edges of high speed steel
covered with antiwear coatings of different structure will accelerate, especially in the case of
MDF, the initial assessment of durability of cutting edges and facilitate planning of research
timetable on this basis.
127

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Investigations were carried out within the project: “Hybrid technologies for
woodworking tools modifications” co-financed by the European Regional Development Fund
under the Operational Programme Innovative Economy”.
REFERENCES
1. Gilewicz A., Warcholiński B., Mysliński P., Szymański W. (2010): Anti-wear
multilayer coatings based on chromium nitride for wood machining tools, Wear
270/2010: 32 –38.
2. Klimczyk P., Kowaluk G., Szymański W., Beer P., Zbieć M. (2008): Nowe
materiały do produkcji narzędzi stosowanych do obróbki drewna i materiałów
drewnopochodnych. Przemysł drzewny. Nr 8/2008: 45 – 47.
3. Novueau C., Jorand E., Decès-Petit C., Labidi C., Djouadi A. A.(2005): Influence of
carbide substrates on tribological properties of chromium nitride coatings:
application to wood machining. Wear 258, 157-165.
4. Polcar T., Cvrček L., Široký P., Novák R. (2005): Tribological characteristics of
Cr(CN) coatings at elevated temperature. Vacuum 80, 113-116.
5. Seok J. W., Jadeed N. M., Lin R. Y. (2001): Sputter deposited nanocrystalline Cr
and CrN coatings on steels. Surf. Coat. Technol. 138, 14-22.
6. Szymański W., Gilewicz A., Pinkowski G., Beer P. (2010): Durability of blades
covered by multilayer anti-wear coatings during wood milling Ann. WULS -
SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology, 68/2009: 353 – 357.
7. Warcholiński B., Gilewicz A., Kukliński Z., Myśliński P. (2009): Arc-evaporated
CrN and CrCN coatings. Vacuum 83, 715-718.
Streszczenie: Analiza porównawcza zużycia ostrzy modyfikowanych podczas obróbki
wybranych tworzyw drzewnych. W pracy przedstawiono badania porównawcze trwałości
ostrzy pokrytych różnymi wariantami powłok przeciwzużyciowych. Badano wpływ twardych
powłok nakładanych na powierzchnie natarcia noży, na zużycie ostrzy, w czasie frezowania
płyty wiórowej i płyty MDF. Zużycie ostrza, wynikające z frezowania płyty wiórowej i płyty
MDF, określano każdorazowo w obszarze tego samego noża, wykorzystując całą długość
głównej krawędzi skrawającej, co gwarantowało taką samą charakterystykę nałożonej
powłoki. Mierzono pole powierzchni zużycia ostrza z zastosowaniem profilografometru.
Ustalono, że frezowanie płyty wiórowej i płyty MDF, o przybliżonej średniej gęstości,
nożami ze stali szybkotnącej, z naniesionymi powłokami przeciwzużyciowymi, o różnej
charakterystyce, powoduje, dla każdego badanego ostrza, co najmniej ponad 50 krotnie
większe zużycie podczas skrawania płyty wiórowej. Charakter otrzymanych krzywych
zużycia, pozwala sądzić, że zastosowana metoda frezowania umożliwi, w przyspieszony
sposób, szczególnie z zastosowaniem płyty MDF, ocenić wstępną trwałość ostrzy i na tej
podstawie planować harmonogram badań.
Corresponding authors:
Waldemar Szymański, Grzegorz Pinkowski
Faculty of Wood Technology,
Poznań University of Life Sciences,
Al. Wojska Polskiego 28, Poznań 60-627,
e-mail: wszymanski@up.poznan.pl,
Adam Gilewicz, Andrzej Czyżniewski
Institute of Mechatronics, Nanotechnology &
Vacuum Technique,
Koszalin University of Technology
Racławicka 15-17 75-620 Koszalin,
e-mail: adam.gilewicz@tu.koszalin.pl
128

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 129-133
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Selcted physical properties of furfurylated oil palm wood (Elaeis guineensis
Jacq.)
KAROLINA SZYMONA A , ANDRZEJ CICHY A , PIOTR BORYSIUK A , PAIK SAN H’NG B ,
MARIUSZ MAMIŃSKI A, *
a Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW,
b Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
Abstract: Selected physical properties of furfurylated oil palm wood (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) Oil palm
wood (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) was subjected to furfurylation in acidic conditions. The furfurylated
speciemens exhibited markedly increased density (up to 135%), hydrophobicity and intense darkening. It
was shown that the furfurylation allowed for improving physical properties of the material which
potentially extends the area of its application.
Keywords: Elaeis guineensis, furfurylation, oil palm
INTRODUCTION
In response to increasing cost of solid wood there is a need to look for alternative
sources of raw materials. Malaysia is the biggest producer of oil palm wood in the world.
Traditionally oil palm trunks were burnt before later replanting. However, it created
environment issues, so the government of Malaysia banned that procedure. It takes five years
to complete decomposition of the trunks, which are usually just left on the fields. Thus, oil
palm trunks are just wasted. The area of plantations in 2005 reached 4 million hectares,
although in 2010 it was 4.5 million hectares. Having in mind that each hectare can produce 54
to 58 m 3 oil palm trunks, overall production is ranging from 10.8 to 11.6 million m 3 (Bakar et
al. 2006). Facing such a feedstock of raw material seems promising and tempting, but
utilization of the palm is limited mainly by its morphology and weak mechanical performance.
Oil palm is monocotyledon, so its properties are highly different from those of wood descent
from other species (Bakar et al. 2008). Oil palm wood has no secondary thickening, primary
vascular bundles are built-in parenchymatous tissue (Fig. 1). Therefore, the density within the
same species and even within the same trunk may range from 140 to 600 kg/m 3 (Erwinsyah
2008, Chai 2010). As a generally weak material, in order to become a valuable alternative
resource for wood industry and it needs to be modified, so that its mechanical characteristics
be improved.
Fig. 1. Image of oil palm wood cross-sections. A – tangential, B – transversal.
129

That is why a proper treatment seems to be a crucial approach to efficient processing
of oil palm wood and finding new reinforcing methods is a challenge. So far, approaches
involving natural rubber and polypropylene impregnations have been described by Siburian et
al (2005). Also, phenol-formaldehyde impregnations were performed by Bakar et al. (2008).
Chai (2010) investigated three-layer engineered boards with oil palm wood impregnated with
urea-formaldehyde resin as core of the sandwich-type composite.
The results showed that impregnation might be an efficient approach for improvement
of mechanical properties of oil palm wood and the obtained materials would be utilized in
new areas. Thus, this work regards the effect of furfurylation of oil palm wood on some
physical properties of the material.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Treatments of oil palm wood with furfuryl alcohol (FA) was carried out according to
the modified procedure previously described by Hadi et al. (2005). 90% or 45% aqueous
solutions of furfuryl alcohol with 1.5% citric acid as a catalyst were used. Before
modification samples were oven dried for 24 hours at 103ºC. Then weights and sizes of the
samples were measured. Impregnations in both 90% FA or 45% FA were carried out in
vacuum of 0.01 MPa for 45 minutes. Afterwards samples were wrapped with aluminum foil
and dried at 103ºC for 48 hours. Weights and sizes of the samples were measured after drying.
After impregnation, the modified and unmodified (reference) samples of oil palm wood were
subjected to water wetting test, measurements of color change and weight percent gain.
Total color change (ΔE) of the samples was determined according to EN 7224 using the
Euclidean distance equation:
E
L
2
a
2
b
2
where: ΔE – denotes total color change, ΔL – denotes sample lightening/darkening, Δa –
denotes red/green shift, Δb – denotes yellow/blue shift.
Weight percent gain (WPG) was calculated from the relation:
WPG% = (m 1 – m 0 ) / m 0 * 100%
where: m 0 - initial oven-dry weight of a sample (g), m 1 – oven-dry weight of a sample after
treatment.
The sessile droplet method was used for the contact angle measurements. The average
contact angles as well as spreading curves are means of 15 measurements.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
When 45%- and 90%-FA series are compared, it is obvious that density and weight
gain are correlated with FA concentration in impregnating solution. 45%-FA solution is
almost as effective as 90%-FA. As the data in Table 1 indicate, the WPG after 45%-FA
treatment reached 100% and 201% after 90%-FA treatment. Subsequently, furfurylation
resulted in significant increase in the density of the modified samples – 79% for 45%-FA and
135% for 90%-FA. The phenomenon can be explained by high porosity of oil palm wood and
large space for FA for bulk polymerization.
Measurements of the contact angle (θ) showed that water wetting was markedly
reduced. The observation can be explained by the bulk polymerization of FA within wood
pores. Initial θ=38º came from high hydrophilicity of the reference material, while contact
130

angle for the modified series increased to 89º and 96º respectively for 45%- and 90%-FA
treated series (Fig. 2).
Table 1. Selected physical properties of the unmodified and FA-modified oil palm wood
Modification
unmodified 45%-FA 90%-FA
Density (kg/m 3 ) 290 520 683
WPG (%) - 100 201
Contact angle (º) 38 89 96
Fig. 2. Water droplets onto the reference and modified material 60 s after deposition
The color changes of the samples before and after the modifications were described by
total color change (ΔE) value. An intense darkening of the material was observed (Fig. 3).
The measured L values for the unmodified, 45%-FA and 90%-FA series were 68.3, 24.7 and
24.0, respectively. Since L=0 is for black and L=100 is for white, it is obvious that the lower
L value, the darker color is observed. The calculated values of ΔE were 52.6 and 45.9,
respectively for the 45%- and 90%-FA series. The observed color change is nothing new,
since furfurylated material always darkens regardless of the species. It is also worth noting
that the final darkening of oil palm wood depends on the density of the material and on the
retention of FA. The lower density, the higher retention and, in consequence, more intense
darkening.
Fig. 3. Color change after treatments: A – reference (unmodified), B – 45%-FA, C – 90%-FA.
(Constant density of the material)
131

CONCLUSIONS
1. Treatment of oil palm wood with aqueous furfuryl alcohol in acidic solution is an easy way
for chemical modification and provides high gain in material density.
2. Reduced water contact angle indicated more hydrophilic character developed by the
furfuryl alcohol treatment.
3. The modification caused intense darkening of the oil palm wood.
5. Furfuryl alcohol modification can be a way to improve the water-resistance of oil palm
wood, however further investigations of the mechanical parameters are necessary.
REFERENCES
1. BAKAR E.S., FAUZI F., IMAN W., ZAIDON A. (2006) Polygon sawing: an
optimum sawing pattern for oil palm stems. J. Biol. Sci. 64: 744–749
2. BAKAR E.D., HAMAMI M.S., H’NG P.S. (2008) In: M.S. Hamami and T. Nobuchi
(eds.). Anatomical characteristics and utilization of oil palm wood. In: The formation
of wood in tropical forest trees: A challenge from the preservative of functional wood
anatomy. Serdang: Universiti Putra Malaysia. pp. 161–178
3. CHAI L.Y. (2010) M.Sc. thesis. Development of three-layer engineered board from
oil palm wood trunk. Universiti Putra Malaysia
4. EN 7224-3:2003. Paints and varnishes – Colorimetry Part 3: Calculation of colour
differences
5. ERWINSYAH V. (2008) Ph.D. thesis. Improvement of oil palm wood properties using
bioresin. TUD, Dresden, Germany
6. HADI Y.S., WESTIN M., RASYID E. (2005) Resistance of furfurylated wood to
termite attack. Forest Prod. J. 55: 85–88
7. SIBURIAN R., SIANTURI H.L., AHMAD F. (2005) Impregnasi kayu kalepa sawit
dengan poliblen polipropilena / karet alam dan asam akrilat. Jurnal Natur Indonesia 8:
48–53
132

Streszczenie: Wybrane właściwości fizyczne furfurylowanego drewna palmy oleistej
(Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) Drewno palmy oleistej zostało poddane modyfikacji alkoholem
furfurylowym w środowisku kwaśnym. W wyniku modyfikacji uzyskano znaczący
wzrost gęstości (do 135%), zwiększenie hydrofobowości oraz zmianę barwy na
ciemniejszą. Wykazano, że furfurylacja pozwala na poprawę właściwości fizycznych
drewna, co potencjalnie może poszerzyć obszar jego zastosowań.
Corresponding authors:
Karolina Szymona
Faculty of Wood Technology
Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
159 Nowoursynowska St.
02-776 Warsaw, Poland
Mariusz Mamiński
Faculty of Wood Technology
Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
159 Nowoursynowska St.
02-776 Warsaw, Poland
e-mail: mariusz_maminski@sggw.pl
H’ng Paik San
Faculty of Forestry,
Universiti Putra Malaysia
43400 UPM Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia
e-mail: ngpaiksan@gmail.com
133

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 134-138
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
ОЦЕНКА ВЛИЯНИЯ ТЕРМОВЛАГОПРОВОДНОСТИ НА ОБЩИЙ
ВЛАГОПЕРЕНОС В ДРЕВЕСИНЕ ПРИ ОСЦИЛИРУЮЩЕЙ СУШКЕ.
МАРИНА ТЕПНАДЗЕ
Кафедра технологии древесины грузинского технического университета.
Abstract: The general considering a system of moisture conductive elements in the wood-pulp and forms of
moisture shifting are considered. The fact of why the shifting of the heating and cooling periods of the drying
agent in transient condition together with the moisture gradient causes activation of the temperature gradient
resulting in intense transference of moisture from the inner layers of the wood-pulp towards the surface.
The proposed mechanism of moisture transfer in wood is fully acknowledged in the laws governing changes in
temperature gradient ratio as a function of temperature and humid condizions of the body.
Keywords: Wood drying, heating and cooling periods, temperature gradient, moisture gradient, in intense
transference.
При низкотемпературном процессе сушки древесины существует такой
недостаток сушки, как продвижение влаги к поверхности только за счет градиента
влагосодержания. Плотность потока влаги зависит от коэффициента влагопроводности
и перепада влагосодержания q f ( a',
U
) ; увеличение коэффициента
влагопроводности происходит с повышением температуры агента сушки, а увеличение
перепада гигроскопического влагосодержания достигается снижением степени
насыщенности среды. Но при построении стандартных режимов температуру
принимали уже максимально допустимой, превышение которой отразится на физикомеханических
свойствах древесины, а снижение степени насыщенности влечет за собой
увеличение пропорциональной ей величины внутренних напряжений, вызывающих
нарушение целостности материала.
Для построения рациональных режимов осцилирующих сушки древесины в
гелиосушилках необходимо учитывать постоянное колебание температуры среды в
течение всего процесса сушки. Надо полагать, что чередование нагрева и охлаждения
агента сушки вызовет изменение температуры самого пиломатериала и создание по его
сечению градиента температуры.
О механизме движения влаги в древесине под действием градиента влажности в
изотермических условиях различными исследователями выдвинуто много теорий и
гипотез, которые учитывают возможность различных форм движения влаги в
материале, а вопросы, связанные с особенностями переноса пара и жидкости в
древесине в осцилирующих условиях при одновременном действии градиентов
влажности и температуры, требуют дополнительных исследований. Необходимость
последних объясняется тем, что закономерности диффузионного и капиллярного
перемещения влаги в древесине могут быть эффективно использованы при построении
режимов для осцилирующей сушки пиломатериалов, в которых учитывалось бы
преобладающее влияние одного из видов переноса.
Как известно, влагопроводящие элементы в древесине при движении влаги в ней
поперек волокон можно рассматривать состоящими из систем:
1. Система микрокапилляров в клеточных оболочках. Влага передвигается в виде
жидкости и пара.
134

2. Система микрокапилляров, заполненных воздухом. Влага по этой системе
движется в виде пара, проходя последовательно через полости клеток, полости
пор и отверстия в мембранах или мельчайшие микрокапилляры клеточных
стенок.
3. Комбинированная система, состоящая из полостей клеток и прерывистых
микрокапилляров, соединяющих полости смежных клеток. Здесь влага
движется как в виде жидкости (микрокапилляры), так и в виде пара (полости
клеток) [1].
Четко выделить каждый из этих видов переноса практически невозможно, т.к. в
древесине существует непрерывная сеть влагопроводимых элементов постоянного
сечения. Влага, прежде чем быть удаленной из древесины в окружающую среду,
проходит сложную сеть каналов переменного сечения, последовательно переходя при
этом (иногда многократно) из одного состояния в другое.
Нет оснований полагать, что при нестационарных условиях сушки перенос влаги
будет происходить по иным путям. Однако относительная эффективность
вышеуказанных влагопроводящих систем может колебаться в очень широких пределах,
в зависимости от породы (особенностей строения), влажности и температуры
древесины.
Движение влаги под влиянием перепада влажности происходит или внутри
гигроскопической области, или же к области гигроскопичности из мест, где влажность
выше точки насыщения волокна. Массоперенос при этом подчиняется законам
капиллярного движения и вызывается высшим фактором – капиллярным потенциалом,
создающим всасывающую силу, которая способствует извлечению влаги из
центральных слоев сортимента.
Наличие градиента температуры при влажности ниже предела гигроскопичности
обуславливает появление в древесине соответствующего градиента парциального
давления водяного пара. Под действием этого градиента водяной пар диффундирует по
направлению к поверхности по полостям клеток через отверстия в мембранах пор. С
другой стороны, молекулярная термодиффузия в микрокапиллярах (полостях клеток)
сопровождается диффузией скольжения пристеносточного слоя парообразной влаги в
направлении температурного градиента, т.е. от холодного конца к горячему. Если
концы микрокапилляров закрыты или сообщаются через другие капилляры, то
возникает циркуляция пара в такой замкнутой системе [2].
С повышением температуры тепловое скольжение становится весьма заметным и
существенным образом влияет на диффузионный перенос пара в макрокапиллярах. При
низких же влажностях тепловое скольжение служит препятствующим фактором для
перемещения пара из нагретой зоны в охлаждаемую.
При влажности древесины выше точки насыщения волокна все микрокапилляры
в стенках клеток заполнены адсорбированной и сконденсированной влагой, что
исключает возможность переноса влаги в виде пара по системам макрокапилляров.
Единственным возможным путем для переноса влаги является комбинированная
система. Движение влаги при этом сопровождается ее последовательным переходом из
жидкого состояния в парообразное и усложняется тепловым скольжением пара в
полостях клеток, а также движением пристеночной жидкости в капиллярах.
Таким образом, перенос влаги в древесине в осцилирующих условиях
сопровождается дополнительным переносом вещества по направлению градиента
температуры в виде теплового скольжения пара и термоосмотического эффекта.
Плотность потока влаги в этих видах движения зависит от температуры и влажности
древесины. Интенсивность теплового скольжения пара нарастает с повышением
температуры и снижением влажности тела, термоосмотический эффект проявляется в
135

максимальной степени при низких температурах и влажностях, когда интенсивность
движения жидкости становится соизмеримой с движением жидкости по направлению
теплового потока, обусловленного перепадом капиллярного потенциала, т.е. при
определенных температурно-влажностных условиях, величина плотности потока влаги
по направлению градиента температуры может принять существенные значения и
активно влиять на общий массоперенос в древесине.
Суммарный количественный эффект, создаваемый всеми видами переноса влаги
в древесине, оценивается как отношение коэффициента термодиффузии влаги a' T
к
коэффициенту диффузии влаги a' .
a'
j dU
T
(1)
a'
a'
t
dt
0
При отсутствии влагообмена, когда имеет место гигроскопическое равновесие,
формула (1) запишется в следующем виде:
dU U
p
dt t
т.е. относительный коэффициент термодиффузии равен термоградиентному
коэффициенту.
Графическая зависимость термоградиентного коэффициента от влажности при
постоянной температуре (рис. 1) имеет вид параболы, симметричной в отношении
вертикальной оси, проходящей через вершины.
При высоких вляжностях термоградиентный коэффициент очень мал, далее с
уменьшением влажности почти линейно возрастает и достигает максимуиа при
определенной влажности, различной для различных температур. После перехода
максимума отмечается сильное падение коэффициента, которое происходит почти
линейно.
Движение влаги, обусловленное температурным градиентом, начинается при
определенной для каждой температуры влажности, при которой в полостях появляются
участки объемов, занятые паровоздушной смесью или происшедшего в определенных
условиях удаления воздуха, только водяным паром. При снижении влажности
древесины, т.е. при снижении уровня свободной влаги в плостях клеток, все большее
количество микрокапилляров начинает участвовать в перемещении жидкости. В
результате возрастает эффективность комбинированной влагопроводящей системы, и
соответственно, интенсивность переноса вдаги, что находит свое выражение в
увеличении термоградиентного коэффициента.
136

Рис. 1. Термоградиентный коэффициент
Одновременно с этим происходит отрицательный перенос влаги по направлению
температурного градиента в виде теплового скольжения пара и движения
пристеночного слоя жидкости. Как было сказано ранее, интенсивность этих видов
движения влаги возрастает при низких влажностях. Поэтому, при дальнейшем
снижении влажности древесины плотность отрицательного потока влаги увеличивается
и лимитирует общий процесс переноса влаги по направлению теплового потока. В
результате этого термоградиентный коэффициент, достигнув максимума, уменьшается
и когда интенсивность теплового скольжения пара в макрокапилярах и движения
пристеночной жидкости в микрокапиллярах станет соизмеримой при низкой влажности
древесины с плотностью положительного потока влаги, становится близко нулю.
Предложенный механизм переноса влаги в древесине находит полное
подтверждение в закономерностях изменения термоградиентного коэффициента в
зависимости от температурно-влажных состояний тела.
137

REFERENCES:
1. Шубин Г.С. Физические основы и расчет процессов сушки древесины. М.
«Лесная промышленность», 248 с.
2. Лыков А.В. Теория сушки. М. «Энергия», 472 с.
3. Чудинов Б.С. Вода в древесине. Новосибирск, «Наука», 270 с.
Streszczenie: Artykuł prezentuje system elementów przewodzących wodę w ścierze
drzewnym i typy przewodzenia wody. Zaproponowany system przewodzenia wody w
drewnie bazuje na znanych prawach gradientu temperatur jako funkcji temperatury oraz
warunków wilgotności w ciałach.
Corresponding author:
Marina Tepnadze
Department of Wood Processing
Georgian technical university
Tbilisi, Kostava str. 77, 0175. Georgia.
Antioxidanti@mail.ru
138

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 139-143
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
The ecological aspect of used nature wood
DANIELA TESAŘOVÁ 1 , PETR ČECH 2
Department of furniture, design and habitation, Mendel University in Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract: The ecological aspect of used nature wood. The contribution is interested in problems of volatile
organic compounds emitted by wood shavings of different kinds of wood: pine (Pinus sylvestris) sapwood,
(Pinus sylvestris) heartwood, English oak (Quercus robur), western red cedar (Thuja plicata) in the comparing of
them. In the same time the olfactometric influence of individual components emitted by western red cedar and
sapwood of pine was under review. In the work there is also described the relation among the results reported
during the olfactometric measuring and the results reported during the measuring of volatile organic compounds
especially emitted by cedar wood. The dependence of Limonene and α Pinene olfactory activity on the
concentration of organic compounds emitted by tested samples of wood with strong olfactory activity.
Keywords: Olfactometry, VOC emissions, solid wood, perception, odour
INTRODUCTION
Due to the fact that only volatile organic compounds can be odour activity some of
volatile organic compounds could contribute to the odour impression of the testing emissions
emitted. In our case there are the emissions emitted by finished surfaces of wood based
materials.
The separation of the individual compounds in the VOC emissions and their simultaneous
detection are essential to determinate which components of the complex VOC mixture are
contained in the VOC emissions blends and which volatile compounds have the important
influence on odour of testing specimens. One volatile organic compound in odorous products
is responsible for the typical aroma. The combination of several compounds gives the typical
product smell by the finished surface of the wooden furniture.
The odour has become a part of the products specification made from wooden based
materials. The odour of product, in our case some kind of the wood furniture, is near closed
with comfort of living.
New furniture should only smell like new furniture and nothing else. A bad odour of new
furniture in an apartment can make living and using the furniture there very uncomfortable.
The indicated odour of emissions emitted by the wooden furniture with finished surfaces into
indoor air is reported bad quality indoor air for 15 – 30 % of the general population.
Sometimes the smell of furniture means the toxic furniture for consumers.
The aim of this study is:
1. to identify the main components contributing to an odour emitted emissions by
finished surface of wooden furniture
2. to solve the odour impact of the individual chemical compound in the correlation with
the concentration of measured emissions
Due to the fact that only volatile substance can be odour active, gas chromatography in the
conclusion olfactometric detector system, is the preferred analytic method. The combination
of sensory and instrumental methods is a powerful approach to identify the volatile
compounds, which are responsible for an odour.
139

MATERIAL AND METHODS
Used method
We used for the measurement special combined techniques of the sensorial analysis E-
nose Sniffer in conclusion with the GC-MS chromatography and the thermal desorption.
We collected air containing VOC emissions into the desorption tubes on the sorbent
TENAX TA where the emitted air is evaluated and split of the effluent of chromatography
column into two streams. One stream is analyzed by the detector of the gas chromatography
and the second stream is passed into an effluent of Sniffer. The results of gas chromatography
is the chromatogram with quality and quality identification of chemicals and the results
coming in the same time from human olfactory response sniffer is the olfactogram. We can
compare the both reached results the quality and quantity determinate volatile organic
compounds to the sensory results, so results of the chromatogram and the results of the
olfactogram.
Some kinds of wood become among the important sources of volatile organic compounds
and so the sources of odours. We were investigating the VOC emissions emitted by some
kinds of wood (cedar, oak, pine - heartwood and sapwood) and so in this time we investigated
the odour impact of these VOC emissions emitted by tested specimens of wood. We prepared
the thin wood shavings with the surface 1m 2 and then we started to collect VOC emission
emitted by tested kinds of wood. The collected emissions of VOC were analyzed on GC
connection with Sniffer for odour identification of individual organic compounds in their
blend.
Methods of VOC testing were set via standards
ISO 16000: 2007 Indoor air
ISO 16000-1: 2007 General aspects of sampling strategy
ISO 16000-5: 2007 Sampling strategy for volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
ISO 16000-11:2007 Determination of the emission of volatile organic compounds sampling, storage of samples
and preparation of test specimens
VOC samplings in small-space chambers were done according to:
ISO 16000-6: 2007 Determination of volatile organic compounds indoor and test chamber
air by active sampling on Tenax TA ® sorbent, thermal desorption and chromatography using
MS/FID
ISO 16000-9: 2007 Determination of the emission of volatile organic compound from
building products and furnishing- Emission test chamber method
The main impact for odour has the irritant thresholds of emitted chemicals that means at
what level a chemical is an odorant for the first time and then becomes an irritant. We
compared the thresholds. VOC emissions measuring Time: 24 h, 14 and 28 days after the
preparing of wood shavings.
Used equipment
- small-space chamber for VOCs testing
- short path thermal desorption, Silco treated, Thermal Desorption Tube
- air sampler Gilian – LFS 113 SENSEDNE with air flow 6 l.h -1
- gas chromatograph Agilent GC 6790 with MS (mass spectrometer) detector 5973,
thermal desorption
- olfactory detector outlet Sniffer 9000 based on sensor techniques, one the most
sensitive and intelligent detector
140

RESULTS
VOC emissions emitted by wood shavings of pine wood
(Pinus sylvestris L.) - heartwood
90
80
Concentration in μg.m -3
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Benzene
Pentanal
Toluene
Hexanal
n-Butyl acetate
Ethylbenzene
Σ m,p-Xylene
Styrene
o-Xylen
VOCs
Butoxy-Ethanol
α-Pinene
Camphene
β-Pinene
Myrcen
α-Phelandrene
3-δ-Carene
Limonene
γ-Terpinene
24h
336h
672h
Fig.1: VOC emissions emitted by wood shavings of pine wood – heartwood
14
VOC emissions emitted by wood shavings of western red cedar wood
(Thuja plicata)
Concentration in μg.m -3
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Benzene
Pentanal
Toluene
Hexanal
n-Butyl acetate
Ethylbenzene
Σ m,p-Xylene
Styrene
o-Xylene
VOCs
Butoxy-Ethanol
α-Pinene
Camphene
β-Pinene
Myrcene
α-Phelandrene
3-δ-Carene
Limonene
γ-Terpinene
24h
336h
672h
Fig.2: VOC emissions emitted by wood shavings of west Red Cedar (Thuja plicata)
141

