Sustainable Building and Construction - International Environmental ...

Sustainable Building and Construction
International Environmental Technology Centre
UNEP DTIE IETC
2-110, Ryokuchi Koen, Tsurumi-ku, Osaka 538-0036, Japan
Basic Principles and Guidelines in Design and Construction
to Reduce Greenhouse Gases in Buildings
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Content
Sustainable Building and Construction
CONTENT .......................................................................................................2
1 BACKGROUND .......................................................................................4
1.1 Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) overview......................................................................................4
1.2 Population and climate change ...............................................................................................7
1.3 The building and construction sector .....................................................................................8
2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE MEASUREMENTS TO
REDUCE GREENHOUSE GASES IN BUILDINGS.......................................10
3. APPROACHES FOR THE REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GASES IN
BUILDINGS ...................................................................................................14
3.1 General Approaches...............................................................................................................14
Renewable Materials.....................................................................................................................17
Building Size and Shape ...............................................................................................................18
Climate Responsive Design.................................................................................................18
3.2 Design Approaches.................................................................................................................19
3.2.1 Structural Design and Building Materials ......................................................................20
3.2.1.1 Interaction between building materials and spatial structures...................................20
3.2.1.2 Materials for specific spatial structures.....................................................................21
3.2.1.3 Conventional building materials and related GHG Emissions..................................25
3.2.1.4 “Alternative” building materials and related GHG Emissions.................................27
3.2.1.5 Combination of Alternative and Common building materials ..................................33
3.2.1.6 Local Materials .........................................................................................................33
3.2.1.7 Proportion of a building’s life phases on the total GHG emissions ..........................34
3.2.1.8 Multifunctional Design .............................................................................................35
3.2.1.9 Durability..................................................................................................................38
3.2.1.10 Maintenance...............................................................................................................40
3.2.1.11 Lifespan – Reuse and Recycling................................................................................40
3.2.1.11.1 Reuse of components..........................................................................................42
3.2.1.11.2 Recycling of building materials...........................................................................43
3.2.1.11.2.1 Recycling materials made of residual building materials ............................43
3.2.1.11.2.2 Recycling materials made of industrial by-products....................................44
3.2.1.11.2.3 Recycling materials made of other products, e.g. consumer goods .............44
3.2.2 Climate Responsive Building Design ..............................................................................45
3.2.2.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................45
3.2.2.2 Basic principles of Climate responsive building.......................................................46
3.2.2.3 Climate Factors .........................................................................................................48
3.2.2.4 Climate zones and structural requirements ...............................................................48
3.2.2.4.1 Hot and Humid Climate Zones..............................................................................50
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Sustainable Building and Construction
3.2.2.4.2 Arid Climate Zones...............................................................................................55
3.2.2.4.3 The Temperate Climate Zones ..............................................................................60
3.2.2.4.4 The Cold Climate Zones .......................................................................................65
3.2.2.5 Data and Planning Tools...........................................................................................69
3.2.2.5 .1 Collation of Information....................................................................................69
3.2.2.5 .2 Analysis of collated information and building design.......................................71
3.2.3 Energy efficient building conditioning measures and building services engineering ..72
3.2.3.1 Natural Lighting........................................................................................................72
3.2.3.2 Artificial Lighting .....................................................................................................80
3.2.3.3 Natural Ventilation....................................................................................................81
3.2.3.4 Mechanical Ventilation:............................................................................................83
3.2.3.5 Cooling, Heating and Air Conditioning....................................................................84
3.2.3.5 .1 Cooling techniques............................................................................................86
3.2.3.5 .1.1 Evaporative Cooling .....................................................................................87
3.2.3.5 .1.2 Ground Cooling ............................................................................................89
3.2.3.5 .1.3 Radiative Cooling .........................................................................................90
3.2.3.5 .1.4 Refrigerative Cooling ...................................................................................91
3.2.3.6 Technologies for heating and electricity production.................................................92
3.2.3.6 .1 Passive Solar Heating........................................................................................93
3.2.3.6 .2 Components for active thermal utilisation of solar energy................................94
3.2.3.7 Sanitation Systems and Water Consumption ............................................................96
3.3 The challenge of Guidelines, Regulations and Building Codes ..........................................97
4 APPENDIXES.........................................................................................98
4.1 Planning Tools for Climate Responsive Building and Construction in the hot and humid
climate zone of Pondicherry, India” ...................................................................................................99
4.2 Life Cycle Assessment Tools................................................................................................104
4.3 Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction.............................................108
4.4 International Case Studies...................................................................................................122
Promotion of Cost-Efficient Housing in Ethiopia............................................................................124
Chumbe Island Coral Park project Tanzania ...................................................................................126
Housing Development Villa Hermosa in Diriamba, Nicaragua.......................................................128
Resettlement in Peru ........................................................................................................................130
Changzhou demonstration project ...................................................................................................132
MECM Low Energy Office (LEO) building in Putrajaya Malaysia................................................134
Buenavista Homes Jugan Consolacion Cebu City, Philippines .......................................................136
Bio-Solar House in Thailand ...........................................................................................................138
60L Green Building, Carlton, Victoria ............................................................................................140
Production Hall “Huebner”..............................................................................................................142
4.5 Physical Data ........................................................................................................................144
4.6 References Illustrations .......................................................................................................150
4.7 References Literature ..........................................................................................................162
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1 Background
Sustainable Building and Construction
1.1 Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) overview
Greenhouse Gases are gases in the atmosphere which allow the solar radiation to pass
through but are trapping the infrared radiation reflected from the earth surface and
therefore causing a greenhouse climate. On the one hand life would not be possible on
earth without natural greenhouse gases because the average temperature would be
about 33°C lower than it is (according to Schneider 1998), on the other hand the
concentration of green house gases has risen significantly since the industrial
revolution by human activities.
The following graphs show the accumulation of the main green house gases carbon
dioxide, methane and nitrous in the earth’s atmosphere during the last decades:
Illustrations 1: nitrous
concentration
Illustrations 2: carbondioxide
concentration
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Sustainable Building and Construction
Illustrations 3: methane
concentration
Naturally occurring GHGs include water vapour, ozone, carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O).
The following table shows the global warming potential (GWP*) of different GHGs.
The global warming potential of synthetic, men made substances like Fluorocarbons
and especially Sulphur Hexafluoride has been alarming.
Illustration 4: Table Global Warming Potentials (GWP) of different Greenhouse Gases (GHGs):
GHG Formula 100-year GWP
Carbon Dioxide CO2 1
Methane CH4 21
Nitrous Oxide N2O 310
Sulphur Hexafluoride
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
SF6 23 900
HFC-23 CHF3 11 700
HFC-32 CH2F2 650
HFC-41 CH3F 150
HFC-43-10mee C5H2F10 1 300
HFC-125 C2HF5 2 800
HFC-134 C2H2F4 (CHF2CHF2) 1 000
HFC-134a (common for air- C2H2F2 (CH2FCF3) 1 300
conditioning systems)
HFC-143 C2H3F3 (CHF2CH2F) 300
HFC-143a C2H3F3 (CF3CH3) 3 800
HFC-152a C2H4F2 (CH3CHF2) 140
HFC-227ea C3HF7 2 900
HFC-236fa C3H2F6 6 300
HFC-245ca C3H3F5 560
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
Perfluoromethane CF4 6 500
Perfluoroethane C2F6 9 200
Perfluoropropane C3F8 7 000
Perfluorobutane C4F10 7 000
Perfluorocyclobutane c-C4F8 8 700
Perfluoropentane C5F12 7 500
Perfluorohexane C6F14 7 400
Source: IPCC (1996a), 1995 Summary for Policy Makers - A Report of Working Group I of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change.
Note: The CH4 GWP included the direct effect and those indirect effects due to the production of tropospheric ozone and stratospheric
water vapour. Not included is the indirect effect due to the production of CO2.
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Sustainable Building and Construction
(* further explanation and source: Greenhouse Gas Division Environment Canada,
June 2002, available at: http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/ghg/1990_00_report/sec1_e.cfm)
According to the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2001, available
at the world-wide-web: http://www.ipcc.ch/) some of the expected impacts of the
increased concentrations of GHGs on the climate system include:
- Increasing extremes of drying and heavy rainfall and increases in the risk of
droughts and floods that occur with El Niño events in many different regions;
- Sea level rise, through thermal expansion of seawater and widespread loss of
land ice. Global mean sea level is projected to rise by 0.09-0.88 m between
1990 and 2100, for the full range of scenarios examined. This is due primarily
to thermal expansion and loss of mass from glaciers and ice caps; ice sheets
will continue to react to climate warming and contribute to sea level rise for
thousands of years after climate has been stabilized;
- Weakening of the ocean thermohaline circulation (THC, Large-scale densitydriven
circulation in the ocean, caused by differences in temperature and
salinity. In the North Atlantic, the thermohaline circulation consists of warm
surface water flowing northward and cold deepwater flowing southward,
resulting in a net pole ward transport of heat. The surface water sinks in highly
restricted sinking regions located in high latitudes which leads to a reduction
of the heat transfer into high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere; and more
rapid warming of land areas than the global average, particularly those at
northern high latitudes in the cold season. Most notable of these is the
warming in the northern regions of North America.
(Summary from Greenhouse Gas Division Environment Canada, June 2002,
available at: http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/ghg/1990_00_report/sec1_e.cfm)
Examples of impacts resulting from projected changes in extreme climate events are
available at the website “Climate Change 2001: Working Group II: Impacts,
Adaptation and Vulnerability; 2.6. The Potential for Large-Scale and Possibly
Irreversible Impacts Poses Risks that have yet to be Reliably Quantified”
(http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/009.htm#tabspm1)
Illustration 5: The Earth’s
annual and global mean energy
balance. Of the incoming solar
radiation, 49% (168 Wm-2) is
absorbed by the surface. That
heat is returned to the
atmosphere as sensible heat, as
evapotranspiration (latent heat)
and as thermal infrared radiation.
Most of this radiation is
absorbed by the atmosphere,
which in turn emits radiation
both up and down. The radiation
lost to space comes from cloud
tops and atmospheric regions
much colder than the surface.
This causes a greenhouse effect.
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1.2 Population and climate change
Sustainable Building and Construction
Illustration 5a: Principle of the
greenhouse effect.
The world is facing explosive growth of urban population, mainly in the developing
world. For the first time in human history a majority of the world’s population will
live in cities while many of those face problems to meet the basic needs of their
citizens, like adequate housing, sanitation, water supply and infrastructure. All cities
have increasing levels of impact on the environment, caused by un-sustainable
development. For example the Ecological Footprint of the greater Tokyo area is 3.5
times the land area of Japan as a whole and London’s footprint is equal to the land
area of the UK while the air quality in the city is the worst in Europe and is
responsible for the death of several thousand people each year.
By the year 2025 the World’s population will have increased by at least 50%, from ~
6 billion in the year 2000 to 9 billion, and approximately 50% of the increase (equals
a growth of ~ 1.5 billion people) will occur in Asia-Pacific Region.
Illustration 6: Urban population
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Sustainable Building and Construction
Illustration 7: World
population
Upon current development patterns (2002) the energy consumption and waste
production will increase by at least 30%. The Global Carbon Dioxide increase until
2025 will be the fastest ever recorded and at least 25% above current levels. If this
scenario manifests, a sustainable future will not only be more difficult to achieve but
increasingly less likely to be achieved at all. Therefore the reduction of energy
demand and GHG emissions, which are maybe critical for the survival of mankind,
are high on the global environmental agenda.
According to the report “Poverty and Climate Change: Reducing The Vulnerability of
the Poor Through Adaptation”, which was released by 10 governments and
institutions, including the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, the Asian Development
Bank, the African Development Bank, the U.N. Development Program and the U.N.
Environment Program on 10th of June 2003 at the annual meetings of the U.N.
Framework Convention on Climate Change in Bonn, climate change could jeopardize
the Millennium Development Goals of halving global poverty by 2015. It is
reportedly the first joint statement of development agencies on the risks of climate
variability and change for development. According to the report, rising temperatures
will "reduce access to drinking water, and negatively affect the health and food
security of poor people in many countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America."
…"Unless remedial measures are taken, the livelihoods of poor people and the
development prospects of many developing countries are threatened," the report says,
urging developed countries to be leaders in "combating climate change and its adverse
effects." (Available at:
http://www.unfoundation.org/unwire/util/display_stories.asp?objid=34174)
1.3 The building and construction sector
About 40% of the raw materials and energy produced worldwide are used in the
building sector (ASMI, "The Environmental Challenge in the Building Sector”,
1999). In 1999, construction activities contributed over 35% of total CO2 emissions,
which is more than any other industrial activity. In average the construction industry
accounts for 37% of Global CO2 emissions. Of those, building and business operation
accounts for 52.4% (19.4 % of global emissions) materials production for 29.5%
(10.9% of global e.), transport for 13.5% (5% of global e.) and construction work for
3.5% (1.3% of global e.). Hence there is an urgent need for sustainable and energy
efficient urban planning, architectural design and building construction.
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Sustainable Building and Construction
In developing countries the proportion of the construction industry on the total energy
consumption and GHG emissions is supposably much higher than in developed
countries because they have a relatively low degree of industrialisation, making the
construction-industry the main industrial sector and emission source of CO2.
“While the level of underdevelopment in developing countries may be cause for
despair, it also provides an opportunity for development in these countries to avoid
the problems currently experienced in the developed countries. Developing countries
need not go through the same process of development as that followed by developed
countries. Instead these countries can choose to base all future development on the
principles of sustainability.” (Agenda 21 for Sustainable Construction in Developing
Countries)
The construction industry with 111 Million employees is the largest industrial
employer worldwide. Around ¾ of these are in low income countries, which produce
less than ¼ of the global construction output. The “employment intensity” of
construction activities in low-income countries is much higher (~9 times) than in
high-income countries (according to: International Labour Organisation 2001). It is
an indicator for a much less industrialised building and construction practice than in
industrialised countries. The construction industry in developing countries is powered
mainly by “human resources” and plays an important role for the regional economic
and ecological development as well as sustainability and the improvement of lifequality.
90% of workers are employed in small companies with less than 10 people
(Confederation of International Contractors’ Associations (CICA) and United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP); “Industry as a Partner for Sustainable
Development: Construction.” UK 2002).Therefore the development in the building
and construction sector in developing countries towards sustainability can be achieved
relatively easy and in a non-technical way.
Sustainable construction practices, especially in the developing world have to be
achieved as soon as possible, because the building and construction sector in these
countries is still under construction and growing very fast, additionally the shift
towards sustainability in the construction sector may play an important role to shift
the economic structure towards sustainability and to optimise the life of the poor.
To change the “business as usual attitude” in the building and construction sector
towards sustainable action, programmes for education and awareness building,
research and assessment as well as action and practise have to be implemented.
This paper is one important element of these programmes and will describe the basic
principles and guidelines in design and construction to reduce greenhouse gases in
buildings in general as well as the utilisation of “appropriate” technologies for
specific climate zones. Therefore it is an important tool for the awareness and know
how building of professionals, administrators and decision makers in the building and
construction sector and should support a sustainability orientated interdisciplinary
planning process between all participating parties and stakeholders.
“The problems we have created cannot be solved at the level of thinking that created
them.” (Albert Einstein)
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Sustainable Building and Construction
2 Basic Principles of Sustainable Measurements to Reduce
Greenhouse Gases in Buildings
“I do not want to live in a cold chunk out of concrete, glass and steel”
(Albert Einstein 1926)
The International Union of Architects (UIA), Declaration of Interdependence for a
Sustainable Future, Chicago 1993:
“Sustainable design integrates consideration of resource and energy efficiency,
healthy buildings and materials, ecologically and socially sensitive land use and an
aesthetic sensitivity that inspires, affirms and enables. …
We commit ourselves, as members of the world's architectural and building-design
professions, individually and through our professional organizations, to:
1) Place environmental and social sustainability at the core of our practices and
professional responsibilities.
2) Develop and continually improve practices, procedures, products, curricula,
services and standards that will enable the implementation of sustainable design.
3) Educate our fellow professionals, the building industry, clients, students, and the
general public about the critical importance and substantial opportunities of
sustainable design.
4) Establish policies, regulations, and practices in government and business that
ensure sustainable design becomes normal practice.
5) Bring all existing and future elements of the built environment - in their design,
production, use, and eventual reuse - up to sustainable design standards.”
“A sustainable building is a building that can maintain or improve
- the quality of life and harmonize within the local climate, tradition and culture,
- the environment in the region
- conserve energy, resources and recycling materials
- reduce the amount of hazardous substances to which human and other
organisms are (or may be) exposed and
- the local and global ecosystem throughout the entire building lifecycle.”
(Background Note for experts meeting on Sustainable Building and Construction;
“Cities are not Cities: Need for a radical change in our attitudes and approaches to
manage the environment in cities”; France 2002)
The building construction sector comprises:
- Residential buildings,
- Private and commercial used buildings (industrial and service buildings),
- Public buildings (e.g. hospitals and schools).
The concept of sustainability in building construction is based on resource flow
management as well as the reduced consumption of energy and resources, during
all phases of the entire lifecycle of a building, which includes planning, construction,
utilisation, renovation, reconstruction and deconstruction. Furthermore interferences
with the natural environment have to be minimized and any damage of it has to be
avoided. Therefore the use of fossil fuels, land, materials and water has to be
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Sustainable Building and Construction
minimized, as well as the production of noise, waste (including sewage) and
hazardous chemicals as well as the atmospheric emissions related to global warming
and acidification.
The reduction of greenhouse gases in the building construction sector is based on
principles, which have to be appreciated during all activities concerning the entire
building process. Compared with the widely accepted building technologies these are
in general:
- Minimization of the energy demand for the production, transport, reuse or
recycling of building materials,
- Utilization of renewable energies for production, transport and performance,
- Fabrication of products with an extended lifetime,
- Utilisation of building products and materials, which can be reused or recycled,
- Utilization of nature, space and material saving construction methods
- Design of multifunctional buildings with an extended lifetime,
- Design of climate responsive buildings with a minimal consumption of energy.
The early implementation of concepts, which are based on above mentioned,
sustainable measures, can improve significantly the overall ecological and economic
efficiency of buildings. The influence on the sustainability of buildings and the
related monetary and non-monetary costs is increasingly high during the early
planning phases, while it is constantly decreasing during the further planning
and construction process. Regarding the relatively long lifetime of buildings,
compared with other products, and the high proportion on greenhouse gas emissions,
caused by the production of building materials and the building performance, decision
makers and planners bear a very heavy responsibility for the implementation of
sustainability in their specific society as well as the world community.
Illustration 8: The impacts and
cost blocks during the planning,
construction and utilisation
phases and the opportunity to
influence these.
The main indicators for sustainability can be assigned to ecological, economic and
social-cultural dimensions, which can be estimated either qualitative then quantitative.
They are used because there are no absolute measures available, which could be
applied to express the specific causalities. However sustainable building and
construction is a very complex process, which is related to many specific regional
basic conditions, concerning e.g. infrastructure, natural resources, climate and culture.
Therefore an interdisciplinary planning process during the definition of the
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Sustainable Building and Construction
programme and the initial concept phase is indispensable. This should involve
officials and professionals from all scopes, users and could even include discussions
with residents or neighbours.
Social Equity
and Cultural
Issues
Resources
Economic
Constraints
Emissions Biodiversity
Environmental
Quality
Illustration 9: The
“Sustainability Triangle”,
connecting ecological, economic
and social dimensions.
Another leading point for sustainable building is also the indoor air quality of
buildings. Buildings can be called the human beings third skin (clothes can be named
as the second skin). The indoor conditions of buildings play a significant role for the
heath and well being of their users, because people do spend generally a lot of their
lifetime in buildings for residential or working purpose, especially in urban areas and
in regions where the outdoor climate is out of the comfort zone for human beings.
Thus the building envelope is generally closed and the conditioning of a building
required. The building design and the selected technology for heating, cooling,
ventilation and lighting are interacting and directly linked to the health and wellbeing
of the users as well as the energy consumption of the building. The use of “healthy”
materials and appropriate technologies can avoid the so called “Sick Building
Syndrome” and therefore reduce monetary and non-monetary costs.
“Ventilation and air infiltration into buildings represent a substantial energy
demand which can account for between 25% to over 50% of a building's total
space heating (or cooling) needs. Unnecessary or excessive air change can therefore
have an important impact on global energy use. On the other hand insufficient
ventilation may result in poor indoor air quality and consequential health problems.”
(AIVC, Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre, available at :
http://www.aivc.org/About_Aivc/about.html
The estimated loss of productivity through health costs and absence of work in the
European Union amounts between 5 and 15%. (According to Carrie, Fr., Andersson,
P., Wouters, P.; Improving Ductwork – A time for tighter air distribution systems;
AIVC publication 1999)
All aspects of sustainability including questions such as urban planning, city
infrastructure (energy and water supply, transport, waste and sewage management),
Site development (decentralised measures for sewage and water management),
planning law, building regulations (stability and fire safety) and architecture as well as
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Sustainable Building and Construction
the building process (operational safety, rationalisation, environmental impacts), the
utilization of the building, the reuse or demolition and the reuse of components as
well as the recycling of building material must be fully assessed during the early
design, architecture and engineering stages.
For each individual project specific concepts must be developed, which should
include alternatives, different methods and measures.
Meetings and discussions hosted by an integrated design team, before starting the
planning process itself and including above mentioned external groups, are the key
methods to find most ideal solutions for specific tasks, to develop performance targets
and to realize them in an economic, ecological and socially acceptable way.
Experts of the Task 23 (Optimization of Solar Energy Use in Large Buildings) group
of the Solar Heating and Cooling Programme (SHC) of the International Energy
Agency (IEA) developed a wide range of products to support the Integrated Design
Process (IDP). Relations to the Subtasks are available at the World Wide Web:
http://www.iea-shc.org/task23/introduction.htm#Subtasks. The Subtask B led by
Switzerland, mainly developed design process guidelines.
The cutting edge products, designed for international application are categorized as
following:
- Methods and Tools support actors to handle complex interrelations of daily
design tasks.
- Documentations describe possible solutions for technical and processual
solutions in practice.
- Publications provide an overview of dissemination activities during the Task.
To get short descriptions to each product and download files individually, you can
visit the outcomes list:
http://www.iea-shc.org/task23/outcomes.htm#OUTCOMES_LIST
The direct download of a CD package containing all documents and to create an own
Task 23 CD is available at:
http://www.iea-shc.org/task23/outcomes.htm#ITEM8_1
The opportunities for the implementation of sustainability and the reduction of
greenhouse gases in buildings can be classified by four major interdependent
strategies:
- Technical Strategies include all measures, which are directly linked to the
design, construction and utilisation of buildings. Their approaches will be
described detailed in chapters 3 and 4 of this Monograph.
- Educational Strategies include all awareness rising and know-how
propagating measurements (implying technical strategies) regarding officials,
decision makers and professionals from all scopes as well as users, especially
children. Their approaches are e.g. media campaigns, (e-) courses and
trainings, which will be covered by UNEP / IETC among other things.
- Regulatory Strategies include several legal measures, which can reduce the
energy consumption of buildings, e.g. minimum energy performance standards
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Sustainable Building and Construction
and building codes, limiting the (primary-) energy consumption of buildings
and their service engineering. These regulatory measures can only be
implemented together with control mechanisms and the spread of building
performance analysis tools, which allow professionals a corresponding
certification.
- Economic Strategies comply with regulatory measures and apply the industry
as well as the domestic sector. The measurements may include e.g. subsidies
for the use of renewable building materials, energies and fuels or tax reliefs for
the investment in energy efficient building design (according certification) and
service engineering.
3. Approaches For the Reduction of Greenhouse Gases in
Buildings
3.1 General Approaches
In this chapter a brief overview is given about the measures for the realisation of
sustainable buildings and the reduction of green house gas emissions in buildings.
Their single aspects will be more detailed and differentiated described in the chapter
“design approaches”.
The lifetime of a building can be divided into three phases, the building process, the
building use and the deconstruction after use, each implying a multitude of different
actions and processes, and related to the sustainability and emission of greenhouse
gases of a specific building.
1. The building process includes the production of building materials, parts and
technical components, their transport to the building site, the preparation of the
building site and the related infrastructure as well as the construction of the
building itself.
2. The phase of the building use includes all activities, which are related to the
operation, maintenance, renovation and conversion as well as the retrofitting
of the technical components of a building.
3. The deconstruction of a building includes all processes which are related to
the removal of the entire building and the treatment of all components and
materials, including the possible reuse, retrofitting, recycling or combustion
and landfill at the worst.
The optimisation and minimisation of all activities related to these three phases of the
life cycle of buildings are measures to strengthen the sustainability and to reduce the
greenhouse gas emissions of a building. “Appendix 2 – Life Cycle Assessment
Tools” gives an overview about available software tools for the life cycle assessment
of building materials, building operation and whole buildings (including all life cycles
of a building).
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Sustainable Building and Construction
The 14 main criteria for the assessment of buildings can be assigned to 4 main factors
which are interacting:
External:
Economic:
Ecological:
Substructural:
- Project conditions
- Site
- Construction management
- Site development
- Structural design
- Technical equipment
- Outside facilities
- Equipment and artworks
- Energy input
- Construction materials – resources
- Noxious emissions
- Disposal
- Water, Soil, Air
- Building Conception
(according to: Diederichs J. (editor);“Entwicklung eines Beewertungssystems fuer
oekonomisches und oekologisches Bauen und gesundes Wohnen, S. 20, “Darstellung
der Bewertungsmatrix und Einfluesse der Regulatorien”; Lehr und Forschungsgebiet
Bauwirtschaft Bergische Universitaet Wuppertal; Germany 2000)
The CSTB (Centre Scientifique Et Technique Du Batiment) has defined 24 criteria for
sustainability, which have been classified in direct and indirect criteria. “The direct
criteria involve impact factors in terms of physical pollution and have effects on
resources depletion, area degradation and pollution growth. The indirect criteria are
all the other criteria, expressly those of socio-economic character. They have only an
indirect influence on the life environment and the human relations.” The examination
of the sustainability of a building through the set of criteria is done one element after
each other, according to the following treelike outline (Illustration 10).
Before planning any new building project, it should be taken into account that the
most effective measure to reach sustainability in the building sector and to reduce
greenhouse gases in buildings, is to avoid new construction activities, to minimize
the related material flow and to optimise the existing build environment concerning
the consumption of energy.
Save energy!
The first step towards sustainability is to reduce the consumption of electric energy in
already existing buildings. With this measure the greenhouse gas emissions, caused by
the production of electric energy can be minimized in an effective way, within in a
short period of time, and with minimum effort.
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Sustainable Building and Construction
Illustration 10: Treelike outline
of the analysis of a sustainable
building. D=Direct Criteria, I=
Indirect Criteria
The requirements for the construction of new buildings should be verified. In
many cases it is more suitable to use already existing buildings, if they can meet the
space requirements, then to demolish the existing building and to build a new one.
Existing assets can be converted and often also extended, if there is more space
required. The energy consumption caused by cooling, heating and lighting can be
minimised by modification of the existing building structure, the attachment of
relevant components and the replacement of inefficient components of the technical
building equipment.
There are two general possibilities for a building site, if a new building is required.
The utilisation of a former already covered site (e.g. post- industrial or military sites)
should be always preferred compared to a site on the green field to protect the natural
environment as much as possible. In any case the site should be surveyed concerning
potential contamination with hazardous substances and eventually recycled to protect
the natural environment (e.g. related to soil quality, groundwater quality protection
and gas emissions) as well as the human health.
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Sustainable Building and Construction
The elimination of plants and open ground for a building project should be minimised
and compensated, e.g. by the re- naturalisation of already covered ground and the
construction of green roof or cladding systems. The concept for urban planning and
building construction should include decentralized nature-orientated water
management systems to minimise the disturbance of the natural water cycle and to
allow decentralized stormwater and sewage treatment as well as sustainable drinking
water supply. Plants have a strong positive influence on the natural water cycle, the
microclimate (concerning evaporation, dust absorption and elimination of hazardous
substances) and are important Carbon Dioxide accumulators. Referring to this,
additional information is e.g. available at the UNEP IETC website about
Phytotechnologies:
http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Activities/Freshwater/PhytoTechnology.asp .
Building and construction projects should be generally optimised due to the
following indicators, which have an influence on the environmental impact and the
green house gas emissions of the building and construction sector. The single aspects
and influencing factors which will be described more detailed and differentiated in the
chapter “Design Approaches”.
High Resource Productivity
The utilisation of environmentally friendly materials with high resource productivity
(e.g. Clay and Timber) and avoidance of materials with low resource productivity (e.g.
Concrete and Steel) minimises the total mass and energy flow related to the
production of building materials.
Local Materials
The utilisation of local materials minimises the effort for transportation and allows the
preservation of the cultural identity and knowledge in the build environment by the
utilisation of traditional materials.
Renewable Materials
The utilisation of renewable materials (made from renewable primary products, e.g.
Bamboo, Timber and Wool), maximise the Carbon Dioxide storage and reduce the
utilisation of non-renewable products. Their utilisation is sensible if they are locally
available; their production is not causing exhausting cultivation and is not in
competition with food production or is leading to any alternative environmental
impacts.
Durable Components and Materials
The utilisation of structural and functional durable components and materials allow
a long-term use as well as the reduction of maintenance and renovation and
refurbishment costs during the lifetime of buildings. Structural and functional
durability is crucial for the reuse of components.
Reuse and Recycling
The concept of Reuses and Recycling describes the idea that all components and
materials can ever reused, refurbished and recycled, support life and never have to be
deposited as waste. The utilisation of recycled materials saves resources and the
utilisation of recyclable materials allows recycling.
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Sustainable Building and Construction
Building Size and Shape
The building size and shape should be optimised regarding the surface and volume
ratio, which has effect on the energy demand of the building for cooling and heating
as well as the quantitative material input, related to the floor area.
Climate Responsive Design
Climate responsive design is related to the specific regional macro and microclimate
of a building and has a crucial effect on the energy demand for the climate control of a
building. The main principles for climate responsive design are passive cooling and
passive heating (also termed as passive solar utilisation), which should be applied on
the building design process according to the specific climate and global position.
Natural Ventilation
Natural Ventilation is based on natural forces (e.g. cross ventilation or buoyancy) and
can therefore reduce the energy demand compared to ventilator driven ventilation
systems and may be a component for climate responsive design.
Natural Lighting
Natural Lighting is based on reflection and control technology, can reduce the energy
demand for artificial lighting and has an important effect on the wellbeing of the
building users because of its natural spectrum and frequency.
Multifunctional Design
The implementation of multifunctional design concepts has influence on the
utilisation-orientated life cycle of a building and allows the extension of a buildings
lifetime by easy conversion, modification or extension for different utilisations.
Multifunctional design can avoid the necessity for deconstruction and construction
activities and therefore may have a remarkable effect on the life cycle and the related
environmental impacts and GHG emissions.
Maintenance
Maintenance-friendly design implies the utilisation of durable building products,
which should be well adapted to the climate (e.g. for the building envelope) and
utilisation (e.g. floor finishes). The maintenance intervals should be long and realised
with a minimal effort and effect on the environment. Additionally the selected
materials should minimise the need for modernization and renovation.
Deconstruction-friendly Design
Deconstruction, and reuse friendly design allows the widely non-destructive
deconstruction of a building structure. I history there are many examples for timbered
buildings which can be easily disassembled transported and reassembled (e.g. in
Germany, Japan and Korea). Hence the building components should be assembled in
a way that they easily can be disassembled, transported and reused.
Building services engineering
Very material- and energy-efficient systems and products should be selected for
technical components such as heating -, cooling -, ventilation - and lighting devices.
18