TVOC emitted by various kind of wood in form shavings
TVOC [μg.m -3 ]
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
Tab.1: Hedonic tone and intensity of odour
0
24 336 672
time [h]
west red cedar oak pine -heartwood pine-sapwood
Fig.3: TVOC emitted by various kind of wood in form shavings
VOC
Pine -
heartwood
Pine - sapwood Red cedar Oak
after plating (h) 24 336 672 24 336 672 24 336 672 24 336 672
Toluene -2 -1 -2 -1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 -2
Σ m,p-Xylene -1 -2 - -2 -2 -2 1 - 1 1 -1 1
α-Pinene -2 -2 - 1 -1 1 - - -3 1 - -
β-Pinene -2 - -1 - -3 -3 -2 -3 -2 2 -3 -4
3-δ-Carene -2 - - 3 -1 - - - - - - -
Limonene 1 - - 1 - - -1 1 - - - -
DISCUSSION
The measured values of emission VOC emitted by wood shavings of different kinds of
wood: pine (Pinus sylvestris) sapwood, (Pinus sylvestris) heartwood, English oak (Quercus
robur), western red cedar (Thuja plicata) are predicative about it, that the most amount were
emitted by heartwood of Pinus sylvestris, namely first terpenes: (α-Pinene: 85,4 μg.m -3 ,
limonene: 44,8 μg.m -3 ), next sapwood of Pinus sylvestris (3-δ-Carene: 62,4 μg.m -3 ,
α-Pinene: 21,9 μg.m -3 ) namely 24 hours after planning of wood shavings. Thuja plicata and
Quercus robur were emitted the most of Butoxy-Ethanol (Thuja plicata:12,8 μg.m -3 , Quercus
robur: 12,0 μg.m -3 ) 336 hour after planning. The most amount of TVOC emitted by
heartwood of Pinus sylvestris (814 μg.m -3 ), 24 hours after planning of wood shavings.
CONCLUSION
The great volume of VOC emissions emitted the shavings of heartwood of pine with the
greatest odour impact from the tested samples of wood.
Limonene, α-Pinene, β Pinene, Camphene, 3-δ-Carene has the great odour impact in the
blend of VOC emissions emitted by tested kinds of wood.
REFERENCES:
1. FISHER, B. 1998: Scents sensitivity Environmental Health Perspectives 1998 volume
106, Nb. 12 p 594 – 599.
2. GOSTELOW, P., LONGHURST, P., PARSONS, S., STUETZ, R., SamplingKIM, Y.,
WATANUKI. S., 2003:Characteristics of electroencephalographicresponses induced
by a pleasant and an unpleasant odor. In Journal of PHYSIOLOGICAL ANTHROPO-
LOGY and Applied Human Science 22, s.285-291, ISSN 1345-3475
142

3. TESAŘOVÁ, D., ČECH, P., ANSORGOVÁ, A., 2010: Hedonic influence of volatile
organic compounds emitted by finished surface of furniture part. In Reducing the
Environmental Footprint.1. vyd. 14 Castle Mews, High Street, Hampton Middlesex:
PRA Coating Technology Centre, 2010, s. 8-15. ISBN 978-0-9561357-2-8.
4. TESAŘOVÁ, D., ČECH, P., 2009: The air of school classrooms loaded by volatile
organic compounds. In:School and health 21. MSD, s.r.o, Brno: MSD, s.r.o, 2009,
s. 258-268. ISBN 978-80-7392-042-5.
Streszczenie: Aspekty ekologiczne drewna poużytkowego. Praca skupia się na substancjach
lotnych emitowanych przez rozdrobnione drewno bielu sosny (Pinus sylvestris) , twardzieli
sosny (Pinus sylvestris), dębu (Quercus robur) oraz żywotnika olbrzymiego (Thuja plicata).
Dokonano pomiarów olfaktometrycznych związków emitowanych przez żywotnik oraz biel
sosny.
Corresponding authors:
Doc. Ing. Daniela Tesařová, Ph.D.
Mendel university in Brno,
Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology,
Department of furniture, design and habitation,
Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic,
phone: +420 545 134170, E-mail:tesar@mendelu.cz
Ing. Petr Čech, Ph.D.
Mendel university in Brno,
Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology,
Department of furniture, design and habitation,
Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic,
phone: +420 545 134177,E-mail:Cech.P007@seznam.cz
143

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 144-148
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Wood density of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) trees broken by wind
ARKADIUSZ TOMCZAK, TOMASZ JELONEK, MARCIN JAKUBOWSKI
Poznan University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Utilization
Abstract: Wood density of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) trees broken by wind. The paper analyzes pure density
of wood in wind-broken trees and standing trees (control) coming from two stands damaged by strong wind (the
Świdwin and Kolbudy forest districts). Generally a higher wood density was found for the control trees. The
difference was 2 kg/m 3 and it was not significant statistically. A similar result was recorded for the Kolbudy plot,
while in the Świdwin plot the result was opposite (QuB > QuC). Moreover, radial variation of this parameter was
analyzed. Generally pure density increases with a reduction of the distance from the stem circumference. In case
of control trees changes in values are more dynamic.
Keywords: windthrow, wood properties, basic density
INTRODUCTION
Wind is a very important stress factor influencing the forest environment. In Europe
catastrophic wind storms were experienced e.g. in 1999 (Lothar), 2005 (Gudrun) and 2007
(Kyrill). In 2007 in Poland damage caused by the action of wind was found in stands over an
area of more than 273 thousand ha [Raport… 2007]. In 2008 the State Forests recorded
damage on an area of approx. 61 thousand ha stands aged over 20 years, e.g. only in the areas
administered by the Regional Directorate of the State Forests in Olsztyn and Wrocław the
volume of 722 thousand m 3 and 568 thousand m 3 wood were obtained from uprooted trees
and wind-broken trees [Raport… 2008]. The degree of threat for the forest environment in
Poland is one of the highest, since our country is located in the transition climatic zone
between the temperate oceanic climate in the west and temperate continental climate in the
east.
The problems of ecological consequences of the effect of wind on forest ecosystems
discussed in research papers is still current due to the constant threat imposed by the stress
factor. The complexity of the problem is related with the continuous development of many
issues, including climatology, mechanisms of air mass flows in stands, the effect of
topographic features on wind load on trees, modelling of threat, fluctuations in forest
resistance to tending interventions, proper management and utilisation, as well as
biomechanics and adaptation growth of trees. A specific position among the above mentioned
research areas taken by biomechanics and adaptation growth of trees emphasizes the rank of
the problem, since the non-uniform wood structure is a distinct cause-and-effect relationship.
The heterogeneity of wood is a species-specific (genetic) trait and it results from the
action of several external factors, leading through adaptation to numerous biomodifications in
the wood tissue. Knowledge on the basic physical and mechanical properties of wood as well
as factors modifying them is required for the understanding of the essence of the phenomenon
of the adverse effect of snow and wind on stands, as well as the determination of the degree of
resistance of stands to the action of specific forces caused by these factors [Zajączkowski
1991]. Properties of wood are also elements of input data for the assessment of risk of tree
damage by wind [Peltola et al. 1999]. Among them wood density is a parameter used
relatively frequently. Among other things for this reason it was attempted in this study to
assess wood density in windthrows of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), coming from stands
located in northern Poland.
144

MATERIAL AND METHODS
Studies were conducted in the Świdwin (Sw) and Kolbudy (Ko) Forest Districts, in
two maturing pine stands damaged by wind. In each experimental pot all damaged trees and a
proportional number of undamaged trees were numbered successively. Next their biometric
traits were measured. In case of wind-broken trees it was breast height diameter and height of
wind-broken trees, the length of the lying part of the tree, the length and width of the crown.
On standing trees measurements were taken for breast height diameter, tree height, the height
of the position of the first live branch as well as minimum and maximum diameter of the
crown. In the Sw plot a total of 73 wind-broken trees and 109 standing trees were measured.
The Ko plot represented a total of 53 trees, of which 23 were trees broken by wind.
Wind-broken trees in the Sw plot were divided in terms of their height into three
categories: I < 2.4 m; II 2.5 – 3.4 m; III > 3.5m. From each category three model trees were
selected, one each in relation to the adopted diameter subclasses of trees: A [14 – 18 cm], B
[19 – 23 cm], C [24 – 28 cm]. Diameter was measured at breast height. A total of nine model
wind-broken trees were selected. In relation to undamaged trees the average tree height and
average parameters of the crown for each diameter subclass were calculated. On the basis of
collected data for a given subclass one control tree each was selected. In the Ko plot, due to
the small number of wind-broken trees and their variation in terms of breast height diameter 6
model trees were selected on the basis of adopted diameter classes. In a similar manner 3
control trees were selected.
Heart planks were cut from the stem of each model tree, oriented parallel to the
direction of wind break (R – the flexed side, S – the compressed side). The sample included
the section of the stem from breast height to the position located at a distance of 2 m from the
kerf plane of the wind-broken tree. After preparation of samples (20x20x30 mm) density was
determined in accordance with guidelines contained in the standard PN-77/D-4101.
RESULTS
Generally at a difference of 2 kg/m 3 a greater wood density was found for control
trees. Wood density of wind-broken trees (QuB) from the Sw plot was 403 kg/m 3 (SD ± 65
kg/m 3 ) and it was higher than that of the control trees (QuC) by 19 kg/m 3 . In turn, in the Ko
plots a higher wood density was found for control trees and the difference between the
compared groups was 20 kg/m 3 (tab. 1). In both cases the recorded differences were
statistically non-significant.
Table 1. The statistical characteristics of wood density of the control trees and broken by the wind
Qu C/B n
average standard variability
[kg/m 3 ] deviation coefficient [%]
min max
Sw
C 24 384 57 15 302 534
B 64 403 68 17 293 712
Ko
C 34 408 65 16 296 537
B 51 388 50 13 303 481
Total
C 58 398 62 16 296 537
B 115 396 61 15 293 712
Sw – Świdwin, Ko – Kolbudy, C – control trees, B – broken trees
At the cross stem sections pure density of wood in wind-broken trees and the control
trees (Sw) increases with an increase in the distance from the pith. On the side of action of the
145

tensile force the dynamics of these changes is similar in both analyzed groups of trees, while
on the side of action of compressive forces the density of wood in control trees was increasing
more dynamically than in wind-broken trees (fig. 1). In case of the Kolbudy plot the increase
in density at cross stem sections was more dynamic in control trees (fig. 2).
Fig. 1. Radial distribution of
wood density – Świdwin
Fig. 2. Radial distribution of
wood density – Kolbudy
CONCLUSION
Density of wood is closely related with age of trees and conditions of their growth and
development [Kärenlampi, Riekkinen 2004]. This constitutes an important parameter in the
evaluation of stem biomechanics and tree resistance to the action of external forces. In
selected models it is one of the basic data in the estimation of risk of damage of trees or
stands by wind.
Wood density of wind-broken trees of Scots pine (north – eastern Scotland) was
analyzed by Cameron and Dunham [1999]. Those authors observed that in comparison to the
undamaged trees it was slightly lower. In turn, Meyer et al. [2008] when investigating wood
density in Norway spruce stated that in the dry state (W=0%) differences were not significant
statistically, while in the fresh state (W>30%) a marked statistically significant variation was
recorded.
In the study pure density was compared between Scots pine from wind-broken trees
(QuB) and standing trees – the control (QuC), originating from two stands from the
Pomerania region. In case of the Sw plot it was found that QuC was lower in comparison to
the QuB plot. In turn, in the Ko plot an opposite situation was observed (QuC > QuB), which
146

was consistent with the results of Cameron and Dunham [1999]. However, recorded
differences were not statistically significant.
Bent tree stems are similar to beams attached at one end, on which the moment of
force resulting from their own weight and the action of external forces. The value of the
moment of force changes along the length of the organ, while at the cross stem section the
highest stresses are generated in the circumferential section. The distribution of stresses in the
tree stem is comparable to the variation represented by properties of wood. This dependence
is particularly marked in case of selected coniferous species, where average density increases
in the direction from the pith to the circumference [Kärenlampi, Riekkinen 2004; Jakubowski
et al. 2005; Tomczak et al. 2010]. Obtained radial distributions for a given wood parameter
markedly confirm this dependence. However, the recorded variation may not be linked with
the action of a strong wind. However, we may observe that in control trees changes of the
values are more dynamic, except for the flexed side in control trees from the Świdwin plot. In
view of the relationship of wood density with other properties, it may be assumed that they
will change analogously. Probably there is also a relationship between tree resistance to the
action of wind and radial heterogeneity of its wood.
This work was supported by grant of Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education:
IP2010 015270
REFERENCES
1. CAMERON A. D., DUNHAM R. A. 1999. Strength properties of wind- and snowdamaged
stems of Picea sitchensis and Pinus sylvestris in comparision with undamaged
trees. Can. J. For. Res., 29: 595 – 599.
2. JAKUBOWSKI M., TOMCZAK A., JELONEK T., PAZDROWSKI W. 2005. Radial
variability of the strength quality coefficient of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) wood in
relation to the tree biosocial position in the stand. EJPAU 8(3), #08.
3. KÄRENLAMPI P. P., RIEKKINEN M. 2004. Maturity and growth rate effects on Scots
pine basic density. Wood Sci. Technol., 38: 465 – 473.
4. MEYER F. D., PAULSEN J., KÖRNER CH. 2008. Windthrow damage in Picea abies is
associated with physical and chemical stem wood properties. Trees, 22: 463 - 473.
5. RAPORT O STANIE LASÓW. 2007. CILP.
6. RAPORT O STANIE LASÓW 2008. CILP.
7. PELTOLA H., KELLOMÄKI S., VÄISÄNEN H., IKONEN V. P. 1999. A mechanistic
model for assessing the risk of wind and snow damage to single trees and stands of Scots
pine, Norway spruce, and birch. Can. J For. Res., 29: 647-661.
8. POLSKA NORMA PN-77/D-4101. Drewno. Oznaczanie gęstości.
9. TOMCZAK A., JELONEK T., ZOŃ L. 2010. Porównanie wybranych właściwości
fizycznych drewna młodocianego i dojrzałego sosny zwyczajnej (Pinus sylvestris L.) z
drzewostanów rębnych. Sylwan, 154(12): 809 - 817.
10. ZAJĄCZKOWSKI J. 1991. Odporność lasu na szkodliwe działanie wiatru i śniegu.
Wydawnictwo Świat, Warszawa.
147

Streszczenie: Gęstość drewna wiatrołomów sosny zwyczajnej (Pinus sylvestris L.) W pracy
przeanalizowano gęstość umowną drewna wiatrołomów oraz drzew stojących (kontrolnych)
pochodzących z dwóch drzewostanów uszkodzonych przez silny wiatr (nadleśnictwa
Świdwin oraz Kolbudy). Ogólnie wyższą gęstością drewna charakteryzowały się drzewa
kontrolne. Różnica wynosiła 2 kg/m 3 i nie była istotna statystycznie. Podobny wynik
uzyskano na powierzchni Kolbudy, natomiast na powierzchni Świdwin rezultat był odwrotny
(QuB > QuC). Przeanalizowano również zmienność promieniową parametru. Generalnie
gęstość umowna rośnie wraz ze spadkiem odległości od obwodu pnia. W przypadku drzew
kontrolnych zmiany wartości są bardziej dynamiczne.
Corresponding author:
Arkadiusz Tomczak
Poznan University of Life Sciences,
Department of Forest Utilisation
Wojska Polskiego 71A, 60 – 625 Poznań
E-mail address: arkadiusz.tomczak@up.poznan.pl
148

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 149-153
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Modulus of elasticity of twin samples (wet and absolute dry) origin from
Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) trees broken by wind
ARKADIUSZ TOMCZAK, TOMASZ JELONEK, MARCIN JAKUBOWSKI
Poznan University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Utilization
Abstract: Modulus of elasticity of twin samples (wet and absolute dry) origin from Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris
L.) trees broken by wind. The study analysed values of modulus of elasticity at static bending in the tangential
direction for wood of wind-broken trees and standing trees (control) coming from two stands damaged by strong
wind (the Świdwin and Kolbudy Forest Divisions). Analyses were conducted at moisture content above fiber
saturation point (wet samples) and at zero moisture content (dry samples). When testing wood with moisture
content above fiber saturation point it was found that wood of control trees was characterised by a higher MOE.
This difference was not significant statistically. Statistically significant differences were recorded between
values of MOE of wood from wind-broken and control trees in the Świdwin plot (p

it was attempted in this study to assess this parameter for wind-broken trees of Scots pine
(Pinus sylvestris L.), coming from stands located in the northern part of Poland.
MATHERIAL AND METHODS
Investigations were conducted in two wind-damaged stands located in the northern
part of Poland (the Świdwin and Kolbudy Forest Divisions) (tab. 1).
Table 1. Description of the study sites
symbol area
[ha]
species
composition
age stand
density
d 1,3
[cm]
height
[m]
quality
class
site
type
Sw 5,97 9 So, 1 Db 52 0,9 27 22 Ia FMC
Ko 2,04 10 So 60 0,9 31 25 Ia FMB
On each plot all damaged trees and a proportional number of undamaged trees were
numbered successively. Next their biometric traits were measured. In case of broken trees it
was breast height diameter and height of break, length of the lying part of the tree, length and
width of the crown. In turn, on standing trees breast height diameter, tree height, height of the
position of the first live branch as well as minimum and maximum diameters of the crown
were measured. In the Sw plot a total of 73 wind-broken trees and 109 standing trees were
measured. The Ko plot was represented by a total of 53 trees, of which 23 were trees broken
by wind.
Broken trees in the Sw plot were divided in terms of height into three categories: I <
2.4 m, II 2.5 – 3.4 m and III > 3.5 m. From each category three model trees were selected, one
in relation to the adopted diameter subclasses: A [14 – 18 cm], B [19 – 23 cm] and C [24 – 28
cm]. Diameter was measured at breast height. A total of nine model wind-broken trees were
selected. In case of undamaged trees their average height and average crown parameters were
calculated for each diameter subclasses. On the basis of the data for the compartment one
mean sample tree each was selected. In the Ko plot, due to the limited number of wind-broken
trees, their height (mean of 11.7 m) and their variation in terms of breast height diameter, 6
model trees were selected on the basis of adopted diameter subclasses. Similarly, 3 mean
sample trees were selected.
From the trunk of each model tree a heart plank was cut, oriented parallel to the
direction of the wind breakage. The sample comprised a section of the trunk from breast
height to the point located at a distance of 2 m from the kerf plane of the broken tree. In the
next stage of the analyses 2 series of (twin) samples of 20 x 20 x 300 mm were applied. The
first series was used in measurements of wet samples (W>30%), while the other was used
absolutely dry (W=0%). The wet state was obtained by soaking samples in water, while the
absolute dry state samples were produced by drying in the laboratory drier. The selected
condition was reached, when dimensional stability of samples was confirmed, i.e. three
successive measurements of width and height of samples showed identical values. Next the
modulus of elasticity of wood at static bending was tested in the tangential direction in
accordance with the respective standard PN-63/D-04117.
RESULTS
When testing wood with moisture content above fiber saturation point it was found
that wood of mean sample trees is characterised by MOE higher by approx. 5% (fig. 1). The
difference was not statistically significant. A statistically significant difference was found
between the value of MOE in wood of windbreaks and mean sample trees in the Świdwin plot
(p

Table 2. Statistical characteristics of MOE (W>30%)
MOE C/B n
average
[MPa]
standard
deviation
variability
coefficient [%]
C 24 3653 1522 41,7 1915 7564
Sw*
B 64 4056 1716 42,3 1784 8104
C 35 4557 1944 42,7 1923 8545
Ko
B 55 3902 1840 47,2 1020 12395
C 59 4189 1826 43,6 1915 8545
Total
B 119 3985 1769 44,4 1020 12395
Sw – Świdwin, Ko – Kolbudy, C – control trees, B – broken trees
* Marked effects are significant with p

Cameron and Dunham [1999], when comparing wood of Scots pines from north–
eastern Scotland stated that wood of damaged (broken) pines in comparison to that of
undamaged trees was characterised by a markedly lower value of the modulus of elasticity. A
similar result was obtained when comparing wood with moisture content above fiber
saturation point. In turn, in case of dry samples an opposite situation was observed, in which a
higher MOE was found for wood of wind-broken trees. However, this difference was only
slight, amounting to as little as 0.3%. Contradictory results in relation to those reported by
Cameron and Dunham [1999] are particularly evident in relation to the Świdwin plot. Both in
wet and dry samples a significantly higher value of MOE was stated in case of wood of windbroken
trees. This result is of interest, since elasticity is to a certain degree a measure of tree
resistance to the action of wind. The trunk breaks when the total bending moment exceeds the
value of the maximum resistance moment of wood (equal to breaking stresses) [Zajączkowski
1991]. Probably wood properties are not the only factor connected with resistance of trees to
damage which occurrs under the influence of strong wind. It results from investigations
conducted by Jakubowski and Pazdrowski [2005] that in Scots pine the trunk breaks typically
at the position of a verticil of knots and/or reaction wood. A similar phenomenon was also
observed by Dunham and Cameron [2000], while in relation to spruce it was reported by
Jakubowski [2010]. Knots are natural remnants of dead or cut branches. However, from the
point of view of biomechanics the presence of a knot not encased in the surrounding wood is
disadvantageous, since in comparison to the intergrown knot the distribution of stresses
formed around it is less homogeneous [Buksnowitz et al. 2010].
This work was supported by grant of Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education:
IP2010 015270
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optimised structure. Wood Sci. Technol., 44: 389 - 398.
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3. CAMERON A. D., DUNHAM R. A. 1999. Strength properties of wind- and snowdamaged
stems of Picea sitchensis and Pinus sylvestris in comparision with undamaged
trees. Can. J. For. Res., 29: 595 – 599.
4. DUNHAM R. A., CAMERON A.D. 2000. Crown, stem and wood properties of winddamaged
and undamaged Sitka spruce. For. Ecol. Manage., 135: 73-81.
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species. Wood Fib. Sci., 40(4): 647 – 656.
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do niektórych właściwości drewna. Rozprawy naukowe 407, UP w Poznaniu.
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of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) trees. Ann. WULS–SGGW, For and Wood Technol.,
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152

9. KÄRENLAMPI P. P., RIEKKINEN M. 2004. Maturity and growth rate effects on Scots
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93(10): 1501 - 1511.
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and steam breakage of Scots pine at stand edge. Silva Fenn., 27(2): 99 - 111.
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współczynnika sprężystości przy zginaniu statycznym.
17. RIESCO MUÑOZ G., SOILÁN CAÑAS M. A., RODRÍGUEZ SOALLEIRO R. 2008.
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in northern Spain. Ann. For. Sci., 65: 507p8.
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Wydawnictwo Świat, Warszawa.
Streszczenie: Moduł elastyczności prób bliźniaczych (mokrych i absolutnie suchych)
pochodzących z drewna wiatrołomów sosny zwyczajnej (Pinus sylvestris L.). W pracy
przeanalizowano wartość modułu elastyczności przy zginaniu statycznym w kierunku
stycznym drewna wiatrołomów oraz drzew stojących (kontrolnych) pochodzących z dwóch
drzewostanów uszkodzonych przez silny wiatr (nadleśnictwa Świdwin oraz Kolbudy).
Badanie przeprowadzono przy wilgotności powyżej punktu nasycenia włókien (próby mokre)
oraz przy wilgotności zerowej (próby suche). Badając drewno o wilgotności powyżej punktu
nasycenia włókien stwierdzono, że wyższym MOE charakteryzuje się drewno drzew
kontrolnych. Różnica nie była statystycznie istotna. Istotną statystycznie różnice stwierdzono
między wartością MOE drewna wiatrołomów i drzew kontrolnych na powierzchni Świdwin
(p

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 154-159
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
State of preservation analysis of the wooden construction of the Holiest
Sacrament altar in the right wing of the transept in the Holy Cross Church
in Warsaw
ANDRZEJ TOMUSIAK, ANDRZEJ CICHY
Department of Construction and Technology of Final Wood Products, Faculty of Wood Technology, Warsaw
University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Abstract: State of preservation analysis of the wooden construction of the Holiest Sacrament altar in the right
wing of the transept in the Holy Cross Church in Warsaw. The altar structure was scrutinised. A number of
errors in the construction were found, starting with the foundations and ending with the lateral elements of the
altar. It has been recommended to monitor the structure and to eliminate the existing structural errors.
Keywords: altar, wooden structures
INTRODUCTION
The reconstruction of the Holiest Sacrament altar in the Holy Cross Church in Warsaw
is the last stage of restoring the furnishings of the church interior that were destroyed during
World War II, end especially during the Warsaw Uprising in 1944. It was not surprising that
this undertaking aroused interest. The altar under renovation had been designed by the most
renowned architect of the baroque era – Tylman van Gameren, for whom Warsaw was the
most important place of his designing activity, as well as the one related to architecture and
church interior furnishing. The project was to be completed in 2010. The assembly of
structural components and of the heavy sculptures on their top caused, within a short time,
serious deformations of the structure, which grew bigger in spite of a partial disassembly of
the top group of sculptures. The preparation of an expert report explaining the reasons of this
situation was commissioned to the Department of Construction and Technology of Final
Wood Products of the Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW).
The subject of the expert report is the wooden construction of the altar (Photo 1), and
in particular the description of the present state of this construction.
Photo 1. Holiest Sacrament Altar (Altar of the Fatherland) State after the disassembly of
saints from the entablature and from the top part (22/10/2010).
154

CONSTRUCTION ERRORS
The altar was scrutinised on 22 Oct 2010. The following construction errors were
observed:
- The bottom part of the altar should transmit stresses to the concrete foundations
through a bearer. Unfortunately it does not happen in this case. The wooden bottom part of
the altar placed on the foundations has local points of support. Squashed wood can be seen –
the compressive stress resistance has been surpassed at a right angle to the fibres.
Wedges were placed on the uneven foundation in order to level and stabilize the
position of the wooden altar parts (Photographs 2-3). Just as in the previous case, this kind of
support is improper, because it causes greater deformations and uneven settling of the wooden
altar elements. It may cause delamination of different parts of the altar, especially in the top
part. Additionally, the forces from the wedge are transmitted to bricks which creates local
tensions in the bricks, and as a result – also deformations.
The recesses of the socle pedestals were placed in the rabbets of their frames without
leaving the necessary free space of several millimetres applied for the purpose of possible
wood swelling. The lack of this gap in a part of the frames caused the vertical frame elements
to bend and the shape of the pedestals to deform under the stress caused by the recesses. The
increase of relative air humidity (right now it stays at the level of more or less 53%) can even
cause damage to the carpentry joints and formation of cracks on the layer of gilt.
Photo 2. View of a point of support and of the squashed wood
Photo 3. Local point of support with the use of a wedge on the external side
A heavy frame construction was properly made of C-profile elements NP 100. The
manner of joining the structural elements of the altar with the frame is far from perfect. Quite
155

unstable joints made of metal were applied, fastened to the C-profiles by only one single bolt,
which forms an articulation joint (Photo 4). Moreover, in the case of some of the flat bars,
although they were fastened to the steel frame, someone has forgotten to fasten them to the
wooden altar structure. A stronger joint should have been applied, for instance through metal
triangles. The above-mentioned errors caused gaps to appear at the carpentry joints of the
entablature cornice, as well as incompatibilities between profile shapes visible on the cornice
and in the pedestal part, which appeared because the elements forming them changed their
position in respect to one another, moving vertically and horizontally (Photo 5).
Photo 4. Manner of fastening the altar construction to vertical steel elements
It is worth noting that these extensive damages were caused by the errors in pedestal
installation that were mentioned before, as well as by insufficient manner of joining the
elements of those structures. Metal joints in the form of bolts and flat bars of different shape
and length were applied, their number was not sufficient and the places of fastening seem to
be chosen at random without any kind of plan based on an analysis of the structure and of the
forces operating within it (it should be reminded that the altar construction and the metal
frame fastened to the wall are symmetrical structures). Similar errors can be seen in the
manner of joining the altar with the steel frame and with the transept wall.
a
b
Photo 5 a) View of a gap in the entablature cornice on the right side of the altar;
b) Shifted cornice profiles at the point of touch between two elements forming
the entablature (right side of the upper tier of the altar)
156

Photo 6. Incorrect placement of the board supporting the figures at the lateral wall
The photograph no 6 shows the improper installation of a horizontal element
supporting the figures on a vertical wall, with the use of blocks. The forces transmitted by this
kind of joint are too small. There is a risk that the block would fall off while working under a
load. The photograph no 7 shows an absolutely unacceptable manner of joining a vertical post
with a horizontal element. The horizontal element overlaps the post by only a couple of
millimetres. It does not touch it at the whole surface of the post. At the same time it should be
mentioned, that the post itself is not vertical. There is a risk that this joint will be broken
under a load, because the compressive stress resistance will be exceeded in parallel to the
fibres. As it is well known, the value of resistance to compression in parallel to the fibres is
low, just a few MPa, in accordance to the class of wood. The photograph no 8 shows the
manner of joining a horizontal element of the steel frame with a vertical board. This kind of
joint is unstable, because there is an empty space between the clamp and the C-profile, while
there should be a wooden wedge.
Photo 7. View of an incorrect joint between the post, tilted in relation to the vertical axis, and
a horizontal element that supports the sculptures
157

Photo 8. View of an incorrect joint between a wooden element and horizontal C-profiles
Photo 9. View of a bent horizontal board supporting the sculptures
Photo 10. Pedestal profiles shifted in vertical and horizontal planes
Photo 11. View of cracks in the joints of the bottom part of the altar and of the chipped off
gilt in a place where the wooden elements of the column base touch the foundations
158

The sections of the structural elements were inappropriate for the static loads that they
should be able to transmit. The photograph no 9 shows a strongly bent horizontal element in
the left part of the altar; therefore, we may assume that an incorrect section of the bent
element was applied. An element with a thicker section should have been used.
The photograph no 11 shows some chip-offs of the gilt in the place where it touches the
marble socle. This means that the compressive stress of both elements is very high; therefore,
it should be assumed that the individual parts of the altar construction are shifting, which
confirms that the settling of the external segments of the altar is greater than in the middle
part.
SUMMARY
The exact calculation of the loads and forces present in all the elements may only be
performed after cataloguing the whole altar and after determining the sections of the elements.
It must be asserted that the contractor and the investor do not have any construction plan of
the altar whatsoever, which seems utterly strange and contrary to the construction law.
The most probable reason of the apparition of cracks and delaminations in the
construction is the lack of continuous timber bearers on which the altar should be placed.
Local points of support and wedges between the foundation and the bottom part of the altar
cause uneven settling of individual altar components, which results in the apparition of cracks
in its upper part. In the immediate future the gaps may grow as a result of the wood creep
phenomenon and as a result of the planned installation of additional sculptures of saints and
angels that are to be placed on the entablature of the lower tier and over the top part of the
altar. Therefore, it is necessary to periodically monitor the state of the altar structure
preservation.
The joints between the wooden altar construction and the steel frame and the wall
should be made in a more professional way, with the use of rigid joints instead of articulation
joints, fixed in the appropriate number and along the entire height.
Engineered wood materials should not be used in the construction of the altar. It
should be made of solid wood.
It is striking how carelessly the construction was made, especially in the case of joints
between the elements and the substructures. An egregious error was committed in the manner
of joining the post with the horizontal element (Photo no 12).
The wooden material used is of good quality. It has been applied in conditions of first
class usage, as the air humidity does not exceed 60% and the temperature is about 13ºC;
therefore, the wood moisture equivalent amounts to between ten and twenty percent.
Streszczenie: Analiza stanu konstrukcji drewnianej ołtarza Najświętszego Sakramentu w
prawym skrzydle transeptu bazyliki Świętego Krzyża w Warszawie. Dokonano oględzin
konstrukcji ołtarza. Stwierdzono szereg błędów konstrukcyjnych, począwszy od
fundamentów a skończywszy na elementach bocznych ołtarza. Zalecono monitorowanie
konstrukcji oraz likwidację istniejących błędów konstrukcyjnych.
Corresponding authors:
Andrzej Cichy
Andrzej Tomusiak
Department of Construction and Technology of Final Wood Products
Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego (University of Life Sciences)
02-787 Warsaw, ul. Nowoursynowska 166, Poland
E-mail addresses:
andrzej_cichy@sggw.pl
andrzej_tomusiak@sggw.pl
159

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 160-163
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Basic chemical composition of selected species of bush willows
BOGUSŁAWA WALISZEWSKA, KINGA SZENTNER, AGNIESZKA SPEK-DŹWIGAŁA
Institute of Chemical Wood Technology, Poznań University of Life Sciences
Abstract: Basic chemical composition of selected species of bush willows. The content of cellulose, lignin and
holocellulose was determined in wood of bush willows cultivated using the Eco-Salix method. The following
willow clones were selected for experiments: K-TURBO, K-1054, K-DUOTUR, TUR-KOCIBÓRZ, CORDA
and K-EKOTUR. The performed analyses were conducted employing standard methods commonly used in
wood chemistry.
Keywords: cellulose, lignin, holocellulose.
Willows belong to the Salix sp., genus in which over 300 species as well as numerous
sub-species are distinguished. They settle a wide range of sites beginning from very moist,
even inundated and fertile to very dry and poor with respect to nutrients. They occur in the
form of trees, bushes and shrubs and can be found from the Arctic, right across the zone of
temperate climate up to the hot equatorial region (Białobok et al., 1990).
In recent years, an increasing interest has been observed in Poland in bush willows as
fast-growing species associated with possibilities of their utilisation for energy purposes as
ecologic raw material and as a raw material for chemical industry to obtain cellulose (Staffa
1965) and bioalcohol (Ciechanowicz, Szczukowski 2010). In addition, willows can also be
utilised in industry to manufacture particleboards. Bush forms of willows can also be utilised
in wickerwork to manufacture ornamental or household articles.
As a result of centuries of willow cultivation and breeding wicker, twig and fascine
forms of willow species were developed producing huge quantities of raw material of
appropriate quality for the requirements of a given buyer.
Willow extraordinary adaptational qualities to a wide range of different environmental
conditions make this species exceptionally valuable to be employed in environmental
protection, among others, to develop along motor ways as well as dual carriage ways
protection zones against motor-car emissions – green screens protecting against noise. In
addition, the Salix viminalis L. species is utilised for reclamation of areas degraded and
destroyed by human industrial and urban activities (Waliszewska, Podobiński, Bobkiewicz,
1999).
Biomass production obtained from 3 to 4-year plantations of fast-growing, selected
Salix spp. clones can yield 10 to 14 times greater volumes of biomass in comparison with the
biomass increment produced during the same period of time in the forest. Expansion of
willow cultivations would make it possible to supplement wood obtained from forests. This
kind of wood could provide raw material for the production of thermal energy in a sustainable
way friendly for the environment.
Willow species are characterised by high yielding potentials, fast growth during the
vegetation period and considerable regeneration capabilities after cutting. They can grow well
both in conditions of water excess and its shortage. However, in order to ensure production of
large biomass quantities, the growing site should be characterised by appropriate water
reserves (Sowiński 1988). In Sweden, intensively fertilised and watered plants were reported
to yield annually even 15 Mg of wood dry matter per hectare. In two-year cultivations, 35-39
160

Mg/ha DM yields were recorded, whereas from three-year plantations – 60 Mg/ha wood dry
matter was harvested. In Poland, valuable species and hybrids of fast-growing shrub willows
were selected yielding in three-year cultivation even 86 Mg/ha fresh biomass, i.e. 36 m 3
annually. The best ‘Harrison’ Salix viminalis hybrida clone yielded 110 Mg/ha fresh biomass
in a 3-year cultivation, i.e. approximately 55 Mg dry matter of wood (Szczukowski et al.,
2002).
The objective of the presented investigations was to determine the content of primary
wood constituents of selected Salix sp. clones obtained from an experimental plantation of
Warmia-Mazury University in Olsztyn.
EXPERIMENTAL MATERIAL AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Investigations were carried out on five-year willow twigs collected from an
experimental plantation cultivated according to the Eko-Salix method situated in Obory near
Kwidzyń in Warmia-Mazury Voivodeship. The following clones were investigated: K-
TURBO, K-1054, K-DUOTUR, TUR-KOCIBÓRZ, CORDA and K-EKOTUR.
The experimental material was collected before the onset of vegetation in February
2011 and ground initially into chips together with bark. The initial moisture content of the raw
material was determined and then the material was subjected to seasoning in a well-aerated
facility at room temperature until it reached constant moisture content. Dried material was
comminuted with the assistance of a laboratory mill Pulverisette 15 of Fritsch Company and
0.5-1.0 mm analytical fraction was separated using appropriate laboratory sieves.
Chemical analyses were conducted in accordance with the PN-92/P-50092
methodology and the following parameters were determined:
Cellulose content by Seifert method,
Lignin content by Tappi method,
Holocellulose content using sodium chlorite,
Pentosan content by Tollens method.
All results were calculated in relation to wood dry matter.
RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1. Content of principal wood constituents in examined willow clones.
Name of raw
material
Initial
moisture
content [%]
Moisture content
following
seasoning [%]
Cellulose
[%]
Lignin
[%]
Holocellulose
[%]
K-TURBO 46,4 6,58 42,58 24,68 73,71
K-1054 47,5 6,71 42,30 24,35 77,36
K-DUOTUR 44,5 5,89 44,16 22,59 77,47
TUR KOCIBÓRZ 43,9 6,62 42,30 24,49 75,13
CORDA 47,1 6,74 44,80 24,63 77,52
K-EKOTUR 36,7 6,88 43,00 22,68 78,60
The initial moisture content of freshly-cut raw material was high and fluctuated in a
wide range from 36.7% to 47.5% (Tab. 1). The highest moisture content was determined in
the clone designated as K-EKOTUR, while the highest – in K-1054. Two clones: TUR
KOCIBÓRZ and K-DUOTUR were found to contain similar quantities of free water: 43.9%
and 44.5%, respectively. The willow clone designated as K-TURBO contained slightly more
water – 46.4%, whereas clone CORDA was found to contain 47.1% water.
The content of the main wood constituent – cellulose - was similar in all the examined
willow clones and ranged from 42.30% to 44.80% (Tab. 1), which means that differences in
its content differed by only 2.5%. The highest cellulose content was found in the willow clone
161

called CORDA, while the lowest content of 43.00% – in K-1054 and TUR KOCIBÓRZ
clones. The wood of the K-DUOTUR willow clone was determined to contain 44.16%
cellulose.
The quantity of lignin in the examined samples ranged from 22.59% to 24.68% (Tab.
1). Four willow clones revealed very similar levels (about 24%) of lignin, namely: K-1054 –
24.35%, TUR KOCIBÓRZ – 24.49%, CORDA – 24.63% and K-TURBO – 24.68%, whereas
two shrub willows contained approximately 2% less lignin, namely: K-DUOTUR – 22.59%
and K-EKOTUR – 22.68%.
The lowest holocellulose content (73.71%) was determined in the willow clone called
K-TURBO, i.e. the one that was found to contain the highest level of lignin. The examined
clones designated as: K – 1054, K-DUOTUR and CORDA contained very similar quantities
of holocellulose: 77.36%, 77.47% and 77.52%, respectively, whereas the willow clone
designated as TUR KOCIBÓRZ contained over 2% less of this constituent. The highest
quantity of holocellulose was determined in the wood of the K-DUOTUR willow which was
found to contain 78.60% of this constituent.
25
20
21,15 21,26 21,03
20,27 19,58 21,06
15
[%]
10
5
0
K-TURBO K-1054 K-DUOTUR TUR-KOCIBÓRZ CORDA K-EKOTUR
Figure 1. Pentosan content in the examined willow clones.
The content of pentosans in the wood of four of the examined willow clones was very
similar and ranged from 21.03% to 21.26% (Fig. 1). The above clones included: K-TURBO –
21.15%, K-1054 – 21.26%, K-DUOTUR – 21.03% and K-EKOTUR – 21.06%. The wood of
the TUR KOCIBÓRZ clone contained 20.27% pentosans, while CORDA clone was
characterised by the lowest content of these compounds – 19.58%.
CONCLUSIONS
1. All the examined clones of the Salix sp. genus were characterised by a similar content
of cellulose. The highest levels of this constituent (over 44%) were determined in
CORDA and K-DUOTUR cultivars.
2. The amount of lignin in the wood of the examined willow clones was similar and
differences in its content amounted to about 2%.
3. Holocellulose content in the wood of the experimental samples ranged from 73.71% to
78.60%.
4. The content of principal constituents in the wood of the examined shrub willow clones
was characteristic for broad-leaved species.
162

REFERENCES:
1. BIAŁOBOK S. i in., 1990: Wierzby. Salix alba L., Salix fragilis L.. Nasze drzewa
leśne, t. 13. PAN-PWN Inst. Dendrologii, W-wa-Poznań, s. 9-34.
2. CIECHANOWICZ W., SZCZUKOWSKI S., 2006: Paliwa i energia XXI wieku
szansą rozwoju wsi i miast. Oficyna Wyd. WIT, W-wa, s.71-152.
3. CIECHANOWICZ W., SZCZUKOWSKI S., 2010: Transformacja cywilizacji z ery
ognia do ekonomii wodoru i metanolu. Wyższa Szkoła Informatyki Stosowanej i
Zarządzania, W-wa, s. 34-40.
4. SOWIŃSKI J., 1988: Wpływ herbicydów oraz dodatkowego spulchniania
międzyrzędzi na zachwaszczenie, wzrost i plonowanie wikliny. Cz. II.: Wpływ
następczy na plon i jakość prętów w drugim roku uprawy. Rocz. Nauk. Roln., A, (107)
3:205-219.
5. STAFFA K., 1965: Studia nad szybko rosnącymi wierzbami jako surowcem dla
przemysłu celulozowo-papierniczego. Hod. Rośl. Aklim. i Nas., 2, (2): 180-24, cz. II i
III, 3: 320-338.
6. SZCZUKOWSKI S., TWORKOWSKI J., WIWART M., PRZYBOROWSKI J., 2002:
Wiklina (Salix sp.). Uprawa i możliwości wykorzystywania. Wyd. UW-M Olsztyn, s.
5-57.
7. WALISZEWSKA B., PODOBIŃSKI A., BOBKIEWICZ K., 1999: Skład chemiczny
wierzb i redukcja metali ciężkich w hydrobotanicznych oczyszczalniach wód. Mat.
XIII Konf. Naukowej WTD SGGW W-wa: „Drewno – Materiał o wszechstronnym
przeznaczeniu i zastosowaniu”, s. 59-65.
Streszczenie: Podstawowy skład chemiczny wybranych gatunków wierzb krzewiastych
W niniejszej pracy oznaczono ilościowo zawartość podstawowych składników drewna wierzb
krzewiastych następujących klonów: K-TURBO, K-1054, K-DUOTUR, TUR-KOCIBÓRZ,
CORDA oraz K-EKOTUR. Materiał badawczy pochodził z uprawianej metodą Eko-Salix
plantacji doświadczalnej Uniwersytetu Warmińsko-Mazurskiego, położonej w miejscowości
Obory koło Kwidzyna w woj. warmińsko-mazurskim. Oznaczono ilość celulozy, ligniny i
holocelulozy w drewnie wraz z korą. Badane klony wierzbowe zawierały od 42,30% do
44,80% celulozy. Zawartość ligniny kształtowała się w granicach od 22,59% do 24,68%, a
ilość holocelulozy wynosiła od 73,71% do 78,60%.
The research project is financed from financial resources of the National Centre for Research
and Development, within the framework of a development grant No. N R 12-0065-10/2011.
Corresponding authors:
Bogusława Waliszewska, Agnieszka Spek-Dźwigała
Poznań University of Life Sciences
Institute of Chemical Wood Technology
ul. Wojska Polskiego 38/42
60-637 Poznań
e-mail: bwaliszewska@up.poznan.pl
e-mail: adzwigala@wp.pl
Kinga Szentner
Poznań University of Life Sciences
Faculty of Land Reclamation and Environmental Engineering
ul. Wojska Polskiego 75
60-625 Poznań
e-mail: szentner@up.poznan.pl
163

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 164-167
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Extractive substances in selected species of shrub willows
BOGUSŁAWA WALISZEWSKA, WŁODZIMIERZ PRĄDZYŃSKI,
AGNIESZKA SIERADZKA
Institute of Chemical Wood Technology, Poznań University of Life Sciences
Abstract: Extractive substances in selected species of shrub willows. Quantities of substances soluble in organic
solvents as well as in water found in the wood of shrub willows cultivated using the Eko-Salix method were
determined. The following willow clones were investigated: K-TURBO, K-1054, K-DUOTUR, TUR-
KOCIBÓRZ, CORDA and K-EKOTUR. Additionally, quantities of mineral substances were also determined.
Analyses were carried out employing standard methods commonly used in wood chemistry.
Keywords: extractive substances, water-soluble substances, mineral substances.
INTRODUCTION
Salix genus has attracted attention of many researchers for centuries not only as the
best available material for wicker industry. Shrub varieties of willow were used for
wickerwork purposes already in ancient times and the oldest evidence confirming willow
utilisation for various purposes derives from the Neolithic Epoch (Wąsowiczówna 1958).
Polish plantations of willow are dominated by the Salix americana variety because it
is characterised by the best traits required in wicker industry. However, Salix genus finds
wide applications in environmental protection, among others, for the reclamation of degraded
land and sewage treatment (Waliszewska et al., 1999), in cellulose production (Staffa 1965),
to manufacture wood-based boards (Morze, Prądzyński 1971), in production of active carbon
(Kiełczewski et al., 1996) as well as for energy production (Ciechanowicz, Szczukowski
2006).
In recent years, both in Poland and in many other countries, we can observe an
increasing interest in fast-growing shrub willow varieties of low soil requirements cultivated,
primarily, for purposes of production of biofuels (Ciechanowicz, Szczukowski 2010).
Wood chemical composition depends on many factors (Prosiński 1984). The quantity
of non-structural wood constituents which include: fats, waxes, resins, tannins, dyes, alkaloids
and glycosides depends not only on the wood species but also on growth conditions, age and
the part of plant etc.
The objective of the performed investigations was to determine the content of nonstructural
substances soluble in organic substances, water and 1% NaOH in selected species
of shrub willow. Additionally, also the content of minerals in the examined wood was
assessed.
EXPERIMENTAL MATERIAL AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Investigations were carried out on five-year old willow twigs collected from an
experimental plantation cultivated according to the Eko-Salix method situated in Obory near
Kwidzyń in Warmia-Mazury Voivodeship. The following clones were investigated: K-
TURBO, K-1054, K-DUOTUR, TUR-KOCIBÓRZ, CORDA and K-EKOTUR. The
experimental material was collected in February 2011 and ground initially into chips together
with bark. The material was next subjected to seasoning in a well-aerated facility at room
164

temperature until it reached constant moisture content. Dried material was comminuted with
the assistance of a laboratory mill Pulverisette 15 of Fritsch Company and 0.5-1.0 mm
analytical fraction was separated using appropriate laboratory sieves.
Chemical analyses were conducted in accordance with the PN-92/P-50092
methodology and the following parameters were determined:
Quantities of substances soluble in ethanol,
Quantities of substances soluble in cold and hot water,
Quantities of substances soluble in 1% NaOH.
All results were calculated in relation to wood dry matter.
RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1. Content of extractive substances in the wood of the selected willows.
Name of raw
material
Ethanol soluble
substances [%]
Substances soluble
in cold water [%]
Substances soluble
in hot water [%]
Substances soluble
in 1% NaOH [%]
K-TURBO 3,45 2,45 3,21 25,62
K-1054 3,29 2,56 2,93 25,30
K-DUOTUR 3,86 2,33 3,31 22,90
TUR KOCIBÓRZ 3,81 2,51 3,92 26,55
CORDA 3,33 2,24 3,06 22,39
K-EKOTUR 3,47 3,22 4,06 26,44
The quantities of substances extracted with the organic solvent in wood of the
examined shrub willows were very similar. The greatest differences in the content of these
compounds did not exceed 0.6%. The highest amount of ethanol soluble substances - 3.86%
was determined in the clone designated as K-DUOTUR. The examined TUR KOCIBÓRZ
clone was also found to contain high content (3.81%) of these substances. Practically,
identical quantities of extractive substances, i.e. 3.45% and 3.47% were determined in the
wood of respectively K-TURBO and K-EKOTUR clones. Two shrub willow clones
designated as K-1054 and CORDA contained respectively 3.29% and 3.33% of compounds
soluble in ethanol.
When analysing the amount of substances soluble in cold water, it can be concluded
that the only willow clone that contained somewhat higher levels of these compounds (3.22%)
was the one designated as K-EKOTUR. The remaining clones of the Salix genus were
characterised by very similar quantities of substances diluted by cold water which ranged
from 2.24% in the case of the clone designated as CORDA to 2.56% in the case of the clone
called K-1054. The wood of the K-DUOTUR willow clone was found to contain 2.33% of
cold-water extracted substances, whereas that of the K-TURBO clone – 2.45%. A similar
amount of these substances (2.51%) was determined in the willow clone designated as TUR
KOCIBÓRZ.
The content of substances soluble in hot water determined in the wood of the
examined shrub willows ranged from 2.93% in the case of the clone designated as K-1054 to
4.06% in the K-EKOTUR clone. The wood of CORDA clone contained 3.06% of these
compounds. High content (3.92%) of substances extracted by hot water was determined in the
wood of the TUR KOCIBÓRZ clone, while the successive two of the examined willow
clones, namely K-TURBO and K-DUOTUR were found to contain, respectively: 3.21% and
3.31% of substances diluted with hot water.
The analyses of the content of substances soluble in diluted alkalis indicated high
quantities of these compounds in the examined willow samples. Their quantities ranged from
22.39% to 26.55%. Their highest levels were determined in the wood of TUR KOCIBÓRZ
165

willow clone, whereas the clone designated as CORDA was found to contain their lowest
quantities. Two of the examined willow clones contained similar quantities of substances
washed out by diluted NaOH, namely: clone K-TURBO – 25.62% and clone K-1054 –
25.30%. The willow clone designated as K-DUOTUR contained 22.90% of these substances
in its wood, whereas the wood of the K-EKOTUR clone was found to contain over 3.5% more
of them.
[%]
2,00
1,80
1,60
1,40
1,20
1,00
0,80
0,60
0,40
0,20
0,00
1,81
1,64
1,63
1,49
1,31
1,1
K-TURBO K-1054 K-DUOTUR TUR-KOCIBÓRZ CORDA K-EKOTUR
Figure 1. Content of mineral substances in wood of selected willow clones.
The amount of mineral substances in wood depends on many factors, among others,
on growth conditions and can be treated as an important indicator in situations when this raw
material is intended for energy purposes. Obviously, the lower the content of these
substances, the better. Wood of the examined bush willow clones was characterised by an
elevated content of mineral substances in comparison with the literature data (Prosiński
1984).
Analysing the amount of ash in the wood of the examined bush willow clones, it was
found that its quantities ranged from 1.10% in the case of the clone designated as K-
DUOTUR up to 1.81% in the case of the K-TURBO clone. Two of the examined willow
clones - CORDA and K-1054 - contained the same amounts of ash (1.63-1.64%). Wood of the
willow clone designated as TUR-KOCIBÓRZ contained 1.31% mineral substances, while that
of the K-EKOTUR clone – 1.49%.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Quantities of substances soluble and ethanol and in cold water in the examined willow
clones were very similar and were determined at levels characteristic for broad-leaved
species.
2. The content of compounds soluble in diluted alkalis was fairly high and ranged from
22.39% to 26.44%.
3. The recorded elevated content of mineral substances in the wood of the examined
willow samples should not restrict their application for energy purposes.
4. Uniform growth conditions may have impacted the recorded similar quantities of nonstructural
substances in the wood of experimental willow wood.
166

REFERENCES:
1. CIECHANOWICZ W., SZCZUKOWSKI S., 2006: Paliwa i energia XXI wieku
szansą rozwoju wsi i miast. Oficyna Wyd. WIT, W-wa, s.71-152.
2. CIECHANOWICZ W., SZCZUKOWSKI S., 2010: Transformacja cywilizacji z ery
ognia do ekonomii wodoru i metanolu. Wyższa Szkoła Informatyki Stosowanej i
Zarządzania, W-wa, s. 34-40.
3. KIEŁCZEWSKI M., BABEŁ K., ZAKRZEWSKI R., 1996: Badania nad
otrzymaniem ziarnowych węgli aktywnych z jednorocznych prętów wierzby Salix
americana. Mat. Konf. „Kompleksowe wykorzystanie wierzb krzewiastych z
krajowych plantacji”. Poznań-Zielonka.
4. MORZE Z., PRĄDZYŃSKI W., 1971: Możliwosci wykorzystania odpadów z wikliny
do produkcji płyt wiórowych. Roczniki WSR, L II:73-87.
5. PROSIŃSKI S., 1984: Chemia drewna. PWRiL Warszawa.
6. STAFFA K., 1965: Studia nad szybko rosnącymi wierzbami jako surowcem dla
przemysłu celulozowo-papierniczego. Hod. Rośl. Aklim. i Nas., 2, (2): 180-24, cz. II i
III, 3: 320-338.
7. WALISZEWSKA B., PODOBIŃSKI A., BOBKIEWICZ K., 1999: Skład chemiczny
wierzb i redukcja metali ciężkich w hydrobotanicznych oczyszczalniach wód. Mat.
XIII Konf. Naukowej WTD SGGW W-wa: „Drewno – Materiał o wszechstronnym
przeznaczeniu i zastosowaniu”, s. 59-65.
8. WĄSOWICZÓWNA A., 1958: Plecionkarstwo w starożytnym Rzymie. Polska
Wiklina. PPW Poznań nr 4 (8).
Streszczenie: Substancje ekstrakcyjne wybranych gatunków wierzb krzewiastych
W niniejszej pracy oznaczono ilościowo zawartość niestrukturalnych składników drewna
wierzb krzewiastych następujących klonów: K-TURBO, K-1054, K-DUOTUR, TUR-
KOCIBÓRZ, CORDA oraz K-EKOTUR. Materiał badawczy pochodził z uprawianej metodą
Eko-Salix plantacji doświadczalnej Uniwersytetu Warmińsko-Mazurskiego, położonej w
miejscowości Obory koło Kwidzyna w woj. warmińsko-mazurskim. Oznaczono ilość
substancji rozpuszczalnych w etanolu, zimnej i gorącej wodzie oraz 1% NaOH. Zawartość
substancji rozpuszczalnych w etanolu oraz w zimnej wodzie w badanych klonach
wierzbowych była bardzo zbliżona i kształtowała się na poziomie odpowiednio 3,29% do
3,86% oraz 2,24% do 3,22%. Ilość związków rozpuszczalnych w rozcieńczonych alkaliach
była wysoka i wynosiła od 22,39% do 26,55%. Badane wierzby zawierały od 1,10% do
1,81% popiołu.
Investigations were financed from the financial resources of The National Centre for Research
and Development, within the framework of the development grant No. 12-0065-10/2011.
Corresponding authors:
Bogusława Waliszewska,
Włodzimierz Prądzyński,
Agnieszka Sieradzka
Poznań University of Life Sciences
Institute of Chemical Wood Technology
ul. Wojska Polskiego 38/42
60-637 Poznań
e-mail: bwaliszewska@up.poznan.pl
e-mail: wpradzynski@up.poznan.pl
e-mail: rosandgild@wp.pl
167

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 168-171
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Effect of the press closing speed on mechanical properties of particleboards
with the core layer made from willow (Salix viminalis)
KRZYSZTOF WARMBIER 1) , ARNOLD WILCZYŃSKI 1) , LESZEK DANECKI 2) ,
MIROSŁAWA MROZEK 2)
1) Institute of Technology, Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz
2) Research and Development Centre for Wood-Based Panels Industry in Czarna Woda
Abstract: Effect of the press closing speed on mechanical properties of particleboards with the core layer made
from willow (Salix viminalis). Three-layer experimental particleboards were prepared using basket willow (Salix
viminalis) particles for the core layer and industrial pine particles for the face layers. The effect of the speed of
press closing (1, 2 and 3 mm/s from the mat thickness to the distance bar) on modulus of elasticity (MOE),
modulus of rupture (MOR) and internal bond (IB) was investigated. The greater speed provided better MOE and
MOR, and worse IB. For comparison, the properties of particleboards with the core layer made from pine
particles were studied. MOE and MOR of particleboards with the core layer from willow were slightly smaller,
and IB was slightly greater.
Keywords: particleboard, willow, mechanical properties, press closing time
INTRODUCTION
Considering the growth of particleboard production, Polish particleboard industry is
looking for new lignocellulosic materials. One of such material can be willow Salix viminalis
cultivated in Poland for energetic purposes (Dubas and Tomczyk 2005, Szczukowski et al
2006). Initial studies in the Institute of Wood Technology in Poznań (Poland) (Frąckowiak
2007, Frąckowiak et al 2008) showed the usefulness of this willow. This usefulness was also
confirmed by Sean et al. (2006). The group of scientists from the Institute of Technology of
the Kazimierz Wielki University (Poland) and the Research and Development Centre for
Wood-Based Panels Industry (Poland) has carried out comprehensive investigations into
effects of different factors on mechanical and physical properties of three-layer particleboards
with the core layer made from willow Salix viminalis. (Warmbier et al 2010, Wilczyński et al
2011).
The aim of this paper is to present one of the parts of these investigations – the study
on the effect of the press closing speed on mechanical properties of three-layer experimental
particleboard with the core layer made from basket willow.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The raw material for the core layer was obtained from a basket willow plantation in
Mieścisko (Poland). Three-year willow stems were stored for air-drying to moisture content
of about 12%, then chipped in a hammer-mill. To obtain particles for the core layer of
experimental particleboards, particles from the hammer-mill were screened and those which
passed through the sieve of 5 mesh (4 mm) and remained on the sieve of 18 mesh (1 mm)
were used. The raw material for the face layers was industrial fine particles made from pine
wood, supplied by Pfleiderer Prospan Wieruszów (Poland). All the particles were dried to
168

achieve moisture content of less than 3%. Urea formaldehyde resin was used as a binder and
no hydrophobic agent was added. The resin content was 8 and 10% for the core and face
layers, respectively. The ratio of the thickness of the face layers to the thickness of the board
was 0.4, the target board density was 700 kg/m 3 , and the thickness was 16 mm. The pressing
conditions were: temperature of 180 o C, maximum pressure of 2.5 MPa, and pressing time of
4 min. Three press closing speeds were assumed: 1, 2 and 3 mm/s, from the mat thickness to
the distance bar. Four experimental boards were manufactured for each press closing speed.
For comparison, three-layer particleboards with the core layer made from industrial
pine particles supplied by Pfleiderer Prospan Wieruszów were prepared. Particle sizes, board
construction and pressing conditions were the same as for the particleboard with the willow
core layer.
Prior to testing all the boards were stored in controlled conditions (50% relative
humidity and 20 o C) for two weeks. The following properties of produced particleboards were
determined according to EN standards: modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture
(MOR) according to EN 310: 1994, internal bond (IB) according to EN 319: 1999. Test
specimens for IB were prepared from the specimens that were formerly tested for MOE and
MOR. Twenty replicates were run for each test.
RESULTS
Results of the tests are given in Figs 1-3. Error bars represented ±standard deviation
based on twenty specimens. Mechanical properties in bending of tested particleboards (Figs
1and 2) increase whereas IB (Fig. 3) decreases gradually with increasing the press closing
speed from 1 to 3 mm/s. This relation concerns both particleboards with the willow and pine
core layer. MOE and MOR of particleboards pressed with the press closing speed of 3 mm/s
are on average greater by 11 and 10% respectively than those of particleboards pressed with
the press closing speed of 1 mm/s. IB of particleboards pressed with the press closing speed
of 3 mm/s is on average smaller by 23% than that of particleboards pressed with the press
closing speed of 1 mm/s.
Fig.1. Modulus of elasticity of particleboards pressed with different press closing speeds
169