3.2 Design Approaches
Sustainable Building and Construction
Illustration 11: Cascade model
of planning principles,
concerning the needs for a new
building property and the
selection of building products.
All single factors and criteria mentioned in the chapter “General Approaches” should
be considered during the entire lifetime of a building and during all construction,
refurbishment and deconstruction processes.
They should especially be applied during the early design, decision-making and
planning process because their early implementation can improve significantly the
overall social, ecological and economic efficiency. The application of a life cycle
approach during these stages of a building project can help successfully to find an
appropriate balance between social, structural, environmental and technical
requirements and to optimise the overall performance of a building.
An appropriate building structure, resistant against natural hazards such as storms,
earthquakes and fires is a basic condition for the protection of human life and to attain
sustainable building and construction. Therefore the measures to achieve that aim will
be not further discussed in this monograph.
In the framework of this monograph all indicators responsible for the reduction of
GHG emissions in the construction sector, will be assigned to Design Approaches and
collated to 3 generic terms:
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Sustainable Building and Construction
- Structural Design and Building Materials
- Climate Responsive Building Design,
- Energy Efficient Building Services Engineering.
For a universal validity of the described measures, which are relevant for the
realisation of a sustainable build environment, regarding the reduction of GHG
emissions, the effects of the different approaches will be described qualitative and
generally in the framework of this monograph. The connections between the different
influencing factors are dependent on many regional specific basic conditions, related
to e.g. culture, climate, infrastructure and natural resources, as well as the
performance of building service engineering and the behaviour of occupants. Hence
the data for the quantitative assessment of the different measures and the related
indicators has to be evaluated specifically for each region, country and climate.
“Appendix 2 – Life Cycle Assessment Tools” gives an overview about already
existing databases, tools and programmes for the environmental assessment of the
different indicators for sustainable construction in different countries.
UNEP Division of Technology, Industry and Economics, Sustainable Building and
Construction Platform, Sustainable Building Design and Architecture in Co-operation
with UIA International Union of Architects Work Programme Sustainable
Architecture of the Future develops an architects kit which will presumably be
published in the second half of 2004.
3.2.1 Structural Design and Building Materials
3.2.1.1 Interaction between building materials and spatial structures
The selection of the building material is interacting with the design of the spatial
structure of buildings, which is responsible for the basic design of a building as well
as for the necessary quantity of the primary material input. Solid buildings (e.g. brick,
stone or adobe structures) for example have to be designed in a different way,
compared with e.g. columns and beams constructions or frameworks (e.g. out of
bamboo, timber concrete, or steel), arches, grid shells, shells and dome
constructions (e.g. out of bamboo, timber concrete, or steel), or suspended
structures.
Different spatial structures do need different quantities of primary building materials
to create a similar building capacity. Therefore the selection of spatial structure and
appropriate building materials are basic influencing factors for the required quantity
of building material, for the design of a specific space and are crucial for the reduction
of the total material flow. They are directly linked with the GHG emissions and other
environmental impacts of building constructions. Efficient and light weight structures
have relatively small impacts on the total material consumption, while solid and heavy
structures have bigger impacts and therefore in general cause comparably more GHG
emissions.
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Sustainable Building and Construction
3.2.1.2 Materials for specific spatial structures
Buildings in general and specific spatial structures especially are constructed out of
many different materials, elements and products (up to more than 60 basic materials
and 2000 separate products (according to Kohler and Moffatt, 2003), which have
different impacts on the GHG emissions, according to their characteristics and local
availability. I general materials, with a high resource productivity (e.g. renewable
materials) should be utilised for all construction activities to reduce the material and
energy flow as well as the related environmental impacts, such as GHG emissions,
caused by the production and processing of building materials. For a comparison of
different available materials it is important to know their special characteristics
according to the construction of specific spatial structures, as well as for all building
elements, from the foundation to the roof and from the exterior to the interior.
Illustration 12: Construction of solid concrete
buildings, high rise apartments in Wonju, South-
Korea.
Illustration 13: Construction of solid stone
buildings, residential and commercial buildings in
Kairouan, Tunesia.
Solid buildings are relatively material
intensive and un-flexible because the
structural elements (such as walls) are
working as the primary structure.
Additionally they are in general less
earthquake resistant than frame
structures. The interior structure as well
as the building envelope can only be
modified limited after finalisation. Solid
buildings can be constructed out of solid
materials with relatively low
environmental impacts, such as adobe,
natural stones, clay or even straw bales
and timber. They are often locally
available, appropriate to many countries
and climate zones and have an immense
influence on the minimisation of the
environmental impact of construction
materials, compared with industrialised
products such as cement blocks or
burned bricks.
Columns, beams and frame
constructions are less material
intensive, more flexible and may be
more earthquake-resistant (if required)
compared to massive structures. The
primary structure is a pillar and beam or
frame construction. According to the
building design and size it can be
constructed out of bamboo, timber, steel,
concrete or a combination out of these.
Like mentioned before, the utilisation of materials with low resource efficiency, like
steel and concrete should be minimised as much as possible. The structural elements,
such as walls and the building envelope are not load-bearing. They can be constructed
21

Illustration 14: Construction of a steel framed
timber building in Osaka Japan.
Illustration 15: Construction of a timber framed
building in Osaka Japan, (exterior view).
Sustainable Building and Construction
in a relative light way, easy to modify, to
exchange or to deconstruct. For these
elements nearly all environmental
friendly building and insulation materials
such as bamboo, timber, clay, wool or
recycled products may be used if they are
appropriate to the specific climate
requirements.
Many of existing as well as new
constructed buildings are realised as
solid, column, beam or framework
constructions. Anyhow there are other
intelligent construction methods with
minimised material input, which may be
more adapted for many building and
construction projects. The most
appropriate and efficient building
structure should be evaluated in the very
early planning phase of a building
project.
Illustration 15a: Construction of a timber
frame building in Osaka Japan, (interior view).
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Sustainable Building and Construction
The Primary structures of arches, grid shells, shells, cupolas, vaults and dome
constructions are self-supporting. Therefore the material input, related to the
covered volume, may be highly minimized. The shape of these structures is not
orthogonal and therefore they can only be utilised for specific building projects.
Vaults and domes can be easy constructed out of solid materials, e.g. environmental
friendly adobe or natural stones, but can be realised also as non-solid rod structures,
e.g. out of bamboo or timber.
Illustration 16: Overview different types of vaults. Illustration 17: Overview different types of
cupolas.
Illustration 18: Small geodesic dome (non solid
structure).
Illustration 19: Construction of a solid
cupola in India.
23

Illustration 20: Arch constructions out of
branches and earth, a finished residential hut and
granary during the construction phase in
Rajasthan, India.
Sustainable Building and Construction
Illustration 21: Grid shell construction with
paper tubes of the Japanese Pavilion (Architect
Shigeru Ban) at the Expo in the year 2000 in
Hanover.
The Material input for suspended structures is also very minimal compared with
standing constructions. Traditional Suspension bridges out of vegetable fibres, which
can be found almost worldwide in many cultures, are very good examples for such
efficient, environmental friendly structures. In the building construction sector these
structures are generally used for relatively huge structures, like stadiums and halls, as
well as for lightweight membrane structures.
Illustration 22: Suspended roof structure of the Football Stadium in Seogwipo on Cheju Island,
South-Korea.
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Sustainable Building and Construction
3.2.1.3 Conventional building materials and related GHG Emissions
The production of concrete and steel, which are the basic building materials for
most of modern constructions consumes the most energy and causes the majority
of the GHG emissions in the construction sector. (According to: CIB, UNEP –
IETC; “Agenda 21 for Sustainable Construction in Developing Countries”; South
Africa 2002). The production of glass also causes immense GHG emissions because
its production is very heat energy intensive but glass can also help to save and gain
energy if it is utilised in an intelligent way (e.g. by natural lighting and use of solar
radiation for heating).
According to World Business Council for Sustainable Development, Cement
Sustainability Initiative (on the Internet available at
http://www.wbcsdcement.org/concrete_misc.asp), twice as much concrete is used in
the construction sector around the world than the total amount of all other building
materials including wood, steel, plastic and aluminium (Cement Association of
Canada). The annual production of cement is ~1.56 billion metric tonnes worldwide,
one third of the total amount is produced in China alone (USGS Minerals information,
Cement statistics, 2000). Through the production process an equivalent amount of
more than 1.56 billion tonnes CO2 is released into the atmosphere (Centre for
Contaminated Land Remediation). Therefore the cement industry is responsible
for ~1/4 of the annual worldwide CO2 emissions from fossil fuels. (In 1999 ~6.46
billion tonnes CO2 were emitted worldwide from the utilisation of fossil fuels, ~1.1
tonnes per capita (Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Centre
http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/home.html). The annual global production of concrete is
more than 3.8 billion cubic metre (Cement Association of Canada). Concrete is the
second most consumed substance on Earth (after water), with more than one
tonne (1 cubic metre concrete ~ 2-2.8 tonnes) of it being used in average for each
human every year (Lafarge Coppee SA, 2000).
The production of iron and steel, which is also used in reinforced concrete, is
responsible for more than 4% of the total energy use worldwide and the related
GHG emissions (World Resources 2000-2001, World Resource Institute,
http://www.wri.org/) The primary production of Aluminium is more than three times
higher than for the same quantity of steel.
The production of metals and other construction materials e.g. glass, lime and bricks,
is responsible for 20% of annual dioxin and furan emissions. PVC and other
chlorinated substances used in the construction industry are excluded from that figure.
The production of cement, metals, glass and baked bricks have very high
environmental impacts and causes immense GHG emissions because their production
requires the processing of mined raw materials at a very high temperature. While
concrete and steel are comparative modern building materials (their use became
popular in the 19 th century), baked bricks and quick lime (which production requires
more primarily energy than the production of cement) are well known in many
cultures since several thousands of years (e.g. at Indus Culture, Mohenjo Daro, etc.).
For the baking of bricks, traditionally timber was used as a burning material, which
has lead to immense deforestation in the specific areas. Today mainly fossil resources
such coal, mineral oil or gas are used for that process. The construction of thousands
25

Sustainable Building and Construction
of pagodas constructed out of burned bricks in Myanmar (Burma) e.g. has turned a
former forest into a steppe. In the Kathmandu Valley in Nepal the urbanisation and
burning of bricks, which traditionally used as building materials has lead to
deforestation. Today imported brown coal is used, which causes heavy air pollution
(by transport and the burning process itself) and leads to respiratory diseases of
inhabitants as well as to forest dieback and the corrosion of buildings by acid rain.
Regarding the minimisation of the total mass and energy flow in the “main
stream” building and construction sector, it is crucial to use “smart” building
products if products out of renewable materials are not appropriate or available.
Looking, e.g. at concrete, which is used in many present construction projects, there
are two main materials available, common concrete, which is made out of cement,
water and gravel, and gas concrete (or Autoclave Light Concrete (ALC) or Autoclave
Aerated Concrete (AAC)), which is made out of cement water and sand, frothed up
with aluminium powder (only 0,05 - 0,1% of weight) to build up the porous structure
and hardened in autoclaves. While Concrete is very massive, resource and energy
intensive, ALC is comparable very light and much less resource intensive. For the
production of 5m³ ALC only 1m³ of raw materials is required. The accumulated
primarily energy demand for the production of 1m³ ALC (~220 kWh/m³) is about 3
times smaller than for the same amount of concrete (~660 kWh/m³). (According to:
Hullmann, H., Weber, H.; “Porenbeton Handbuch”; Germany 1998) For many
applications in building construction especially for interior and exterior walls, ALC is
a more appropriate building material than concrete because it is much easier to handle
and has a much better insulation effect than massive concrete.
Illustration 22a: Examples of primary energy content for building materials.
26