Fig.2. Modulus of rupture of particleboards pressed with different press closing speeds
Fig.3. Internal bond of particleboards pressed with different press closing speeds
Mechanical properties in bending of particleboards with the core layer made from
willow are worse than those of particleboards with the core layer from pine. MOE and MOR
are on average smaller by 5%. IB of particleboards with the core layer from willow is better
than that of particleboards with the core layer from pine, its value is on average greater by
3%.
CONCLUSIONS
Mechanical properties of three-layer particleboards with the core layer made from
basket willow particles depend on the press closing speed. The press closing speed of 3 mm/s
provides better MOE and MOR, and worse IB than the speeds of 1 and 2 mm/s. Compared
with three-layer particleboards with the core layer made from industrial pine particles, the
mechanical properties in bending of particleboards with this layer made from willow particles
are slightly smaller, and IB is slightly greater.
REFERENCES
1. DUBAS J., TOMCZYK A. (2005) Establishment, care and protection of energetic
willow plantation (in Polish). SGGW Warszawa.
2. EN 310 (1993) Wood-based panels. Determination of modulus of elasticity in bending
and of bending strength.
3. EN 312 (2003) Particleboards. Specifications.
170

4. EN 319 (1993) Particleboards and fiberboards. Determination of tensile strength
perpendicular to the plane of the board.
5. FRĄCKOWIAK I., 2007: From studies on using alternative lignocellulosic raw
materials for particleboard production (in Polish). Technologia Drewna - Wczoraj,
Dziś, Jutro, Poznań: 285-294.
6. FRĄCKOWIAK I., FUCZEK D., KOWALUK G., 2008: Impact of different
lignocellulosic materials used in core of particleboard on modulus of elasticity and
bending strength. DREWNO-WOOD 51, 180: 5-13.
7. SEAN S.T., LABRECQUE M. (2006) Use of short-rotation coppice willow clones of
Salix viminalis as furnish in panel production. Forest Products Journal 56 (9): 47-52.
8. SZCZUKOWSKI S., TWORKOWSKI J., STOLARSKI M. (2006) Energetic willow
(in Polish). Plantpress, Kraków.
9. WARMBIER K., WILCZYŃSKI A., DANECKI L. (2010) Particle size dependent
properties particleboards with the core layer made from willow (Salix viminalis).
Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences. Forestry and Wood Technology 71:
405-409.
10. WILCZYŃSKI A., WARMBIER K., DANECKI L., MROZEK M. (2011) Properties
of experimental particleboards with the core layer made from willow (Salix viminalis).
Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences. Forestry and Wood Technology 74.
Streszczenie: Wpływ prędkości zamykania prasy na właściwości mechaniczne płyt wiórowych
z warstwą wewnętrzną wykonaną z wierzby Salix viminalis. Wykonano trzywarstwowe płyty
wiórowe stosując wióry wierzby wiciowej (Salix viminalis) na warstwę wewnętrzną i
przemysłowe wióry sosnowe na warstwy zewnętrzne. Badano wpływ prędkości zamykania
półek prasy (1, 2 i 3 mm/s - od grubości maty do trzpienia dystansowego) na moduł
sprężystości (MOE), wytrzymałość na zginanie (MOR) i wytrzymałość na rozciąganie
poprzeczne (IB). Większa prędkość zapewniała lepsze MOE i MOR oraz gorsze IB. Dla
porównania badano właściwości płyt z warstwą wewnętrzną wykonaną z wiórów sosnowych.
MOE i MOR płyt wiórowych z warstwą wewnętrzną z wiórów wierzbowych były
nieznacznie mniejsze, a IB nieznacznie większe.
Acknowledgement: This research project has been supported by the Polish Ministry of
Science and Higher Education, grant number N N309 133535.
Corresponding authors:
Krzysztof Warmbier, Arnold Wilczyński
Institute of Technology,
Kazimierz Wielki University
Chodkiewicza 30 str.
85-064 Bydgoszcz, Poland
e-mail: warm@ukw.edu.pl
e-mail: wilczar@ukw.edu.pl
Leszek Danecki, Mirosława Mrozek
Research and Development Centre for Wood-Based Panels Industry in Czarna Woda
Mickiewicza 10 str.
83-262 Czarna Woda, Poland
e-mail: leszek.danecki@obrppd.com
171

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 172-175
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Productivity of wood cutting process
ROMAN WASIELEWSKI
Department of Manufacturing Engineering and Automation, Mechanical Engineering Faculty,
Gdansk University of Technology.
Abstract: Productivity of wood cutting process. The paper presents analysis of productivity for sample wood
cutting line.
Keywords: wood cutting, circular sawing machine
INTRODUCTION
Assessment of production processes including wood cutting is being often conducted
based on their productivity. The productivity is defined as sum of achieved effects in relation
to total investment. Due to difficulty with keeping the same units for the effects and
investments as well as difficulty with correct determination of all effects and investments,
there are many measures of partial productivity which are relations of effect to chosen type of
investment in production.
In relation to wood cutting operation, the productivity (similarly to efficiency) can be
determined based on many factors, and their choice depends on target of the analysis
[ORŁOWSKI, WASIELEWSKI].
PRODUCTIVITY OF WOOD CUTTING MACHINE
During wood cutting process, the productivity of cutting machine together with
accompanying devices feeding and receiving material is an important factor. Such
productivity measure shows first of all the utilization degree for whole line of machines
related to the cutting process. Sample analysis shows wood cutting line where two-spindle
multi-saw circular cutting machine is used together with devices for feeding and receiving
material (fig.1). The material in form of prism is taken from buffer stock 1 and delivered to
transporter 2. There its position is being set by means of jaws 3. Time of this operation is
constant and equals t u =6 s. Next, the material is pressed by means of roll 4, jaws 3 are
released and material travels towards the cutting machine. Feeding speed on the transporter is
v f , and is supported by feeding system of the cutting machine. When end surface of the prism
5 passes by the sensor 6 mounted on the transporter, the cycle repeats.
2
1
4
3
6 5
Fig. 1. Scheme of the material feeding system
172

Used material feeding system causes that between following prisms of material coming into
the cutting machine there is a separation, which is a reason of not full utilization of the cutting
machine (fig.2).
vf
vf
tu vf
L
l
Fig. 2. Work cycle of material feeding system
In case of cutting prisms with length L, the cycle time is
L
T t
u
vf
(1)
and expressed by the prism’s travel it is:
l t
u
vf
L
(2)
Productivity of the wood cutting machine, as utilization degree of whole cutting line can be
determined percentage-wise as ration of prism’s length to prism’s travel resulting from work
cycle of the cutting machine
L L
P 100
100
%
l t
u
vf
L
(3)
Productivity can be also determined as relation between apparent feed velocity under 100%
P
productivity v f
, to real feed velocity v f .
P
vf
P 100
%
vf
(4)
P
Apparent feed velocity under 100% productivity v f
is actual linear efficiency of the cutting
machine determining length of the material machined in period of time. From that, the
relation is :
l L
P
vf v f
(5)
therefore:
P L L
vf
vf
vf
l t
u
vf
L
(6)
Samples of calculated productivity and actual linear efficiency of the cutting system
presented in fig. 1 is shown in fig. 3a and fig. 4a [MINKE].
173

a)
P, %
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
L = 2 m
L = 4 m
L = 6 m
0 10 20 30 40 50
v f , m/min
b)
P, %
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
L = 2 m
L = 4 m
L = 6 m
0 10 20 30 40 50
v f , m/min
Fig. 3. Productivity of cutting system from fig. 1, for: a) t u =6 s, b) t u =2 s
a)
vf p , m/min
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
L = 2 m
L = 4 m
L = 6 m
0 10 20 30 40 50
v f , m/min
b)
vf p , m/min
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
L = 2 m
L = 4 m
L = 6 m
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
v f , m/min
Fig. 4. Actual linear efficiency of cutting system from fig. 1
for: a) t u = 6 s, b) t u = 2 s
As it is seen, productivity of the system significantly depends on feed velocity v f and
length of cut prisms L (fig. 3a) and increasing of feed speed v f is not equal to the same
increase in length of prisms (fig. 4a).
Productivity increase of line to cut is possible by shortening the time needed to fix
prism’s position on the transporter t u , what is shown in fig. 3b and fig. 4b. Shortening of
fixing time t u can be used not only to increase cutting efficiency. In many cases it is worth
decreasing feed velocity, keeping the same actual length of cut prisms. For example, when
P
cutting prism with L = 4m length, in order to keep real linear efficiency of v f
= 20 m/min
with t u = 6s the cutting process needs to be conducted with feed velocity of v f = 40 m/min (fig.
4a), shortening the time to fix prism t u down to 2s, the same length of cut prism can be
achieved with v f = 25 m/min (fig. 4b). Therefore the same amount of production can be
achieved with lower feed velocity. Such solution brings many machining advantages. Lower
feed velocity can help with lower machining speed (with the same thickness of layers
machined by the teeth) what increases durability of the saw, or lower thickness of layers what
leads to decreasing machining forces and increased precision of cutting, etc.
174

SUMMARY
In every given case, the analysis of time efficiency and productivity of whole cutting
system shows weak points of cutting process. Therefore it is possible to minimize them what
leads to efficient cutting.
REFERENCES
1. ORŁOWSKI K., WASIELEWSKI R., 2007: Analiza produktywności operacji przecinania
drewna piłami. W: Obróbka skrawaniem : Wysoka produktywność, pod red. P. Cichosza.
Wrocław : Ofic. Wydaw. Politech. Wroc., - (Szkoła Obróbki Skrawaniem ; 1). s. 369-376,
ISBN 978-83-7493-343-8.
2. MINKE M., 2011: Produktywność wielopiłowych przecinarek tarczowych. Projekt
dyplomowy, promotor R. Wasielewski. Politechnika Gdańska, Wydział Mechaniczny,
masz. Gdańsk.
Streszczenie: Produktywność procesu przecinania drewna. W niniejszym artykule
przedstawiono analizę produktywności przykładowej linii przecinania drewna.
Corresponding author:
Roman Wasielewski
Department of Manufacturing Engineering and Automation,
Mechanical Engineering Faculty,
Gdansk University of Technology,
Narutowicza 11/12, 80-952 Gdańsk, Poland
E-mail address: rwasiele@pg.gda.pl
175

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 176-179
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Examination of influence of fixing circular saw on its stiffness
ROMAN WASIELEWSKI
Department of Manufacturing Engineering and Automation, Mechanical Engineering Faculty,
Gdansk University of Technology.
Abstract: Examination of influence of fixing circular saw on its stiffness. This article shows impact of the shape
of fixing disc on blade stiffness of chosen saws. Results of research present impact of size, shape and surface
quality in point of contact of fixing discs on blade stiffness.
Keywords: wood cutting, circular sawing machine
INTRODUCTION
Own stiffness of circular saws, like the stiffness of each component depends on the
shape, method of attachment and properties of material it is made of.
In circular saws, a decisive influence on the stiffness are factors arising from the shape
of the saw. These factors include: a diameter of the saw, body thickness, saw geometry
(amount, shape and size of the groove boards, as well as cuts: compensatory, cooling,
soundproofing, scraping) [WASIELEWSKI].
Besides shape, the stiffness of the blade is significantly affected by the method of
fixing the saw blade on the cutter spindle. The fixing method of saw, results from size, shape
and quality of the contact surface of the mounting plates between this plates and the corp.
EXAMINATION OF INFLUENCE OF FIXING CIRCULAR SAW ON ITS STIFFNESS
An example of impact of shape of mounting plates on the stiffness on the selected saw
blades are shown below.
Two saws were tested (fig. 1) the main difference was the thickness of the body (s =
2,5 mm, s = 1,2 mm). These saws were mounted in the grips of constant external diameter of
the mounting discs Dt = 125 mm, but with a different shape and size of the contact surface
with the body of the saw (fig. 2). In the studies were used: flat surfaces, differing only with
the contact surface (fig. 2A, B, C, D), surfaces with circumferential grooves (fig. 2E) and the
surfaces with circumferential grooves which the rubber rings embedded (fig. 2F). The results,
as the average stiffness of saw blades mounted in individual shields are shown in fig. 3
[MAJCHRZAK].
176

a) b)
D = 350 D = 367
s = 2,5 s = 1,2
z = 18 z = 12
Fig. 1. Saws used in research
A B C D E F
125
30
80
100
120
113
100
80
Fig. 2. Type of mounting plates used in research
a) b)
80
78
6,5
6,4
ksr, N/mm
76
74
ksr, N/mm
6,3
6,2
72
6,1
70
A B C D E F
rodzaj tarcz mocujących
6
A B C D E F
rodzaj tarcz mocujących
Fig. 3. The average value of stiffness of blades depending on type of mounting discs, for: a)
saw from fig. 1a, b) saw from fig. 1b
Comparing the results from fig. 1a and fig. 1b we can see that, regardless of the
stiffness of blades (stiffness used in the experiment vary more than ten times), the influence of
the type of mounting plates is similar. The mounting discs with flat surfaces (fig. 2A, B, C,
D), there is a specific value of contact surface at which the saw stiffness is greatest (fig. 2C).
Too big surface (fig. 2A) impoverish the accuracy of contact, which reduces the stiffness of
177

the connection, and too little surface (fig. 2D), with a transverse load of saws, resulting in
large forces on the edges of the mounting plates resulting from the moment of consolidate,
which conduct to deformation and thus significantly reduces the stiffness.
We can find interesting about pressure surfaces with circumferential grooves (fig. 2E)
[WASIELEWSKI, ORŁOWSKI]. Such discs have a limited value of the contact surface, such
as C-type discs, while retaining the large difference in the largest and smallest diameter of the
mount, as the B-type disc. This ensures even distribution of pressure, eliminating the negative
side of D-type shields. As a result, such type of mounting plates assure maximum rigidity of
saw blades. Mounting plates with circumferential grooves also allow to maintain the purity of
contact surfaces, what improves stiffness and also improves the accuracy of mounting saws.
Additionally, in discs with circumferential grooves, the grooves can be used to embed in them
damping elements such as rubber rings (fig. 2F). Such a solution, as a result of dumping the
vibration, also improves the dynamics of the saw.
An example of commonly used in multi-saw cut-off machine disc dividers with flat
surfaces and plates with circumferentially grooved contact surfaces are shown in fig. 4.
Quality of mounting circular saws, apart from size and shape of the contact surface of the
mounting plates (dividers) in the body of the saw, to a large extent depends on the quality of
their surface. In industrial practice, in many cases, there are used mounting plates (dividers),
the surface quality is far from satisfactory (fig. 4a), which obviously reduce the stiffness and
accuracy positioning of saw.
a) b)
SUMMARY
Fig. 4. An example of dividers to saws: a) with flat surfaces (commonly used),
b) with circumferential grooved contact surfaces
Method of fixing the saw resulting from the size, shape and quality of contact surface
mounting plates with the body has an impact on the saw stiffness.
Studies have shown that saws with circumferential grooves have limited value of
contact surface, maintaining a big difference between the largest and smallest diameter of the
mounting. This ensures even distribution of pressure, maintaining a higher purity of contact
surface, beyond the improvement in stiffness, improves the accuracy of mounting saws.
REFERENCES
1. MAJCHRZAK J., 2011: Wpływ sposobu mocowania piły tarczowej na jej sztywność
statyczną. Praca dyplomowa, promotor R. Wasielewski. Politechnika Gdańska, Wydział
Mechaniczny, masz. Gdańsk.
178

2. WASIELEWSKI R., 2010: Stanic stiffness of blades in circular saw. Wood Machining
and Processing - Product and Tooling Quality Development / eds. J. Górsk, M. Zbieć. -
Warszawa : WULS-SGGW Press. - 59-70. ISBN 978-83-7583-237-2.
3. WASIELEWSKI R., ORŁOWSKI K., 2009: Sposób mocowania pił na pilarkach
tarczowych. Politechnika Gdańska, Gdańsk (PL) Zgłoszenie patentowe nr P.388340 z dnia
22.06.2009.
Streszczenie: Badanie wpływu mocowania piły tarczowej na jej sztywność. W niniejszym
artykule przedstawiono badania wpływu kształtu tarcz mocujących na sztywność ostrzy
wybranych pił. Wyniki badań wykazały wpływ wielkości, kształtu i jakości powierzchni
styku tarcz mocujących z korpusem piły na sztywność ostrzy piły.
Corresponding author:
Roman Wasielewski
Department of Manufacturing Engineering and Automation,
Mechanical Engineering Faculty,
Gdansk University of Technology,
Narutowicza 11/12, 80-952 Gdańsk, Poland
E-mail address: rwasiele@pg.gda.pl
179

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 180-183
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
The new construction the exhaust fan for woodworking machine dedusting
GRZEGORZ WIELOCH 1 RAFAŁ MOSTOWSKI 2
1 /University of Life Sciences of Poznań,
2 /Institute of Combustion Engines and Transport, Poznań University of Technology
Abstract: Every woodworking production process creates chips that have to be extracted. As a rule the same
amount of energy is required to collect and extract the chips as it takes to produce them. It does not matter
whether you are processing solid wood or panels – uncollected chips have a negative impact on added value.
They reduce the product quality, they make additional tool cleaning necessary, they increase the machine
downtime or and can cause machine breakdowns through wear. Leitz's answer to this problem is DFC® (Dust
Flow Control) tooling. A new solution that is DFC®-tool which gives nearly total dust extraction (up to 95%)
from working area was described.
Keywords: chips, dust, dedusting, system DFC, exhaust fan
INTRODUCTION
Project of dedusting system and exhaust fan – is an element of woodworking machine
which significantly influences its functioning accuracy. Its construction and affixing nearby
the working stand is complicated and needs significant experience. Each model of equipment
has particular demand of air needed for extraction of chips reated during machining. [1,2,3].
The most frequent mistakes in such constructions are: inappropriate choice of pipes
diameters, overwork and too weak exhauster. An example of bad choice of exhaust fans is
particle board machining on CNC moulding machine with diamond milling cutter.
Dust or chips which results in quick blunting of edges. What is more dust and chips emitted
by a tool because of their partial pneumatic conveying, may cause damage of shields or even
whole machine body – if it is for example particle board machining.
Application of milling cutter made in DFC technology, directs the flow of chips up to
exhaust fan.Clogging of installations can be also caused by choice of wrong tool, which is
frequent at machining of wood veneered boards. Extras of veneer are so big that conventional
grinder may not grind arising straps of veneer and they may clog installation and in longer
time may even be source of after-firing of veneer in hoods.
Milling cutters which do not direct dust to exhaust fan can cause dustiness of whole
working stand which is frequent problem connected with wood machining on CNC machines.
Leitz offers in such a case DFC technology together with new handle Its worth to know that
this German producer of tools in cooperation with several other firms constructed for CNC
machines special shields which additionally direct dust up to exhaust fan.[5,6,7].
DUST FLOW CONTROL
The philosophy behind DFC® is to control the chips by using the kinetic energy in the chip
flow to direct the chips away from the work piece, away from the tool cutting edge and into
the extraction system.
This improved method of chip collection has the following advantages:
• Energy savings:
The extraction airflow no longer has to capture the chips, only transport them into the
extraction system. This reduces the required air volume flow and in winter saves on
heating costs, as the heated air is not being taken out of the factory.
• Improved product quality:
180

Transporting systems are not impaired in any way by adherent chips or glue spillage.
• Higher productivity:
Clean machines means continuous production without stoppages.
Clean workpieces do not need additional cleaning before packaging.
• Reduced servicing costs
The abrasive chips are directed away from expensive machine elements releasing their
energy against replaceable wear parts such as lead shoes, dust hoods or extraction pipes.
LEITZ – DFC EXHAUST FAN
DFC®-tool and matched extraction hood. The
largest part of chips is collected and wear is kept
away of the machine. The below shown hoods
(Fig.5) considerably bigger than classical exhaust
fans used up till now with machines. Their
characteristic feature is shape reminding box with
irregular sides and big rounded corners
[www.leitz.de].
Fig.1. DFC® Exhaust fan
Their performance is show in Fig. 2-6.
tool
Machined wood
Dust and
chips
Fig.2. Cross section of exhaust fan
Typical situations
05.07. DFC-Extraction Hood 2007 4
v Air = 30…35 m / s
L
H
v c = 60…80 m / s
Dust and chips
■ Overpressure in the
area of chips inflow
■ Underpressure in the
area of chips inflow
■ Chips and dust with
smaller kinetic energy
bounce from air
coushionand are not
picked out
■ Air flow stops when
material cloggs the
machine whole
Fig.3. Conventional chip exhaust
Ein Unternehmen des Leitz-Firmenverbandes
181

■ Multidimentional air
stream without
pressure differences
■ Air whirl creates
underpressure
■ Air is sucked contrary
to tool movement which
limits creation of dust
and chips
05.07. DFC-Extraction Hood 2007 5
patented
■ One side is left open to
facilitate constant air
access
Ein Unternehmen des Leitz-Firmenverbandes
Fig.4. Innovative exshaust fan solution
Outflow of chips;link
stub tube to instalation
Whole for tool
Air flow direction
device
„working whole” of
tool – inflow of chips
Fig.5. Example of exhaust fan
Inflow of sucked
i
Air directing
device
Fig.6. Exhaust fans produced by Martin new innovative solution
Traditional and modernized
exhaust fan used in two swing
machines models T60 andT74.
by Martin.
For many years now, all
MARTIN sliding-table saws
have easily held their dust
emission levels well under the
stipulated dust emission limit of
2 mg/m³, in some cases as much
as 90% below the limit
From June 2008 all MARTIN
sliding-table saws will be
equipped with the LEITZ Dust
Flow Control.
182

Further improvements can be achieved with relatively little effort, a DFC - reduces emissions
by another 75%.[www.martin-usa.com]
CONCLUSION
The above shown innovation activity by Leitz proves that there is possibility of
considerable lowering of chips and dust quantity created in working area when machining
which a big threat both for stuff and working environment.
REFERENCES
1. DOLNY S. 1999: Transport pneumatyczny i odpylanie w przemyśle drzewnym.
Wyd. Akademii Rolniczej w Poznaniu, Poznań.
2. DZURENDA L., 2007: Sypka drevna hmota, vzduchotechnicka doprawa a
odlucovanie. Technicka Universita vo Zvolene. Zvolen.
3. KOPECKŶ Z., 2007: Vybrané aspekty vysokorychlostniho obrabani dreva.
Habilitaćni prace. Mendelova zemedelská a lesnicka univerzita v Brně. Brno.
4. SOKOŁOWSKI W. 1996: Analiza procesu rozpraszania i usuwania wiórów w
strefie obróbki przy frezowaniu drewna i tworzyw drzewnych. Rozprawy Naukowe
i Monografie - Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego nr 186, Warszawa, 104.
5. WIELOCH G., KOWALSKI M., OSAJDA M., 2011: Intensyfikacja odpylenia
stanowiska pracy poprzez narzędzia nowej generacji stosowane przy obróbce
drewna i tworzyw drzewnych. Wybrane Kierunki Badań Ergonomicznych w 2011
roku. Wyd. Polskiego Tow. Ergonomicznego PTErg. Oddział we Wrocławiu.
6. WIELOCH G. 2010: Dedusting of wooden material machining area during milling
with specials constructions tool. Chapter VIII. in: Wood Machining and Procesing –
Product and Tooling Quality Development. Wuls – SGGW Press Warszawa.
7. WIELOCH G., KOPECKY Z., MOSTOWSKI R., 2008: Narzędzia z systemem „i”
z wewnętrznym odprowadzeniem wiórów. Rozdział w monografii „Obróbka
skrawaniem, innowacje”, pod red. J.Stosa, Wydawnictwo Instytutu
Zaawansowanych Technologii Wytwarzania – IOS, Kraków, 417-425.
http://www.leitztooling.com/
http://www.martin-usa.com/cms/_main/whats-new/martin-informs.html
Streszczenie: Nowa konstrukcja ssawy do odpylania obrabiarek do drewna. Każdy proces
produkcyjny oparty o narzędzia skrawające tworzy pył i wióry niezależnie od gałęzi
przemysłu. Rozdrobniony materiał, który powstaje w wyniku skrawania jest odciągany ze
strefy skrawania przez system odwiórowania. Jego sprawność jest zależna od wielu
czynników między innymi od konstrukcji ssaw, wytworzonego podciśnienia, wielkości
wiórów i ich wilgotności itp. Z reguły dużo energii musi być zaangażowane do odwiórowania
aby sprostać wymogom środowiska pracy. Pomimo najnowocześniejszych systemów
odwiórowania stosowanych w przemyśle drzewnym, nie wszystkie pyły są zbierane ze strefy
obróbki. Skutkować to może obniżeniem jakości produktu, a niezbędne staje się użycie
dodatkowego narzędzia, lub czyszczenia miejsca pracy co zwiększa czas przestoju maszyny.
Próbą rozwiązania tego problemu przez f-mę Leitz jest system DFC ® (Dust Flow Control)
stosowany przy obróbce, który zastosowany przez f-mę Martin daje niemal całkowite
odwiórowanie (do 95%) strefy skrawania.
Corresponding authors:
Grzegorz Wieloch: University of Life Sciences of Poznań, 60-638 Poznań,
E-mail address: obrawiel@up.poznan.pl
Rafał Mostowski: Institute of Combustion Engines and Transport, Poznań University of Technology
ul. Piotrowo 3, 60-965 Poznań, Poland, E-mail address: Rafal.Mostowski@put.poznan.pl
183

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 184-188
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Prefabrication for production purposes of skeleton furniture
WIERUSZEWSKI MAREK, GOTYCH VIKTOR
Department of Mechanical Wood Technology
Poznan University of Life Sciences
Abstract: Prefabrication for production purposes of skeleton furniture. In the described experiments,
quantitative efficiency obtained during the manufacture of furniture semi-finished products from the selected
type of beech sawn timber was adopted as the basic optimisation criterion. Using the internal factory material
data together with material prices for beech sawn timber for individual quality classes and the semi-finished
products obtained for further processing in 2007, efficiency indices of their production were determined taking
into consideration the quality classes of sawn timber materials
Keywords: wood, semi-finished products,
INTRODUCTION
Semi-finished products intended for needs of furniture industry are manufactured in a
way ensuring optimal productivity and economical results. In the described investigations, the
adopted productivity parameters of obtaining semi-finished elements for the production of
skeletal furniture were those typical in domestic conditions. For this purpose, dimensionalqualitative
structure of sawn timber as well as dimensional-assignment structure of the
manufactured furniture semi-finished articles were investigated for selected timber-processing
enterprises. Qualitative characteristics of sawn timber were established and effectiveness of
obtaining semi-finished articles within individual dimensional and quality groups was
determined.
The initial raw material for the investigations of furniture semi-finished articles in
production conditions was unedged beech sawn timber in three quality classes and quality and
dimensional parameters complying with standard recommendations in accordance with the
PN-72/D-96002 standard.
The main products comprised such furniture semi-finished articles as: joiner’s elements –
battens, curvilinear joiner’s elements as well as elements intended for bending.
The term ‘woodwork elements’ referred to semi-finished square timber clean on all
four sides and free from defects. Elements intended for bending included semi-finished square
timber of higher quality. The third group of the examined semi-finished elements included
semi-finished curvilinear products obtained in the process of laying out and fretting.
The elements of the manufacturer’s own production and those obtained from cooperating
parties were divided into the following four length classes: short elements not exceeding the
length of l=699 mm, medium length – l=700 to 1349 mm and long elements l=1350 to 2149
mm. The fourth group included special elements with the length exceeding 2150 mm and not
longer than 2700 mm.
The main factor affecting the optimal utilization of beech wood raw material in the course
of its processing into furniture semi-finished products is the choice of appropriate technology
(Buchholz 1990, Hruzik 1993, 2006, Gotycz W., Hruzik G. J. 1995, 1996).
The basic criterion of optimisation in the processing of selected kinds of beech sawn
wood adopted in the presented investigations was material output during the production of
184

furniture semi-finished articles. This index depended on many factors, among others, on the
type of raw material, its quality and form of the processed sawn timber. Such factors as the
dimensional structure of the obtained semi-finished articles as well as the applied method and
available machine park all exert a very strong impact.(Hruzik 2006).
RESULTS AND THEIR ANALYSIS
On the basis of the data obtained in the course of industrial processing, the qualitativequantitative
structure of the processed sawn timber as well as thickness proportions in the
quality classes according to the PN-72/D-96002 standard were determined. Analysing data
collated in Figure 1, it is possible to observe a tendency for the application in the course of
processing of sawn timber of, primarily, the 1 st and 2 nd quality classes. This is understandable
in view of the need to obtain high material efficiency of processing in the course of
production of high quality semi-finished products.
Fig.1 Proportion of beech sawn timber
Semi-finished elements of all pre-destined groups were divided into four length
classes. It is evident from data presented in Figure 2 that medium-sized and short elements
were most popular.
185

Fig. 2. Proportion of elements in length intervals in annual production of
furniture semi-finished products
The performed studies also included investigations of sawn timber processing into semifinished
products combined with the analysis of productivity indices which allowed
determination of the most appropriate principles of processing. On the basis of
methodological assumptions as well as empirical investigations in industrial conditions, it was
possible to determine the productivity of semi-finished articles from sawn timber of
individual quality classes in the course of a year-long processing as well as values of mean
efficiency of semi-finished products (Table 1-3).
Tab.1
Material efficiency of semi-finished products during processing of beech sawn timber of different quality taking
into account its quantitative shares
Type of furniture elements
- dimensions in [mm]
Efficiency of obtained semi-finished
products
Wp [m 3 /m 3 ]
I II III Medium
Short joiner’s 25-45 0.64 0,50 0,13 0,38
Short for bending 25-45 0.55 0,44 - 0,49
Medium joiner’s 25-45 0.65 0,52 0,04 0,46
Medium for bending 25-45 0.65 0,30 - 0,48
Medium for bending 50-100 0.56 0,25 - 0,41
Long joiner’s 25-45 0.50 0,42 - 0,47
Special for bending 25-45 0.50 0,42 - 0,48
Special for bending 50-100 0.51 0,21 - 0,45
Short joiner’s 50-100 0.55 0,40 - 0,46
Short for bending 50-100 0.58 0,50 0,19 0,42
Medium joiner’s 50-100 0.62 0,53 0,44 0,53
Long for bending 50-100 0.56 0,39 - 0,49
Short curvilinear 25-45 0.64 0,50 0,27 0,45
Short curvilinear 50-100 0.58 0,50 0,24 0,44
Medium curvilinear 25-45 0.65 0,53 0,11 0,51
Medium curvilinear 50-100 0.62 0,47 0,16 0,47
186

Tab. 2
Material efficiency of semi-finished products during of beech sawn timber of different quality
taking into account its lang shares
Plant’s own
production of
different
lengths
Efficiency of obtained semi-finished products
Wp [m 3 /m 3 ]
I II III
max min max min max min
Short 0,740 0,376 0,640 0,268 0,500 0,126
Medium 0,648 0,292 0,534 0,174 0,382 0,042
Long and Short 0,496 0,260 0,424 0,080 0,248 0,000
Tab. 3
Material efficiency of semi-finished products during of beech sawn timber of different quality
taking into account its lang shares
Plant’s own
production of
different
Efficiency of obtained semi-finished products
Wp [m 3 /m 3 ]
I II III
lengths max min max min max min
Short 0,690 0,426 0,580 0,274 0,500 0,214
Medium 0,618 0,360 0,528 0,250 0,444 0,158
Long and Short 0,558 0,270 0,458 0,210 0,380 0,130
On the basis of Table, it can be said that, in the case of processing of sawn timber of
the first class into furniture semi-finished products, mean values in the entire thickness and
length interval ranging from 0.50 to 0.65 m 3 /m 3 can be adopted. Beech sawn timber of the
second quality class allows obtaining mean efficiency in the entire thickness and length
interval ranging from 0.21 to 0.53 m 3 /m 3 . Beech sawn timber of the third quality class is
utilised only to manufacture short- and medium-length elements. For this raw material, the
semi-finished product efficiency interval ranges from 0.04 to 0.44 m 3 /m 3 .
CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of the performed investigations and the applied analysis of secondary
processing of beech sawn timber into furniture semi-finished products, the following general
conclusions can be drawn:
1. Following the analysis of quality and dimensional data of sawn beech timber directed
to processing it was found that unedged sawn timber 25-70 mm thick was used,
primarily, for processing. The performed analysis of the thickness structure revealed
that semi-finished products 25-50 mm thick were processed most frequently with
elements 38 mm thick constituting 30.8% and those of 32 mm – 19.1% of all
processed elements.
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2. The highest efficiencies were found in the processing of the first class quality sawn
timber ranging from 0.50% to 0.65%. Raw material of the second quality class yielded
efficiencies ranging from 0.21% to 0.53%, whereas that of the third quality class –
from 0.04% to 0.44%.
3. The optimization results obtained allow to conclude that in the production process of
semi-finished furniture elements - both joinery, to bending and curved, it is reasonable
to use better quality grades of sawnwood. Pay attention to the use of second
sawnwood grade.
LITERATURE
1. Buchholz J. (1990): Technologia tartacznictwa. AR, Poznań
2. Gaik A. (2007): Optymalizacja przerobu tarcicy bukowej na półfabrykaty
przeznaczeniowe w warunkach ZMG Fameg. KMTD Poznań 2007, praca magisterska
3. Hruzik G. J. (1993): Technologiczna optymalizacja przerobu drewna bukowego na
materiały tarte i półfabrykaty przeznaczeniowe. Roczniki Akademii Rolniczej w
Poznaniu, z 236
4. Hruzik G. J.(2006): Zużycie surowca i materiałów drzewnych wyrobach przemysłu
tartacznego. Drewno-Wood 2006, vol49, nr175, 25-44
5. PN-72/D-96002 – Tarcica liściasta ogólnego przeznaczenia
Streszczenie:Prefabrykacja dla potrzeb produkcji mebli szkieletowych. W badaniach za
podstawowe kryterium optymalizacji w przerobie wybranego rodzaju tarcicy bukowej
przyjęto wydajność pozyskania półfabrykatów bukowych do produkcji mebli szkieletowych.
Surowcem do badań właściwości technologicznych półfabrykatów meblowych była tarcica
bukowa. W oparciu wykazy materiałowe w powiązaniu z cenami materiałowymi tarcicy
bukowej poszczególnych klas jakości i pozyskiwanych do dalszego przerobu półfabrykatów
za 2007 rok, ustalono wskaźniki wydajności ich produkcji przy uwzględnieniu klasy jakości
materiałów tartych.
Corresponding author:
Department of Mechanical Wood Technology
Poznan University of Life Sciences
60-627 Poznań
Ul. Wojska Polskiego 38/42
Tel./fax (061)8487437
E-mail: kmtd@up.poznan.pl
188

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 189-193
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Research qualitative of coniferous assortments solid wood for wood
construction
WIERUSZEWSKI MAREK, GOTYCH VIKTOR, HRUZIK GINTER J., GOŁUŃSKI
GRZEGORZ, MARCINKOWSKA AGNIESZKA
Faculty of Wood Technology of the University of Life Sciences in Poznań, Department of Mechanical Wood
Technology
Abstract: Research qualitative of coniferous assortments solid wood for wood construction. The physical and
mechanical properties with respect to the relevant standards were defined and large samples with the application
of three different adhesives were obtained. Physical examination included figured, density and moisture content
of normative samples obtained from samples of large size. The study of mechanical properties of the samples
included the determination of elasticity of the average large-size module.
Keywords: wood, solid timber, construction
INTRODUCTION
Timber mechanical and physical properties are among the principal parameters
affecting suitability of timber material for its application, especially in building industry. They
are utilised both in the form of solid as well as glued elements. Attempts are being made to
achieve maximal quantitative efficiency of full-value elements as the most desirable, as
confirmed by numerous investigations in the field of timber quality and its suitability for
further processing, for example the study by Pachelski, Żytecki, Iskra (1966), Buchholz,
Hruzik (1970), Cegiel, Hruzik (1974), Hruzik (1979) and co-workers.
The aim of the study was to determine physical and mechanical properties of
harvested timber and glued timber assortments intended for building industry. The performed
investigation made it possible to obtaining data about strength parameters and suitability of
harvested sawn materials upgraded for production purposes by defect elimination and gluing.
RESULTS AND THEIR ANALYSIS
A total of 36 (A, B, C) 40x120mm, and 30 (I. J, K) 40x150mm missive pine samples
were prepared for purposes of this experiment. They were allocated into groups which
differed regarding the applied glue and cross-section
The investigations of the elasticity modulus were carried out in accordance with the
PN-EN 408 standard.
During the performed experiments, in order to determine basic features of pine wood
for purposes of experiments, such physical properties as: annual increment, proportion of late
and early wood in annual increments, density (in accordance with the PN-82/D-94021 PN-
77/D-4101 standard) as well as absolute moisture content (in accordance with the PN-EN
13183-1:2004 standard) were determined.
Tables 1 and 2 illustrate high width variability of annual wood increments from which
sample were obtained. This may have exerted some influence on the observed negative strain
distribution in the course of mechanical loading and may have caused wood warping
following different desorption strains in the neighbouring layers of the element. The minimal
measured annual width increment in pine wood amounted to 1,0 mm, whereas the maximal
one – up to 4,2 mm.
189

Characteristic values of annual increment widths for whole samples “h120”
Table 1.
annual ring width [mm]
Sample symbol: A B C
Min 1,8 1,2 1,1
Middle 3,0 2,4 1,9
Max 4,1 3,6 2,7
Characteristic values of annual increment widths for whole samples “h150”
annual ring width [mm]:
Table 2.
Sample symbol: I J K
Min 1,0 1,2 1,6
Middle 1,9 2,7 2,2
Max 2,8 4,2 2,8
A, I – core sample,
B, J – inherent to the sample of radial,
C, K – inherent to the sample of tangential.
The obtained research results confirmed significant variations in widths of annual
increments in neighbouring layers. Increment widths in relation to the layer of sample origin
and averaged results of all samples from a given batch were itemised and the difference in
ring distribution/graining was apparent. So, in the case of radial sample pine timber, the mean
width of annual increments ranged from 1,3 mm to 2,4 in group “h120” and from 1,9 mm to
2,7 mm in group “h150”. For tangential sample timber, the above intervals ranged from to
2,7 mm in group.
The proportion of late wood in the timber of coniferous species was found to influence
timber mechanical properties. The mean late wood proportion in group “h120” in solid pine
wood samples amounted to 43%. In the case of group “h150”, the mean share of late wood in
solid pine wood samples amounted to 40%. The obtained results confirmed mean proportions
of late wood in solid pine wood – at 42%.
The results of absolute moisture content investigations of large-sized timber samples
so they fell within the acceptable interval of 10-12%.
Density is one of the basic factors determining timber mechanical strength. The results
obtained in the course of the performed experiments revealed that the material obtained from
pine timber was characterised by the density of 567 kg/m 3 .
Table 3 collates characteristic values of the elasticity modulus for individual sample
batches.
190

Characteristic values of the elasticity modulus at 12% moisture content
elasticity module
Sample symbol [N/mm 2 ]
s * V**
Middle
A 10702 2844 27
B 12114 2708 22
C 12600 2237 15
I 11568 3795 33
J 10352 1868 18
K 12694 2168 15
* - standard deviation
** - variation coefficient mean value [%]
Table 3.
It can be concluded from the research results on large-sized timber samples that the
variability coefficient of solid timber samples reached 21.6%.
In addition, when large-sized timber samples were bent, the elasticity modulus
(Figure 1.) decreased with the increase of sample cross section. The obtained mean values for
solid timber were found to be at the level of 11671N/mm 2 . When the above values were
compared with the results given by Krzysik (1974) E=12 000 N/mm 2 , it was found that the
elasticity modulus of the examined solid wood was 3% lower.
Figure1. Characteristic values of the modulus of elasticity at 12% moisture content
In addition, the elastic modulus in the course of bending of large-sized samples
decreased together with the increase of the sample cross section. Mean values for pine
samples tangential 1182 N/mm 2 and those for radial samples - 12650 N/mm 2 .
191

CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions were drawn on the basis of the performed investigations
and measurements and the obtained results:
1. Large-sized, solid, tangential samples reached values of the elasticity modulus
which were, on average, by 1460 N/mm 2 higher than samples containing the pith,
in other words they were characterised by 13% better parameters than pithcontaining
wood. On average, pith-containing samples were by 26 kg/m 3 lighter in
comparison with samples which did not contain a pith on their cross section.
2. Basic physical properties for the examined raw material were determined. Mean
ring annual increment of solid pine elements was found to be at the level of 2,7
mm. The examined raw material was narrow-ringed. The mean proportion of late
wood in pine wood amounted to 42% . Mean absolute moisture content at the time
of measurement was 10%. Mean timber density of solid pine samples was
determined at 573 kg/m 3 . The obtained mean results were similar to those found in
literature on the subject..
3. The elastic modulus of the examined large-sized samples was as follows: solid
pine samples –11670 N/mm 2 . The above results were lower than literature data
respectively by 3% in the case of solid pine samples.
4. Modulus allows the classification of structural timber strength classes for high C22
– C30.
LITERATURE
1. Buchholz J., Hruzik J.G.(1970): Z badań nad ustaleniem wymiernej zależności
pomiędzy jakością sosnowego drewna tartacznego i produkowanych z niego materiałów
tartych. Roczniki WSR w Poznań.
2. Buchholz J., Hruzik J.G.(1973): Wpływ jakości sosnowego drewna tartacznego na
strukturę jakościowo-wymiarową produkowanych kłód. Pr. Kom. Techn. Drewna tom
IV.
3. Cegiel E., Hruzik G.J. (1974): „Przydatność tarcicy jodłowej do produkcji
półfabrykatów przeznaczeniowych”, Przemysł Drzewny nr 4.
4. Hruzik J.G. (1979): Jakość sosnowego surowca tartacznego jako kryterium
optymalizacji produkcji elementów przeznaczeniowych. Fol. Forest Polonica, zeszyt 13.
5. Krzysik F. (1974): Nauka o Drewnie.
6. Pachelski M., Żytecki J., Iskra M. (1966): Wydajność materiałowa w produkcji
elementów meblowych. Prace ITD, nr 3.
7. PN-77/D-4101 „Drewno. Oznaczanie gęstości”.
8. PN-82/D-94021 „Tarcica iglasta konstrukcyjna sortowana metodami
wytrzymałościowymi”
9. PN-EN 13183-1:2004 „Wilgotność sztuki tarcicy -- Część 1: Oznaczanie wilgotności
metodą suszarkowo-wagową”.
10. PN-EN 408 „Drewno konstrukcyjne lite i klejone warstwowo. Oznaczanie niektórych
właściwości fizycznych i mechanicznych”.
192

Streszczenie: Badania jakościowe iglastych sortymentów litych dla potrzeb budownictwa
drewnianego.Określono właściwości fizyczne i mechaniczne w odniesieniu do właściwych
norm przedmiotowych. Właściwości fizyczne obejmowały badania słoistości, gęstości i
wilgotności normatywnych próbek laboratoryjnych pozyskanych z próbek
wielkogabarytowych. Badanie właściwości mechanicznych próbek wielkogabarytowych
obejmowało określenie średniego modułu sprężystości.
Corresponding authors:
Department of Mechanical Wood Technology
Poznan University of Life Sciences
60-627 Poznań
Ul. Wojska Polskiego 38/42
Tel./fax (061)8487437
E-mail: kmtd@up.poznan.pl
193

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 194-198
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Properties of experimental particleboards with the core layer made from
willow (Salix viminalis)
ARNOLD WILCZYŃSKI 1) , KRZYSZTOF WARMBIER 1) , LESZEK DANECKI 2) ,
MIROSŁAWA MROZEK 2)
1) Institute of Technology, Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz
2) Research and Development Centre for Wood-Based Panels Industry in Czarna Woda
Abstract: Properties of experimental particleboards with the core layer made from willow (Salix viminalis).
Three-layer experimental particleboards were prepared using basket willow (Salix viminalis) particles for the
core layer and industrial pine particles for the face layers. Three particleboard densities: 620, 660 and 700 kg/m 3
were assumed. The modulus of elasticity (MOE), modulus of rupture (MOR), internal bond (IB), and thickness
swelling (TS) were investigated. Mechanical properties of tested particleboards increase gradually with
increasing board density from 620 to 700 kg/m 3 . For comparison, the properties of particleboards with the core
layer made from pine particles and of the same densities were studied. Properties of particleboards with the core
layer from willow and pine particles differed slightly. MOE and IB of particleboards with the core layer from
willow meet the requirements of the EN 312 standard for the particleboard of type P2, and MOR of the boards of
densities of 660 and 700 kg/m 3 meets the requirements of the EN 312 standard for the particleboard of type P1.
Keywords: particleboard, willow, mechanical properties, density
INTRODUCTION
The wood composite industry is looking for other lignocellulosic materials. One of
possible raw materials can be fast growing shrubs. Such a shrub being cultivated for energetic
purposes is willow Salix viminalis called the basket willow or energetic willow. In Poland it is
cultivated on about 800 plantations covering an area of almost 10,000 ha (Dubas and
Tomczyk 2005, Szczukowski et al 2006). Sean et al (2006) studied the usefulness of Quebec
clones of willow Salix viminalis for particleboard manufacturing and demonstrated that the
mechanical properties of particleboards with a density of 720 kg/m 3 , with up to 30% willow
particles were generally greater than those of particleboards made from industrial wood
particles. Frackowiak et al (2008) stated that replacement of 25% pine particles by willow
ones improved mechanical properties in bending of the particleboards having a density of 680
kg/m 3 . Warmbier et al (2010) founded out that the properties of the particleboards with a
density of 700 kg/m 3 and with the core layer made from willow particles were slightly smaller
compared to those with the core layer made from pine particles.
Considering the needs of the Polish particleboard industry, it is recommended to
continue investigations into the properties of particleboard made of willow Salix viminalis
particles. The objective of this study was to evaluate the suitability of this willow for
manufacturing the core layer of three-layer particleboards with different densities.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Raw material for this study consisted of willow (Salix viminalis) stems and industrial
wood particles. Willow stems were collected from the plantation in Mieścisko in
Wielkopolska (Poland). Industrial wood particles were supplied by Pfleiderer Prospan
Wieruszów (Poland). Chips of about 1.5 cm length were produced from willow stems. They
were air-dried at room temperature to about 12% moisture content and reduced to a particle
form using a hammer-mill. To obtain particles for the core layer of experimental
194

particleboards, particles from the hammer-mill were screened and those which passed through
the sieve of 5 mesh (4 mm) and remained on the sieve of 18 mesh (1 mm) were used (Fig. 1).
The particles were dried to achieve moisture content of less than 3%. Urea-formaldehyde
(UF) resin was used as a binder. Its density was 1.26 g/cm 3 at 60% solids. As a hardener, 35%
ammonium chloride solution which was 1% of the oven dry weight of particles was used. No
hydrophobic agent was added. The resin content of 8% for the core layer was assumed. The
raw material for the face layers of experimental particleboards was industrial fine particles
made from pine wood. These particles were dried like the willow ones, and the UF resin
content was set to 10% for the face layers.
b)
10 mm
Fig. 1. Pine (a) and willow (b) particles used for the core layer
10 mm
The shelling ratio (face layers:core layer) was 40:60%, the target board thickness was
16 mm. Three particleboard densities were assumed: 620, 660 and 700 kg/m 3 . After spraying
the adhesive on particles in a drum blender, a particleboard mat was manually formed inside a
40x40 cm box. The pressing conditions were: temperature of 180 0 C, maximum pressure of
2.5 MPa and pressing time of 4 min. Four experimental boards were manufactured for each
particleboard density.
For comparison, three-layer particleboards with the core layer made from industrial
pine particles supplied by Pfleiderer Prospan Wieruszów were prepared. Particle sizes, resin
contents, board construction, board densities and pressing conditions were the same as for the
particleboard with the willow core layer.
Prior to testing all the boards were stored in controlled conditions (50% relative
humidity and 20 o C) for two weeks. The following properties of produced particleboards were
determined according to EN standards: modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture
(MOR) according to EN 310: 1994, internal bond (IB) according to EN 319: 1999, and
thickness swelling (TS) after 24 h according to EN 317: 1999. Test specimens for IB and TS
were prepared from the specimens that were formerly tested for MOE and MOR. Twenty
replicates were run for each test.
RESULTS
Results of the tests are given in Figs 2-5. Error bars represented ±standard deviation
based on twenty specimens. Mechanical properties of tested particleboards (Figs 2-4)
increase gradually with increasing board density from 620 to 700 kg/m 3 . This relation
concerns both particleboards with the willow and pine core layer. MOE, MOR and IB of
particleboards of density of 700 kg/m 3 are on average greater by 27, 20 and 24% respectively
than those of particleboards of density of 620 kg/m 3 . Mechanical properties in bending (Figs 2
and 3) of particleboards with the core layer made from willow are worse than those of
particleboards with the core layer made from pine. MOE is on average smaller by 7% and
MOR by 4%. IB of particleboards (Fig. 4) with the core layer made from willow is better than
195

that of particleboards with the core layer made from pine, its value is on average greater by
4%.
Fig. 1. Modulus of elasticity of particleboards
with different densities
Fig. 2. Modulus of rupture of particleboards
with different densities
Fig. 3. Internal bond of particleboards with
different densities
Fig.4. Thickness swelling after 24 h of particleboards
with different densities
The MOE values are considerably higher, for board of each density, than the
requirement of the EN 312 standard for the particleboard of type P2 (1600 MPa) while the
MOR values meet the requirement of this standard for the particleboard of type P1 (11.5
MPa) only for the willow particleboards with densities of 660 and 700 kg/m 3 . The IB values
are considerably higher than the requirement of the EN 312 standard for the particleboard of
type P2 (0.35 MPa).
TS of tested particleboards (Fig. 5) increases gradually with increasing board density
from 620 to 700 kg/m 3 . This relation concerns both particleboards with the willow and pine
196

core layer. TS of particleboards with the core layer from willow is smaller, on average by 8%,
than that of particleboards with this layer from pine.
Differences between properties of particleboards with the willow and pine core layers
could be brought about by the dimensions of used particles. The length and width of 200
randomly selected willow and pine particles were measured. The mean length was 14.3 and
17.8 mm for the willow and pine particles, respectively, and the mean width was 2.3 and 1.9
mm for the willow and pine particles, respectively. The willow particles were therefore
shorter and wider than the pine ones. Longer pine particles resulted in greater bending
properties, and wider willow particles resulted in a greater gluing area and thus in greater IB
and smaller TS.
CONCLUSIONS
The particles made from willow Salix viminalis are suitable to substitute the industrial
wood particles for manufacturing the core layer of three-layer particleboards. Mechanical
properties of particleboards with the core layer made from willow and industrial pine particles
are almost the same. MOE and IB of these boards meet the requirements of the EN 312
standard for the particleboard of type P2 (boards for interior fitments, including furniture, for
use in dry conditions). MOR of the boards of densities of 660 and 700 kg/m 3 meets the
requirements of the EN 312 standard for the particleboard of type P1 (general purpose boards
for use in dry conditions).
REFERENCES
1. DUBAS J., TOMCZYK A. (2005) Establishment, care and protection of energetic
willow plantation (in Polish). SGGW Warszawa.
2. EN 310 (1993) Wood-based panels. Determination of modulus of elasticity in bending
and of bending strength.
3. EN 312 (2003) Particleboards. Specifications.
4. EN 317 (1993) Particleboards and fiberboards. Determination of swelling in thickness
after immersion in water.
5. EN 319 (1993) Particleboards and fiberboards. Determination of tensile strength
perpendicular to the plane of the board.
6. FRĄCKOWIAK I., FUCZEK D., KOWALUK G. (2008) Impact of different
lignocellulosic materials used in core of particleboard on modulus of elasticity and
bending strength. DREWNO-WOOD 51, 180: 5-13.
7. SEAN S.T., LABRECQUE M. (2006) Use of short-rotation coppice willow clones of
Salix viminalis as furnish in panel production. Forest Products Journal 56 (9): 47-52.
8. SZCZUKOWSKI S., TWORKOWSKI J., STOLARSKI M. (2006) Energetic willow
(in Polish). Plantpress, Kraków.
9. WARMBIER K., WILCZYŃSKI A., DANECKI L. (2010) Particle size dependent
properties particleboards with the core layer made from willow (Salix viminalis).
Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences. Forestry and Wood Technology 71:
405-409.
197

Streszczenie: Właściwości eksperymentalnych płyt wiórowych z warstwą wewnętrzną
wykonaną z wierzby Salix viminalis. Wykonano trzywarstwowe płyty wiórowe stosując wióry
wierzby wiciowej (Salix viminalis) na warstwę wewnętrzną i przemysłowe wióry sosnowe na
warstwy zewnętrzne. Założono trzy gęstości płyt: 620, 660 i 700 kg/m 3 . Badano moduł
sprężystości (MOE), wytrzymałość na zginanie (MOR), wytrzymałość na rozciąganie
poprzeczne (IB) i spęcznienie na grubość (TS). Właściwości mechaniczne badanych płyt
wzrastają stopniowo ze wzrostem gęstości płyt od 620 d0 700 kg/m 3 . Dla porównania badano
właściwości płyt o tej samej gęstości, z warstwą wewnętrzną wykonaną z wiórów sosnowych.
Właściwości płyt wiórowych z warstwą wewnętrzną z wiórów wierzbowych i sosnowych
różnią się nieznacznie. MOE i IB płyt z warstwą wewnętrzną z wiórów wierzbowych
spełniają wymagania normy EN 312 dla płyt typu P2 a MOR, za wyjątkiem płyt o gęstości
620 kg/m 3 , dla płyt typu P1.
Acknowledgement: This research project has been supported by the Polish Ministry of
Science and Higher Education, grant number N N309 133535.
Corresponding authors:
Arnold Wilczyński, Krzysztof Warmbier
Institute of Technology,
Kazimierz Wielki University
Chodkiewicza 30 str.
85-064 Bydgoszcz, Poland
e-mail: wilczar@ukw.edu.pl
e-mail: warm@ukw.edu.pl
Leszek Danecki, Mirosława Mrozek
Research and Development Centre for Wood-Based Panels Industry in Czarna Woda
Mickiewicza 10 str.
83-262 Czarna Woda, Poland
e-mail: leszek.danecki@obrppd.com
198