Sustainable Building and Construction
3.2.1.4 “Alternative” building materials and related GHG Emissions
The intelligent use of natural available materials like inorganic materials (e.g.
natural stones and clay) and especially the utilisation of building materials out of
organic raw materials, made from biomass which is renewable, can lead to a
significant reduction of the GHG emissions and the environmental impacts caused by
the production of building materials. Also inorganic materials can be characterised as
renewable materials if they can ever be reused or recycled (like e.g. natural stones and
clay). Almost every region on this planet has its own tradition in the utilisation of
renewable raw materials. Typical examples are the utilisation of timber, products from
palm trees, straw and grass (including bamboo). Some materials may be used directly
as building materials (e.g. reed or straw for the construction of thatched roofs or even
walls) or as raw materials for the processing of building materials. Their utilisation
maximises the Carbon Dioxide storage, reduces the need for non-renewable
materials and is sensible, if they are locally available, their production is not causing
exhausting cultivation and is not in competition with food production, or is leading to
any alternative environmental impacts. The utilisation of biotechnology for the
development of new efficient building materials may be crucial to reduce the GHG
emissions caused by the construction industry.
Illustration 23: Construction of a building with
straw bales and timber.
Illustration 24: Primary energy demand for
cement and straw.
Traditionally, renewable materials were often used in combination with inorganic
materials, to use the synergetic effects between these materials. A typical example is
the mix of clay with organic and inorganic aggregate to reduce the crack initiation of
components and to make it stronger against dynamic stress. Further examples can be
found in traditional building constructions in Asia, Europe, Africa and South America.
The houses were built by a primary post and beam structure or skeleton framing out of
timber or bamboo. The interspaces or the whole structure were filled, respectively
covered with wattles, made out of organic fibres (timber, straw or bamboo) and than
plastered with clay.
27

Sustainable Building and Construction
Illustration 25: Techniques, materials and typical lifespan of biomass roofing
Compared with industrialised products, the traditional processing of natural
available and renewable materials is relatively labour intensive. On the one hand
that may have the positive effect that the value enhancement concerns the workmen.
On the other hand it may have a negative effect on the utilisation and distribution of
these techniques, because they are in comparison with industrialised building products,
which are “fashioned” and easy to use. Therefore beneath the activation of traditional
techniques and knowledge, the development of new appropriate technologies for the
processing as well as the production of “ready made" products, which are easy to use
and are comparable with industrialised building products, are crucial for the wide use
and of environmental friendly building materials. Anyhow the generally small
enterprises using less industrialised techniques and the relatively high “employment
Illustration 26: Energy consumption in the
production of building materials in Brazil.
intensity” of construction activities in
low-income countries offers manyfold
possibilities for an immediate change
in the building and construction
industry towards sustainability by the
utilisation of materials with low
environmental impacts and energy
efficient building techniques, orientated
on traditional knowledge and practices.
The development of ready-made
industrialised products and building
systems out of renewable materials as
well as out of inorganic materials
becomes more and more popular,
especially in high income-countries,
because these materials are not only
28

Sustainable Building and Construction
ecological, but in general also non hazardous. Clay for example is used to improve the
indoor climate of rooms and the health of occupants, because among other things it
does absorb smell, air pollutants and works as a water vapour buffer.
In addition to the traditional organic building materials numerous products are already
developed using renewable materials. They are available for many applications
concerning building construction, eg. :
- Thermal insulation (e.g. out of coco, cotton, hemp, sisal, cheep
wool, wood fibre or cellulose)
- Construction Materials & Composites
- Construction boards (e.g. out of plant shells)
- Paints and lacquers (e.g. from milk products and vegetable oils)
- Plastics (e.g. linoleum as floor finish)
- Sealing compound (e.g. out of caoutchouc and cork)
- Floor Finishes (e.g. linoleum, cork, timber, bamboo)
Illustration 27: Bamboo parquet and interior at
Columbian Zero Emission (Zeri) Bamboo
Pavilion at the Expo 2000 in Hanover (Architect:
Velez, S.).
The aim of a research project of
Guillermo Gonzalez at the Department of
Building and Architecture at Eindhoven
University of Technology with the title
“Plybamboo- sheets as a construction
material for housing” is to study the use
of these sheets as structural elements
(walls) in prefabricated housing in
developing countries. Results of these
studies will be published as a thesis and
as a handbook on technical and physical
properties of joints for plybamboo. The
results will be distributed to groups in
developing countries. (According to:
http://www.bwk.tue.nl/bko/research/Bam
boo/Guillermo.htm)
Further information about renewable
resources are available at the website of
the Agency of Renewable Resources
(FNR), at:
http://www.fnr.de/en/indexen.htm, which
links also to international organisations,
e.g. the Natural Product Development,
Independent Agro-Industrial
Consultancy Group, at: http://www.natural-product-development.com/, or the website
of Biomatnet, Biological Materials for Non-Food Products (Renewable Bio-products),
at: http://www.nf-2000.org/home.html.
According to Richard Hofmeister, Frank Lloyd Wright School for Architecture in
Arizona, timbered walls insulated with mineral wool are 30 times more energy
intensive than comparable constructions insulated with straw bales. (Translated
from: http://www.bauatelier.at/strohballenhaus.html)
29

Sustainable Building and Construction
In many developing countries there do already exist examples for the successful
utilisation and further development of renewable materials. This process offers them
beneath a sustainable development the additional chance for economic growth threw
the production and export of building materials. One successful example is the
utilisation of bamboo, which is a much promising material for further development of
sustainable building products, because it has many ecological benefits. It does grow
very fast in many regions and climates and is very strong. Therefore it produces much
more biomass in a specific time and place than timber.
Bamboo is utilised as a building material since thousands of years in almost any
countries of the world. Since several years it is also used to produce high quality
technical building products, like e.g. bamboo parquet for interior floors as well as
construction boards for walls and ceilings. In future it may be also used to produce
“bio-hight-tech” building materials, which could be comparable with plywood.
Examples in Columbia (e.g. by Velez, S. and Hidalgo, O., in Vegesack, A., Kries, M.
(editors); “Grow your own House”; Germany, Weil am Rhein, 2000) show that it is
possible to build out of bamboo big and challenging functional buildings and
representative residential buildings for the upper-class as well as cost-effective
residential building projects for low-income groups.
Illustration 28: Columbian Zero Emission
(Zeri) Bamboo Pavilion at the Expo 2000 in
Hanover (Architect: Velez, S.).
For the building industry, by 1995 in
Costa Rica 700 hectares of land
throughout the country have been planted
with a special kind of bamboo (Guadua
Angustifolia), suitable for building, and
traditionally used for the construction of
structural posts and beams in Columbia
and Ecuador. This should produce
enough material for 10.000 houses per
year. It was estimated that the same
number of houses built from forest
hardwood timber would have caused the
destruction of 6.000 hectares of
indigenous forest. “The area planted with
bamboo has increased to 350 hectares.
This amount of bamboo planted will
meet local demands for housing,
furniture and a limited quantity of
industrial projects. Currently, the
government plans to increase number of
hectares under cultivation. More than
3000 bamboo homes have been built
throughout Costa Rica and, at this time,
the Bamboo Foundation (FUNBAMBU,
a private, non-profit foundation and
operating since 1996 as auto-financed
business activity) is building around
1.500 housing units a year. This represents 6% of all homes built annually in Costa
Rica, a significant proportion, and also provides permanent employment to more than
30

Sustainable Building and Construction
500 technicians throughout the entire year. Recently, a prefabricated home made
100% of bamboo was developed that could reduce construction costs by 20%.”
(According to best practices website of UN-habitat: http://www.bestpractices.org/cgibin/bp98.cgi?cmd=detail&id=727)
Further research and development on bamboo construction for sustainable building
and construction technologies is done at several institutes world wide e.g.:
- International Network for Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR), an international
organization created by 27 Member States of the United Nations, and
Headquarters in Beijing, China. (http://www.inbar.int/index.htm)
- Bamboo Research and Development Center (BDRC) in China
(http://www.caf.ac.cn/newcaf/english/zzzx/bamboo.htm)
- Bamboo thematic network project in Belgium
(http://www.bamboonetwork.org/)
- National University of Columbia's Research Center for Bamboo and Wood
(CIBAM) in Columbia
- Project Alandaluz in Ecuador
Illustration 28a: Bamboo in Japan.
Beneath the exchange of materials, the
knowledge exchange is an important
measure to support the further
intelligent and white spread utilisation
of renewable materials and sustainable
building construction. For example the
sprinkler installation on the straw roof
of the South African Wildlife College
for fire protection measures could have
been maybe avoided by the
impregnation of the straw with soluble
glass (sodium silicate), an
environmental friendly technology,
which is used e.g. in Denmark and
Germany for the same purpose.
The innovation of sustainable building materials and construction methods can
be worldwide orientated on traditional knowledge and practice, which are in general
relatively good adapted to local climates (see Chapter Climate Responsive Building)
and using locally available materials. Anyhow the development has to be also adapted
to specific ecological, economical and social basic conditions to meet the present and
future needs and requirements. The utilisation of these techniques in cities requires
rethinking, especially of politicians, investors, city planners and architects because the
urban context may not be built according to “international style” anymore.
The utilisation of timber as construction material, e.g. limits the building hight, while
steel and concrete is generally necessary to construct high-rise buildings. These
“natural limitations” of Eco-technologies offer the chance to create a generally more
sustainable urban context.
The fashion aspect and symbol character is critical for the wide use of
sustainable construction materials. In many low-income countries in Latin America,
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Sustainable Building and Construction
Africa, Asia there is still a building stock, which meets the definition of sustainable
building, is durable and climate responsive constructed and offers comfortable living
conditions. Although the majority of people wants to use “modern” and “fashioned”
building materials, like e.g. metal sheets as roofing material and cement blocks and
cement plaster as wall building material, not because the indoor climate is better than
in houses, built with traditional materials and methods, but because it looks “modern”.
Cement and Steel became status symbols in developing countries because they
are used in industrialised and high-income countries since decades. These
countries always have paradigm functions and their building styles, the utilised
materials and technologies are the symbols for prosperity and the improvement of life.
Therefore a change towards sustainability in the building and construction
sector can be only effectively achieved by a paradigm-shift in high-income
countries. Only technologies and materials, widely used in these parts of the world
will also change the wishes and goals of people living in low-income countries and
will open the way towards a sustainable evolution.
Illustration 29: Modified traditional clay house
in the rural area of Kumasi, Ghana, with tin roof,
modified building corner out of natural stones
and cement mortar as well as inappropriate
cement plaster on the existing clay wall in the
background.
Illustration 31: Advertisement for cement in the
rural area of Kumasi.
Illustration 30: Traditional house with spark
eroded clay wall and new tin roof, in the rural
area of Kumasi, Ghana.
An example in the rural areas of Ghana
may be generally representative for the
worldwide situation in low-income
countries regarding traditional
sustainable design and construction
technologies. The existing traditional
buildings are made out of clay, and are
several hundred years old. They are still
very strong and durable. They are more
resistant to mechanical impacts and
therefore harder to deconstruct than
modern buildings, constructed out of
earth cement blocks. They offer a good
indoor climate but the clay walls and
grass roofs do not meet the present
design and status standards. Therefore,
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Sustainable Building and Construction
the owners do refurbish their houses with modern building materials even though
these measures are relatively expensive and contra productive. The traditional roof
cover is replaced by inappropriate metal sheets and cement plaster is applied on the
clay walls. The new roofs do boost the indoor temperatures compared to the
traditional ones and the cement plaster on the outside walls is not durable because
there is no adhesion between the materials clay and cement.
3.2.1.5 Combination of Alternative and Common building materials
Since many years also research is done to develop techniques, which shall allow the
replacement of reinforced steel or aggregates in concrete products by bamboo fibres
or chips (e.g.: MIT Boston (1914); Fachhochschule Koeln, DFG Forschungsvorhaben
II-D4-At 11/1,J.Atrops und S. Haerig: ”Bambus und Bambusbeton” (1983)).
Research in natural fibre reinforced concrete has also been done e.g. by the Institute
for intuitive technology and bio architecture (TIBA), Lengen, J. v., at Casa Do Sonho,
Brazil. In 1966 Brink, F. E., Rush, P. J. published already the research work “Bamboo
reinforced concrete constructions”; U.S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory; Port
Hueme, California, USA 1966; which is available at:
http://www.romanconcrete.com/Bamboo/BambooReinforcedConcreteFeb1966.htm
These techniques are somehow compromises to reduce the amount of common
building materials and to enforce the durability of building products. Regarding the
possibilities to improve the quality of building materials also by the utilisation of bio-
or eco-technologies, their utilisation should be avoided and alternative technologies
preferred. The bonding strength and water resistance of clay and mud plaster can be
significantly increased, e.g. by mixing it with whey, curd, cow dung or linseed oil
varnish, while the mixing with cement and lime can reduce the compression strength,
especially if the percentage of the additives is less than 5%, because it destroys the
bonding strength of the clay. (According to Minke, G.; Lehmbau Handbuch – der
Baustoff Lehm und seine Anwendung; Germany, Staufen bei Freiburg 1994)
Hence and especially concerning the durability and recycling ability, the combination
of materials with different product characteristics should be avoided.
Adobes or compressed earth blocks (CEB) are appropriate building materials in many
regions of the earth. However, the combination of earth and cement is also an
appropriate technology to produce durable building elements, e.g. in regions where
clay, timber or bamboo is not available. In these cases a relatively small amounts of
cement (compared with normal concrete) can be used to produce components out of
earth-cement or sand-cement. Further information regarding appropriate materials, are
available e.g. at http://www.gtz.de/basin/publications/index.asp?A=1 (many are
downloadable as *.pdf files).
3.2.1.6 Local Materials
The utilisation of local materials may minimise the effort for transportation and
allows the preservation of the cultural identity and knowledge in the build
environment by the utilisation of traditional materials, which may be natural resources
(organic and inorganic), as well as recycled materials from building or other
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Sustainable Building and Construction
utilisations. Their utilisation is sensible if they are available in a sufficing quantity and
their utilisation (regarding organic materials) is not causing exhausting cultivation and
is not in competition with food production. If local materials may not be used
corresponding to above mentioned indicators, the priority should be, to create the
suitable framework and to allow the utilisation of local materials.
During the decision making process for specific building materials, the relationship
between the energy demand and the environmental effects for production and
transport should be always evaluated and compared with the expected durability and
related lifetime for specific purposes. The Environmental Product Declaration (EPD)
and the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of specific products are important tools to
gather the required information for the decision making process.
For further information about available LCA tools and EPD for building materials,
please have a look at “Appendix 2 – Life Cycle Assessment Tools” and “Appendix
3 - Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction”.
3.2.1.7 Proportion of a building’s life phases on the total GHG emissions
The proportion of the environmental impact of each phase of a building’s lifecycle is,
in general, basically dependent on the energy demand and material budget for the
building performance during the entire lifespan. According to the Green Building
Challenge currently the impact of construction products in developed countries is on
average 10-20%, relative to the overall lifespan impact of a building. If buildings
contain much mass, have a very low energy demand or a very short lifecycle the
impact of construction products has a more significant proportion. Some entrants for
the Green Building Challenge show that construction products contribute up to 50%
of the impacts for some buildings. This proportion can easily build up to more than
50%. (According to: www.buildingsgroup.nrcan.gc.ca/projects/gbc_e.html)
Especially in countries with a very moderate or subtropical climate and no energy
demand for heating and cooling, as well as a low energy demand and material budget
for the building service, the building structure itself contains the bigger part of the
environmental impact. While in the USA and European industrialized countries the
mass flows and global material costs per person and year are very big, they are much
smaller in many urbanized African and Asian countries. The life cycle of buildings is
directly linked to lifestyle and technology change and macro economic cycles. The
main influencing factors for the length of a buildings lifecycle beneath these linkages
are:
- Multifunctional building structure
- Durability of the building structure (which is also influenced by
structural engineering and (climate responsive) design)
- Durability of utilised building materials
The following table shows the influence of the three life phases of two halls for the
production of train cars in Kassel, Germany. The reference project is built according
to the legal building codes. The building envelope of the advanced project is highly
insulated and has been built mainly from renewable materials (airtight timber
construction with an insulation layer out of cellulose). The production hall is equipped
34

Sustainable Building and Construction
with advanced building service engineering (e.g. natural ventilation with heat
recovery) to reduce the energy consumption as much as possible and to create a
healthy indoor environment. The building will be described more detailed in
“Appendix 4 - Case Studies”, Production Hall in Kassel, Germany.
3.2.1.8 Multifunctional Design
Illustration 32: Comparison of a
typical production hall (reference
object) with an advanced
production hall (construction
project). Influence of the three life
phases of two halls for the
production of train cars in Kassel,
Germany. The reference project is
built according to the legal
building codes. The building
envelope of the construction
project is highly insulated and has
been built mainly from renewable
materials (airtight timber
construction).
The implementation of multifunctional aspects in the design of new construction
projects as well as their consideration for the existing building stock is crucial for the
total lifetime of building constructions. It allows the extension of a buildings lifetime
by easy conversion, modification or extension for different utilisations.
Multifunctional design can avoid the necessity for deconstruction and construction
activities and therefore may have a remarkable effect on the life cycle, the related
environmental impacts and GHG emissions as well as on the monetary and nonmonetary
related building costs. The multifunctional use of buildings is the most
important influencing factor for the flexibility and adaptability of buildings to changes
in regional economy and society and therefore among other things is critical for the
sustainability of cities.
Illustration 33: The department
of Architecture at the Technical
University of Hanover in a
converted commercial building
(a former printing plant) with
increase of a new top floor.
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Sustainable Building and Construction
The influencing factors for the multifunctional use of building constructions are
manifold and may play an important role in the decision making process for or
against a buildings modification for different utilisations. The primary basic
conditions are the structural design and the characteristics of the building itself.
Among these it is also influenced by economical, social and political aspects, which
are very specific to time and place and therefore will be not further discussed in this
paper. The basic building and construction related factors can be classified to
functional and constructive aspects:
The functional aspects concern the utilisation of buildings. In history we find many
examples for the modification of buildings, especially in the industrialised countries
in Europe and the USA. The majority of modifications have been realised between
commercial and residential buildings. Commercial buildings have been modified to fit
for habitation (e.g. production buildings to loft apartments) as well as residential
buildings have been modified to fit for commercial utilisation (e.g. apartments to
offices). The structure and space on offer are the most important influencing
factors for the potential multi functional utilisation of buildings. They can be
partitioned into the following aspects:
- Room dimensions (height, length, width)
- Coverage of the whole building (vertical und horizontal)
- Natural ventilation and lighting of rooms
The constructive aspects, influencing the flexibility and potential modification of
building constructions for multifunctional utilisation can be partitioned into the
following main aspects:
- spatial structure
- building envelope
- building component splices
- building service engineering
The spatial structure of a building is interacting with the multifunctional aspects and
is one basic condition for which changes of a buildings use are realisable at justifiable
effort. First of all the origin function is crucial for it. The modification of structures
for high loads (industrial buildings) to utilisations with smaller loads produces no
expenditure, while the subsequent reinforcement of structures for small loads can
become very complex or may lead to the construction of additional structures with
own foundations.
Compared with other structures, post, beam and frame constructions can relatively
easy be modified, because additional openings in floors and walls can be created in
between the posts and beams, generally without touching the buildings statics. The
modification of massive constructions, which are relatively inflexible, is more
difficult because it requires the consideration of all structural elements (floors and
walls), and the evaluation of the elements which are load bearing and do create the
spatial structure.
The building envelope often is the area which requires the most effort for adjustment.
On the on hand this is influenced by the fact that the receivables on the building
envelope may be lower for the original use (e.g. commercial) than for another use (e.g.
habitation). Additionally it may be influenced by new demands, e.g. concerning the
36

Sustainable Building and Construction
reduction of GHG emissions by energy conservation through additional thermal
insulation and the passive use of solar energy.
The building component splices always play an important role when old components
have to be removed with low expense and without damaging the remaining parts. All
splices of the assembly construction such as screwed and clamped joints but also
traditional removable joints of timber constructions offer the most favourable
possibilities.
The building service engineering almost requires a specific adjustment because it
generally has a shorter lifetime than the primary building structure and has to be
renewed anyway in specific intervals, also without any modification of a building use.
A further aspect for the or optimisation of the variability of
The variability of existing building can be created or optimised through structural
additions, for example by exterior or interior attachments (house in house systems).
The described functional and constructive aspects for multifunctional building
constructions can be summarized to the following main measures, which application
ability has to be evaluated according the specific project related basic conditions:
- Partitioning of existing spaces by addition of horizontal or vertical
structural elements (e.g. walls and floors)
- Creation of bigger spaces in width and height by deconstruction of
structural elements (e.g. walls and floors)
- Optimisation of the variability through the creation of additional spaces,
e.g. by interior or exterior attachments, for example exterior staircases and
floors (horizontal end vertical)
- Optimisation of natural ventilation and lighting by creation of openings in
floors and outside walls or by extension of existing windows.
Illustration 33a: Residential
buildings in a former roman
settlement in Umbria, Italy. The
houses were modified,
refurbished and used for almost
2000 years. The modifications of
the building envelope and the
use of different materials (baked
bricks and natural stones) are
well visible at the facade.
37

3.2.1.9 Durability
Sustainable Building and Construction
The utilisation of structural and functional durable components and materials allow a
long-term use as well as the reduction of maintenance and renovation and
refurbishment costs during the lifetime of buildings. Structural and functional
durability is crucial for the reuse of components.
A building design, well adapted to the specific climate is an important influencing
factor for the durability of materials. The outside walls of buildings, without roof
overhangs are for example not good adapted to humid and tropical climates because
they are much more exposed to the rain as these of building with roof overhang, what
may have an important influence on the durability and maintenance frequency of the
utilised facade materials. Therefore a climate responsive building design is directly
linked with the durability of the building structure.
Illustration 35: Inappropriate reparation of an
old mud plastered timbered wall, with cement
mortar, at a house in the rural area of South
Korea.
Illustration 34: building in
Osaka Japan with destroyed wall
surface, caused by precipitation
water, too small roof overhang
and too low foundation.
Additionally the clay wall has
been covered with cement
plaster, which is not appropriate
regarding construction
chemistry. Hence the plaster
shows cracks and falls off on
several parts.
Materials and components with a long
life cycle and optimised for their use
have an important influence on the total
lifecycle of a building. Additionally
they may be reused after the end of a
buildings life phase and may allow the
construction of new buildings with a
minimised necessity for the processing
of new building materials. Therefore
they can minimise the GHG emissions
related to construction.
Durability is also linked to knowledge
and technology transfer concerning
renewable materials. For the durability
of the end product the time for the
cutting of plants is crucial. E.g. trees
should be cut during the season with
38