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 199-202
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Cutting forces during drilling of thermally modified ash wood
JACEK WILKOWSKI 1) , MAREK GRZEŚKIEWICZ 2) , PAWEŁ CZARNIAK 1) , MICHAŁ
WOJTOŃ 1)
1) Wood Mechanical Processing Department
2) Department of Construction and Technology of Final Wood Products
Faculty of Wood Technology; Warsaw University of Life Sciences– SGGW
Abstract: Cutting forces during drilling of thermally modified ash wood. Influence of thermal modification of
ash wood on cutting forces during drilling was anylized in this work. In experiments there were made through
holes for differentiate cross sections (for horizontal and vertical placement of annual rings) by means of CNC
machine. Simultanously, there was carried out acquisition of thrust force and torque signals with measuerement
chain equipped with piezoelectric sensors. Results proved increase of thrust force and decrease of torque during
drilling of ash wood which was thermally modified.
Keywords: thermally modified wood, ash, drilling, thrust force, torque
INTRODUCTION
Numerous of methods which are focused on improvement of natural materials such as
wood, is known in our civilization for a very long time. In 50-ten years of XX century there
were undertaken attempts to increase resistance of wood by means of chemicals in respect of
biodegradation. Researches which concern injection of monomers and impregnation resins
were developed the most intensively [Siwek, Warzecha 1982]. Wood was exposed to
treatment of another physical factors, among others raised temperature or steam, too. In range
of this procedure, modification of wood was carried out in hot oil. From this point of view,
especially relevant are conditions which are kept during process. Therefore given temperature
ordered during modification decided about places where new material can be used. From
wood qualified as first class where temperature of treatment amounts about 180 o C can be
produced furniture and floor panels (due to minimized shrinkage). However, wood belongs to
second class (temperature of treatment about 210 o C) is intended for buildings work and
garden furniture (much better resistance to mould). Unfortunately, modification process
besides unbeneficial consequences such as problems with color stability [Zawadzki et al.
2007], decreases some of mechanical properties [Grześkiewicz, Dąbrowski 2004]. Due to
various effects followed from modification process, further investigations in area of
vulnerability of this materials to mechanical working is indispensable. The researches with
oak wood which referred to effects of process modification in high temperature were carried
out by Wilkowski et al. [2010]. In mentioned above experiments oak wood was subjected to
performance of overheated steam with temperature 165 o C. In this work, workpieces were
drilled with CNC machine with one edge drill made from polycrystalline diamond. It turned
out that thermal modification hadn’t any influence on thrust force level. However, it can be
observed decrease of torque.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
In work were used workpieces of ash parquets. Two sets of work pieces with primary
dimensions 325x105x22mm (in each 20 pc) which differentiated with arrangement of annual
rings, were taken to experiment. In one set annual rings were parallel to the top surface and in
second perpendicular to the top surface of element. Then, these elements were separated
199

across the fibres on two counterparts groups. One group of them was subjected to thermal
modification and the second left unmodified. Workpieces were thermally machined in
industry conditions with usage of streamer W-10 (Hamech). Cycle of thermal modification in
atmosphere of overheated steam consisted of five stages:
Stage I – intensively heating up to temperature about 110 o C connected with wood
drying in air atmosphere,
Stage II – slowed down heating in overheated steam up to temperature correspond to
right process of modification and to additional drying;
Stage III – right modification process in overheated steam in temperature 165 o C, 4
hours,
Stage IV – cooling by usage of vaporized water or exceptionally wet stream up to about
80 o C and wood moistening,
Stage V – further cooling to the final process temperature and aclimatization in wet air
atmosphere.
The whole process of thermal wood modification in chamber last 24 to 26 hours. Wood with
humidity, equivalent for typical climate conditions was used in experiments and amounts for
unmodified in range 10÷12%, for modified in range 4÷6%. One edge drill with diameter 10
mm (LEITZ) made from polycrystalline diamond was used in experiment. Range of cutting
parameters with highlighted optimal values was showed in Fig.2. Cutting parameters listed in
Tab.1. were chosen for experiments.
Fig.1. Placement of annul rings against direction of tool feed during drilling parallel (a) and perpendicular (b) to
annual rings
Fig.2. Range and optimum values of cutting parameters
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Tab.1. Cutting parameters used in experiment
Thickness of workpieces
s[mm]
Feed speed
u[m/min]
Rotational speed
n[rpm]
Feed per rev.
[mm]
Drill diameter
d[mm]
25 1 3000 0,33 10
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Statistical significance between different variants (unmodified and modified wood) and
between drilling parallel and perpendicular against annual rings was examined by means of
test t-student. Influence of modification on thrust force level F z was showed in Fig. 3÷4.
However for comparison, in Fig.5÷6 was presented influence of wood modification on torque.
Fig.3. Influence of wood modification on thrust force
during drilling in direction perpendicular to annual
rings
Fig.4. Influence of wood modification on thrust force
during drilling in direction parallel to annual rings
Fig.5. Influence of wood modification on torque
during drilling in direction perpendicular to annual
rings
Fig.6. Influence of wood modification on torque
force during drilling in direction parallel to annual
rings
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CONCLUSION
Obtained results allow to formulate following conclusions:
1. Torque during drilling of thermally modified ash wood was on statistically significant
lower level than during drilling of unmodified wood.
2. Thermal modification of ash wood caused increase of thrust force during drilling .
3. Direction of tool feed due to annual rings has no statistically significant influence on
thrust force and torque.
REFERENCES
1. GRZEŚKIEWICZ M., DĄBROWSKI P., 2004: Badanie wybranych właściwości
fizycznych i mechanicznych drewna modyfikowanego - ThermoWood®. Przem.
Drzew. Nr5, s.33-35.
2. SIWEK K., WARZECHA J., 1982: Lignamin – drewno modyfikowane żywicami
aminowymi. Przem. Drzew. Nr 6, s35-36.
3. WILKOWSKI J., GRZEŚKIEWICZ M., CZARNIAK P., LITWA M., 2010: Influence
of wood thermal modification on cutting resistance during drilling. Annals of Warsaw
University of Life Sciences- SGGW Forestry and Wood Technology No 72: 480-484.
4. ZAWADZKI J., GRZEŚKIEWICZ M., GAWRON J., ZIELENKIEWICZ T., 2007:
Chemical behavior of pine wood (Pinus silvestris L.) modified by heat. Annals of
Warsaw Agricultural University – Forestry and Wood Technology 72, s.480-484.
Streszczenie: Siły skrawania podczas wiercenia drewna jesionu modyfikowanego termicznie.
W pracy przeanalizowano wpływ termicznej modyfikacji drewna jesionu na siły skrawania podczas wiercenia.
Mając do dyspozycji próbki o zróżnicowanych przekrojach porzecznych (dla leżącego oraz stojącego układu
słojów) wywiercono w nich otwory przelotowe przy zastosowaniu obrabiarki CNC. Jednocześnie dokonywano
rejestracji siły osiowej i momentu obrotowego z użyciem toru pomiarowego opartego na czujniku
piezoelektrycznym. Wyniki wskazują na wzrost poziomu siły osiowej oraz spadek poziomu momentu
obrotowego skrawania podczas wiercenia drewna jesionu modyfikowanego termicznie.
Corresponding authors:
Jacek Wilkowski
e-mail : jacek_wilkowski@sggw.pl
Marek Grześkiewicz
e-mail : marek_grzeskiewiczi@sggw.pl
Paweł Czarniak
e-mail : pawel_czarniak@sggw.pl
Faculty of Wood Technology SGGW
ul. Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
202

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 203-207
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Influence of thermal modification of oak wood on cutting forces during
milling
JACEK WILKOWSKI 1) , MAREK GRZEŚKIEWICZ 2) , PAWEŁ CZARNIAK 1) , IRENEUSZ
SIWEK 1) , LUBOMIR JAVOREK 3) , DUSAN PAULINY 3)
1) Wood Mechanical Processing Department
2) Department of Construction and Technology of Final Wood Products
Faculty of Wood Technology; Warsaw University of Life Sciences– SGGW
3) Department of Woodworking Machines and Equipment
Faculty of Environmental and Manufacturing Technology; Technical University in Zvolen
Abstract: Influence of thermal modification of oak wood on cutting forces during milling. This work concerns
the influence of thermal modification of oak wood on cutting forces. Modified workpieces used in experiments
were beforhand subjected to high temperature performance in atmosphere of overheated steam. Machining was
conducted as well with usage of conventional tenoning machine as with CNC machine. In both cases acquisition
of cutting forces signal was realized with piezoelectric sensors. Decrease of cutting forces was observed in
milling of modified wood.
Keywords: thermally modified wood, cutting force, oak, milling
INTRODUCTION
The aim of wood modification is first of all improvement of defined wood properties in
order to obtain among others more resistance to performance of biotic factors or darker color.
Wood distinguishes by this advantages is nowadays especially desired as raw material for
floor, terraces or garden furniture production. First scientific coverages which concern
applications of discussed below process were published in 40-ten years of XX century
[Grisard and Baptist 1935]. At present, method developed by VTT (Technical Research
Center of Finland) became so advanced that is used in industry. Overall production in
factories which belong to FinnForest Thermowood reached 150 000 m 3 yearly [Dobrowolska
2009]. The most frequently, wood species such as spruce, pine, oak, ash, beech, birch, poplar
are subjected to process of thermal modification [Ala-Vikikari 2008]. Precise specification
and performance procedure used in this technology were showed in [Thermowood®
Handbook 2003]. Apart from many benefits due to application of this method, emerged
relevant problems which are connected with changes in mechanical properties of modified
wood. Among others decrease of strength in shearing perpendicular to grains was noticed by
Chorowiec [2009]. Moreover, another mechanical indicators such as elasticity modulus in
bending are changed unbeneficial [Grześkiewicz and Krawiecki 2008]. Thus, examinations in
range of machinability which inform about vulnerability to mechanical working of modified
wood are necessary. Effect followed from changes which take place during modification
process in high temperature was investigated by Orłowski and Grześkiewicz [2010]. Wood
machining with frame saw in order to estimate specific cutting resistance was carried out.
Modified oak wood was sawed in these experiments. It was noticed that the decrease of
cutting resistance appeared only at low values of feed per teeth.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
In preliminary stage of researches beforehand prepared oak frieze were ripped on two
parts. One of them was subjected to modification process in high temperature steaming
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chamber PW 10 from firm HAMECH in Hajnówka according to procedure described in
Wilkowski et al. [2010]. Second part of work pieces (unmodified) was used as base material
in order to compare with modified workpieces. 20 workpieces unmodified and 20 modified
with dimensions showed in Fig.1. were examined in this work.
Fig.1. Dimensions of workpieces and tools
First stage of machining was conducted on standard machine (tenoning machine)
GOMAD. Cutter head GP-01 HSS FABA (Fig.1) was mounted during experiments. This tool
was equipped with two blades. However, only one of them was working. Unused blade makes
balance of cutter head easier. Dimensions of blades were as follows: 40x50x8. Measurement
platform had three piezoelectric sensors which register as well cutting force as normal force.
Data was gathered due to acquisition card NiDaQ PCI-9112 and saved in software DASYLab
v 5.02.20. Scheme of measurement chain was showed in Fig.2.
Fig.2. Scheme of measurement chain to measure cutting resistance during milling with tenoning machine
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Second stage of machining was carried out on working centre CNC Busellato Jet 130
with usage of router bit FTS-07 (40/20x29,5mm) with replaceable blades made from sintered
carbides with dimensions 29,5x12x1,5 (Fig.1). Measurement and registering was realized
with measurement chain showed in Fig.3. Measurement chain consists of two-component
force sensor Kistler 9601A31 coupled with amplifier 5034A. Acquisition card NI PCI-6034E
sampled signals with frequencies 50kHz. Registered signals were projected and processed in
LabVIEW 8,6 environment. Cutting parameters listed in Tab.1. were chosen for experiments.
Fig.3. Scheme of measurement chain mounted on CNC machine
Tab.1. Cutting parameters used during milling on both machines
Rotational speed Feed speed Number of cutting
Machine
[ rpm]
[m/min] blades [pc.]
Tenoning
machine
CNC
machine
Feed per teeth
[mm]
Height of cutting
[mm]
3000 3 1 1 2
18000 5,4 1 0,3 2
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In case of milling on CNC, square mean F w was calculated, from two component forces
perpendicular to each other (F x and F y ) gathered on measurement platform. Subsequently,
significance of differences in forces between unmodified and modified wood was tested with
usage of t-Student test. Mean value of RMS for resultant force in case of milling with CNC
showed Fig.4., whereas Fig.5÷7 show mean values of RMS for cutting and normal forces and
power consumed by working unit during milling on tenoning machine. It can be remarked
that as well mean values of RMS in case of F w (machine CNC) as cutting and normal force
(tenoning machine) are lower for modified wood. This differences are statistically relevant,
too. Moreover, power consumption of working unit in tenoning machine was in case of
modified wood lower.
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Fig.4. RMS of F w during milling of unmodified and
thermally modified wood with CNC machine
Fig.5. RMS of cutting force during milling of
unmodified and thermally modified wood with
tenoning machine
Fig.6. RMS of normal force during milling of
unmodified and thermally modified wood with
tenoning machine
Fig.7.Power consumption of working unit during
milling of unmodified and thermally modified wood
with tenoning machine
CONCLUSION
Obtained results allow to formulate following conclusions:
1. It was proved decrease of resultant cutting force during milling with CNC after
thermal modification of oak wood.
2. Oak wood thermal modification induce decrease of cutting and normal force and
power consumption of working unit during milling with tenoning machine.
206

REFERENCES
1. ALA-VIKIKARI J., 2008: Thermally Modified Timber (TMT)-ThermoWood®.
COST E 37.
2. CHOROWIEC A., 2009: Badanie właściwości mechanicznych i fizycznych drewna
dębowego modyfikowanego termicznie pokrytego powłokami. Praca inżynierska
wykonana pod kierunkiem dr inż. Marka Grześkiewicza w Katedrze Technologii
Organizacji i Zarządzania w Przemyśle Drzewnym SGGW w Warszawie.
3. DOBROWOLSKA., 2009: Influence of thermal processing of wood strength and
compressive modulus of elasticity. Górski J., Zbieć M., 2009: Wood machining and
processing product quality and waste characteristics. WULS-SGGW Press.
4. GRISARD J., BAPTIST F., 1935: Procede de vieillissement arificel des bois. French
Patent FR 784378.
5. GRZEŚKIEWICZ M., KRAWIECKI J., 2008: Thermally modified ash and oak wood
as materials for parquets – mechanical properties of the wood and its resistance for
different kinds of wood finishing. Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences-
SGGW Forestry and Wood Technology No 65: 93-97.
6. ORŁOWSKI K., GRZEŚKIEWICZ M., 2009: Effect of heat treatment of hardwood
on the specific cutting resistance. Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences –
Forestry and Wood Technology 69, s.147-151.
7. ThermoWood® Handbook 2003: Chapter 3. ThermoWood® process 1-3. Finnish
Thermowood Association.
8. WILKOWSKI J., GRZEŚKIEWICZ M., CZARNIAK P., LITWA M., 2010: Influence
of wood thermal modification on cutting resistance during drilling. Annals of Warsaw
University of Life Sciences- SGGW Forestry and Wood Technology No 72: 480-48.
The contribution was created during the solution of project CEEPUS network CII-SK-0310-03-
1011 as a result of activity and cooperation of authors.
Streszczenie: Wpływ termicznej modyfikacji drewna dębu na siły skrawania podczas
frezowania. Celem pracy było zbadanie wpływu termicznej modyfikacji drewna dębowego na
siły skrawania podczas frezowania. Zastosowano konwencjonalną frezarko-pilarkę jak
również centrum frezarskie CNC. W obu przypadkach dokonywano rejestracji sił skrawania
za pomocą czujników piezoelektrycznych. Zaobserwowano spadek sił skrawania w
przypadku drewna modyfikowanego.
Corresponding authors:
Jacek Wilkowski
e-mail : jacek_wilkowski@sggw.pl
Marek Grześkiewicz
e-mail : marek_grzeskiewiczi@sggw.pl
Paweł Czarniak
e-mail : pawel_czarniak@sggw.pl
Faculty of Wood Technology SGGW
ul. Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
Lubomir Javorek
e-mail: lubomir.javorek@vsld.tuzvo.sk
Dusan Pauliny
e-mail: pauliny@vsld.tuzvo.sk
Faculty of Environmental and Manufacturing Technology
Technical University in Zvolen
T.G.Masaryka 24, 960-53 Zvolen, Slovakia
207

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 208-211
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Surface roughness after sanding of thermally modified oak wood
JACEK WILKOWSKI 1) , MAREK GRZEŚKIEWICZ 2) , PAWEŁ CZARNIAK 1) , PIOTR
KLECZKOWSKI 1)
1) Wood Mechanical Processing Department
2) Department of Construction and Technology of Final Wood Products
Faculty of Wood Technology; Warsaw University of Life Sciences– SGGW
Abstract: Surface roughness after sanding of thermally modified oak wood. In this work influence of thermal
oak wood modification on quality surface after sanding with machine CNC equipped with loaf grinding bit was
examined. Assesment of surface roughness parameters was realized by mean of contact profilometer. Results
show that thermall modification is beneficial to surface quality after sanding. Lower values of roughness
parameters were obtained for modified wood.
Keywords: thermally modified wood, oak, surface roughness, sanding
INTRODUCTION
In the latest years exotic wood distinguishes by dark color is increasingly common used.
However relevant limitation which make access to this row material difficult is among others
high level of prices. Mentioned above phenomena inclines towards efforts which are focused
on development of innovative substitutes. One of the possibilities is to explore domain wood
species which subjected to thermal modification process enable imitation of exotic species.
Due to these reasons, this problem became main subject of numerous scientific researches. In
general, during modification process come up a lot of relevant changes in structure and
physical properties of wood. This changes result in improvement of dimensional stability,
decrease of hygroscopic, increase of resistance to fungi or homogenity of colors [Hill 2006].
From machining point of view extremely relevant is fact that heating wood up in high
temperature cause strength decrease in compressing, lower hardness or resistance to
scrubbing. These conclusions were showed in work of Grześkiewicz and Krawiecki [2008].
Authors proved that as well elasticity modulus in bending as strength in bending decreased.
Thus, emerges the question how changes of mechanical properties of material influence on
its vulnerability to machining. Especially relevant for customers is finishing operation i.e.
sanding. This aspect of machinability was the subject of work Wieloch et al. [2009]. Authors
focused on sanding of robinia (Robinia pseudoacacia L). Modification process consist on
thermal treatment of wood in overheated steam with temperature 185-190C, according to
Finnforest technology. During experiments paper with granulation 40 was used. However,
force of clamping and cutting speed were variable. Results showed that modification of
robinia result in deterioration of surface quality of machined element. Probably, such effect in
this case can be caused by higher hardness of modified wood. In consequence, on surface of
wood are more clearly reflected grains of abrasive belts.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Workpieces were earlier prepared according to procedure described in work of
Wilkowski et al. [2010]. Overall was examined 40 workpieces made from oak wood, 20
unmodified and 20 thermally modified. These elements were mounted to basement from
MDF. During one cycle simultaneously were clamped four workpieces (Fig.1). However,
whole stand was fitted to the rails of CNC machine with vacuum system. In first stage of
experiments were conducted sanding of lateral surface along whole length, in all workpieces.
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Parameters of leaf grinding bit (Fig.2.) were following: granulation of abrasive paper 40,
dimensions of grinding bit 30/60mm. Tool immersed itself in material on depth of 1mm. Feed
speed amounted 1m/min and rotational spindle speed was set on 2000rpm. Tools were
changed every five passages in order to avoid the influence of tool wear. Subsequently, yet
once workpieces were sanded but to the half of the length (to compare the influence of
abrasive paper granulation ) with grinding bit 120 at the same cutting parameters.
Workpieces were chosen in so way that machining was carried out as well in horizontal as
vertical placement of annual rings (Fig.3).
Fig.1. View of workpieces clamped to basement from MDF
Fig.2. View of loaf grinding bit
Fig.3. Scheme of annual rings placement
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Influence of modification, placement of annual rings and granulation of abrasive paper
on surface roughness parameter Ry, was showed in Fig.4÷6. Influence of modification,
direction of sanding and granulation of abrasive paper on surface roughness parameter R z ,
was showed in Fig.7÷9. Statistical significance of particular factors was estimated according
to analysis of variance (ANOVA). Summary of particular factors influence show Tab.1. From
this list follows that statistically significant turned out only wood modification (only in case
of roughness parameters R y i R z ).
209

Fig.4. Influence of modification on surface roughness
parameter R y
Fig.5. Influence of placement of annuals rings on
surface roughness parameter R y
Fig.6. Influence of abrasive paper granulation on surface roughness parameter R y
Fig.7. Influence of modification on surface roughness
parameter R z
Fig.8. Influence of sanding direction on surface
roughness parameter R z
Fig.9. Influence of abrasive paper granulation on surface roughness parameter R z
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Tab.1. Statistical significance of particular factors
Factor
Surface roughness parameter
R a R y R z
Modification Irrelevant Relevant Relevant
Placement of annual rings Irrelevant Irrelevant Irrelevant
Abrasive paper granulation Irrelevant Irrelevant Irrelevant
CONCLUSION
Obtained results allow to formulate following conclusions:
1. Thermally modified oak wood distinguishes by lower surface roughness after sanding
than unmodified.
2. Differences in surface roughness between horizontal and vertical placement of annual
rings turned out statistically irrelevant.
3. Influence of abrasive paper granulation on surface roughness after sanding was
irrelevant.
REFERENCES
1. HILL C., 2006: Wood Modification: Chemical, Thermal and Other Processes. John
Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 99-130.
2. GRZEŚKIEWICZ M., KRAWIECKI J., 2008: Thermally modified ash and oak wood
as materials for parquets – mechanical properties of the wood and its resistance for
different kinds of wood finishing. Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences-
SGGW Forestry and Wood Technology No 65: 93-97.
3. WIELOCH G., ADAMSKI Z., MOSTOWSKI R., 2009: The interaction of abrasive
grains on the thermally modified surface of acacia wood during grinding. Annals of
Warsaw University of Life Sciences – Forestry and Wood Technology 69, s.409-414.
4. WILKOWSKI J., GRZEŚKIEWICZ M., CZARNIAK P., LITWA M., 2010: Influence
of wood thermal modification on cutting resistance during drilling. Annals of Warsaw
University of Life Sciences- SGGW Forestry and Wood Technology No 72: 480-48.
Streszczenie: Chropowatość powierzchni po szlifowaniu termicznie modyfikowanego drewna
dębu. W pracy przeanalizowano wpływ procesu termicznej modyfikacji drewna dębu na
jakość obrobionej powierzchni po szlifowaniu. Szlifowano na obrabiarce CNC ściernicami
listkowymi. Oceny chropowatości powierzchni dokonywano przy pomocy profilometru
stykowego. Wyniki wskazują, że modyfikacja termiczna drewna wpływa korzystnie na jakość
powierzchni po szlifowaniu. Uzyskiwano niższe wartości parametrów chropowatości
powierzchni drewna dębu modyfikowanego.
Corresponding author:
Jacek Wilkowski
e-mail : jacek_wilkowski@sggw.pl
Marek Grześkiewicz
e-mail : marek_grzeskiewiczi@sggw.pl
Paweł Czarniak
e-mail : pawel_czarniak@sggw.pl
Faculty of Wood Technology SGGW
ul. Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
211

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 212-217
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
The effect of chemicals addition on improvement of sack paper strength
properties
AGNIESZKA WYSOCKA-ROBAK, KONRAD OLEJNIK
The Institute of Papermaking and Painting, Technical University of Łódź
Abstract: Taking into account economic and environmental aspects, it can be assumed that the majority of
packagings will be made of paper products in the future. Packaging paper grades require good strength
properties. This can be obtained by paper production from primary material, to be precise from unbleached kraft
pulp, most often based on softwood. To provide desired strength level to sack paper, some chemicals were used.
Tests proved that addition of chemical agents in the production of sack paper brings satisfactory results
enhancing its strength properties in this way. Synthetic agents showed better effectiveness then natural agents.
Keywords: papermaking, sack paper, chemical agents, strength properties
INTRODUCTION
A consequence of paper popularity, as cheap and easily available material produced
mainly from natural resources, is its continuous growth in production and consumption.
A role of paper products is objectively reflected by their consumption per person
annually (in kgs). Per capita consumption is often used to show the development level of a
given country. For instance, in Poland it was 32 kg/p/y in 1995, whereas in 2008 it was over
100 kg/p/y.
Taking into account economic and environmental aspects, it can be assumed that the
majority of packagings will be made of paper products in the future. Manufactured from
natural material, packaging paper is environmentally friendly. Its aesthetic aspect can be
enhanced by coating or printing techniques.
Sack paper is a grade of wrapping paper of high strength properties, used for
production of sacks. To manufacture sack paper, unbleached kraft pulp is used, mainly from
softwood. This paper grade has to be characterized by high puncture, breaking, tearing
strength, elongation at rapture and air permeability. Paper strength depends on the strength of
separate fibres, number and structure of bonds. Addition of binding agents can improve paper
strength. The strength improvement mechanism through a binding substance is based on
increase of binding force between fibres - 60%, increase of specific surface - 15% and
improvement of web formation - 25%.
Fig. 1. Improvement mechanisms of strength properties with binding substance
Strength of fibre structure can be increased mechanically by more intensive refining. There
are numerous reasons for increased interest in chemical agents in refining process. As the
212

process consumes large amounts of energy, addition of an agent improving strength properties
can reduce refining time and save energy.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The purpose of this research project was to evaluate effectiveness of selected chemical
agents improving strength properties of sack paper and choose the most effective one.
The unbleached kraft pulp was used in the project. The following chemical agents
were used (in each case thee dosages were used):
Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC): 0,5; 1,0; 1,5;
Cationic starch: 0,5; 1,0; 1,5;
Agent made by company A: 0,1; 0,3; 0.5;
Agent made by company B: 0,2; 0,4; 0,6;
Agent made by company C: 2,5; 4,0; 5,5;
Agent made by company D: 0,5; 1,0; 2,5;
To compare the results, sheets without binding agents were also prepared. Chemical
composition of tested agents had not been known due to manufacturing secrets. Since the tests
were done for a given company, substance names were kept confidential.
The pulp was soaked and disintegrated. The chemicals were added in adequate
dosages. And from the stock prepared in this way, sheets of 75 g/m 2 were formed. They were
made in laboratory conditions in the Rapid – Köthen apparatus according to PN-EN ISO
5259-2:2001 standard.
Before the tests, paper samples were conditioned according to PN-EN 20187:2000
„Paper, board and pulp – standard atmosphere for conditioning and testing and procedure for
monitoring the atmosphere and conditioning of samples”. The following strength properties
were tested:
- Breaking length and elongation at rapture – the test was performed in the Instron
5564 tensile tester according to PN-EN ISO 1924-2:1998 standard.
- Tear strength – the test was carried out in the Elmendorf 0019 apparatus according to
PN-EN 21974:2002 standard.
- Bursting strength – the test was performer in the Mullen apparatus from Lorentzen &
Wettre according to PN-EN ISO 2758:2005.
RESULTS
When being used, the paper product is exposed to numerous external forces, that is
why the strength properties are among the most important parameters. The paper resistance to
the external forces depends mainly from fibre length and forces binding fibres. The strength
properties are determined in conditions reflecting product operating conditions. Fig. 2 shows
results for breaking length for tested papers with added chemicals. The breaking length is the
length beyond which a strip of paper of uniform width would break under its own weight if
suspended from one end.
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Fig. 2. Changes in breaking length of sack paper with added chemicals
Each of tested dosages of cationic starch improved significantly breaking length from
17% to 35% depending on the dosage used. Using higher dosages, agent A also improved
breaking length by almost 15%. Addition of agent B improved breaking length by 19% with
the smallest dosage and even by 36% with the highest dosage. The best result was obtained
for the highest dosage of agent C (51%). Only dosage of CMC did not increase breaking
length. Similar changes were observed for elongation at rapture (Fig. 3). Addition of CMC
also caused decrease in this parameter. Satisfactory results were achieved for cationic starch –
an increase to 24% (with the highest dosage), agent B which improved elongation at rapture
by 39% (with the highest dosage), and agent C – medium dosage improved the result by 36%.
Fig. 3. Changes in elongation at rapture for sack paper with added chemicals
Bursting is a very important parameter for sack papers. It helps to evaluate usefulness
of paper and its behaviour when forces perpendicular to its surface are applied. Bursting index
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depends on elasticity of fibres contained in paper, fibre length and bonding degree between
fibres. Majority of chemicals used increased this strength property. The best results were
obtained with agent B. Each dosage increased bursting, by 22% with the lowest dosage, and
79% with the highest dosage of the agent. The highest dosage of agent C improved this
parameter by 60%. Whereas all the dosages of carboxymethyl celluloze decreased bursting
strength.
Fig. 4. Changes in bursting for sack paper with added chemicals
Another parameter tested was tear strength. It is particularly important when
evaluating usefulness of sack paper that is exposed to tearing stresses during its usage. This
measurement describes the force which is needed to tear paper sample cut initially. It depends
mainly on fibres length and strength as well as compactness of a paper product. Fig. 5 shows
the effect of chemicals addition on changes in tear strength for sack paper. All the CMC
dosages improved this parameter by 5.2 % with the lowest dosage, and almost 7% with 1.5 %
dosage. The best results were obtained with the 0.2 % dosage of agent B. The other agents
decreased tear strength.
215