Sustainable Building and Construction
reduced growth (autumn, winter or dry season)). The correct seasons for felling of
bamboo are autumn and winter in the subtropics and the dry season in the tropics.
Rule of thumb:
The building material should be as structural durable and environmental friendly as
possible. Regarding this the utilisation of bamboo is the measure of choice for nearly
all construction projects, especially if it is locally available.
A very good example for the multifunctional and appropriate use of bamboo is the
construction of scaffolds even for the construction of skyscrapers, e.g. in Hong Kong.
The well trained workers of mostly small enterprises do construct and deconstruct the
bamboo scaffolds around three times faster and with much less construction and
transport effort than the competitors with steel scaffolds do. The bamboo rods are
connected only with plastic ties. For the deconstruction the ties are simply cut. While
the bamboo rods are reused, the ties can not be reused but recycled. The scaffolds can
be even constructed upside down from the top of buildings.
Illustration 36: Comparison of strength values of fast growing bamboo with relative slow growing
spruce.
Mechanical / Technical properties kp/cm2
Wood
Species
Modulus of
Elasticity
Compression
Strength
σ d
Tensile
Strength
σ z
Bending
Strength
Spruce 111.000 430 900 660 67
Bamboo 200.000 621 - 930 1.484 – 3.843 763 – 2.760 198
σ b
Shear
Strength
τ d
Illustration 37: Efficiency of the material bamboo. Comparison of the energy balances for the
production of different building materials and the relationship to their structural durability (e.g. certain
stress capacity) informs about the sustainability and shows the efficiency of bamboo.
Building
material
Energy of
production
MJ/kg
Density
kg/m3
Energy of
production
MJ/m3
Stress
kN/cm2
Relationship
of energy of
production
per unit
stress
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (4)/(5) (4)/(5)
Steel 30,0 7.800 234.000 1,600 150.000 50
Concrete 0,8 2.400 1.920 0,080 24.000 8
Lumber 1,0 600 600 0,075 8.000 2,7
Bamboo 0,5 600 300 0,100 3.000 1
Comparison
of production
energy per
unit stress
(bamboo has
factor 1)
The Comparison of energy of production per unit stress gives an idea of the
sustainability of bamboo. The production energy and the related greenhouse gas
emissions for steel with a specific strength is around 50 times higher than for bamboo
with same strength.
39

3.2.1.10 Maintenance
Sustainable Building and Construction
Maintenance-friendly design implies the utilisation of durable building products,
which should be well adapted to the specific climate (e.g. for the building envelope)
and utilisation (e.g. structure, building envelope, interior works like floor and wall
finishes, etc.). The maintenance intervals should be relatively long and realised with a
minimal effort and minimised environmental impacts. Additionally the selected
materials should minimise the need for modernization and renovation. A good
example is the selection of floor materials. While textile floor materials generally
contain a mix of different materials, are not reusable, hard to recycle and have to be
renewed in relatively short terms, the utilisation of strong bamboo, timber, ceramic
tiles or natural stones allows a much longer use and without or minimal necessity for
maintenance. Bamboo and Timber floors are sustainable and renewable materials in
two senses. On the one hand they are organic and function as a carbon dioxide sink.
On the other hand they can be easy maintained by refurbished. If the material is thick
enough the floor can be used for several hundred of years or dissembled and reused in
other buildings if required.
3.2.1.11 Lifespan – Reuse and Recycling
Illustration 38: No baby learns that its output is
as worth as mothers input. For other species
human economy must learn to keep its material
in use.
The idea of comprehensive Reuse and
Recycling of building materials and
elements can also be expressed “Cradle
to cradle” design which stands for a shift
in thinking towards sustainability
regarding the material flow in the built
environment. While the term “Cradle to
Grave” implies in the idea that the
lifecycle of products will eventually end
and has to be deposited as waste without
any use, “Cradle to cradle” design
describes the concept that all components
and materials can be reused, refurbished
and recycled, support life and never have
to be deposited as waste.
The goal of “Cradle to cradle” design can
only be achieved by following the
hierarchical path of reuse and recycling
and by the widely avoidance of downcycling
methods. All materials should
preferably be reused on the same quality level otherwise a closed loop system in the
building industry is not achievable. Therefore the careful application of the following
rules of thumb is indispensable:
- Utilisation of "green" ecological materials and cleaner production methods,
avoiding hazardous or poisonous materials (eg. heavy metals and plasticisers)
because all elements are kept in the material flow. They can accumulate in
products after passing recycling processes, though may become more
40

Sustainable Building and Construction
hazardous for people and the environment and may exclude any further
utilisation, except down-cycling and deposition.
- Avoidance of composite products, which are made from different materials
with different properties and therefore are not or only difficult to separate and
to recycle.
Reuse and recycling are sense full supplemented by optimised, durable building
materials and longevity. A material-optimised structure, which fulfils its building
function with less material input generates less remnants, energy input and transport
activities, already during the construction - as well as later during the deconstruction
process. A building with a damage-safe construction, foresighted planned, flexible
and easy to convert for multifunctional use, simplified has following big advantage:
Waste avoidance: A double lifespan of the building signifies half amount of wastes
caused by demolition.
Modular and retrofitting-friendly design allows the easy and non-destructive
replacement of building components (e.g. installation and building service
engineering components), which may have a relative short lifetime compared with the
lifetime of the building itself.
Deconstruction - and reuse friendly design allows the widely non-destructive
deconstruction of a building structure. I history there are many examples for timbered
buildings which can be easily disassembled transported and reassembled (e.g. in
Germany, Japan and Korea). Hence the building components should be assembled in
a way that they easily can be disassembled, transported and reused (see above).
Illustration 39: Construction of
a traditional timbered building
with roof cover out of rice straw.
Those kind of constructions can
be dismantled, transported and
build up at other locations. All
utilised materials are regional
available (natural stones, timber,
clay and straw).
Optimal material-cycles can be realised by the construction of buildings with long
lifecycles, a flexible structure for a good multifunctional use, built as a materialoptimised
structure with economically input of raw materials and the utilisation of
recycled materials. After a long service process the components should be easy and
non-destructive to disassemble and reusable in another construction. At the end of
their lifetime the parts should be easy decomposable to their basic materials to serve
as a new resources.
41

Sustainable Building and Construction
3.2.1.11.1 Reuse of components
The reapplication of used components is quantitative realisable only in a small scale
but it represents the qualitative higher recycling method compared with the material
recycling. It is a major contribution for the realisation of intelligent material cycles.
Therefore first of all the possibilities of its application should be reviewed in every
construction project.
Illustration 40: Clean deconstruction site with a
lot of reusable components.
The reapplication of components in the same project represents the optimal way of
recycling. In general this is only the case during the refurbishment and modification
of buildings. Used components from other civil works are applicable in refurbishment
as well as new construction projects. The components can be supplied directly from
the demounting site or through an intermediate store, a processing or recycling
company or so called component markets and stores.
Complete buildings offered under the term “recycling buildings” can be dismantled to
individual parts and reconstructed somewhere else. Bricks, roof tiles, components
from trusses, wood truss ceilings or columns and massive timber parquet can be
reused for the same function if the fastening allows a non-destructive dismantling.
Illustration 42: Construction of a timbered wall
with old,, and new components.
Illustration 41: Refurbished parquet and doors at
an exhibition of reusable components.
42

Sustainable Building and Construction
3.2.1.11.2 Recycling of building materials
The optimal case of material recycling under the aspects of quantitative resource
protection and waste avoidance can be achieved by the extensive processing of mass
construction materials for new construction materials without deterioration of quality
and in consideration of the qualitative application in buildings and preferably closed
material flows. Since long time steel complies with this requirements and also
stainless steels are produced with high rates of scrap metal.
Illustration 43: The material separation is the
most important recycling condition. Collection of
scrap metals at a building yard.
The purity grade of the collected
materials is the main quality criteria for
the processing at high stage. Therefore
the incoming component inspection
during the receiving of used or residual
building materials at a recycling facility
is the most important measure for quality
control. Here hazardous materials and
harmful substances have to be identified
and separated, same as contraries for the
recycling process which have to be
disposed separately.
3.2.1.11.2.1 Recycling materials made of residual building materials
Recycled materials made of used or residual building materials are not labelled
always as recycling building materials. A good example is the production of highgrade
steel components. They can be produced since a long time with the utilisation of
scrap metal which does also originate from the construction sector. Although the
percentage of scrap metal is very high, the produced steel is generally not called
recycling material.
Illustration 44: Cement blocks made out of
recycled bricks.
Illustration 45: Scrap timber, a raw material for
derived timber products.
43

Sustainable Building and Construction
Recycling materials from used or residual building materials can be differentiated in
the following categories:
- mineral recycling materials
- wooden recycling materials
- metal recycling materials
- synthetic recycling materials
Illustration 46: Soft fibre boards, made from
scrap timber.
3.2.1.11.2.2 Recycling materials made of industrial by-products
Recycling materials made of industrial by-products are materials and compounds
which accrue during industrial processes and can be used for the fabrication of new
products or can be applied to another utilisation. Like all other products, the
harmlessness for men and nature must be warranted by regular inspections.
3.2.1.11.2.3 Recycling materials made of other products, e.g. consumer goods
The return of consumer goods to the material circle by processing recycling materials
and their utilisation for the fabrication of new building products offers a further
potential saving of natural resources, energy and green house gas emissions besides
the utilisation of recycled materials made of residual building materials and industrial
by-products.
All components and building materials, which can be classified in the following 11
groups can be potentially reused or recycled and can even be made out of recycled
materials:
1. Plaster, Mortar-layers und Floor Pavement
2. Concrete and Light-Concrete
3. Construction Boards, Facings and taken down Ceilings.
4. Wall building materials
5. Insulating Material
6. Windows and Glass
Illustration 47: lawn grid element, made from
recycling-plastic.
44

Sustainable Building and Construction
7. Timber and Derived Timber Products
8. Ceramics and Natural Stones
9. Gaskets and und Sealant Films
10. Roofing and Metals
11. Flooring
A very good and wide overview about reuse and recycling and other aspects of
sustainable building and construction in developing countries is given in the
proceedings of CIB W107 1st International Conference: Creating a sustainable
construction industry in developing countries, 11 to 13 November 2000,
Stellenbosch, South Africa. Available at:
http://buildnet.csir.co.za/cdcproc/3rd_proceedings.html
“The International Centre for Science and High Technology (ICS) is an
international technology centre of the United Nations International Development
Organization (UNIDO), created to assist countries in their industrial development
through technology transfer programmes. ICS Gives a Hand to Developing Countries,
it adopts a strategy of project proposals to solve pressing needs. For instance a
building waste recycling plant has been proposed for Afghanistan which will turn
building debris into bricks. Reusing debris will help local authorities to clean up war
damaged areas and at the same time produce low-cost basic building materials for
construction.” Available at: http://www.ics.trieste.it/news/projects.htm
3.2.2 Climate Responsive Building Design
3.2.2.1 Introduction
Compared with the total energy consumption of buildings during their entire life
phase, the proportion for heating, cooling and ventilation as well as the supply with
hot water and electricity covers a significant proportion. Additionally the related GHG
emissions related with the building use are generally comparatively high, compared
with the GHG emitted during the construction and deconstruction phases, like already
explained in the chapter “Proportion of a building’s life phases on the total GHG
emissions”. Therefore savings in this area are crucial to solve the general problem and
to reach the goal of sustainable building and construction. Some of these savings can
be achieved by optimisation of building service engineering and electronic equipment
but they will be only significantly effective if they are utilised on the basis of a
climate responsive building. The conception of these does not need primarily new
technologies but requires an intelligent planning process, which includes detailed
knowledge about the interaction between the local climate and the energy
consumption of building and the consequently implementation in the building design.
This chapter will give a comprehensive analysis and explanation of the basic
conditions of climate responsive building design which have been developed for
places in different climate zones and in combination with old basic strategies (e.g.
heat storage, thermal insulation, passive use of solar energy, cross ventilation and
shading) as well as with actual developments in the areas of design, construction,
45

Sustainable Building and Construction
materials and energy technology. This integrative approach allows the combination of
economic profitability and innovative creativity. It may do sensualise and motivate all
involved parties for the utilisation of special site-specific possibilities as well as to
integrate new technologies in the characteristic regional architecture. Intelligent
design does not cause additional costs, but may reduce the monetary and nonmonetary
costs for the building service significantly and may help to conserve
regional cultural heritages. The available instruments for the analysis and planning of
climate responsive buildings will be explained and systematically related to the
specific basic conditions of building site and the kind of building use. The purpose of
this paper is to encourage awareness and knowledge to realise the concept of the first
decision making processes and design approaches in a climate responsive way. Only
the know how of site specific chances and alternatives enables the sense full
utilisation of most available planning instruments for the further optimisation of the
design of specific buildings.
3.2.2.2 Basic principles of Climate responsive building
Regarding history, it is observable that since people have constructed buildings as
shelters, the site-specific climate always has influenced the building concept and
shape. In times when there did not exist any technical equipment to create indoor
climates independent from outdoor climates, climate responsive design and
construction methods using the positive climate effects and diluting the negative
effects have been the only possibility to create comfortable indoor climate conditions
for the human organism. Hence the traditional architecture in each climate zone and
region offers a large reservoir of suitable building concepts and measures for the
control of the indoor climate by selective utilisation of outdoor climate factors.
Building shapes and construction types were optimally aligned over centuries to the
specific climatic conditions. During the planning of buildings the ancient master
builders took it for granted to incorporate the different seasonal cycles of winter and
summer or rainy season and dry season, day and night, as well as the influences of sun,
wind and precipitations.
Looking at the different traditional building types it is eye-catching that special
building forms were developed out of geographic-climatic circumstances and local
conditions. The people did know how to create adequate indoor climate conditions by
the utilisation of climatically and physical principals and with a minimum supply of
additional energy.
Examples for climate responsive, traditional buildings are the well ventilated pile
buildings in tropical hot-humid regions, the massive adobe (clay) buildings, equipped
with flat roofs and a meagre amount of windows in the dry-hot climate zones, farm
houses in the mountains with flat sloped, wide protruding roofs as well as farm houses
in cost regions with deep-drawn roofs, well adapted for strong wind. The igloos of the
Eskimos with an optimal ratio between the cool building and terrain surface to the
warm indoor volume and equipped with tunnel entrances which work as heat locks,
are ideal examples for climate responsive buildings in extreme conditions.
46

Sustainable Building and Construction
Such traditional building concepts are difficult to imitate in today’s industrialised
society with its complex organisation and in part metropolitan congested urban areas.
Although they do show the design basis, which lays the foundation for a good
functioning indoor climate without necessity for secondary technology or costly
building service engineering, or at least it may remarkably reduce the energy demand
for these. Therefore the specific structural requirements for the different climate zones
will be describes as well as the respective traditional strategies and building types.
The spatial structure and the architectural design building size and shape should be
optimised regarding the surface/ volume ratio, which has effect on the energy
demand of the building for cooling and heating as well as the quantitative material
input, related to the floor area. – interacting with climate responsivity.
The principle of the surface/ volume is shown in the following example and
illustration. 12 buildings with the dimensions 7x7x3m are arranged as single
bungalows, as row houses and as a compact 3-story building. The surface/ volume
ratio changes significantly:
Volume Surface Ratio
a) as single bungalows 1764 m3 1596m2 1:1
b) as row houses 1764 m3 1134m2 1:1.6
c) as compact 3-story building 1764 m3 700m2 1:2.5
Illustration 47a: Volume to surface ratio of
differently arranged building units.
Illustration 47b: Volume to surface ratio of
different sized cubes.
The same principle can be observed when comparing buildings with the same shape
but different dimensions. The following table and illustration demonstrate this by
comparing cubes of different volumes:
Volume Surface Ratio
a) cube 3 x 3 x 3 m 24 m3 45m2 1:0,6
b) cube 7 x 7 x 7 m 343 m3 245m2 1:1.4
c) cube 20 x 20 x 20 m 8000 m3 2000m2 1:4.0
47

3.2.2.3 Climate Factors
Sustainable Building and Construction
The term Climate is defined here according to lexica and simplified scientific
elucidations as the typical coactions of atmospheric and meteorological conditions on
the earth surface over a longer period, in the specific characteristics for a place or a
region (climate zone). The typical climate of a region is also dependent on the
coaction of different coefficients.
For the conception of buildings, which main function is to shelter people from
unfavourable weather conditions, the following climate factors are particular
important:
- The radiation of sunlight (direct and diffuse)
- The air temperature and their short- and long-term fluctuations (day/ year)
- The relative air moisture (humidity in dependence on the air temperature)
- The airflows (power and direction)
- The precipitations (quantity and periodic appearance)
A simple regional classification of climate differentiates between “macroclimate” and
“microclimate”. Sometimes the term “mesoclimate” is utilised for the further
differentiation.
The macroclimate is determined by the location of a region according to latitudes,
continental masses and the oceans. It can be regarded as almost unchangeable by
single construction measures and therefore creates the superior conditions for the
climate responsive building and construction.
The microclimate is dependent on the local conditions of a site and its immediate
surroundings, including vegetation and buildings in the neighbourhood and whether
its location is on slope, in the valley or in the plain. The microclimate can be
influenced by landscape design and constructive measures. Therefore the effects on
the buildings and on the indoor climate can be controlled significantly with intelligent
design strategies.
The indoor - or building climate is composed out of all bioclimatic factors inside of
a building or in its direct neighbourhood and is critical for the human wellbeing in and
around that building. The room climate is a direct result of the design concept and
constructive measures, even in combination with or without technical equipment for
climate control.
3.2.2.4 Climate zones and structural requirements
The main climate zones and their distinctive features are generally simplified
classified in 4 main zones:
- Hot and humid climate zones
- Hot and dry climate zones
- Temperate climate zones
- Cold climate zones
48

Sustainable Building and Construction
Neglecting the particular modifying influences of a site which are effected by the
altitude, the arrangement of water- and land-masses in the region or special wind
conditions (e.g. monsoon climate), the climate zones are located from the equator to
the both poles in similarly parallel belts around the globe. The first two climate zones
are located between the northern (23,45° north) and the southern (23,45° south) tropic
and therefore are called “tropics”.
Illustration 48: World map with the 4 main climate zones.
With increasing distance to the equator, the temperate climate zones and the cold
climate zones follow. The transition areas between the temperate and the tropic
climates sometimes are identified as subtropical zones.
The Climate Classification System first introduced by the Russian-German
climatologist Wladimir Koeppen in the year 1900, which is the most widely used
classification system today the world climates can be more differentiated described
according to the following chart, available at:
http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011700b.htm?terms=k%F6ppen :
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Sustainable Building and Construction
A Tropical humid Af Tropical wet No dry season
Am Tropical monsoonal Short dry season; heavy monsoonal
rains in other months
Aw Tropical savanna Winter dry season
B Dry BWh Subtropical desert Low-latitude desert
BSh Subtropical steppe Low-latitude dry
BWk Mid-latitude desert Mid-latitude desert
BSk Mid-latitude steppe Mid-latitude dry
C Mild Mid-Latitude Csa Mediterranean Mild with dry, hot summer
Csb Mediterranean Mild with dry, warm summer
Cfa Humid subtropical Mild with no dry season, hot summer
Cwa Humid subtropical Mild with dry winter, hot summer
Cfb Marine west coast Mild with no dry season, warm
summer
Cfc Marine west coast Mild with no dry season, cool summer
D Severe Mid-Latitude Dfa Humid continental Humid with severe winter, no dry
season, hot summer
Dfb Humid continental Humid with severe winter, no dry
season, warm summer
Dwa Humid continental Humid with severe, dry winter, hot
summer
Dwb Humid continental Humid with severe, dry winter, warm
summer
Dfc Subarctic Severe winter, no dry season, cool
summer
Dfd Subarctic Severe, very cold winter, no dry
season, cool summer
Dwc Subarctic Severe, dry winter, cool summer
Dwd Subarctic Severe, very cold and dry winter, cool
summer
E Polar ET Tundra Polar tundra, no true summer
EF Ice Cap Perennial ice
H Highland
In the framework of this monograph the highland and the polar climates which are
own classifications according to Koeppen will be described within the chapter cold
climates.
3.2.2.4.1 Hot and Humid Climate Zones
The hot and humid climate zones are predominantly located near the equator. Regions
belonging to it are for example large areas of South and South East Asia, South and
Middle America as well as Central Africa. The monsoon climate zones of South Asia
and North Australia may here be also included because the requirements for the
conception of buildings of the partly similar in these regions.
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Sustainable Building and Construction
The dominant climate factors of hot and humid climate zones are:
- High relative humidity (60 – 100%)
- High average rainfall (1200mm to 2000mm per year, upper extremity to
5000mm per year
- Smooth temperature pattern (average varieties are only approx. 7K per day
and 5K per year)
- Highest air temperature during the day is approx. 30°C (86°F) in annual
average
- Lowest air temperature during the night is approx. 25°C (77°F) in annual
average
- High clouds frequency and therefore high percentage of diffuse radiation
(indirect sunlight)
- At cloudless skies high percentage of direct radiation, but mostly
moderated by clouds
- Low air pressure
- Generally only small airflows, but squalls may appear during rainfalls
- Regional occurrences of tropic cyclones (typhoons and hurricanes)
Illustration 49: map of hot and humid (tropical)
climate zones (a)
Illustration 49a: Typical house shape in a
tropical climate.
Building materials, which can absorb moisture, may be affected by premature aging
or corrosion, caused by mould or the frequent change of solar radiation and rainfalls,
causing swelling and shrinkage. The heavy rainfalls followed by storms are raising
problems according the buildings themselves as well as for the surrounding outside
facilities.
The basic conditions for the construction of climate responsive buildings in hot and
humid climate zones are:
- Relief for the human organism of the unfavourable influences of heat and
humidity (mugginess) by the utilisation of airflow, to support the heat
dissipation by perspiration (skin evaporation).
- Protection of buildings and components from direct solar radiation and
undesired heat storage by shading, building shape and – orientation
- Protection of components from permanent moisture penetration by well
controlled rainwater drainage and ventilation
51

Illustration 49b: Typical pile dwelling in the
warm and humid climate of Paraguay.
Sustainable Building and Construction
During the planning and design of a climate responsive building for humid regions the
utilisation of airflow to reduce the impacts of heat and humidity on humans, buildings
and goods, should always be incorporated. The orientation of the longitudinal axis of
a structure cross to the prevailing wind direction and with a short building depth, can
significantly improve the room climate.
An effective utilisation of the natural airflows can be achieved e.g. by the following
measures:
- Cross ventilation by layout of vents on opposed sides of a building
- Short building or room depth in direction of aeration
- Orientation of aeration inlets in direction of the prevailing wind direction
- Shading of the outside building surfaces in the area of aeration inlets
- Avoidance of aeration barriers inside of buildings
- Utilisation of air buoyancy (chimney effect) for heat removal
- Arrangement of air conducting elements outside of buildings, e.g. walls,
hedges and trees
- Elevation of buildings
- Insertion of open “air storeys” in multi storeys buildings
Illustration 49d: Optimal ventilated building of
churches in the hot and humid climate of
Tanzania, with wide roof overhangs and shorter,
closed east and west facades against low sun in
the morning and afternoon.
Illustration 49c: Multi-storey buildings with big
windows and steep roofs in the monsoon climate
of the east African islands (e.g.: Lamu and
Zanzibar).
The traditional construction types in hot
and humid climates, with generally high
rainfalls are featured by wide, cladding
protecting roof overhangs, which may
also be climate responsive solutions for
modern buildings. For a climate
responsive implementation planning, the
utilisation of airflows in hot-humid
regions is an essential advantage.
Concerning this the protection of the
building envelope from direct sun
radiation and related warming as well as
the utilisation of appropriate
constructions and materials is crucial.
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Sustainable Building and Construction
The heat charge of a building can be minimised by utilisation of components, which
are ventilated on all part. Therefore well rear-ventilated wall structures and
multilayered roof constructions are especially appropriate for hot and humid climates.
If they are additionally constructed out of light building materials with a low heat
storage capacity, a fast evacuation of the absorbed heat by airflow is warranted.
Illustration 49e: An administration building in
tropical Rio De Janeiro, Brazil, with individual
adjustable lamellae functioning as shading
elements, vertical orientated at the east and west
facades, horizontal orientated at the north façade
and no lamellae at the south façade due to the
location on the southern hemisphere. Big
openings in the façade and multi storied air
spaces allow a natural ventilation of the rooms
through shaded and partly greened terrace areas.
Caused by the demand for low heat
storage capacity with low building mass
and for effective aeration of the rooms,
traditional building structures in hothumid
climate zones often are
characterised by permeable wall
structures, made out of palm leaves, reed,
grass or bamboo. For the building
envelope generally, materials with a low
heat storage capacity and high heat
conductivity can be regarded as
appropriate.
A circumferential thermal insulation in
wall - and roof structures only should be
applied on buildings with artificial
climate control. In buildings with natural
air condition with predominantly equate
room temperatures it can cause heat
accumulation. Only for the roof surfaces,
which are exposed to the sun and gain the
main radiation, a thermal insulation can
be appropriate also in hot-humid climates.
Ventilated roof constructions in humid
climate zones have to be designed
according to advanced demands. For
efficient ventilation, the aeration layer
has to be designed adequate and big
enough and has to be equipped with
sufficient and therefore relatively wide
aeration inlets and outlets, which have to
be protected well against bugs.
Additionally the roof ages, which are
exposed to the sunlight, as well as the surfaces of the second layer has to be equipped
with light reflecting layers to avoid primary the heat absorption and secondary the
heat transfer from the first layer to the second.
For the design of shading elements at the building apertures it is important to consider
that they have to allow a free airflow and do affect the ventilation as less as possible.
The vents also have to be equipped with shutters, which have to be well closed during
storms to protect the building from destruction. In tropical cyclones extreme wind
power can appear from different directions followed by suddenly falling air pressure.
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Sustainable Building and Construction
Illustration 49f: Two climate
responsive buildings in the tropical
climate of Takoradi, Ghana, viewed
from west. The left building is
protected against the sun by
horizontal vertical orientated shading
elements integrated in a well
ventilated structure in front of the
building envelope and the spatial
structure. The building on the right
side is well protected against
radiation from the south but has no
fixed shading elements against low
sun in the west. In case of sunshine
there are rollers installed (visible at
the first floor under the roof) which
can be temporarily used to shade the
openings.
Almost all cyclones are accompanied by heavy rainfalls, which may often lead to
significant consequential damages, caused by flooding and undermining. Therefore all
components have to be careful protected against strong pressure - and suction forces.
Also the whole building structure has to be anchored well with the foundations to
which is of imminently importance concerning the resistance of light building
structures against the wind forces. The foundations itself have to have a sufficient
depth and have eventually be protected against undermining by ring-drainages. For all
building openings the application of guards are sense full, which can be closed in case
of early storm warnings.
Illustration 49g: West terraces and
windows of Japanese apartment
buildings well protected against high
sun by roof overhangs and low sun
with flexible but not building
integrated bamboo mats, during
summer.
54

3.2.2.4.2 Arid Climate Zones
Sustainable Building and Construction
All deserts and semi-deserts as well as the predominantly dry steppe areas, which are
also expressed semi-arid regions, belong to the dry and hot or arid climate zones. In
these zones are located the countries of the Sahara, the near- and middle-east, the
south-west countries of Africa and South America, the inner regions of Australia,
northern India, central China, as well as the dry regions of northern Mexico and the
south-western USA.
The dominant climate factors of arid climate zones are:
- Low relative humidity (10 – 50%)
- Very low average rainfall (0 – 250mm per year), rainfall may appear
seldom but with high rainfall for short term
- High variations in temperature (average varieties are approx. 20K per day)
- Highest air temperatures during the day are approx. 35 – 38 C (95 – 100,4
F) in annual average. In continental desert areas they may reach more than
50 C (122 F)
- Lowest air temperatures during the night are approx. 16 – 20 C (60,80 – 68
F) in annual average. Temperatures around 0 C (32 F) may appear.
- Low cloud frequency, mostly clear sky, temporarily high dust portion in
the air
- Intensive direct solar radiation
- High air pressure
- Varying airflows, sometimes very strong, in deserts as sand- or dust-storms
Illustration 50: map of arid and hot climate
zones (b).
Illustration 50a: Typical house shape in an arid
and hot climate.
The effects of the high day temperatures in arid climate zones on the human organism
are moderated by the relatively low humidity, which disburdens the evaporation on
the skin, which is crucial for the cooling of the body. The temperatures during the day
are in most cases higher than the temperature of the human body. Therefore airflows
can be utilised only during the evenings, nights or cooler seasons for the improvement
of the microclimate or the room climate. For perishable products or goods sensible to
heat, the high temperatures are a particular burden, which can be generally only
moderated by artificial assisted climate control. Building materials and –parts are
unfavourably affected, particularly by the direct solar radiation and the high shortterm
temperature variations, which can lead to a remarkable building damages and the
reduction of buildings life phases.
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Sustainable Building and Construction
The basic conditions for the construction of climate responsive buildings in arid
climate zones are:
- Protection of the human body from the stresses and strains of high heat
absorption by direct solar radiation and high air temperatures
- Protection of components and - materials from direct solar radiation as
well as their selection and utilisation under consideration of high shortterm
temperature variations
The climate responsive city planning and the allocation of buildings in arid countries
are generally subject to different conditions as in hot and humid climate zones. Here,
not the permanent utilisation of airflows is the highest bid, but the protection from
heat absorption through direct solar radiation.
First principles, which partly can be found already in the ancient city enclosures of
Mesopotamia, are:
- Convoluted layout of narrow roads, alleys and lanes, partly as dead end,
for shelter from hot winds and sandstorms and for interacting shading of
building storefronts
- Layout of vegetation and water surface areas for the improvement of the
microclimate in settlements or urban areas
- Layout of wind barriers (vegetation and walls) at the edge of settlements to
the open landscape.
- Greening of streets and squares with plants for the shading of the outside
area.
Illustration 50b: Compact and closed buildings
with minimised window openings and thick
massive walls out of earth for big phase shift and
amplitude attenuation in the hot and dry climate
of Morocco (e.g. with cold nights, dependent on
the elevation above sea level).
The cooling effect of vegetation can be
illustrated by the following
measurements which were taken in
South Africa (according to: Gut, P.,
Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for
Appropriate Technology) (editor);
“Climate Responsive Building –
Appropriate Building Construction in
Tropical and Subtropical Regions”;
Switzerland, St. Gall 1993):
Slate roof in the sun 43°C
Concrete surface in the sun 35°C
Short grass in the sun 31°C
Leaf surface of tree in shade 27°C
Short grass in shade 26°C
The climate responsive design of buildings in arid countries is based on a reduction of
heat reception by direct solar radiation on buildings. In this regard the orientation and
the shape of buildings are important influencing factors. The traditional buildings in
arid zones are often compact and related to their volume have preferably small
building envelope surfaces exposed to solar radiation. East and west orientated
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Sustainable Building and Construction
claddings are closed for the most part. Buildings with inside courtyards can also often
be found in hot and dry countries. These courtyards are often separated from the
surrounding rooms by covered shady arcades. They are equipped with plants,
fountains or water basins to some extent. The evaporation of such “green oasis”
improves the room climate significantly. This building type was widely spread in
antique residential buildings around the Mediterranean Sea.
For the conception of floor plans the orientation of rooms inside the buildings and the
time frame of their utilisation during the day are of importance. Sleeping rooms in
residential buildings should be preferably located in the east where the buildings
absorb the heat caused by solar radiation during the morning and can release it until
the night. The traditional habits in arid countries also include the utilisation of roof
terraces as sleeping berth during the cool evening hours. Living rooms can be located
at the western part, because their heat absorption influences the indoor climate during
the late evening and night hours and they can cool off again during the night. The
similar principle is applicable on rooms which utilisation period normally ends in the
afternoon, as e.g. offices and schools. An efficient cooling after the heat absorption is
mainly dependent on the utilised building materials and the construction of the
external building envelope.
Illustration 50c: Narrow shaded alleys and
courtyards in the desert architecture of Algeria
reduce solar radiation absorbance of buildings
and occupants. The platform roofs do function as
sleeping places during the hottest season.
Illustration 50d: Market alleys and intermediate
space between buildings shaded with pergolas
and tendril plants reduce the radiation absorbance
in hot and dry Morocco.
Due to the sometimes very high air temperatures, external air flows can not be used
for cooling during the daytime. This is essential for the extreme dry desert climates.
In other arid and semi-arid climates a utilisation of air flows for cooling is always
sensible if the air temperatures are noticeable lower than the human blood heat
(~35°C; 95°F). Particularly at the coasts, the opening of buildings towards the cool
breezes from the sea can contribute the improvement of the indoor climate.
Thermal air flows inside a building can be utilised by using the chimney effect. They
are based on the different density of warm and cold air and the physical effect of
pressure equalisation. Therefore the location of the supply air inlets in a cool and
shadowed area of the outside wall as well as a preferably high difference of level
between the supply air and exhaust air openings is important to increase the air
renewal rate. The indoor warmed air rises up and escapes through the high located
57

Sustainable Building and Construction
exhaust air openings. Through the low located supply air openings fresh and cooler air
infiltrates. In traditional buildings simple water evaporators often were used which
can be located e.g. near the supply air openings to humidify and cool the air by
evaporation.
The construction of earth ducts in houses for cooling purpose is also a natural climate
control method of traditional building construction in some regions. In higher
buildings staircases which are opened to the cooler basement can be used for the
utilisation of the chimney effect. Rooms with higher headroom can also be cooled by
this effect. The big heights between floors of older buildings in hot and dry countries
are based in part on this awareness. Special construction forms in the Middle East are
so called wind towers or “wind catcher” (in Arabic called “Malquaf” amd in Persian
called “Bagdir”). They are used in high density urban settlements to allow the outside
air to enter the building above the interiors. They are orientated towards the main
wind directions and are conducting the air to the basement through vertical ducts,
constructed out of clay or natural stones and often equipped with additional water
evaporators for the cooling of the outside air, which enters the interiors in the
basement. The air raise flows through the rooms, is getting warmer raises up and
leaves the building threw courtyards or higher elevated openings.
Illustration 50e: Illustration of a
traditional building type in Arab
countries with a wind catcher (or
scoop), low tech evaporative
cooling device (evaporative
cooling) and a double layered
roof.
A special form of climate responsive buildings, underground houses, buried in the
natural ground to minimize the construction effort and get an immense phase shift by
ceiling which are several meters thick, can be found in several cultures over the
world, e.g. in the northern China (Henan and Shanxi province) and northern Tunisia.
All measures for the shading of components and openings, exposed to direct solar
radiation are of fundamental importance. This includes above all the roofs which are
direct irradiated at noon, as well as the east and west claddings which are affected by
direct irradiation during the morning and evening. If not obligatory required, openings
should be avoided in these parts. In other respects they careful have to be protected
from direct solar radiation.
The north, respectively the south claddings (dependent on their location to the equator)
receive much less heat load due to the steeper angle of the solar ecliptic. Therefore
they are much easier to protect by shading elements. It follows from the above
described coherences that the right arrangement of shading elements has to be
determined separately for all claddings. Openings in north and south facades can be
easily protected by horizontal shading elements against the almost vertical solar
radiation while openings in east and west facades can be generally protected well by
vertical shading elements if those openings are not closed totally at the corresponding
day time.
58

Illustration 50f: Underground building in
Tunisia with immense phase shift and amplitude
attenuation by the ground and 3 to 4m thick
ceilings and relative low construction effort.
Every family dug her own house with their own
hands.
Sustainable Building and Construction
Overhanging building elements such as
balconies, roof overhangs as well as
fixed or movable lamellae and blinds can
be used as horizontal shading elements to
protect the openings from steep vertical
solar radiation. Shading elements lying
outside and avoiding the penetration of
radiation through the windows should be
preferred to much less efficient in lying
anti-glare shields in either case. Deep
Loggias and building openings in set-off
outside walls are effective shading
measures.
For the protection from the more
horizontal morning and evening sun,
vertical lamellae or building elements
lying outside and angular turned first of
all are appropriate to protect the openings
from direct radiation from east and west
but to allow an outlook to the north an
east as well as natural lighting of the
interiors. Claddings often are orientated
in a way that their openings require
horizontal as well as vertical shading
elements. For this purpose, gratings made
from different materials (profiled stones,
metal nettings and wooden gratings) have
proved one’s worth, which are located in front of the ultimate cladding and protect the
whole outside wall including the windows and openings. The most effective
protection of closed roof and wall surfaces against solar radiation is a separate natural
ventilated radiation reflecting outer skin.
The climate responsive implementation planning aspires to protect buildings from
direct radiation and high temperatures. Therefore, the surface of all components,
exposed to the solar radiation, preferably has to be designed light in colour or
reflective and the roof and wall constructions have to have high temperature inertia to
minimise the effects of the outdoor temperatures on the interior temperatures
(amplitude attenuation) and to decelerate the heat pass from outside to inside (phase
shift).
In traditional building techniques of the specific regions the requirements on roof and
outside wall have been met by massive and hefty components with high heat storage
capacity and light outside surface for the most part. These kinds of components can
absorb big amounts of heat during the day and release them only during the night
hours to the inside and most notably to the outside.
To achieve similar or better building physical properties on modern buildings but to
avoid the immense wall thickness of traditional building types at the same time, multilayer
wall and roof constructions are used.
59