Fig.5. Changes in tear strength of sack paper with added chemicals
SUMMARY
The tests proved that application of chemical agents in the production of sack paper
brings satisfactory results enhancing its strength properties in this way. Synthetic agents
showed higher effectiveness then natural agents. Among the synthetic agents the best results
were obtained for agent B and the highest dosage (1.5%) of cationic starch (natural binding
agent). The application of carboxymethyl cellulose was ineffective. It can be concluded then
that it is possible to improve the strength parameters using chemical agents.
REFERENCES
1. NEIMO L., 1999: Papermaking chemistry, Helsinki
2.SZWARCSZTAJN E., 1991: Przygotowanie masy papierniczej, Wydawnictwa Naukowo -
Techniczne, Warszawa
3. LAINE J., LINDSTROM T., NORDMARK G.G., RISINGER G., 2000: “Sudies on
topochemical modification of cellulosic fibers. Part 1. Chemical conditions for the attachment
of carboxymethyl cellulose onto fibres ”, Nordic Pulp and Paper Research Journal, 15, 5, 520-
526
4. LAINE J., LINDSTROM T., NORDMARK G.G., RISINGER G., 2000: “Sudies on
topochemical modification of cellulosic fibers. Part 2. The effect of carboxymethyl cellulose
attachment on fibre swelling and paper strength”, Nordic Pulp and Paper Research Journal,
17, 1, 50-56
216

Streszczenie: Wpływ dodatku środków chemicznych na poprawę właściwości
wytrzymałościowych papieru workowego. Biorąc pod uwagę względy ekonomiczne i
ekologiczne można przypuszczać, że w przyszłości większość opakowań produkowanych
będzie z wytworów papierowych. Papier na opakowania musi charakteryzować się dobrymi
właściwościami wytrzymałościowymi. Zapewnia je produkcja papieru z surowców
pierwotnych, a dokładnie z niebielonej masy celulozowej typu kraft, najczęściej z drewna
sosnowego. Aby zapewnić odpowiedni poziom wytrzymałości papieru workowego
zastosowano różne środki chemiczne w celu poprawy tych właściwości. Wykonane badania
wykazały że, zastosowanie środków chemicznych w produkcji papierów workowych przynosi
zadawalające rezultaty podnosząc jego właściwości wytrzymałościowe. Środki syntetyczne
wykazały większą skuteczność działania niż środki naturalne.
Corresponding author:
Agnieszka Wysocka-Robak,
agnieszka.wysocka-robak @p.lodz.pl
Institute of Papermaking and Printing,
Technical University of Lodz,
Wólczańska 223, 903-924 Łódź
217

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 218-222
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Thickness changes of cyclical pressed veneer
ZEMIAR JAN, ZBONČÁK RÓBERT, GAFF MILAN
Technical University in Zvolen, Faculty of Wood Science and Technology, Department of Furniture and Wood
Products
Abstract: The article is oriented at investigation of beech veneer compression by cyclical pressing. We selected
different methods of cyclical pressing (procedures A, B, and C), which differed in pressing and releasing of
compressive force. Also we selected different initial moisture content of veneers (8 % and 16 %) and pressing
temperature (20 °C, 100 °C, 150 °C). We investigated veneer thickness and its change after pressing at degree of
pressing of 30 %. All selected factors influence veneer thickness significantly.
Keywords: pressing, compression, thickness, pressing procedure
INTRODUCTION
Aim of pressing – compression of wood is to modify wood properties – improve wood
hardness, strength, resistance against abrasion and others. Wood treated by pressing does not
loose its natural appearance what, connected with changed properties enlarge areas for its
application when compared with non-treated wood (Zemiar, at al, 2009).
Pressing – compression of wood can be technically realised by various methods, most
often by flat pressing and rolling. At flat pressing, wood is subjected to static loading with
gradually increasing force, or to dynamic, usually cyclically repeated loading (Kafka, at al,
1989).
Aim of the research was to verify the influence of three ways of flat cyclical pressing on
thickness changes of thin wood materials – veneers, at the stage after pressing (after
dimensional stabilisation), in connection with chosen selected factors (wood species, wood
moisture content, pressing temperature). Ratio of thickness changes, at the stage after
dimensional stabilisation, to the initial dimension – thickness of the veneer determines a
degree of permanent pressing.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Influence of chosen ways of pressing was evaluated experimentally on beech veneers of
dimensions 100 × 100 mm and thickness 2 mm, at wood moisture content 8 % and 16 %, and
pressing temperature 20 °C, 100°C, and 150 °C. Common characteristic for all the tested
procedures of pressing (marked A, B, or C) was 6-cyclic pressing with total time 3 minutes
and total compression by about 30 % when compared to initial veneer thickness (Zbončák,
2011).
(Note: Formulation of degree of pressing “by about 30 %“ results from the fact that
initial veneer thickness 2 mm was in real tolerance; that, at pressing to given thickness of 1.4
mm, does not give constant value of degree of pressing.)
Particular pressing procedures can be characterised as follows:
Procedure A – at this way of pressing, veneer was pressed in every cycle to final level
(pressing by about 30 % when compared to initial thickness) with pressing time 15
seconds followed by release of compressive force for 15 seconds. The cycle was
repeated for 6 times.
218

Procedure B – The mode is characterised by progressive pressing by 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30
% when compared to initial thickness always lasting for 15 seconds at every degree of
pressing followed by release of compressive force for 15 seconds.
Procedure C – The mode is similar to the mode B with the difference that at every level of
pressing, the press performs for 30 seconds with no releasing of compressive force
during whole pressing process.
The veneer thickness was the researched parameter; it was measured before pressing, after
pressing, and at the state of conditioning in times 0.5, 1, 4, and 24 hours after pressing.
RESULTS
Veneer thicknesses and changes of them are given in graphical form. As the range of
the paper is limited, we aim at the analysis of pressing ways (fig. 1) and influence of
temperature (fig. 2) at chosen studied factors.
From all the represented curves it follows that all of them have basically similar course.
Initial veneer thickness, the dimension little exceeded 2 mm, was lowered during pressing to
final constant thickness of 1.4 mm (degree of pressing by about 30 %) and consequently, after
release of compressive force, it was gradually increasing. (Note: At particular ways of cyclical
pressing, at the pressing stage – time interval t0 – t1, no course of changing thickness is
recorded; only initial and final values of thickness are recorded.) The ideal state, from the
point of view of our intentions, is the state when the curve in time interval t1 – t6, at
untouched properties of pressed material, is not changed; it means that the thickness change
was exclusively due to plastic deformations. This type of change can only be at ideal plastic
material. The curves, which course is more similar to the ideal course, shows to more proper
pressing procedure – they guard higher degree of permanent pressing.
Based on analysis in fig. 1 it follows that almost in all cases, the highest permanent
deformations are present at pressing procedure A; it means at the procedure, when veneer is
a) b)
c) d)
219

e) f)
Fig. 1 Thickness changes of veneers during and after pressing, at different pressing
procedures, ( A, B, C), different pressing temperature and veneer
moisture content.
a) temperature 20 °C, moisture 8 %, b) temperature 20 °C, moisture 16 %,
c) temperature 100 °C, moisture 8 %, d) temperature 100 °C, moisture 16 %,
e) temperature 150 °C, moisture 8 %, f) temperature 150 °C, moisture 16 %.
Time symbols indexing the time of measurement of thickness
t0 – before pressing, t1 – after pressing, t2 – t6 – during conditioning (stabilisation) at time
points of 0.5, 1, 4, and 24 hours.
a) b)
c) d)
220

e) f)
Fig. 2 Thickness changes of veneers during and after pressing, at different pressing
temperature, ( 20 °C, 100 °C, 150 °C), different pressing procedures
and veneer moisture content.
a) pressing procedure A, moisture 8 %, b) pressing procedure A, moisture 16 %,
c) pressing procedure, moisture 8 %, d) pressing procedure B, moisture 16 %,
e) pressing procedure C, moisture 8 %, f) pressing procedure C, moisture 16 %.
Time symbols indexing the time of measurement of thickness
t0 – before pressing, t1 – after pressing, t2 – t6 – during conditioning (stabilisation) at time
points of 0.5, 1, 4, and 24 hours.
pressed at each cycle to the level of maximal degree of pressing, in our case 30 %. Between
modes B and C (besides the exception at 16 % wood moisture content and pressing
temperature 100 °C), stronger differences were not registered.
Considering the wood moisture content of pressed veneers and pressing process at
higher temperature than ambient temperature, thickness changes were influenced not only by
pressing and relaxing but also by wood drying, eventually swelling during conditioning.
Based on this fact we can explain lowering of thickness under the level of maximal
compression.
Pressing temperature influences the thickness changes markedly, in consequence of
drying of veneers or heaving during conditioning. Fig. 2 clearly shows the fact that at the
highest tested temperature (150 °C), the curves are best approximating to the theoretical limit
of 1.4 mm. Influence of temperature was more markedly manifested at higher initial wood
moisture content (16 %); that matches higher shrinkage of the veneers compared to drier ones
(moisture of 8 %).
CONCLUSION
By the research we aimed to know the influence of various ways of cyclical pressing on
thickness of pressed wood – veneer. It was shown that among chosen procedures of pressing,
the most permanent degree of pressing – compression was achieved at procedure A (pressing
based on repetition of pressing process to chosen maximal degree of pressing) and the highest
chosen temperature (150 °C), when drying is most intensive. Higher initial wood moisture
content contributes to the shrinkage as well – in the experiment chosen 16 % compared to
moisture of 8 %.
221

REFERENCES
1. KAFKA, E. a kol., 1989: Dřevařska přiručka I. Praha: STNL, 484 s. ISBN 80-03-
00009-2.
2. ZBONČÁK, R., 2011: Rozmerová stabilita cyklicky lisovaného bukového dreva.
Diplomová práca, Zvolen: TU, 94 s.
3. ZEMIAR, J. a kol., 2009: Technológia výroby nábytku. Zvolen: TU, 287 s. ISBN 978-
80-228-2064-6.
Streszczenie: Zmiany grubości forniru prasowanego cyklicznie. Artykuł skupia się na
współczynniku kompresji forniru bukowego przy prasowaniu cyklicznym. Wybrano różne
procedury prasowania (procedury A, B, oraz C), które rózniły się ściskaniem i
odpuszczaniem. Testowano także rózne wyjściowe wilgotności forniru (8 % i 16 %) i
temperatury prasowania (20 °C, 100 °C, 150 °C). Mierzono grubość forniru oraz jej zmiany
po sprasowaniu o 30 %. Wszystkie testowane czynniki oddziaływują znacząco na grubość
forniru.
This examined problematic is part of research project No. 1/0329/09 from grant project of
VEGA.
Corresponding authors:
prof. Ing. Ján Zemiar, PhD.
Ing. Milan Gaff, PhD.
Ing. Róbert Zbončák
Technical University
Faculty of Wood Science and Technology
Department of Furniture and Wood Products
Masarykova 24
960 53 Zvolen
Slovakia
222

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 223-228
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Variation of anatomical properties of shoots tall wheatgrass in the aspect of
their utilization as a substitute of wood biomass
WALDEMAR ZIELEWICZ 1) , STANISŁAW KOZŁOWSKI 1) , EWA FABISIAK 2)
1) Department of Grassland and Natural Landscape Science, Poznan University of Life Sciences
2)
Department of Wood Science, Poznan University of Life Sciences
Abstract: The paper reports on variation anatomical properties of tall wheatgrass at different levels of shoot
height. Anatomical measurements included the determination of stem cross-section area and area taken up by the
stem walls. The all measured parameters of stem structure exhibit varied values depending on their location on
the shoot. Variation of these parameters is of significance for the height and date of mowing in case of
plantations of this species. The thickness of stem walls decreases from the shoot base to the inflorescence by
approx. 20%. The area taken up by the walls accounts for almost 80% of stem cross-section area over the entire
height of the shoot.
Keywords: anatomical properties, tall wheatgrass, substitute of wood biomass
INTRODUCTION
The deficit of wood supplies observed in recent years, growing prices for timber as
well as concern for the natural environment have resulted in a situation when the interest of
researchers is focused on the identification of rapidly growing plants, which may be used as
substitutes of timber. The use of these plants in board industry or power engineering requires
comprehensive studies aiming at the determination of their properties, assessing their
suitability for specific applications as well as profitability of their production (Dragan 2011).
An important position in this group is occupied by grasses (Celińska 2009). Among
the species alien to the Polish native flora we need to mention those of genus Miscanthus
(Kochanowska, Gamrat 2007), while among native grasses such important species include
reed canary grass (Księżak and Faber 2007) and wood small-reed (Patrzałek et al. 2011).
Advantages of these plants are connected with their rapid growth and minimal requirements
concerning irrigation and fertilization.
Evaluation of grasses in terms of their utilization as a substitute of wood biomass
requires insight into a broad spectrum of their properties. Additionally, the dynamic
development of the biomass energy market results in a situation, when new plant species are
being searched for to serve as renewable energy sources (Niedziółka and Zuchniarz 2006,
Dragon 2011, Łęski 2011). We need to mention here that the amount of electric energy
generated from combustion of biomass in the years 2006 - 2010 increased almost three-fold.
The main incentive for the biomass market in Poland is connected with the system enforcing
the use of renewable energy sources (the Ordinance of the Minister of Economy of
14.08.2008 specifies the share of electric energy from renewable energy sources in the
consumption of energy sold to final users at 12.9% in 2017).
Among characteristics determining the above mentioned use of plants we need to
mention e.g. yielding capacity of a given species (Rogalski et al. 2005), the chemical
composition (Majtkowski 2008), as well as macrostructural and morphological parameters.
The Institute of Plant Breeding and Acclimation at Radzików near Warszawa,
conducting studies on the recreation and extension of biodiversity of native plant resources,
carries out research on a new species, tall wheatgrass (Agropyron elongatum) (Martyniak and
Martyniak 2009, Martyniak et al., 2010). This species is found in south-eastern Europe and
Asia, in arid and salinated localities. It is characterized by high persistence and non-invasive
character. Its aboveground shoots reach the height of as much as 2 m. This taxon does not
223

produce underground rhizomes and its root system is well-developed. After wintering it starts
vegetation early (Martyniak and Martyniak 2009).
Studies conducted to date on tall wheatgrass at IPBA at Radzików have led to the
generation of breeding materials, which have been used in the creation of a cultivar currently
included in the registry procedure. Results obtained in the course of breeding works are
promising and indicate the potential for this plant to be used e.g. for energy purposes. Thus
multifaceted investigations have been undertaken in order to comprehensively determine
properties of tall wheatgrass. This paper concerning the anatomical aspect is a part of this
research.
METHODS
Anatomical studies of tall wheatgrass were carried out on the material collected for
previously conducted biological and chemical analyses. It came from experimental
plantations in the fields of IPBA at Radzików. The field trials were established in 2009 on
sandy silt soil of the agronomic quality class II. Anatomical measurements included the
determination of stem cross-section area and area taken up by the stem walls. Moreover, the
thickness of stem walls and the area formed as a result of dying of the parenchyma, i.e. lumen
of shoots. For this purpose 2 microscopic specimens each were prepared from randomly
selected generative shoots. Measurements were taken on samples collected from eight height
levels of each shoot denoted in this paper with symbols from A to H, corresponding to the
location of individual internodes starting from the lowest. A total of 320 slides were prepared,
on which the stem cross-section area and the area of stem lumen were determined. A
computer image analyzer powered by the Motic 2000 software was used in these analyses.
RESULTS
Conducted anatomical analyses showed that all measured parameters of stem structure
exhibit varied values depending on their location on the shoot. It turned out that the thickness
of stem walls decreases from the shoot base to the inflorescence (by approx. 20%) and its
mean value was 0.78 mm. The coefficient of variation was 19%. An important
macrostructural trait is the cross-section area of wall stems at different levels of shoot height.
Variation in this parameter is presented in Fig. 1.
12
mean ± standard error ± standard deviation
Cross-sectional area of walls (mm 2 )
10
8
6
4
2
0
F(7,148) = 10,7016, p = 0,0000
A B C D E F G H
Level of shoots height
Fig. 1. Variation in cross-section area of wall stems at different levels of shoot height (A – level I, B – level II, C
– level III, D – level IV, E – level V, F – level VI, G – level VII, H – level VIII)
224

The conducted analysis of variance ANOVA for the analyzed trait at different shoot height
levels indicates that these differences are statistically significant. The value of the tested
statistic F for the area of their walls was 10.7017. The critical value F (7;148;0.0001) = 0.0422, and
thus it is lower than the calculated value. Histograms of the distribution of cross-section area
of stems taken up by the walls are presented jointly for all analyzed height levels of shoots
(Fig. 2). It results from this figure that they are characterized by a distribution close to normal
and the mean area is 5.3 mm 2 .
32%
50
Frequency
26%
19%
13%
6%
40
30
20
10
Number of measurements
0%
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
0
Cross-sectional area of walls (mm 2 )
Fig. 2. Histogram of distribution of walls cross-section area for all levels of shoot height jointly
Since couch grass stems are usually hollow, the variation with height was also determined for
area lumens of examined shoots of tall wheatgrass (Fig. 3). Although the arithmetical
difference in the value of this parameter may be observed over the entire shoot height and its
mean value is approx. 1.2 mm 2 it is statistically non-significant (F (7;148;0.01) = 2.7623).
Cross-sectional area of lumen (mm 2 )
5
4
3
2
1
0
mean ± standard error ± standard deviation
F(7,148) = 2,2728, p = 0,0316
-1
A B C D E F G H
Level of shoots height
Fig. 3. Variation in cross-sectional area of lumen shoots at different levels height (A – level I, B – level II, C –
level III, D – level IV, E – level V, F – level VI, G – level VII, H – level VIII)
225

It results from a comparison of the total cross-section area of stems and lumen area presented
in Fig. 4 that area taken up by the walls accounts for almost 80% of stem cross-section
area
Cross-sectional area (mm 2)
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
area of stems
area of walls
area of lumens
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Level of shoots height
Fig. 4. The effect of the location of specimen collection along the height of shoot (from the base – level A to the
inflorescence – level H) on the cross-section area of the stem, walls and lumen of the shoot
over the entire height of the shoot. Thus the thickness of shoot walls is practically constant
from the base to the inflorescence. These results confirm field observations, from which it
results that shoots of tall wheatgrass are strong and resistant to breaking or damage.
As it was previously mentioned, the analyzed couch grass species has been the subject
of earlier studies, aiming at the determination of its biological and chemical characteristics.
Martyniak et al. (2011) stated that the average length of shoots was 175 cm and the range of
this value did not exceed 50 cm. When evaluating the suitability of plants for specific
applications the essential value is the yield of biomass, i.e. the yield of aboveground parts of
shoots. When sowing seeds of tall wheatgrass at a spacing of 25 cm the annual yield
harvested from four second growths was 164 dt ha -1 . It needs to be added here that the yield
of the first second growth was 80 dt ha -1 and it was obtained within 55 days of vegetation. An
important characteristic of cultivated grasses is their response to fertilization. In this case it
was found that the height of generative shoots is slightly modified (by approx. 7%) by
fertilization. Still the level of fertilization had an effect on the volume of phytomass. Nitrogen
fertilization gave by approx. 38% higher yields in comparison to non-fertilized crops.
In case of chemical analyses it is crucial to state that this species contained over 500 g
cellulose and hemicelluloses, and 26.5 g lignin in 1 kg d.m. Such contents of structural
carbohydrates need to be considered a highly advantageous trait for this group of plants in
terms of the application of couch grass as a substitute of wood biomass in many applications,
which was also stressed by Kozłowski et al. (2007) and Wróblewska et al. (2009). The tested
species contained slight amounts of crude ash, which is a characteristic typical of grasses.
Sometimes it may accumulate their higher amounts in the aboveground mass of shoots, which
may not be considered a positive trait in terms of its energy crop utilization.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Thickness of walls in generative shoots and the area take up by the walls at the stem
cross-section in tall wheatgrass need to be considered characteristic traits of this
226

species. These parameters may be significant in case of the use of this species as an
energy crop.
2. Analyzed anatomical traits of stems in tall wheatgrass, i.e. wall thickness and the area
which they take up at the stem cross-section, indicate high variability depending on
their location on the shoot. Variation of these parameters is of significance for the
height and date of mowing in case of plantations of this species.
3. When undertaking anatomical analyses it is advisable to remember that the greatest
variation is found in shoots of couch grass at their mid-height, which requires an
increased number of measurements.
4. Tall wheatgrass is characterized by numerous traits indicating that this species may be
a substitute of wood biomass. However, in order to fully determine its suitability as an
energy crop these investigations need to be extended to include the determination of
heat of combustion and heating value. It is also advisable to conduct comparative
studies, also in terms of anatomical analyses of other grass species.
REFERENCES
1. CELIŃSKA A., 2009: Charakterystyka różnych gatunków upraw energetycznych w
aspekcie ich wykorzystania w energetyce zawodowej. Polityka Energetyczna, 12, 2,1;
59-71.
2. DRAGAN J., 2011: Inwestycja w zakład produkcji pelletu z biomasy „Agro”.
Przemysł Drzewny 5; 27-31.
3. KOCHANOWSKA R., GAMRAT R., 2007: Uprawa miskanta cukrowego
(Miscanthus sacchariflorus (Maxi.) Hack) – zagrożeniem dla polskich pól i lasów
Łąkarstwo w Polsce, 10; 223-228.
4. KOZŁOWSKI S., ZIELEWICZ W., LUTYŃSKA A., 2007: Określenie wartości
energetycznej Sorghum sacharatum, Zea mays i Malva verticilata. Łąkarstwo w
Polsce, 10;131-140.
5. KSIĘŻAK J., FABER A., 2007: Ocena możliwości pozyskania biomasy z mozgi
trzcinowatej na cele energetyczne. Łąkarstwo w Polsce, 10; 141-148.
6. ŁĘSKI P., 2011: Rynek biomasy w Europie. Przemysł Drzewny, 5;15-26.
7. NIEDZIÓŁKA I., ZUCHNIARZ A., 2006: Analiza energetyczna wybranych rodzajów
biomasy pochodzenia roślinnego. Motorol, 8A; 232-237.
8. MAJTKOWSKI W., 2008: Wydmuchrzyca wydłużona. Aeroenergetyka, 3; 12-16.
9. MARTYNIAK D., MARTYNIAK J., 2009: Nowa energetyczna trawa. Farmr, 18; 28-
29.
10. MARTYNIAK D., MARTYNIAK L., ŻUREK G., 2010: Miejsce nowej trawy
energetycznej w infrastrukturze obszarów wiejskich i możliwości technologicznego jej
wykorzystania. Materiały XV Konferencji naukowo-technicznej nt. „Rola
infrastruktury i techniki rolniczej w zrównoważonym rolnictwie, Kielce 11-
12.03.2010.
11. MARTYNIAK D., ZIELEWICZ W., FABISIAK E. 2011: Morfologiczne,
anatomiczne, biologiczne i chemiczne właściwości perzu wydłużonego (Agropyron
elongatum Host., Beauv.) w aspekcie możliwości jego wykorzystania w
fitoenergetyce. Biuletyn IHAR (w druku).
12. PATRZAŁEK A., KOZŁOWSKI S., SWĘDRZYŃSKI A., TRĄBA CZ., 2011:
Trzcinnik piaskowy jako potencjalna roślina energetyczna. Wyd. Politechniki Śląskiej,
Gliwice.
13. ROGALSKI M., SAWICKI B., BAJONKO M., WIECZOREK A., 2005:
Wykorzystanie rodzimych gatunków traw jako odnawialnych źródeł energii. W:
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Alternatywne źródła energii. Dobrodziejstwa i zagrożenia (red. M. Cieciura) Szczecin-
Wisełka.
14. WRÓBLEWSKA H., CIESIÓŁKA M., PAWŁOWSKI J., CICHY W., 2009:
Właściwości chemiczne wybranych surowców lignocelulozowych. Postęp w
badaniach surowców lignocelulozowych i produktów ich konwersji; 26-28.
Streszczenie: Zmienność cech anatomicznych pędów perzu wydłużonego w aspekcie jego
wykorzystania jako substytutu biomasy drzewnej. W pracy przedstawiono wyniki pomiarów
cech anatomicznych perzu wydłużonego (Agropyron elongatum). Mierzone cechy określano
na ośmiu poziomach wysokości pędów od podstawy do kwiatostanu. Z każdego poziomu
skrawano po dwie mikrotomowe próbki i określano na nich pole powierzchni przekroju
poprzecznego źdźbeł, grubości ścian i pole świateł pędów. Wykazano, iż mierzone parametry
struktury źdźbeł perzu wydłużonego wykazują zróżnicowane wartości w zależności od
miejsca położenia preparatu wzdłuż wysokości pędu. Średnia grubość ścian źdźbeł wynosiła
ok. 0.8 mm i stanowiła prawie 80 % powierzchni przekroju poprzecznego źdźbła na całej
wysokości pędu. Stwierdzono, iż perz wydłużony odznacza się wieloma cechami
wskazującymi na możliwości jego zastosowania jako substytutu biomasy drzewnej. Jednak,
by w pełni określić jego przydatność jako surowca energetycznego badania te należy
poszerzyć m.in. o właściwości cieplne.
Corresponding authors:
1)
Department of Grassland and Natural Landscape Science
Poznan University of Life Sciences
60-627 Poznań, Poland
Wojska Polskiego38/42
e-mail: walziel@up.poznan.pl
2) Department of Wood Science
Poznań University of Life Sciences
60-627 Poznań, Poland
Wojska Polskiego38/42
e-mail: knod@up.poznan.pl
228

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 229-233
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Технологическая оценка древесины дуба Одесской области для
виноделия
СЕРГЕЙ ЗРАЖВА, МАРИЯ КОСТЕНКО
Кафедра технологии деревообработки Национального университета биоресурсов и природопользования
Украины – НУБиП Украины
Abstract: In clause results of researches of oak wood from typical forests of Odessa region forest enterprises for
oenological a cooperage of Ukraine are presented. The peculiarities of grain structure and chemical properties,
possibilities of average lumbering are estimated. The most part of clapboard logs are suitable for processing of
vine barrels.
Keywords: oak logs, volumes of cutting, сlapboard, lumber yield, barrels
В бондарной промышленности Украины до настоящего времени
использовалась древесина неизвестного происхождения, без предварительной оценки
анатомического строения, химических и физических свойств. Бондарные фирмы
Франции, Италии, Испании и США, доминирующие на международном рынке, уже в
конце ХХ века перешли к целенаправленной заготовке древесины дуба для выдержки
определенных сортов виноматериалов и коньячных спиртов в специально отобранных
насаждениях с паспортизированными свойствами древесины [4, 12, 13, 14]. В работах
российских исследователей отмечены регионы с наиболее перспективной для бочек
древесиной дуба [4, 5, 6, 7].
Одесская и соседние области: Херсонская, Николаевская, а также республика
Молдова являются лесодефицитными районами с интенсивным виноделием.
Традиционно в Одесской области работали десятки бондарных предприятий. Своего
сырья, обычно, не хватало. Больше половины объема потребляемой клепки
приходилось завозить из Винницкой, Хмельницкой, Тернопольской, Харьковской
областей. Рациональное использование местного сырья позволит не только снизить
себестоимость бондарной продукции, но и создать новые рабочие места.
Отсутствие научного обоснования в подборе сырья для винных и коньячных
бочек снижает конкурентоспособность украинского винопроизводства. Следовательно,
данные исследования актуальны для возрождения национальных бондарных
предприятий.
В большинстве случаев современные производственники отбирают древесину
для бочек (в пределах выделенных ими для виноделия сырьевых районов) методом
експресс-оценки по макростуктуре древесины, поскольку химические анализы
древесины долговременные и дорогостоящие. Некоторые исследователи считают, что
наилучшими для выдержки вин являются бочки из древесины с мелкими годичными
слоями из сухих условий местопроизрастания, т.к. они меньше испаряют содержимое
через стенки [2, 3, 5]. По другим данным такая древесина придает виноматериалам
лучшие органолептические свойства [5, 6].
Французские виноделы подразделяют бондарную древесину на крупно-,
средне- и мелкослойную. Древесину с крупными годичными кольцами, мелкими
сосудами и оптимальным содержанием дубильных веществ они используют для
винных дистиллятов, т.к. она обеспечивает более богатый аромат и лучшие вкусовые
229