Illustration 50g: Double layered roofs at a Hotel
building in Morocco. The white plastered outside
layer functions as a well ventilated solar radiation
reflector.
Sustainable Building and Construction
3.2.2.4.3 The Temperate Climate Zones
The outside layer, preferably with a high
light reflection capability protects the
components of the inside layer from
direct sunlight to reduce their heat
absorption. The inside wall of those
multi-layer constructions has the function
to minimise and decelerate the heat
transfer to the interior by high
temperature inertia. A delay of the effects
of the highest day temperatures by 12
hours is perfect because to reach the
interior only during cool night time. Such
a phase shift und simultaneous amplitude
attenuation (flat portion of temperature
curve between maximum and minimal
value) can be achieved by thick building
elements made out of heavy heat storing
building materials or alternatively by the
combination of a heavy building material
with an insulating material at the outside.
For further information about climate
responsive building in hot and dry
climate zones please have a look at the
chapter “Case Studies”.
The temperate climate zones are attached to the tropics to the north and to the south.
Belonging to it are the countries of middle and South Europe, southern South America,
the most regions of the USA, southern Russia and China, Korea, Japan, New Zealand,
regions on the east and south coast of Australia as well as some areas in southernmost
Africa.
In contrast to the previous described climate zones, the temperate climate zones are
featured by distinctive seasons, which are characterized by high varieties in
temperature between summer and winter. This is the main similarity between the
countries located in temperate climate zones. In other respects there are significant
variations between the climatic conditions of single regions, dependent on their
continental location or special influences from close-by huge water bodies or
particular ocean-currents (e.g. Gulf Stream).
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Sustainable Building and Construction
The dominant climate factors of temperate climate zones are:
- Middle to high relative humidity (in middle Europe ~60 – 80%)
- Middle average rainfall (in middle Europe 800mm to 1000mm per year, in
regions near to the tropics ~300mm to 400mm per year)
- Significant varieties in temperature over the year (average varieties in
middle Europe are approx. 18 to 20K)
- Smooth daily temperature patterns (average daily varieties in middle
Europe are approx. 6 to 8K)
- Very different intensities of radiation, dependent on the sky cover and
degree of latitude (high portion of diffuse radiation due to frequent clouds,
e.g. in middle Europe and partially higher amounts of direct radiation in
regions close to the tropics due to more daylight hours compared with the
tropics itself)
Illustration 51: map of temperate climate zones
(c).
Illustration 51a: Typical house shape in
temperate climate.
On the northern hemisphere December to February are the coldest and June to August
are the warmest months (winter and summer). The transitional periods (spring and
autumn) between the warmer and the colder seasons are generally dependent on the
location to the equator and are getting longer with increasing distance. The border
areas between the temperate climate zones and the tropics are identified by long and
warm summers and relatively short winters with rainfalls.
On the other hand, the border areas to the cold climate zones (e.g. Southern
Scandinavia) are identified by long and cold winters and often only two to three warm
summer months. The regions with continental climates (e.g. countries of American
middle-west and central Asia) are characterized by outstanding extreme variations in
temperature between the specific seasons, while coastal areas are influenced by the
temperature of the water bodies and identified by more moderate temperature
conditions. E.g. the warm gulf stream reduces the extreme temperature patters in
Western Europe, specifically in south west Ireland with subtropical vegetation.
The climate conditions of the temperate zones do afford good basic requirements for
the human organism but they call for protection against the extreme temperatures of
summer and winter.
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Sustainable Building and Construction
Due to the very different basic constructional requirements in the specific countries in
temperate climate zones, the climate responsive construction in these zones requires a
special empathy and recognition of the respective regional characteristics. The
traditional construction types are noticeable demonstrating this.
The prior basic conditions for the construction of climate responsive buildings in
temperate climate zones are:
- Protection from wintery cold
- Protection from summery heat
- The necessary protection from occasional and in some regions frequent
precipitation.
The most buildings in these climate zones have to unify all mentioned protective
functions. Thereby the application of technical equipment is commonly inevitable.
The coherence between climate responsive and energy-conscious executions is
eminently intensive in these as well as in cold climate zones due to the regular high
energy demand for heating and cooling purpose. By right conception of settlements
and buildings the energy demand for wintery heating can be reduced by the utilisation
of solar radiation. The energy demand for summery cooling can be reduced by
screening this radiation.
Illustration 51b: Architecture on the Greek
islands with compact buildings, narrow shady
alleys, small windows and flat roofs, which are
functioning as rainwater collectors for cisterns in
an almost dry, so called Mediterranean winterdry-zone.
For the climate responsive city planning,
important measures for the favourable
manipulation of microclimate and
interior-climate are the choices of the
habitat, the orientation of the housingestate
or the sub-assemblies and the way
of allocation of single buildings to the
natural and built environment.
The choices of the habitat of a housingestate
as well as the specific buildings
should be done I a way that avoids the
cooling by cold winds or the location in
cold-air-ponds (swales, troughs, closed
vales) but allows the utilisation of direct
solar radiation for the heating of
buildings in winter. This includes a
screen against main wind directions and
an opening to the southern directions (on
the northern hemisphere) or the northern
hemisphere (on southern hemisphere).
The screen can be realised by grouping
of buildings, wind barriers or
summarized building construction with
short and angled roads.
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Sustainable Building and Construction
Whereas other regions require a preferably wind exposed location when summery
maximum temperatures do pose the bigger burden and necessitate an effective
aeration. Every single habitat does call for a close examination of the year-round
climate conditions to find the right compromise in case of contrary demands.
Illustration 51c: The buildings in the Tuscan
city Siena in Italy have sloped roofs, because the
winter rain is more copious than on above
mentioned Greek islands, but narrow shady alleys
and compact buildings protect against the same
main climatic problem, the summer heat.
Illustration 51d: South facades of houses in the
Umbrian city Perugia in northern Italy with
sloped roofs and relatively big windows to catch
the winter sun and well protected against the
summer sun by movable shutters.
The prior aim of climate responsive design in temperate climate zones also is the
protection from cooling in winter and to utilise as much as possible solar radiation for
the heating of the building. Whereas the prior aim in summer is the protection from
intensive solar radiation and the utilisation of natural airflow for cooling, appropriate
measures to achieve this are:
- Optimisation of the surface/volume ratio of the building
- Choice of roof shape and roof overhang
- Orientation of the building to point of the compass and wind direction
- Opening and optimisation of south orientated outer surfaces (on the
northern hemisphere) or of the north orientated outer surfaces (on the
southern hemisphere) according to the passive utilisation of solar
energy
- The design of appropriate shading elements or anti-glare shields
Thereby the choice of an overall-concept by combination of these measures is
influenced widely by the climate conditions of the specific habitat.
Essential basic demands on the climate responsive implementation planning in
temperate climate zones is the heat insulation of the building, i.e. the constructive and
building physical reduction of the wintery heat losses. Likewise the protection from
high temperatures in arid climate zones, the impacts of low temperatures can be
diluted.
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Illustration 51e: Arcade Corridor on the south
side of a building in Venice, Italy. A comfortable
site during low winter sun with warmed walls in
the back and the sun in the face, while
comfortable shady and cool during high summer
sun.
Illustration 51f: Old timbered farm house in the
costal area of North Western Germany with low
and sloped straw roof well protected against
strong winds and rain. View from North West the
main weather-side.
Sustainable Building and Construction
Essential basic demands on the climate
responsive implementation planning in
temperate climate zones is the heat
insulation of buildings that is the
constructive and building physical
reduction of wintery heat losses. As well
as the protection from high temperatures
in arid climate zones the effects of low
temperatures on the interior climate can
be lowered by good heat storage and
insulation capacity of components and
building materials. Which combination
of both material characteristics is more
appropriate is dependent on the function
of the building or specific rooms and the
period specified for utilisation.
Illustration 51g: Old fisher house in the costal
area of Western Scotland with natural stone walls
and sloped straw roof well protected against
strong winds and rain. View to North West the
main weather-side.
An important component for the heat insulation is also the impermeability of splices
of the building envelope and all building apertures, which can reduce significantly the
required energy demand for heating during winter and possibly also for cooling
during summer. Due to the often strong winds in some countries during the
transitional periods and the cold seasons, in case of leakage implementation of splices
the related heat losses are increasing substantial. Eminently sensible are additional
moving apparatuses out of heat insulating materials, to close not required vents (e.g.
windows during the night or off the utilisation period of a building). Such a kind of
apparatuses like retractable, slide or roller shutters do reduce the heat losses of the
whole building apertures including the splices.
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Sustainable Building and Construction
Particular climate occurrences which require special considerations during the
implementation planning in some areas are, extreme amounts of precipitation
(regarding roofing and drainage), big snow loads (location of building apertures and
load assumptions), summery tornados or typhoons and wintery blizzards which can
turn the climate conditions of a temperate climate zone into the extreme condition of
cold climate zones.
3.2.2.4.4 The Cold Climate Zones
Illustration 51h: Old fisher
house in the costal area of Jeju
Island in South-Korea with
natural stone walls and sloped
straw roof well protected against
strong winds and rain. The big
opening in the south façade
allows comfortable ventilation
and shading during the warm
summer, allows passive solar
utilisation during the winter and
can be closed during cold nights
and strong winds. View from the
south west.
The cold climate zones are attached to the temperate climate zones in direction of the
poles. Except the Antarctic, all countries of the cold climate zones are located on the
northern hemisphere. Countries belonging to are Canada, Alaska, northern states of
the USA, Greenland, Island as well as parts of Scandinavia, the Baltic States and
Russia.
Compared with the temperate climate zones the cold climate zones are even more
characterised by distinctive seasons. The dominant factors of cold climates are:
- Low relative humidity, especially during the winter months
- Low rainfall (only approx. 250mm/a in the fringe area to the arctic zone)
- Low temperatures in annual average (0 – 6°C, or 32 – 42,8°F)
- Long-lasting frost periods (5 to 9 months), in part permafrost in the low
lying support-layers
- Low variations in temperature over the day (due to long brightness in
summer and long-lasting darkness in winter)
- High annual variations in temperature in continental areas (Siberia 45 –
60K)
- Low to middle annual variations in temperature in coastal areas or areas
influenced by the sea (Island and Norway 11 to 15K)
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Illustration 52: map of cold climate zones (d).
Sustainable Building and Construction
Illustration 52a: map of polar climate zones (e).
The survival of people in cold climate zones is dependent on intensive protection
measures due to the harsh climate conditions. The main burden for the human
organism is the low temperature. The co action of humidity from rainfall and frost can
have negative impacts on the building substance and cause damages.
In the framework of this monograph the highland and the polar climates which are
own classifications according to Koeppen will be described within this chapter. The
construction of buildings in the Antarctica is confined to exceptional cases. The only
difference between the virtual unsettled south-polar area and the cold climate zones
on the northern hemisphere is the opposite orientation of the housing estates and
buildings to the points of the compass.
Illustration 52b: map of highland
climate zones (f), with
differentiated description of the
specific properties.
The basic conditions for the construction of climate responsive buildings in cold
climate zones above all are the protection from coldness during the most part of the
year as well as from strong wind and storm during the long clod season and the best
possible utilisation of solar heat during the short summer.
The climate responsive building design in cold regions also has to meet the prior
intention of maximal utilisation of winter sun for the support of the interior heating.
The already mentioned optimisation of the surface/ volume ratio for the reduction of
the heat delivering building envelope is particular important. A demonstrative
example for it is the traditional construction type in the coldest area populated by
people, the Eskimo igloo. It does consist out of a hemisphere, lying on his cutting-area,
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Sustainable Building and Construction
creating a hot air dome with a minimized surface area. The lower located entrance
tunnel or inching motion is located on the wind abandoned side of the structure and
does avoid the inflow of the heavy cold air from outside. I every case it should be
strived for compact building design.
Illustration 52c: The Eskimo Igloo a sustainable
building with optimal surface/ volume. It consists
out of the “insulation” material snow and has a
low located tunnel entrance which anticipates
disperse of the uprising warm inside air.
The orientation of a building has to be
designed, dependent on the main
directions of cold winds and preferably
big cladding parts to the south. The
cooperation of climate responsive shape
and orientation of a building has e.g. led
to the characteristic residential building
type in the predominantly cool states of
New England in the north-east of the
USA. That building type, also referred to
as “saltbox”, has a big low lying windresistant
roof with big on the northern
wind exposed side. On the southern side
it is equipped only with a short roof
surface in combination with a high sun
exposed outside wall. During the winter
timber, straw balls or snow is piled up at
the low northern wall under the roof overhang for additional insulation. This
technique is common also at traditional buildings in other cold regions.
It is suggested to design the floor plan according to a “temperature hierarchy” or
zoning of the rooms. Adjoining rooms and adjoining buildings, such as garages and
storerooms are well located as a buffer zone on the northern side. Attics and cellars
(latter especially in case of permafrost) do fulfil the same function. At the southern
side the absorption of solar radiation should be allowed by bigger window surfaces
which must be lockable during the night, preferably by insulated retractable shutters
or roller shutters. The attachment of winter gardens or partial-glazed terrace areas also
can support effective the heating of the rooms arranged behind. In doing so, a
sufficient ventilation and sun protection for warmer summer days have to be attended.
Entrance areas desperate have to be equipped with wind screens.
Illustration 52d: A house in the Swiss Alps with
low roof at the northern side and insulating snow
mass.
On buildings which are only temporarily
used during the day (e.g. schools, offices
and the like), the sealing of all windows
with insulated devices off-time is an
efficient measure for the conservation of
energy. In the traditional architecture the
stove was located often in the middle of
the building. Rooms with heat producing
appliances (machines, central-heating
boilers and the like) had to release their
heating energy to the surrounding rooms
during the most time of the year but
during the warm summer weeks they
were good ventilated to release the heat
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to the outside.
Sustainable Building and Construction
The climate responsive implementation planning is based on the fact that the building
envelope in cold climates is a more protecting and separating element between
exterior climate and interior climate than in any other climate zone. She has the
predominant function to reduce the heat flow from the interior to the exterior to the
unavoidable minimum.
Modern buildings can get a climate responsive envelope by the combination of
several layers with different material characteristics and functions. The outer layer has
to protect the building from humidity and wind. At its inside a well insulating layer
has to be applied. This can be a layer of air or insulation material or both. The interior
layer only does function as room surfaces but also may support the insulating effect.
Here as well as in other climate zones a special form of wind and heat protection for
the exterior walls is the planting of greenery. For the south cladding plants dropping
their leaves during the winter should be selected, on all other claddings evergreen
greenery should be preferred. In doing so, the winter sun can heat up the south
cladding, an effect which becomes less important during long lasting winter darkness
in the areas of the polar circle.
Illustration 52e: The South facade of a school in
the Swiss Alps with thick insulated walls and big
insulated windows for the utilisation of the winter
sun. During the summer hidden rollers (Visible
on top of the window openings) can be pulled
down to shade the openings. The construction is a
contemporary timber construction orientated at
traditional building design. in the Swiss Alps
with low roof at the northern side and insulating
snow mass.
An intensive protection from intruding
moisture is necessary on all components,
above all on the roofing. The more flat
the slope is designed, the bigger is the
problem of backwater during snow and
ice cover or upwards driven water during
wind especially on wind ward parts.
Beneath carefully implemented roof
coverings itself, additional screens fixed
below the roofing are today and common
and necessary.
The impermeability of splices of the
building envelope and particularly of the
doors and windows, which are
contributing much to the reduction of
heat losses, has been already discussed in
the context of temperate climate zones.
Hence it has naturally a very positive
effect in cold zones.
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3.2.2.5 Data and Planning Tools
Sustainable Building and Construction
The procedure for climate responsive design and sustainable building and
construction can be summarised to 3 main procedures, the collation of information,
the building design and analysis of collated information and design procedure.
Therefore the analysis is interacting between the information and the design procedure
and ends only with the finalised planning process. Different analysis methods are
described after the listing of the 3 main procedures and its partitions:
1. Collation of information about:
- Meteorological data (Macro and Micro Climate including detailed information
about solar ecliptic, sky conditions and radiation, temperature range (seasonal
minimum and maximum temperatures during night and day), humidity,
precipitation, air movement and miscellaneous)
- Building site (topography and related ventilation, orientation, vegetation,
neighbouring structures, local climate factors and the requirements of the user)
- Building usage and cultural background of occupants (type of usage, period of
usage as well as clothing, traditions and aesthetic values of occupants)
- Economic aspects (financial means, standards of building as well as available
labour, materials and technologies)
2. Analysis of collated information and building design by:
- Analogue diagrams (e.g. solar diagrams, shading diagrams, comfort diagrams
and tables)
- Computer programs (building simulation and assessment tools, utilising digital
data about regional climate as well as properties of building materials and
building components.
3. Development of the appropriate design concepts by natural and mechanical
means:
- Building orientation and shape
- Type of Construction
- Building materials and components
- Natural ventilation
- Passive heating (e.g. Utilisation of solar energy)
- Passive cooling (e.g. shading measures)
- Utilisation of solar energy and/ or shading measures
- Air humidification
- Air dehumidification
- Appropriate building service engineering
3.2.2.5 .1 Collation of Information
Detailed meteorological data generally can be obtained by national meteorological
associations as well as private companies in form of printed or digital databases. To
locate specific data bases and if it should seem that there is no detailed local climate
data available, it might be helpful to search the database of the World Meteorological
Association (WMO) available on the World Wide Web:
http://www.wmo.ch/index-en.html
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Sustainable Building and Construction
If there should be no regional climatic data available at all, it is sense full to install a
climate station at the building site to record the main climate data such as hourly wind
speed and direction, temperature, humidity, precipitation as well as direct and indirect
solar radiation at least for the period of one year. They can be measured by state of the
art sensors coupled to digital data loggers.
Additionally to the above mentioned possibilities to determine specific climate data, it
is useful to utilise software which is interpolating climate data worldwide. Hence it is
possible to work on climate responsive building design with relatively exact climate
data for every location on earth without the necessity for an own data evaluation. The
software METEONORM is such a meteorological database and calculation program.
It is available in English, German, French, Italian and Spanish. The generated data
sets can be exported to building simulation programs for the operational performance
of buildings. The program is developed by the company “econcept” and is available at
the World Wide Web: http://www.econzept.com/. A detailed description of the
database and a shareware version can be downloaded at:
http://www.meteotest.ch/pdf/am/mn_description.pdf
The urban microclimate may differ extremely from surrounding rural areas. The so
called specific urban climate is extremely site specific and dependent on many
influence factors. It is generally characterised by less humidity, more extreme
temperature and varying wind patterns as well as higher air pollution and less solar
radiation. Information and specific urban climate data as well as a lot of further
information such as tools and links are available at the World Wide Web at:
http://www.urbanclimate.net/
Non climatic, site specific data, regarding topography and city structure, can be
achieved in general from regional authorities, universities or specific associations and
organisations or have to be evaluated for each project if sufficient data is not available.
Presently worldwide more and more communities are introducing computer based
geographical information systems (GIS). Among other things these systems offer the
collation and evaluation of all site specific topographic, geological and construction as
well as infrastructure specific data. They are indispensable for the efficient
management and control of the build environment especially for urban areas. An
index of World-Wide Web (WWW) servers which are likely to be of interest to the
GIS community is offered by Department of Geography in the University of
Edinburgh, in collaboration with the Association for Geographic Information,
available at the World Wide Web: http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/home/giswww.html
GRASS GIS (Geographic Resources Analysis Support System) is an open source,
Free Software Geographical Information System (GIS) with raster, topological
vector, image processing, and graphics production functionality that operates on
various platforms through a graphical user interface and shell in X-Windows.
Available at the World Wide Web: http://www.geog.unihannover.de/grass/index.html
Topographic data worldwide can be achieved by the Global Land One-kilometer
Base Elevation (GLOBE) which is an internationally designed, developed, and
independently peer-reviewed global digital elevation model (DEM), at a latitude-
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Sustainable Building and Construction
longitude grid spacing of 30 arc-seconds (30"). The data are available on CD-ROM
and the World Wide Web: http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/topo/globe.shtml
In any case it is suggested to analyse the building site during the very early design and
decision making process and to contact also local people and neighbours to evaluate
site specific climatic and non climatic characteristics. All other required information
such as Building usage, cultural background and economic aspects are in general also
locally available.
3.2.2.5 .2 Analysis of collated information and building design
All collected data should be collated in tables, graphs and other planning tools to
provide a sufficient overview about the specific conditions and related appropriate
measures for passive and active conditioning of buildings. A very good example for
sufficient collation and presentation of all important data for a climate responsive
design of buildings is shown in “Appendix 1 - Planning Tools for Climate
Responsive Building and Construction in the hot and humid climate zone of
Pondicherry, India” (from: Krishan, A., Yannas, S., Baker, N., Szokolay, S. V.
(editors); “Climate Responsive Architecture – A Design Handbook for Energy
Efficient Building”; India, New Delhi, 2001). The listing includes:
- Description of climate context
- Climate Classification Chart (including solar chart which is indispensable
for the design of passive solar heating and shading)
- Eco chart (detailed table with monthly collation of climate factors)
- Comfort Zone Chart (comfort of outdoor climate and required
conditioning of interior by heating or cooling measures)
- Annual Solar Radiation Chart (for the calculation of annual solar gains)
- Direct Solar Radiation Chart for 21 st March/ respective 21 st October
(average daily solar radiation)
- Direct Solar Radiation Chart for 21 st June (maximal daily solar radiation)
- Direct Solar Radiation Chart for 22 nd December (minimal daily solar
radiation)
- Mahoney tables 1 and 2 with more detailed climate data
Computer Software for building simulation and assessment which is available for or
adaptable to different climates and regional building practices allows an efficient and
fast verification of the developed building design. While for the developed countries
there is a relatively huge range of computer software available, from the inspection of
building design during the early design process as well as the assessment during the
late planning phases, for developing countries the market is comparable small.
Therefore among other organisations UNEP IETC is working in cooperation with
international partners on the development of such software tools.
An overview about already existing tools for the simulation, certification and
assessment for buildings which are able to evaluate the environmental impact for the
operation and/ or construction of buildings is given in “Appendix 2 – Life Cycle
Assessment Tools”. The computer software can be divided into three main categories:
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Sustainable Building and Construction
- LCA of building materials and products (environmental impact of selected
building materials)
- Energy demand for the operational performance of buildings (heating, cooling,
ventilation, lighting, building service engineering and equipment) for a
specific period (in general for one year)
- Environmental impact assessment of buildings over the entire life cycle
(utilisation of the previous information plus many additional specific data to
calculate a life cycle assessment)
3.2.3 Energy efficient building conditioning measures and building services
engineering
For the natural conditioning of buildings as well as for the selection and application of
buildings products of the building service engineering, principally the same indicators
for sustainability are valid as for building products and elements. Additionally very
energy efficient systems and products should be selected for technical components
such as heating, cooling, ventilation and lighting devices. However their application
should be minimised as much as possible by intelligent building design which implies
passive heating and/ or cooling systems as well as natural ventilation and lighting
systems. Decentralised power and heat production, preferably based on renewable
energies can significantly reduce the greenhouse gas emissions in the building and
construction sector. Furthermore the installation of ecological sanitation and
decentralised water systems does also reduce the energy demand and green house gas
emissions for the building and construction sector related infrastructure.
The field of building service engineering is very complex. The right application of
appropriate systems is dispensable on numerous factors and has to be discussed in the
early planning and decision making building design progress with experts. The
mentioned-below principles, systems and measures may only give a brief overview
about appropriate technologies and their application and are not exhaustive.
For further information concerning the energy demand for building service as well as
building service engineering, you might visit the website of the Energy Research
Group at the University College Dublin, School of Architecture, which offers plentiful
information and documents for further reading to download: http://erg.ucd.ie/
3.2.3.1 Natural Lighting
Contemporary buildings often are not well designed for the use of natural day light
and are equipped with artificial lighting systems which service is also required during
daytime when enough light for natural lighting is available. Especially non residential
buildings are designed with large only artificial lighted areas. These systems are
responsible for a big part of the energy consumption and the related GHG emissions
for the service of buildings. Like already mentioned in the previous chapter “Climate
responsive Building” an inappropriate design of glazed areas can also cause a high
cooling or heating load of buildings and is therefore directly connected to the indoor
climate and the green house gas emissions for conditioning of interiors.
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Sustainable Building and Construction
“In office buildings the effort for lighting can account for as much as 50% of
electricity consumption and if the building has a deep plan it may use more energy
than the heating does. In the summer months excess heat generated by artificial
lighting may entail the consumption of further energy for artificial cooling. Modelling
studies of an identical, well designed and well controlled 54m² office rooms in Athens,
London and Copenhagen indicated that in all three places artificial lighting accounted
for about 35% of total lighting, heating and cooling cost over the year. … The
substitution of daylight for artificial light can be expected to produce savings in
the range 30 - 70%, provided that use of the artificial lighting installation is well
controlled.” (School of Architecture, University College Dublin; Daylighting in
Buildings; Ireland, Dublin 1994)
Illustration 53: Energy costs in a model office
room.
The spectrum of the natural light is
indispensable for the well being of people
and can not be replaced by conventional
electrical lighting systems. Therefore at
any design and construction project the
sufficient natural lighting and ventilation
of the residence areas should be
guaranteed. This can basically be realised
by the utilisation of the components and
measures shown in the following
illustration and description.
- Sufficient quantity, dimension and positioning of glazed areas in the building
envelope.
- Resident areas and carrels generally should be not more than ~5 meters away from
vertical orientated windows in the façade area to guarantee a sufficient natural
lighting. The daylight factor deep in the rooms can be raised by convenient
application of light directing elements, e.g. light shelves, reflective blinds or
prismatic components in the window area, especially in the higher part, for sufficient
natural lighting up to ~7m away from the windows. Light shelves are placed in the
window openings above eye level of the occupants to provide shading for the room
close to the window and to redirect the incoming light to the rooms´ ceiling. The
surfaces of the shelves as well as of the interior ceilings should be equipped with high
reflective surfaces for more effective lighting of the interior.
- Adjustable louvres with light reflecting or diffusing finishes often are more
responsive compared to fixed light shelves, because they can track the sun and
therefore lighten the interior more effective, and on overcast days they cause no
obstruction of daylight, if completely retractable.
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Illustration 54: Examples of different daylighting
devices.
Sustainable Building and Construction
- Fixed louvres, equipped with lenses,
mirrors, holographs or prisms, custom
made for specific latitude and facade
orientation, are excellent components to
provide shading and to redirect diffuse
and/ or direct sunlight deep into the
building. These sophisticated
components were developed in the last
decades and therefore are not widelyused
yet.
- Application of rooflights which are
useful elements to supply resident areas
with natural light, because the incidence
of light is higher through horizontal
orientated openings than it is through
vertical with same size. Rooflights
should not be used as a substitute for
view windows because it is proved that a
meaningful visual contact with the
outside is essential for the wellbeing of
the occupants especially during long
working hours. A disadvantage of
rooflights is that they collect more
sunlight and heat in the summer than in
the winter. Therefore they should be
equipped with appropriate shading
elements or replaced by well orientated
clerestories.
- Arrangement of light wells or glazed
areaways and atria in the core zone of
big buildings which can be used e.g. also
for horizontal and vertical opening up.
The glazing of an open light well can
reduce the daylight level in the created
atrium by at least 20% and sometimes
50%. The proportions of an atrium as
well as the properties of the utilised
glazing and the colour of the interior
walls do directly determine the quantity
of light which reaches the floor. Atria,
same as rooflights, have to be well
protected against sunlight during the hot
seasons to avoid overheating.
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Illustration 55: Light directing
components.
Sustainable Building and Construction
Illustration 57: Adjustable external louvres, protecting again
direct sunlight and open for diffuse and reflected radiation.
Illustration 56: Adjustable external louvres during high & low
angle sun.
Illustration 58: Internal mirrored
louvres, protecting again direct
sunlight and open for diffuse and
reflected radiation.
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Sustainable Building and Construction
- Installation of light pipes and light ducts which are mechanically relative complex
daylighting devices. Sunlight is collected by heliostats (movable mirrors which are
automatically tracking the sun) or lenses and reflected into the building. A technically
more advanced method is to concentrate the collected sunlight by means of lenses or
mirrors and to direct it through flexible tubes with a special liquid (so called optical
liquids) or acrylic rods or glass-fibre cables (so called optical fibres), which can
function itself as illuminant or contribute lighting systems in dark areas with
concentrated natural light.
Illustration 59: External device using prismatic component.
Illustration 60: Redirecting
Light with heliostats and light
pipes.
- Appropriate application of shading devices, to avoid overheating of the interior by
sunlight and protect it from glare. External shading devices are the most effective for
avoiding heat gain in the building. Internal shading devices are less effective
because they are producing heat where it is not desired, creating a greenhouse effect
inside. Fixed shading devices are mechanically easy to install and require no control
system. Well designed they are an appropriate climate control element because they
can also be used as light and airflow directing components. Adjustable shading
devices require control systems and are more vulnerable to mechanical problems
especially when they are installed outside and exposed to the weather, but they are
more flexible and can be utilised in a very effective way. They may respond better to
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Sustainable Building and Construction
the movement of the sun and allow a better control of diffusion and glare, if
completely retractable they do not cause obstruction of daylight on overcast days.
Illustration 61: External versus internal louvres.
Illustration 63: Variations of different external
shading devices, appropriate to different designs,
latitudes and orientations.
Illustration 62: Transparent Shading System
(with prisms or mirrors).
Illustration 63a: External shading devices for
different directions and building locations on
southern or northern hemisphere. Horizontal
blends on the southern or northern facade,
vertical blends at the eastern and western facade.
- The utilisation of translucent insulation material (TIM) which is generally made
out of transparent polycarbonate (PC) or acrylic (PMMA). Originally developed for
the translucent insulation of walls to allow passive solar heating, the material is today
also used as insulating, light scattering and light redirecting component for various
types of glazing. It is used in interspaces of insulated double glazing or in between
single panes to improve the insulation properties.
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Illustration 64: Schematic sketch of idealised
and realistic geometry of capillary and squarecelled
honeycomb structures.
Sustainable Building and Construction
Illustration 65: Principle of the light directing
effect in translucent insulation material.
Illustration 65a: Samples of different TIM
Materials.
Climate responsive glazing well adapted to the main requirements: insulation and
light transmittance. While single glazing out of clear float-glass does transmit approx.
85% of light and has a poor insulation effect, double or triple glazing does reduce
the transmission to 70-60% but has much better insulation properties. For specific
appliances there are special glasses available, such as tinted glass (reducing heat gain
and cut down daylight transmission by distortion of outside colours), heat absorbing
glass (reducing heat gain by only ~10%), reflective glass (reflecting up to ~50%) and
“low-e” glass (having a very low heat loss and a high light transmission factor of
~80%, thus being appropriate for passive solar utilisation). Responsive chromogenic
glasses are relatively expensive high-Tec products which are based on different
working principles:- Electrocromic glass changes its optical absorption properties in
response to the application of an external electric field. It can be switched from clear
to dark or cloudy by reversing the electrical field. Control technology is required.
Thermocromic glass automatically switches between heat-transmitting (clear) and
heat reflecting (diffuse) state. No electrical field or control technology for regulation
is required.
Photochromic glass darkens and lightens in response to the intensity of incoming
light. It darkens exposed to strong solar radiation and becomes clear when affected by
less intense radiation. No electrical field or control technology for regulation is
required.
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Illustration 66: Solar gain factors of different
glazing and shading devices.
Sustainable Building and Construction
Dirt on vertical windows can reduce
the daylight transmittance by 10% and
more. If dirt is allowed to accumulate on
rooflights there is no limit for the
reduction in performance (according to
McNicholl and Lewis, 1996). Therefore
windows should be cleaned regularly.
The installation of glazing and daylight
systems which are easy to clean and to
maintain are indispensable for efficient
natural lighting and to minimise the
building service cost.
Due to the fact that definitions and
assessment methods for window systems
differ from one country to another and
are leading to considerable confusion for
the building designer and product
specifier, the Advanced Windows
Information System (WIS) project of
European Commission Directorate
General XII for Science, Research and
Development has developed the WIS
tool which is a uniform, multi-purpose,
PC based European software tool to
assist in determining the thermal and
solar characteristics of window systems (glazing, frames, solar shading devices, etc.)
and window components. The tool contains databases with component properties and
routines for calculation of the thermal/optical interactions of components in a window.
More information as well as the download of a freeware version of the program is
available at: http://erg.ucd.ie/wis/html_pages/aboutwis.html.
The use of lighting design computer tools is indispensable for an effective
utilisation of natural as well as artificial lighting during the early planning phases.
The development, enhancement and validation of selected daylighting programs as
well as their connection with detailed, dynamic thermal and energetic building
simulation programs has been supported and coordinated by the International Energy
Agency (IEA), Solar Heating and Cooling Programme Task 12. Daylighting and
electric lighting programs are combined in the ADELINE integrated software
system (detailed information is available at:
http://www.ibp.fhg.de/wt/adeline/index.html). Lighting calculations are executed by
SUPERLITE (daylight simulation and artificial lighting calculations program) and
visualised with RADIANCE (open source ray-tracing software:
http://radsite.lbl.gov/radiance/HOME.html).
79

3.2.3.2 Artificial Lighting
Sustainable Building and Construction
The need for artificial lighting should be minimised as much as possible but beneath
the utilisation of natural lighting, the use of artificial lighting is indispensable in
almost all buildings.
Illustration 66a: Combination of
effective natural and artificial
lighting.
To minimise the required energy end related greenhouse gas emissions the following
measures should be considered:
- The light source (e.g. lamp or tube) should be in an adequate distance to
the lighted surface (as close as possible, according to the properties of the
specific light source) because the light decreases in quadrate by distance.
- Efficient balance between artificial and natural lighting by intelligent
building design, location of luminaries and up to date measuring and
control technology or awareness rising of users for efficient manual control
of lighting, to avoid unnecessary artificial lighting.
Illustration 66b: Automatic
lighting control for efficient use
of artificial lighting.
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Sustainable Building and Construction
- Lighting systems should be designed for easy maintenance and cleaning
because dust on luminaries can reduce the efficiency of luminaries by up to
25%. Poor maintenance of a typical fluorescent lighting system can reduce
the efficiency by 50% (according to McNicholl and Lewis, 1996).
- Utilisation of lamps with long lifetime and low energy consumption. In
future Light emitting diodes will presumably satisfy the claims of
sustainable artificial lighting at low cost.
The following table shows the efficiency of different light sources (according to
collated internet resources, Schuetze, T.; Hamburg, Germany 2003)
Lamp type Efficiency in Lumens/W Lifetime in hours
Incandescent lamp 14 1.000
Fluorescent lamp 25 20.000
Low Pressure Sodium 67 7.000
High Pressure Sodium 96 12.000
LED 25 (~200 in future) 20.000 (~100.000 in future)
3.2.3.3 Natural Ventilation
Sufficient ventilation is indispensable for the health of occupants because it does
replace used air by fresh air and does remove humidity, CO2 and pollutants, resulting
from people as well as emissions from building materials.
Natural ventilation is caused by pressure differences between interior and exterior or
temperature differences inside of a building which are naturally produced and do
allow air to flow inside and outside of a building. For the successful design of a
naturally ventilated building the wind characteristics and air flow patterns around a
building, influenced by climate, neighbouring topography, plants and buildings has to
be taken into account. Furthermore the fulfilment of natural ventilation depends on the
location of vents (e.g.: windows and rooflights) and the interior design (e.g. walls,
openings and courtyards).
Contemporary buildings are often equipped with artificial ventilation systems and not
well designed according to the specific climate. Like already described detailed in the
chapter “Climate Responsive Building”, an appropriate building design can avoid the
necessity of mechanical ventilation. Therefore here only a brief overview will be
given about appropriate measures for natural ventilation. Appropriate ventilation is
also a measure for cooling of interiors. Therefore further ventilation types will be
mentioned in the chapter passive cooling.
Good aeration of all residence areas can be achieved by room arrangements which
afford cross ventilation. If this is not possible, the sufficient air exchange rate has to
be proved at least by controlled exhaust. The necessary installations for it require
space in form of vertical and horizontal ducts, which should be provided during the
design process. Atria and different kind of chimneys can be used to force the natural
ventilation by natural winds, buoyancy, the stack effect or solar radiation.
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Sustainable Building and Construction
Illustration 67: The Queen’s Building De Montfort
University (UK) building uses the stack effect of
chimneys to ventilate auditoria and classrooms. The
design of displacement ventilation and temperature
stratification was predicted by saline bath simulation.
Open able Rooflights and clerestories are also appropriate components for natural
ventilation. Dependent on their design they can be used as exhaust, using wind forces
outside of the building or the buoyancy inside.
Natural ventilation can be supported by mechanical ventilation systems (driven by
electric ventilators) to achieve the required indoor air exchange rate. These systems
are called “Hybrid Ventilation Systems” and generally are a good and energy efficient
alternative to exclusively mechanical driven ventilation systems.
Illustration 68: The stack effect described in the
illustration can also be induced by placing vents near the
floor and under the ceiling.
Illustration 67a: Wind induced cross
ventilation (top) and temperature
induced ventilation through an inside
courtyard (bottom).
Illustration 69: Black coated pipe as
solar chimney.
82

3.2.3.4 Mechanical Ventilation:
Sustainable Building and Construction
Illustration 69a: Floor plan,
section and perspective view of a
multidirectional windcatcher in
the Middle East.
Simple mechanical ventilation systems are exhausting air systems which are working
on the principal of cross ventilation. Exhaust air vents are replaced by low-energy
fans which drawn the exhaust air of the building through ducts. Fresh air is drawn
through openings which can be integrated into windows, doors or walls. Mechanical
Ventilation systems are sensible to guarantee a sufficient ventilation and air exchange
rate at building with an inappropriate design for natural ventilation.
Furthermore the use of mechanical ventilation is indispensable for well insulated and
“airtight” buildings with air to air heat recovery systems. These systems have to be
equipped with air filters to protect the air ducts and heat exchangers from dust and
microbiological contamination. The air resistance of these fine filters (which have to
be replaced regularly!) are too high to allow natural ventilation and therefore require
mechanical ventilation.
Mechanical Ventilation Systems can be divided into three groups:
- Extract or exhaust ventilation systems
- Supply ventilation
- Balanced Supply and extract ventilation
For energy efficient use of mechanical ventilation systems Fans with a high efficiency
and adjustable speed drive, according to the varying required air flow and exchange
rate should be applied. Furthermore the air ducts, fittings and filters should have a low
air resistance.
For an appropriate building design and to avoid problems with natural ventilation
such as insufficient ventilation, uncontrolled ventilation and draughts the use of
computerized fluid dynamic techniques (CFD) or simplified network models during
the early design process is suggested. Well known CFD tool is e.g.:
PHOENICS (http://www.cham.co.uk/phoenics/d_polis/d_info/phover.htm)
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Sustainable Building and Construction
For further information concerning CF you might visit “CFD Review” which is a
news/support/information clearinghouse for the computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
community. It is a place where the CFD community can learn about the latest
developments in CFD technology, read about interesting applications, post questions,
and generally help each other out. Available at the World Wide Web:
http://www.cfdreview.com/
For the design of mechanically ventilation systems multizone air flow models can
be used. A well known model is e.g.: COMIS (http://wwwepb.lbl.gov/comis/users.html,
free download for DOS and UNIX Systems)
For further information concerning infiltration and ventilation please visit:
International Network for Information on Ventilation: http://www.inive.org/Index.htm
Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre: http://www.aivc.org/
Hybrid ventilation and building-integrated ventilation, Norwegian Building Research
Institute (includes links to realised case studies in Norway):
http://www.byggforsk.no/prosjekter/hybvent/
3.2.3.5 Cooling, Heating and Air Conditioning
Contemporary buildings, especially non residential buildings like offices and stores
are often equipped with air conditioning systems for cooling and/ or heating to
supply the interior with conditioned air, even when the outdoor climate meets the
required characteristics concerning temperature and humidity for the wellbeing of the
occupants. Due to the design of contemporary architecture and the climate change
from year to year more and more air conditioning systems for single rooms or are sold
with a remarkable effect on the electricity consumption and related Green House Gas
emissions. Furthermore mechanical conditioned air may cause multitude of physical
disorders. I many cases the air (microbiological quality, temperature and humidity) or
the system itself (noise and microbiological impact) is responsible for the so called
Sick-Building-Syndrome. Furthermore these systems are responsible for a big part of
the energy consumption and the related GHG emissions of buildings. Today there are
manifold alternative systems available which allow the abandonment of common air
conditioning systems even if the building design or the local climate does require a
conditioning of the interior air.
A basic design tool for passive heating or cooling is the consideration of different
material and surface conditions. A well reflecting surface protects a building
component from heating-up and keeps it relatively cool, while a surface with good
absorbance properties heats-up easily if exposed to direct radiation.
A recent study in the U.S.A. assessed the potential of natural and hybrid cooling
strategies in 40 United States cities. The maximum estimated cooling energy savings
were up to 50%. (According to: Spindler H., Glicksman L., Norford L.; The potential
for natural and hybrid cooling strategies to reduce cooling energy consumption in the
United States; U.S.A. Cambridge 2002. Available at the World Wide Web:
http://www.roomvent.dk/papers/p517.pdf )
84

Illustration 69b: Material and surface
conditions concerning the grade of absorption
and reflection
Sustainable Building and Construction
Mechanical ventilation systems heat
recovery are sensible for all well insulated
and “airtight” buildings if the average daily
outside temperature does differ remarkably
from the desired indoor temperature. The
heat recovery unit does cause a
temperature equalisation between the
inside and the outside air and therefore can
reduce or prevent the heating or cooling
demand. Especially in urban areas with
extreme hot or cold climates the described
systems can reduce the heating or cooling
demand and improve the indoor air quality
(dependent on the utilised filter
components and replacement cycles)
compared to the outside air remarkably.
Heat recovery systems can be good
supplementations for passive heating and
cooling measures. The fresh outside air is
let through central inlets and distributed to
fresh air outlets in resident areas. The used
air is exhausted through openings in areas
which are apart from the inlets and where
odour might occur to allow cross
ventilation in the areas in between and let
to central exhausts. The heat between the
fresh and exhaust air can be transferred
either directly, with “thermal wheels” or
“cross flow heat exchangers” (heat
recuperation) or indirectly with general less
efficient “liquid to air heat recovery
systems” (regenerative heat recovery),
dependent on the location of the fresh air
inlets and exhaust air outlets. Compared with active heating or cooling measures the
energy demand for low energy fans is relatively low. Therefore mechanical
ventilation systems with air to air heat recovery generally do have a positive impact
on the energy consumption of the buildings in the above mentioned climates.
Heat pumps are also a kind of heat recovery systems but do require a comparably
high amount of external energy for operation and are generally used for active heating
and cooling. Therefore these systems will be discussed further below.
85

3.2.3.5 .1 Cooling techniques
Sustainable Building and Construction
In this chapter different cooling techniques are described which can be applied to
buildings to enhance the indoor climate. The energy demand for the service of the
described systems differs very much. While the energy demand of passive systems is
very low mechanical and especially conventional refrigerative cooling systems do
consume a lot of energy.
Illustration 69c: Passive cooling strategies.
Mechanical cooling consumes 2 to 4 times
more energy than space heating and also
the investment of a cooling plant is greater
than the investment needed for a air
heating plant (according to: Altener
Program Europe (Editor); Mid Career
Education: Solar Energy in European
Office Buildings, Technology Module 6 –
Auxiliary Energy Services; Europe 1997)
The bigger part of 35% of the world wide
production of the most common used
Hydro-Fluorocarbon (HFC-134a) is used
for commercial and residential air
conditioning and supermarket refrigeration,
15% is used for domestic refrigeration, and
the remaining 50% for automotive air
conditioning. (According to “Heating the
planet with HFCs”, available on the World
Wide Web:
http://archive.greenpeace.org/~ozone/hfcs/
3heating.html )
"If HFCs are to be used to replace CFCs without restriction, global HFC emissions
may increase to 1931 Mtonnes CO2 equivalent per year by 2035. If HFCs are also
used as substitutes for HCFCs, emissions could double to 4665 Mtonne CO2
equivalent per year in 2035. These HFC emissions equal 7% and 17% respectively of
present CO2 emissions."(Kroeze, C. "Potential Effect of HFC Policy on Global
Greenhouse Gas Emissions in 2035", National Institute of Public Health and
Environmental Protection, Bilthoven, The Netherlands, September 1994: Study
commissioned by the Air Directorate, Directorate-Generate for Environmental
Protection of the Dutch Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment;
project # 773001)
Cooling Techniques can be divided into four groups:
- Evaporative Cooling
- Ground Cooling
- Radiative Cooling
- Refrigerative cooling
86

3.2.3.5 .1.1 Evaporative Cooling
Sustainable Building and Construction
The cooling effect of evaporative cooling is caused by the absorption of sensible heat
from the air and its utilisation as latent heat for the evaporation of water. There is
variety of evaporative cooling systems available (passive or hybrid and direct or
indirect) which are also called “adiabative cooling systems”. They are briefly
described and summarised below:
Passive direct cooling techniques include the use of vegetation (evapotranspiration),
fountains, sprays, pools, ponds as well as volume and tower cooling.
Illustration 70: Passive direct cooling by
vegetation and porous clay pot filled with water
at a courtyard house.
Illustration 71: Passive indirect cooling
technique in a wind tower.
Passive indirect cooling techniques include roof sprinkling, roof ponds and moving
water films.
Direct hybrid evaporative coolers are direct air humidifiers. Air is circulating by
means of a ventilator through a porous material (pad), saturated with water, loosing a
part of its heat by evaporating a part of the water in the pad.
Illustration 71a: Passive indirect
cooling technique with collected
rainwater in combination with
double roof, natural ventilation
and shading can control the
indoor thermal environment
adequately without electricity at a
Japanese house in Tokyo.
87

Illustration 72: Direct hybrid evaporative
cooler at a window opening..
Sustainable Building and Construction
Indirect hybrid evaporative coolers are
using a primary circuit for evaporation of
water and cooling, while the air which has
to be cooled is passing through a secondary
circuit which is connected with the primary
circuit by a heat exchanger. Therefore the
air in the secondary circuit is keeping its
moisture content but might be
dehumidified if it is cooled below its
dewpoint.
Note:
It is sensible to run indirect evaporative
coolers with rainwater. Microbiological
contamination can be avoided by the use
of hybrid systems, with primary cooling
of the exhaust air and secondary cooling of the outdoor air by heat exchangers.
Due to the low mineral content of rainwater it may save the water demand for
these so called “adiabative cooling systems”.
Two-stage evaporative coolers are a combination of indirect and direct evaporative
coolers which are used to achieve a lower dry bulb temperature than only one system
is able to. In theses systems the air is primarily cooled in the secondary circuit of an
indirect hybrid evaporative cooler before it is additionally cooled by direct
evaporation in a direct hybrid evaporative cooler.
Evaporative Sorption Coolers do dehumidify and cool the outdoor air by two
separated processes. First it is dehumidified by sorption and secondary it is cooled by
a one- or two-stage evaporative cooling process. There are techniques with liquid or
solid regenerative materials (e.g. silica-gel or lithium-chloride) for the sorption
process. The sorption material is humidified by the flow of wet outdoor air and
dehumidified by the counter current flow of hot exhaust air. It is sensible to use solar
thermal energy for the regeneration process of the used material. Due to the fact that
the outdoor air is warmer than the exhaust air after the sorption process, it is passed
through an air to air heat exchanger to pre-cool it before evaporative cooling.
Illustration 72a: Principle of
evaporative sorption cooling
process with heat recovery for
building construction.
88

3.2.3.5 .1.2 Ground Cooling
Sustainable Building and Construction
Ground cooling does base on the dissipation of heat to the ground. It is sensible if the
ground is significantly cooler than the outdoor air. The dissipation of heat can be
achieved by direct contact or earth to air heat exchanger pipes.
Ground cooling by direct contact is based on direct contact of the building envelope
to the ground which has a lower temperature than the surrounding air and therefore
does increase the conductive heat exchange. The best effect is achieved if the building
is totally buried in the ground. (See also illustration 50f: underground house in
Tunisia)
Earth to air heat exchangers consists of pipes which are buried horizontally in the
ground at a certain depth and with a certain diameter, dependent on the temperature
patterns of ground and air at a specific location. The outdoor air is naturally or
mechanically ventilated through the underground ducts and is cooled by the
surrounding soil. Therefore the air at the outlet of the exchanger is cooler than the
outside temperature at the inlet. A remarkable effect of this system is that the air is not
only cooled but also dehumidified. Condensate may occur if the outside temperature
is cooled below its dew point. (See also Appendix 4 – international case studies:
Factory building in Kassel, Germany).
Illustration 73: Use
of natural ventilation
in conjunction with
earth coupling; if
natural forced
ventilation is not
realisable, naturally
conditioned air and
ventilation with
photovoltaic
powered fans are
sustainable
alternatives.
Note:
The principles of and measures for “ground cooling” can be used also as
“ground heating”, during the heating degree days in temperate and cold climate
zones. This principle is based on heat dissipation from the ground and is sensible
if the ground is remarkable warmer than the outdoor air.
89

3.2.3.5 .1.3 Radiative Cooling
Sustainable Building and Construction
Radiative cooling is based on long wave radiation emissions from one body of
specific temperature towards another body of lower temperature which does function
as heat sink. Generally the sky is used as heat sink during night since sky temperature
then is cooler than most objects on earth, due to the fact that the space has a
temperature of 0° Fahrenheit. Therefore radiators function better under clear sky
conditions than under cloudy or average sky conditions which reflect long wave
radiation (greenhouse effect). Therefore radiative cooling is less effective in hot and
humid climates than in hot and dry climates.
The protection of building parts from solar radiation during the day by light colour
does support the radiative cooling effect during night due to less heat-up thermal mass.
Note: Double layered roofs do reduce the heating-up by solar radiation but they also
minimize the effect of radiative cooling.
Movable Insulation can protect the roof from heating-up during the day but can be
retracted at night to allow radiant cooling of the roof surface. The cooling effect can
be enhanced by the exposure and insulation of huge storage mass, e.g.: the
construction of a roof pond which has to be temporarily covered with movable
insulation. The same system can be also used for passive solar heating. For cooling
purpose the pond has to be covered with an insulating layer during the day and opened
for radiative cooling at night.
Illustration 74: Roof pond for
radiative cooling. Opened at
night for radiative cooling of the
storage mass and insulated
during the day for cooling of the
interior.
Flat plate air coolers are simple devices consisting out of horizontal ducts covered
by a metal plate which is functioning as radiator and heat-exchanger and therefore
have to be highly emissive in the long wave section to enhance the efficiency. The air
generally has to be ventilated through the system by electric fans at night.
Flat plate water coolers are functioning according to the same principles as flat plate
air coolers but can achieve a higher efficiency because the specific heat capacity of
1m³ water (4.180 J/kg K, 1.000 kg/m³) is 3200 times higher than of 1m³ air (1.005
J/kg K, 1,29 kg/m³). Furthermore the system can be combined with solar thermal
system if required. The flat plate heat exchanger can be used as a solar collector
during daytime and as a cooling radiator at night. The cooled water can be used e.g.
for the service of chilled ceilings.
90