качества при длительной выдержке. Средне- и мелкослойной древесине с крупными
сосудами отдают предпочтение при выдержке вин, поскольку она обеспечивает более
интенсивную экстракцию и не оставляет «тяжелого» привкуса бочки. [6, 12, 13, 14].
С целью оценки качества клепочного кряжа и технологических свойств
древесины в хозяйствах, которые обеспечивают 70 % объема заготовок дубовой
древесины в области: Савранском, Балтском и Кодымском лесхозах на участках рубок
главного пользования было заложено 7 пробных площадей, где по общепринятым
методикам определены основные таксационные характеристики насаждений,
сортиментный выход круглых лесоматериалов по ГОСТ 9462-88 [9], выход
высококачественного клепочного кряжа для винных и коньячных бочек - в
соответствии с требованиями европейского рынка. На каждой пробной площади было
отобрано по 7 модельных деревьев, соответствующих средним таксационным
показателям данных насаждений. Из каждого модельного дерева со стороны пневого
среза были заготовлены 3-х метровые бревна клепочного кряжа, из которых отбирались
образцы древесины для определения макроструктуры и анализов физических и
химических свойств. Число годичных слоев в 1 см диаметра и процент поздней
древесины определяли по ГОСТ 16483.18-72 [11]. Ширину годичного слоя – по
евростандарту ДСТУ ЕN 1310:1997[8]. Влажность древесины – по ГОСТ 16483.7-71
[10] . Содержание фенольных веществ в водных и спиртовых вытяжках на ФЕК.
Содержание эвгенола, ванилина и душистых лактонов – методами газо-жидкостной
хроматографии на модифицированном газовом хроматографе "Кристалл-2000",
каппилярная колонка ВИТОКАП – АL – 0.3 СП, фаза – VITOWAX–F (имоб.), длина 50
м, внутренний диаметр 0.32 мм.
Дубравы Украины представлены насаждениями дуба черешчатого, скального,
пушистого и австрийского. В лесонасаждениях Одесской области встречаются дуб
черешчатый и дуб скальный, на незначительных площадях – дуб пушистый. Общая
площадь насаждений дуба черешчатого в гослесхозах области составляет 45,20 тис. га,
а дуба скального – 1,75 тис. га. Суммарный запас насаждений дуба черешчатого 7201
тис. м 3 , а дуба скального – 392 тис. м 3 . Запас спелых и перестойных насаждений
составляет 13-15 % от суммарного. Большая часть покрытых лесом земель области
относится к условиям свежей и сухой дубравы. Преобладают дубовые насаждения 2–го
и 3–го бонитетов. Насаждения дуба черешчатого и дуба скального сосредоточены,
преимущественно, в северной части области на территории Савранского, Балтского и
Кодымского лесхозов, которые относятся к лесостепной зоне области. Уже на 30 км
южнее их, в Котовском лесхозе, производительность дуба падает до 3-4 бонитета.
Такие насаждения не представляют интереса с точки зрения заготовки клепочного
кряжа. Южнее Котовска, в условиях сухого степного климата дуб черешчатый
формирует низкопроизводительные насаждения и редко доживает до возраста
технологической спелости. Дуб скальный в этой зоне области уже не встречается.
Местами можно встретить небольшие куртины дуба пушистого 4-5 бонитетов. Эти
насаждения выполняют защитные функции и промышленного значения не имеют.
В 2000 г. все насаждения области сильно пострадали от обледенения и массового
облома деревьев. Наиболее сильно повреждены приспевающие, спелые и перестойные
насаждения. За последние 10 лет поражения древесины гнилью распространились от
мест облома крупных веток на 6-12 м вниз по стволу, что привело к суховершинности
поврежденных деревьев. Были проведены интенсивные санитарные рубки, которые
привели к снижению полноты до 0,6 и запасов спелых и перестойных насаждений на
20–50 м 3 /га. В связи с этим в ближайшие 20-30 лет предусмотрено сокращение рубок
главного пользования. Предполагаемые объемы расчетной лесосеки по главному
пользованию и санитарным рубкам в спелых и перестойных насаждениях составляют
230

70 и 25 тыс. м 3 /год для дуба черешчатого и скального соответственно. Возможные
среднегодовые объемы заготовки высококачественного клепочного кряжа – 600 и 270
м 3 /год для дуба черешчатого и скального соответственно.
При сортировке круглых лесоматериалов на пробных площадях 82 %
клепочного кряжа, отобрано из 1-го и 28 % – из 2-го сорта пиловочника. Средний
диаметр клепочного кряжа составил 36±3 см. Пробная распиловка 14,3 м 3 клепочного
кряжа дала следующий выход продукции: 19,2 % – высококачественной клепки для
бочек, 7,6 % – клепки для выдержки коньячных спиртов и виноматериалов в больших
резервуарах [1], 5,4 % – микроклепки, 18,6 % – щепы из ядровой древесины (которая
после ферментации и термообработики может быть использована для выдержки
коньячных спиртов и виноматериалов в больших резервуарах), 22,9 % – опилок, 26,3
% – кусковых отходов с заболонью, гнилыми сучками, загнившими участками ядра.
Как видно из баланса выхода пилопродукции использование для выдержки
дистиллятов и виноматериалов только бочек слишком расточительно. Стоимость
марочной винопродукции, коньячных спиртов и бренди, выдержанных в бочках, в
большинстве случаев является малодоступной для среднего класса. Не случайно в
большинстве стран мира, в отличие от Украины, для выдержки винопродукции
разрешено использовать не только бочки, буты, клепку и микроклепку для больших
резервуаров, но и специально обработанные щепу, микрощепу и стружку.
Большая часть дубовой древесины из лесхозов Одесской области по
макроструктуре соответствует требованиям для винных бочек. Так, на пробных
площадях было отобрано 86–92 % винного клепочного кряжа и 8–14 % - коньячного.
Средняя ширина годичного слоя винного клепочного кряжа находилась в
пределах 1,1±0,2 – 1,9±0,4 мм, а коньячного – 2,4±0,3 – 2,6±0,4 мм (рис. 1). Процент
поздней древесины находился в пределах 58±4 – 67±5 %.
Наименьшая ширина годичного слоя и минимальные значения поздней
древесины отмечены на 1-й и 2-й пробных площадях, расположенных на сухих склонах
южной экспозиции. Максимальные значения ширины годичного слоя, процента
поздней древесины, а также наличие коньячного клепочного кряжа определены на 3-й,
8-й и 7-й пробных площадях, которые находились в нижней части склонов югозападной
экспозиции.
Химические свойства древесины дуба черешчатого из клепочного кряжа на
пробных площадях свидетельствуют о том, что по комплексу свойств она уступает
лучшим французским образцам только по содержанию душистых лактонов (табл. 1).
231

3
Ширина годичного
слоя, мм
2,5
2
1,5
1
0,5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
7
Номера пробных площадей
коньячный кряж винный кряж
Рис.1. Средняя ширина годичного слоя древесины клепочного кряжа на пробных площадях
Таблица 1. Содержание фенольных и ароматобразующих веществ в древесине
клепочного кряжа дуб а черешчатого на пробных площадях
Наименование Единицы
Содержание в ядровой древесине:
химических веществ измерения винного клепочного коньячного клепочного
кряжа
кряжа
Фенольные вещества мг/г 52±11 74±13
Ванилин мкг/г 42±6 68±15
Эвгенол мкг/г 0,4±0,1 0,7±0,2
Душистые лактоны мкг/г 6±2 11±3
Для обогащения ароматические свойства дубовых бочек из клепочного кряжа,
заготовленного в Одесской области, душистыми лактонами целесообразно добавлять к
клепке из дуба черешчатого 20–40 % клепки из дуба скального, который отличается в
несколько раз большим содержанием душистых лактонов, хотя уступает дубу
черешчатому по содержанию других ароматобразующих веществ.
Выводы.
1. Основные запасы клепочного кряжа для винных и коньячных бочек в
Одесской области сосредоточены в Савранском, Балтском и Кодымском лесхозах.
2. Ежегодно в Одесской области можно заготавливать не менее 870 м 3
высококачественного дубового клепочного кряжа.
3. Ожидаемый выход высококачественной клепки для винных и коньячных
бочек составляет 19,5 %, клепки и микроклепки для выдержки коньячных спиртов и
виноматериалов в крупных резервуарах 7,6 % и 5,4 %, соответственно.
4. Средняя ширина годичного слоя в древесине винного клепочного кряжа
находится в пределах 1,1–1,9 мм, а коньячного – 2,4–2,6 мм. Процент поздней
древесины – в пределах 58–67 %.
5. Химический состав древесины дуба черешчатого из одесских лесхозов (за
исключением содержания душистых лактонов) не уступает лучшим французским
образцам.
232

REFERENCES
1. Агабальянц Г.Г., 1958: Способ выдержки коньячного спирта в эмалированных
резервуарах с дубовой клепкой. - А. С. СССР № И2561.
2. Гамбашидзе А.К.,1963:Технологические емкости для вина.–М.:ЦИНТИпищепром-
116 с.
3. Герасимов М. А., 1964: Технология вина. Г.: Пищевая пром-сть, - 640 с.;
4. Б. Кордье, П. Шатонне, Н.Г. Саришвили, Оганесянц Л.А., 1993: Использование
древесины дуба для виноделия // Виноград и вино России . № 5. - С. 15-16.
5. Оганесянц Л.А., Коровин В.В., Телегин Ю.А., 1995:Анатомические аспекты качества
дубовой клепки для производства винодельческой продукции. /Виноград и вино
России, Специальный выпуск. - C. 33-34.
6. Оганесянц Л.А., 1998: Дуб и виноделие. - М.: Пищевая промышленность,- 256 с.
7. Писарницкий А.Ф., Рубения Т. Ю., 2006:Выбор древесины дуба для производства
винодельческой продукции./Виноделие и виноградарство, -№2. -C. 17.
8. ДСТУ ЕN 1310:1997 "Измерения характеристик лесоматериалов".
9. ГОСТ 9462-88 Лесоматериалы круглые лиственных пород. Технические условия.
10. ГОСТ 16483.7-71 Древесина. Методы определения влажности.
11. ГОСТ 16483.18-72 Древесина. Метод определения числа годичных слоев в 1 см и
содержания поздней древесины в годичном слое.
12. Marshe M., Joseph T. 1975:Etude theorіtіque sur le cognac, sa composіtіon et don
vіellsement naturel an tuts de cheme. Statіon vіtіcola de Cognac \\ Revue Francaіs
d'Oenologіe.- # 57. - PP. 1-96.
13. Nepun. G. 1982:Varіabіlіte clonale de lіnfadensіte chez Quercus petraea. Premіers
resultants obtenus sur bjnіture dun orme // Ann/ Scі. forest, V39. N2.- P.P. 151-164.
14. Transaud J. 1976:Le lіvre dela tonnellerіe. La roue a Lіvre. (Ed).-Parіs.- 68 p.
Streszczenie: Badano drewno dębowe z typowych lasów okręgu odeskiego. Sprawdzono
osobliwości struktury włókien, własności chemiczne, oraz potencjalne możliwości
zastosowania. Większość kłód okazała się odpowiednia do produkcji beczek do wina.
Corresponding authors:
Sergey Zrazhva, Maria Kostenko
Department od Wood Processing
National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine,
Kyiv,vul.Geroiv Oborony 15,03041, Ukraine
zrazhva@inbox.ru
233

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW
Forestry and Wood Technology No 76, 2011: 234-242
(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forestry and Wood Technology 76, 2011)
Ageing resistance of paint coats applied on eucalyptus wood
EWA SUDOŁ, ANNA POLICIŃSKA−SERWA
Department of Structures and Building Elements, Building Research Institute − ITB
Abstract: Ageing resistance of paint coats applied on eucalyptus wood. Introducing a new type of wood to a
woodwork production process should be preceded by the throughout analysis of different features influencing
the reliability and durability of the coating system, in order to ensure that the final product has satisfactory
technical and decorative characteristics. Coating properties may be verified during the natural ageing according
to the guidelines defined in PN-EN 927-3:2008 requiring at least 12-month observations, or alternatively
according to PN-EN 927-6:2007 with observation period of 12 weeks in conditions of artificial ageing i.e. UV
environment, increased temperature and humidity. This document presents results of studies on the resistance to
accelerated ageing of coatings applied on eucalyptus wood - these results are compared with chosen results of
tests on resistance to natural ageing . These results are part of works performed by Building Research Institute
(ITB) within its own development project no. 04 0001 06. entitled: “The usefulness of selected species of exotic
wood for window production”
Keywords: wood, eucalyptus, coating, water-based coating system, windows, artificial ageing, natural ageing,
colour, gloss, adhesion of paint coating, paints and varnishes.
INTRODUCTION
Durability and functionality of paint coats have a significant impact on the
functionality of the wood joinery and indirectly on the level of user satisfaction. Increasingly,
users note that the quality of coating depends on the applied coating system and the type of
substrate in terms of type and duration of environmental impact.
Paint systems based on solvents that were widely used until recently, with properties
known thanks to the numerous studies [Pecina, Paprzycki, Proszyk, Kedzierski], are being
replaced in recent years with water-based systems [Proszyk, Mateńko-Nożewnik, Kedzierski
and others]. The properties of these systems - especially since they are constantly modified
need to be tested in terms of their efficient application on different types of wood and woodbased
materials, particularly in relation to external conditions of use.
Introducing a new type of wood to a production process should be preceded by the
throughout analysis of different features influencing the reliability and durability of the final
product, in order to ensure its satisfactory technical and decorative characteristics.
Coating properties may be verified in field tests, involving the observation of their
behaviour under conditions of natural ageing. Detailed guidelines in this regard are defined in
PN−EN 927−3:2008. However, these procedures are time-consuming – they last for at least
12 months. Alternatively, quickened methods may be applied as they use artificial ageing,
simulating the atmospheric effects. These methods are implemented in accordance with
PN−EN 927−6:2007 standard, requiring 12-week exposure of coats to light, including UV
produced by fluorescent lamps and to increased temperature, alternating with water spraying.
Periodic moistening through condensation is also included.
The criteria used for evaluating the resistance to ageing, whether natural or artificial,
include the changes in the following features:
appearance,
thickness,
234

gloss,
colour,
adhesion.
This document presents results of studies on the resistance to accelerated ageing of
coatings applied on eucalyptus wood - these results are compared with chosen results of tests
on resistance to natural ageing (the exposure has not been finished yet). These results are part
of works performed by Building Research Institute (ITB) within its own development project
no. 04 0001 06, entitled “The usefulness of selected species of exotic wood for window
production”
EXPERIMENTAL PART
Eucalyptus timber (Eukaliptus grandis) was bought from an importer of exotic wood.
For the purposes of this study, the wood was cut into slats with dimensions of 20861200
mm. The wood used in the experiment was of quality equivalent to class J2 according to
PNEN 942:2008 and average density of 540 kg/m 3 . Wood slats, immediately before
application of the coating system, were treated with abrasive paper of grit size 150.
For the tests, two water-based, transparent coating systems were selected, from the
current market offer. They consisted of an impregnant, tinted primer, intermediate layer and a
topcoat. Selected technical features of the products are presented in Table 1, basing on
catalogue datasheets provided by manufacturers.
Table 2. Basic features of coating system components
Feature, unit
System component
impregnant primer intermediate topcoat
layer
System A
Density, g/cm 3 1,00 1,00 1,03 1,04
Viscosity, Ford cup no. 4,
10 50 14 no data
20C, sec.
Dry matter content, % 6 10 32 36
System B
Density, g/cm 3 no data no data no data no data
Viscosity, Ford cup no. 4, no data 12 13 no data
20(C, sec.
Dry matter content, % 5 12 33 35
Coating systems - system A and system B - were applied in the same way, in industrial
conditions, onto the face surfaces and side edges of the wood slats (excluding the top
surfaces). Basic parameters of the application are shown in Table 2.
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Table 2. Basic parameters of application of coating systems
Parameter, unit
System component
impregnant primer intermediate topcoat
layer*
Applying method pouring pouring pouring spraying
Wet coat thickness, m 60 60−80 125−150 275−300
* After applying this layer, the wood was treated with a sandpaper of grit size 180
When the treatment described above was completed, samples were taken from wood
slats in order to perform accelerated ageing tests – these samples had dimensions of
3007520 mm, whereas samples taken for natural ageing tests had dimensions of
3007820 mm. All cut edges of samples were secured with alkyd paint.
The coats before undergoing ageing process were checked in terms of appearance,
colour, gloss and their thickness was measured. On separate samples taken from the same
wood batch, the adhesion of coats was tested.
Samples assigned for the artificial ageing were placed in an ageing apparatus of “UV
test” type, according to PN−EN 927−6:2007 and treated with 12 cycles of ageing, lasting for
12 weeks. Each cycle included:
24 h of condensation, T45±3C,
168 h of further exposures:
2,5 h of UV exposure with UVA−340 lamp, light intensity of 0,89 W/m 2 (for 340
nm bandwidth), T60±3C,
0,5 h sprinkling with demineralised water, without UV exposure, sprinkling
intensity: 6−7 l/min.
After 6 weeks of exposure, control checks were performed, including assessment of
the external appearance and colour/gloss measurements. Similar checks (with additional
thickness and adhesion measurements) were performed on the samples when accelerated
ageing cycles were completed.
Samples assigned for the natural ageing were placed, horizontally, on racks inclined at
45 and their exposed surface was directed towards the equator. After 3 and 7 months of
exposure, control checks were performed, including assessment of the external appearance
and colour/gloss measurements.
Measurements were conducted using methods presented in Table 3. All methods,
excluding adhesion tests, were non-destructive methods.
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Table 3. Methods of testing the coats
Feature Testing method Detailed test conditions
Appearance, in
terms of:
blistering
PN−EN ISO
4628−2:2005
cracks
PN−EN ISO
4628−4:2005
flaking
PN−EN ISO
4628−5:2005
Thickness, PNEN ISO 2808:2008 measurements with ultrasonic
thickness meter, method no. 10
5 measurements for each sample
Gloss PN−EN ISO 2813:2001 measurements with a glossmeter,
measurement angle of 60, light beam
directed in parallel to fibres,
5 measurements for each sample
Colour PN ISO 7724−1:2003
PN ISO 7724−2:2003
PN ISO 7724−3:2003
measurements with a
spectrophotometer, in the following
measurement conditions: lighting d/8,
observer 10, normal illuminator D65,
without gloss trap
10 measurements for each sample
Adhesion PNEN ISO 2409:2008 measurement with a multi-blade
device with blade distance of 3 mm
3 measurements for each sample
TEST RESULTS
Test results (average values) of selected samples are presented in Tables 4−7.
Table 4. Test results (average values) for thickness measurements
Coat thickness*, m
Artificial ageing
sample
Time of ageing exposure
marking 0 weeks 12 weeks
System A
EUA1 153 118
EUA2 156 126
System B
EUB1 125 117
EUB2 169 130
The thickness of tested coats after exposure to artificial ageing was reduced by 30−25
m in System A and by 8−39 m in System B, but it remained on the level above 100 m,
which is the level assumed to provide proper durability.
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Table 5. Test results (average values) for gloss measurements
Coat gloss
Artificial ageing
sample
Time of ageing exposure
marking 0 weeks 6 weeks 12 weeks
System A
EUA1 29,6 41,3 10,3
EUA2 31,3 39,3 7,3
System B
EUB3 23,8 20,0 17,6
EUB4 25,1 21,4 22,2
Natural ageing
sample
Time of ageing exposure
marking 0 months 3 months 7 months
System A
EUA3 32,3 27,5 32,6
EUA4 32,1 24,4 33,6
System B
EUB3 26,5 23,3 22,8
EUB4 27,5 23,5 23,3
Non-aged coats of systems A and B, have the reflectivity of 23.8 – 32.3 and according
to PN−EN 927−1:2000 they may be classified as semi-mat.
Under the influence of the artificial ageing the gloss of coats in system A first
increased - after 6 weeks the reflectivity was 39.3-41.3, which is the typical value of semigloss
coats, but then it decreased - after 12 weeks the reflectivity was 7.3-10.3 which is
typical for mat coats. In the natural ageing , the gloss values of coats in System A initially
slightly decreased to the value 24.4-27.5 and then slightly increased close to the initial values.
The gloss of coats in System B turned out to be more stable. Both in the artificial and
natural ageing , tarnishing process was observed on the coats, however it was in a much lesser
extent than on the coats of System A. The gloss of coats in System B decreased after 6 weeks
of artificial ageing by 3.7 units. After 12 weeks the gloss of EUB3 sample decreased by
another 2.4 units, while in EUB4 sample it increased by 0.8. After 12 weeks the gloss
decreased from initial values by 2.9−6.2 units. Final reflectivity value enables us to classify
the coat as semi-mat. The coats of System B, subjected to natural ageing behaved similarly. A
light tarnishing was observed and after 7 months of exposure it resulted in the reflectivity
decreases by 3.7-4.2 units when compared to initial values. The coats remained their semi-mat
features.
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Table 6. Test results (average values) for colour measurements
Colour coordinates - CIE 1976
L* a* b* L* a* b* L* a* b*
Artificial ageing
sample
Time of ageing exposure
marking 0 weeks 6 weeks 12 weeks
System A
EUA1 37,76 19,97 48,00 44,38 12,77 20,37 44,18 12,30 19,79
EUA2 37,76 19,90 47,05 41,80 12,44 17,75 41,17 11,60 16,60
System B
EUB1 45,77 20,34 45,97 43,99 14,15 21,01 42,31 14,04 20,80
EUB2 42,25 20,79 41,59 43,22 13,16 19,03 42,59 14,37 19,64
Natural ageing
sample
Time of ageing exposure
marking 0 months 3 months 7 months
System A
EUA3 46,15 15,31 28,91 44,30 14,01 25,83 45,22 13,51 25,48
EUA4 44,78 15,56 27,07 43,62 14,34 25,08 45,62 14,06 25,60
System B
EUB3 49,30 17,02 28,81 47,58 16,32 27,07 45,47 14,18 24,82
EUB4 47,67 17,28 27,57 45,70 15,95 25,29 45,28 13,96 24,11
Basing on data presented in Table 6, the change in colour was determined in
accordance with BS ISO 7724-3:2003 and it was expressed as E*ab. For artificial ageing
changes in colour were calculated after 6 and 12 weeks and compared to the initial values. In
case of natural ageing, the changes were calculated after 3 and 7 months and compared to the
initial values. Results are presented in charts 1a and 1b.
Data presented in charts 1a and 1b indicate that the colour changes in samples
artificially aged exceeded significantly the corresponding values in samples aged under
natural conditions, regardless of the coating system type. Values E*ab after 6 weeks of
ageing exposure settled at the level of 29.3−30.5 in System A and 23.8−25.7 in coats of
System B. After further 6 weeks, obtained values were as follows: 29.9−31.7 and 22.9−26.2.
Slight differences between the values of E*ab after 6 and 12 weeks indicate that the most
significant changes occurred in the early stage of ageing process. The colour change values,
expressed as E*ab, in samples exposed to natural conditions, after 3 months were 2.6-3.8 for
System A and 2.5-3.3 for System B, whereas after 7 months, these values settled at 2.3−4.0
and 5.4−6.2 respectively. Differences between the colour change values observed in
accelerated ageing (after 12 weeks of exposure) and the values obtained in natural ageing
(after 7 months of exposure) amounted to averaged value of 30 units for System A and 19
units for System B. These differences are significant, but it should be noted that further
observations of naturally aged samples are still under way and final comparative analysis will
be carried out after they are completed.
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a)
6 weeks 12 weeks
b) 3 months 7 months
Chart 1. Colour changes in coats
a) artificial ageing b) natural ageing
Table 7. Test results (average values) for adhesion measurements
Adhesion, degrees according to PN−EN ISO 2409:2009
Artificial ageing
sample
Time of ageing exposure
marking 0 weeks 12 weeks
System A
EUA1 0 0
EUA2 0 0
System B
EUB1 0 0
EUB2 0 0
Coats of Systems A and B, both non-aged and after 12-week ageing showed the
highest adhesion prescribed by the standard. The ageing exposure did not decrease the
adhesion of tested coats.
Analysing the results of the appearance check, it may be stated that the impact of
ageing (both artificial and natural) did not cause any damage in the form of blistering, cracks
and flaking in both systems. Such results are highly satisfying.
SUMMARY
1. The coats exposed to the described conditions showed no blistering, cracking or
flaking.
2. The adhesion of tested coats did not change.
3. Decorative features of the tested coats were influenced by the ageing process. The
coats of System A significantly tarnished, while the gloss of coats in System B
decreased insignificantly. The colour of coats in both systems was significantly
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changed towards darker colours. It should be also noted that tested systems were
transparent, so obtained results were influenced by the change of wood colour, which
is a natural effect in this type of wood.
4. The thickness of applied coats decreased, but it remained on a satisfactory level.
Therefore the coating systems in long-term usage are able to adequately protect the
wood against weathering, which causes its degradation.
5. Observed behaviour of coats in System A and System B, applied to eucalyptus wood,
indicates high stability of the technical properties of tested solutions.
6. From a technical point of view, the tested coating systems (as indicated by obtained
test results) may be considered as appropriate for finishing windows made of
eucalyptus wood, whereas the wood itself may be considered as suitable for window
joinery in terms of paintability.
REFERENCES
1. PAPRZYCKI O.,PROSZYK S., PRZYBYLAK A., 1985, Wyd. AR Poznań Materiały
do ćwiczeń z technologii wykańczania powierzchni drewna i tworzyw sztucznych;
2. PECINA H., PAPRZYCKI O., Pokrycia lakierowe na drewnie PWRiL 1997;
3. MATEŃKO-NOŻEWNIK M., PROSZYK S., „Influence the thermal aging exposition
upon the properties of lacquer coating for Windows joinery, Part 1, Aesthetic –
decorative features” Annals of Warsaw Agricultural University, forest and Wood
technology (55) 2004, 346 -349;
4. GRZEŚKIEWICZ M., KĘDZIERSKI A., SWACZYNA I., ŚWIETLICZNY M.,
“Evaluation of degradation of paint coatings due to exposure to natural climate” Annals
of Warsaw Agricultural University, forest and Wood technology (56) 2004, 272-274;
5. KĘDZIERSKI A., POLICIŃSKA – SERWA A., ”The effect of ageing in natural
conditions on the basic properties of water based paint coating” Annals of Warsaw
Agricultural University, forest and Wood technology (71) 2010, 274-350;
6. SUDOŁ E., „Odporność na starzenie powłok na drewnie eukaliptusa” Materiały
Budowalne nr 8, 2011
7. Normy:
- PN−EN 927−3:2008 Farby i lakiery. Wyroby lakierowe i systemy powłokowe na
drewno zastosowane na zewnątrz. Część 3: Badanie w naturalnych warunkach
atmosferycznych;
- PN−EN 927−6:2007 Farby i lakiery. Wyroby lakierowe i systemy powłokowe na
drewno zastosowane na zewnątrz. Część 6: Ekspozycja powłok na drewno w sztucznych
warunkach atmosferycznych z użyciem lamp fluorescencyjnych UV i wody;
- PNEN ISO 2409:2008 Farby i lakiery. Badanie metodą siatki nacięć
- PNEN ISO 2808:2008 Farby i lakiery. Oznaczanie grubości powłoki
- PN−EN ISO 2813:2001 Farby i lakiery. Oznaczanie połysku zwierciadlanego
niemetalicznych powłok lakierowych pod kątem 20 stopni, 60 stopni i 85 stopni
- PN−EN ISO 4628−5:2005 Farby i lakiery. Ocena zniszczenia powłok. Określanie
ilości i rozmiaru uszkodzeń oraz intensywności jednolitych zmian w wyglądzie. Część
2: Ocena stopnia spęcherzenia;
Część 4: Część 4: Ocena stopnia spękania; Część 5: Ocena stopnia złuszczenia;
- PN ISO 7724−1:2003 Farby i lakiery. Kolorymetria. Część 1: Podstawy
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- PN ISO 7724−2:2003 Farby i lakiery. Kolorymetria. Część 2: Pomiar barwy
- PN ISO 7724−3:2003 Farby i lakiery. Kolorymetria. Część 3: Obliczanie różnic barwy
Streszczenie: Wprowadzenie do produkcji stolarki nowego rodzaju drewna, powinno być
poprzedzone rozpatrzeniem szeregu cech, decydujących o niezawodności i trwałości systemu
powłokowego, po to, aby produkt finalny posiadał zadawalające cechy techniczne i
dekoracyjne. Właściwości powłok można zweryfikować podczas starzenie naturalnego wg
wytycznych podanych w PN-EN 927-3: 2008 wymagających, co najmniej 12 miesięcznych
obserwacji, lub alternatywnie wg PN-EN 927-6: 2007 skracających czas obserwacji do 12
tygodni w warunkach starzenia sztucznego, w środowisku UV, oraz podwyższonych
temperatury i wilgotności. W referacie przedstawiono rezultaty badań nad odpornością na
przyśpieszone starzenie powłok na drewnie eukaliptusa, zestawione z cząstkowymi wynikami
badań odporności na starzenie naturalne. Stanowią one fragment prac realizowanych w ITB w
ramach projektu rozwojowego własnego NR 04 0001 06. Pt. “Przydatność wybranych
gatunków drewna egzotycznego do produkcji okien”
Corresponding author:
Ewa Sudoł
Anna Policińska−Serwa
Building Research Institute
Department of Structures and Building Elements
02656 Warsaw, ul. Ksawerów 21
email: e.sudol@itb.pl
a.serwa@itb.pl
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