3.2.3.5 .1.4 Refrigerative Cooling
Sustainable Building and Construction
Refrigerative Cooling with vapour compression cycle is the most common cooling
techniques for air-conditioners and heat pumps. It based on condensation and
evaporation. Its working principle is based on the circle of compression, condensation,
expansion, evaporation, compression and so on. This vapour compression cycle is
based on two physical properties.
1. A specific amount of heat will change a liquid into a gas. When the gas will be
condensed, the heat will be released again.
2. The boiling and condensation temperature of any material is pressure
dependant.
This principle is used in compressor driven cooling machines according to the
following description:
To change a gas into a liquid a large amount of pressure is required. During this
process, which is done by a compressor and a condenser coil a lot of heat is released.
In common air conditioners this work is done in a building part placed outside of a
building (where it is heating-up the outside air) which is equipped with a heat
exchanger and cooled by an electric fan. After passing an expansion valve the liquid is
evaporated. This process requires the same amount of heat which was released during
the condensation process. This heat absorbing process is done inside the building and
creating the cooling effect. The cooled air is ventilated through the interior by an
electric fan. After the evaporation process the gas is pumped to the compressor and
the compression process is started again. The same principle is used for the operation
of refrigerators. The boiling and condensation temperature is pressure dependent.
While the bigger part of coolers based on vapour compression cycles are still working
with hazardous green house gases (e.g. HFCs), even though nowadays there are
manyfold possibilities to run these systems with more harmless substances e.g. made
from natural gas (propane, isobutane, cyclopropane or even water (presently only for
huge systems).
Refrigerative Cooling with vapour absorption cycle is based on three physical
properties.
1. A specific amount of heat will change a liquid into a gas. When the gas will be
condensed, the heat will be released again. The boiling and condensation
temperature of any material is pressure dependant.
2. A specific amount of heat will change a liquid into a gas. When the gas will be
condensed, the heat will be released again.
3. Some liquids have the strong tendency to absorb specific vapours.
This system is used in thermally driven cooling machines which are sensible and
energy efficient alternatives to above mentioned vapour compression systems if
sufficient waste heat or solar radiation is available. Therefore it is a system of choice
for all warm and temperate climates. Vacuum tube collectors can supply the system
effectual with hot water, even in regions with relative low solar radiation.
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Sustainable Building and Construction
For further detailed information and a comparison of the energy efficiency between
vapour compression chillers (VCC) and vapour absorption chillers (VCA) please
refer to: Guidebook On Cogeneration As A Means Of Pollution Control And Energy
Efficiency in Asia, Part 1, 2.6 Working Principle of Absorption Chillers, United
Nations Economic and Social Commission For Asia And The Pacific, available at the
World Wide Web: http://www.unescap.org/enrd/energy/co-gen/part1.htm
3.2.3.6 Technologies for heating and electricity production
In this chapter different heating techniques are described which can be applied to
buildings to enhance the indoor climate. The energy demand for the service of the
described systems differs very much. While the energy demand of passive and active
solar systems is very low, conventional heating systems do consume a lot of energy.
The global warming potential of combustion plants can be reduced by the use of
energy efficient technologies like heat recovery of exhaust gases (upper heating
technology) and the burning of renewable fuels (biomass) which do not cause
irreversible greenhouse gas emissions by the burning of fossil fuels.
Heat pumps are using the physical properties of vapour compression cycle for
heating purpose and are heat recovery systems. They are extracting heat from a media
(air, water or soil) and do transfer the energy to a higher temperature level. Hence heat
pumps do work very energy efficient. There are different kinds of heat pumps
available, powered by natural gas or electricity. Heat pumps are available for the
extraction of heat of the following different media and the transformation to another
specific media, e.g. air to air, air to water, water to water or earth to water. They can
International links concerning heat pumps further information and case studies are
available at: http://www.fiz-karlsruhe.de/hpn/html/bp.html
The installation of systems for decentralised combined heat and power (CHP)
production, desirably powered by renewable fuels, are also important measures to
reduce GHG emissions, due to the fact that line losses do worsen the bad primary
energy balance of centrally produced electric energy significantly.
Like already discussed detailed in the chapter “climate responsive building”
intelligent design strategies based on the passive use of solar energy and
conservation of energy are the most ecological and economic way to create a
comfortable indoor climate without emitting green house gases for the service of
conventional combustion heating systems.
The utilisation of turbines driven by wind energy or small water power, are
sustainable solutions for the electricity production in specific rural areas. They are not
producing any greenhouse gas emission during their service, except for maintenance.
Electricity production with Photovoltaic (PV) Elements is an appropriate method for
decentralised electricity production, almost everywhere. The systems do work with
direct and diffuse light. The glazed modules can be used as facade and roof elements.
The investment costs can be reduced by charging them against the savings for
common building elements.
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Sustainable Building and Construction
Well designed buildings, based on passive technologies and equipped with energy
saving building service engineering and an appropriate quantity of PV modules, are
able to produce more electric energy than they do require for the building service and
the specific building utilisation. Hence it is possible to use buildings, connected to the
public electric grid as decentralise solar power plants.
3.2.3.6 .1 Passive Solar Heating
Illustration 75: Passive solar strategies.
The key design parameters for an effective use are:
Passive solar heating is based on the
transformation of long wave solar radiation
to heat when it does penetrate an absorbing
surface.
Strategies for the passive use of solar
energy for heating purpose can be
summarized to four major elements, solar
collection, heat storage, heat distribution
and heat conversation which are interacting:
1. Solar collection (space heating by the
collection of solar radiation and conversion
into heat) by direct or indirect gains. The
most important building component for the
collection of solar radiation is the glazing
or a translucent insulation material (TIM).
- Good solar transmission (crucial for solar gains)
- Good insulation (sensible for reduction of heat losses)
- Appropriate orientation and slope (exposition to the sun for the most time of
the day)
- Appropriate glazing size (interacting with previous parameters)
To avoid overheating of glazed areas without external or internal shading elements,
special insulated panes with inlays out of prisms or mirrors were developed which are
designed for specific sites and orientations. They do reflect or transmit the sunlight
depending on the wave angle.
2. Heat storage (storage of heat collected during the day for future use, e.g. at night)
by materials with high heat storage capacity. Sensible is the use of solid materials
(e.g. earth, concrete and water) or phase shift materials (PSM, e.g. paraffin wax which
can store ten times more heat than water in the same mass by the physical
phenomenon of phase shift). The application of PSM materials is sensible for passive
solar use because it is especially efficient for the storage of comparable small
temperature ranges. Therefore its use is not recommended for active solar thermal
systems which are working with big temperature ranges.
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Sustainable Building and Construction
3. Heat distribution (redirection of collected and stored heat to zones where the heat
is required) can be achieved e.g. by transmission, convection and radiation, thermo
circulation or mechanical circulation.
4. Heat conservation (retaining the collected heat in the building as long as possible)
by the minimisation of transmission heat losses (by building form envelope as well as
of well insulated and air tight sealed building envelopes) and aeration heat losses (by
the utilisation of ventilation systems with heat recovery systems (e.g. air to air heat
exchangers).
3.2.3.6 .2 Components for active thermal utilisation of solar energy
All described systems are based on the principle that absorbed medium and short
wave solar radiation is transferred to long wave heat.
Most common components constructions for the active use of solar radiation which
can be attached to or integrated in buildings will be briefly described below. Specific
Components like unglazed transpired collectors (UTC), second skin facades or
thermal windows will not be discussed in this monograph. For further information
please have a look on Appendix Internet Resources.
Glazed air collectors are components which can be integrated into the roof or
exterior walls and therefore might replace common building parts and reduce the
overall investment cost of a building. Air is passed through an absorber and preheated
by solar radiation before it is passed into the building. The heat gain may be used
direct for ventilation or first passed in a closed loop system through a heat exchanger.
The heat gain can be used for the preheating of fresh air or thermal storage. The air is
ventilated through the system by electric fans which can be run by photovoltaic
systems. The working of solar walls is similar to glazed air collectors.
Flatbed solar water collectors are components which can be integrated into the roof
or exterior walls and therefore might replace common building parts and reduce the
overall investment cost of a building. Water is passed through an absorber (which is
placed in a glazed and well insulated collector) in a closed loop, connected to a
thermal storage tank (in general consisting out of a well insulated water vessel), if the
temperature in the absorber is higher than in the storage tank. There are two basic
systems available. Thermosiphon systems are based on gravitation and
thermodynamic principles and do not require any pump or control technology, but the
bottom of the storage tank (outflow) has to be placed higher elevated than the upper
side of the collector field. The system is more difficult to integrate in building design
but is easy to construct, even in local workshops, and to maintain and is widely spread
for the production of domestic hot water in many countries worldwide. The storage
vessel can be equipped with an auxiliary heater for hot water production during
insufficient solar radiation (cloudy days). The system is available with single water
circuit (the sanitary water does flow through the absorber and neither additional pump
nor heat exchanger is required), separated water circuits (heat exchanger and pump is
94

Sustainable Building and Construction
required) and with secondary separated water vessel (heat exchanger and pump is
required).
Illustration 76: Flatbed solar
water collector, based on the
thermosiphon principle, on the
roof of a residential house in
Osaka Japan. The storage tank
for hot water is equipped with a
mirror to reflect sunlight on the
absorber field and hence to
enlarge the geometrical collector
area.
Forced circulation systems in addition to the thermosiphon system described above
are equipped with a pump, controlled by a differential thermostat. Therefore vessel
and collector area can be freely placed wherever it is suitable for solar gain and
building integration (e.g. in the facade or on the rooftop). These systems are generally
more costly than thermosiphon systems due to higher investment of technical
components and required electric energy for service. Forced circulation systems are
available as above described flat bed collectors and Vacuum tube collectors which
are more effective but even more costly than flat bed collectors because the absorber
is placed in vacuum tubes out of glass.
Illustration77: Flatbed solar water
collectors, based on forced
circulation system, on the roof of a
remodelled existing housing estate
in Berlin are visible on the left
hand side. On the right hand side
Photovoltaic (PV) systems are
installed.
Roof ponds equipped with movable Insulation can protect the roof from cooling at
night but can be retracted at day to allow solar radiation of the roof surface. The
heating effect can be enhanced by the exposure and insulation of huge storage mass
with good absorbance properties (e.g. dark colour) e.g.: the construction of a roof
pond which has to be temporarily covered with movable insulation at night when it
can release the heat which was collected during the day to the interior.
95

Sustainable Building and Construction
3.2.3.7 Sanitation Systems and Water Consumption
Illustration78: Roof pond for
passive solar heating. Opened
during the day for solar heating
of the storage mass and insulated
at night for heating of the
interior and protection from
radiative cooling.
Common centralised sewage systems, based on underground pipelines, gravitation
flow, equipped with pumping stations and biological treatment plants do cause
greenhouse gas emissions through the construction of the necessary infrastructure (in
general from non renewable resources), as well as from the treatment process of the
sewage itself, caused by the production of electrical energy which is necessary for the
technical equipment for the elimination of the nutrients in the renewable resources
faeces and especially urine. The sewage itself produces greenhouse gases, primarily
methane, which has. Urine separation and its utilisation for fertiliser substitution is a
relative simple method to reduce the eutrophication of receiving water bodies of
sewage treatment plant outlets and to reduce the energy demand for nitrate (N)
elimination.
The analysis of the global warming potential of different sanitation systems (for the
construction and service phase) shows that a common municipal sewage treatment
plant produces the highest green house gas emissions followed by composting
systems and small scale sewage treatment plants. The lowest green house gas
emissions are produced by fermentation systems which are equipped with water
saving toilets (e.g. vacuum toilets) and do also ferment the organic kitchen waste. If
these “biogas” systems are equipped with combined heat and power (CHP)
production, the balance for energy and GHG emission can be positive. If the savings
for sewage, water supply and substitution of fertilizer are taken into account the
energy and GHG balance is positive at all.
However these systems are technically advanced and therefore not appropriate for all
projects. For a holistic overview about appropriate solutions for specific regions
worldwide, please visit the website of the ecological sanitation project “ecosan”:
http://www.gtz.de/ecosan/english/
Technologies (modules and installations) for ecological and sustainable water
and sanitation systems should be applied on all new settlements and buildings
not only to reduce greenhouse gas emissions but also to close the loop of the
nutrient cycle and to save and protect ground water, receiving water bodies and
coastal areas.
96

Sustainable Building and Construction
The advantages of ecological sanitation systems (composting and fermentation
systems) can be summarised as followed:
- Recycling of Nutrients in the agriculture, primarily phosphor, potassium
and sulphur. The sewage which is free from faeces and urine (greywater)
has no surplus of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphor) and is easier to clean.
- Saving of drinking water
- Saving of energy
- Smaller green house gas emissions
- Utilisation of household waste
- More sustainable infrastructure and smaller effort for installation
work
- protection of water bodies with small costs
3.3 The challenge of Guidelines, Regulations and Building Codes
Guidelines, Regulations and building codes are crucial for a widespread utilisation of
sustainable building and construction techniques. According to the Annex 31 group of
the IEA (Annex 31 homepage at the World Wide Web: http://annex31.wiwi.unikarlsruhe.de/INDEX.HTM)
they are defined as passive Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
tools (on: http://annex31.wiwi.uni-karlsruhe.de/core_reports/MainFrame_tools4.htm).
“Passive tools support decisions without much interaction with the user, and typically
lack the degree of customisation and computer support provided by LCA tools and
simulation models. Rather than applying the tool to conduct calculations, passive
tools tend to contribute static information to the process. Depending on their type and
purpose, passive tools:
� aid formulation of design objectives;
� convey results of pre-cooked assessments based on proxies or references
� assist in directing the planning and decision making processes; and
� provide outputs of assessment results completed by third parties.
Each of these types of passive tools is described in more detail in the following pages:
1. Laws, Regulations and Conventions
2. Guidelines
3. Checklists
4. Ecological and quality assessment for buildings
5. Case-studies / Best practice / Example buildings
6. Building passport / documentation
7. Energy passport
8. Element catalogue
9. Ecologically oriented specification aids
10. Product labelling – ecological and quality grading
11. Product descriptions
12. Recommendations and exclusion criteria
13. Plus and minus lists“
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Sustainable Building and Construction
“A broad range of passive tools exist for decision-support, including, in order of
complexity:
� Environmental Assessment Frameworks and Rating Systems;
� Environmental Guidelines or Checklists for Design and Management of
Buildings
� Environmental Product Declarations, Catalogues, Reference Information,
Certifications and Labels
Passive tools can be especially well suited for application within the fast-paced
processes involving design professionals. Consequently they have broad market
potential, if their use adds value to the end product. Each type of passive tool is
described later in this report.” (The whole report is downloadable at:
http://annex31.wiwi.uni-karlsruhe.de/pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-
%20Annex%2031%20Directory%20of%20Tools%20by%20Country%20and%20.pdf
)
4 Appendixes
Appendix 1 - Planning Tools for Climate Responsive Building and Construction
in the hot and humid climate zone of Pondicherry, India”
Appendix 2 - Life Cycle Assessment Tools
Appendix 3 – Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction
Appendix 4 – International Case Studies
Appendix 5 – Physical Data
Appendix 6 – References Illustrations
Appendix 7 – References Literature
98

Appendix 1 - “Planning Tools for Climate Responsive Building and Construction
in the hot and humid climate zone of Pondicherry, India”
4.1 Planning Tools for Climate Responsive Building and Construction in the
hot and humid climate zone of Pondicherry, India”
From: Krishan, A., Yannas, S., Baker, N., Szokolay, S. V. (editors); “Climate 99
Responsive Architecture – A Design Handbook for Energy Efficient Building”;
India, New Delhi, 2001

Appendix 1 - “Planning Tools for Climate Responsive Building and Construction
in the hot and humid climate zone of Pondicherry, India”
From: Krishan, A., Yannas, S., Baker, N., Szokolay, S. V. (editors); “Climate 100
Responsive Architecture – A Design Handbook for Energy Efficient Building”;
India, New Delhi, 2001

Appendix 1 - “Planning Tools for Climate Responsive Building and Construction
in the hot and humid climate zone of Pondicherry, India”
From: Krishan, A., Yannas, S., Baker, N., Szokolay, S. V. (editors); “Climate 101
Responsive Architecture – A Design Handbook for Energy Efficient Building”;
India, New Delhi, 2001

Appendix 1 - “Planning Tools for Climate Responsive Building and Construction
in the hot and humid climate zone of Pondicherry, India”
From: Krishan, A., Yannas, S., Baker, N., Szokolay, S. V. (editors); “Climate 102
Responsive Architecture – A Design Handbook for Energy Efficient Building”;
India, New Delhi, 2001

Appendix 1 - “Planning Tools for Climate Responsive Building and Construction
in the hot and humid climate zone of Pondicherry, India”
From: Krishan, A., Yannas, S., Baker, N., Szokolay, S. V. (editors); “Climate 103
Responsive Architecture – A Design Handbook for Energy Efficient Building”;
India, New Delhi, 2001

Appendix 2 - Life Cycle Assessment Tools
4.2 Life Cycle Assessment Tools
LCA tools for buildings are able to evaluate the environmental impact of buildings.
The programmes can be divided into three main categories:
- Life Cycle Assessment of building materials and products (environmental
impact of selected building materials)
- Energy demand for the operational performance of buildings (heating,
cooling, ventilation, lighting, building service engineering and equipment) for
a specific period (in general for one year)
- Environmental impact assessment of buildings over the entire life cycle
(utilisation of the previous information plus many additional specific data to
calculate a life cycle assessment)
Sustainability of Building Practices is a world wide applicable Sustainable
Building Evaluation Tool (SBET), available on the World Wide Web, developed by
an international team and supported by UNEP which aims to make a practical
evaluation of sustainability of building practices against critical ecological, social and
financial indicators in an objective manner. http://www.sbet.ch/
The following tables do not present a complete listing of existing tools but a selected
overview about the available well-known “state of the art” products. For additional
and more detailed information about the listed programmes please use the related
links, the “Appendix 3 - Internet Resources Sustainable Building and
Construction”, Internet based search engines (e.g. www.Google.com) or databases,
e.g.:
- Building and Construction LCA Tools Report and Matrix, at
http://buildlca.rmit.edu.au/menu8.html and
http://buildlca.rmit.edu.au/decisiontool/alldata.html
(Note: some of the links do not work) where you can also download the Building and
Construction LCA Tools Description Report
(http://buildlca.rmit.edu.au/downloads/Toolsdescription.pdf), prepared by the Centre for
Design at RMIT (http://www.rmit.edu.au/ )
- Comparative study of national schemes aiming to Analyse the
Problems of LCA tools (connected with e.g. hazardous substances) and the environmental
aspects in the harmonised standards (study for the European Commission, DG Enterprise)
Interim report, Current situation and options for harmonization.
(http://europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/construction/internal/essreq/environ/intrmlca.pdf )
- The database of Building Energy Software Tools Directory of US Department of Energy
gives access to 267 (06.2003) national and international tools to aid in the design and
development of energy efficient building. http://www.eren.doe.gov/buildings/tools_directory/
or http://www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/tools_directory/
- -The Annex 31 tool survey is designed to complement the United States Department of
Energy Tool Directory and offers a listing by type and country.
http://annex31.wiwi.uni-karlsruhe.de/TOOLS.HTM
1. Life Cycle Assessment of building materials and products
DURANET is a network for supporting the Development and Application of
performance based Durability design and Assessment of concrete structures. This
European project ended in the year 2001.
The European Thematic Network on Practical Recommendations for Sustainable
Building, “Practical Recommendations for Sustainable Construction” project
104

Appendix 2 - Life Cycle Assessment Tools
(PRESCO) is working on a comparison of the various existing tools. Available on the
internet at: www.etn-presco.net
Country Model owner or model
organizer
Denmark SBI (Danish Building and
Urban Research)
Finland KCL, Limited company
owned by the Finnish pulp,
paper and board industries
Finland RTS (Building Information
Foundation)
France AIMCC (French
Construction Products
Association) based on
AFNOR (French
standardisation
organisation) standards
France,
USA
Model name Contact
Environmental Product Declaration for
Building Products
(in development)
http://europa.eu.int/comm/en
terprise/construction/internal
/essreq/environ/intrmlca.pdf
(info)
KCL-ECO http://www.kcl.fi/general/ind
Environmental Product Declaration for
building products
Experimental standards - Information
concerning the environmental
characteristics of construction products
exn.html
http://www.rts.fi/english.htm
http://europa.eu.int/comm/en
terprise/construction/internal
/essreq/environ/intrmlca.pdf
Ecobilan TEAM http://www.ecobilan.com/uk
Germany IKP University of Stuttgart Gabi
Life Cycle Engineering
Germany AUB (Arbeitsgemeinschafft
Umweltverträgliches
Bauproducte)
Environmental Product Declaration for
Building Products
(in development)
Germany Natureplus e.V. natureplus (building material labelling
and certification programme for
producers of building materials, retailers,
Germany Federal Ministry of
Transport, Building and
Housing , Architectural
Association Bavaria
professionals and consumers)
ECOBIS 2000, ecological construction
material information system (CD can be
ordered exempt from charges), describes
effects of on environment and health
during 5 phases: raw material,
production, processing, use, reuse
Germany Wuppertal Institute MIPS (Material Input Per Service unit),
MIPS-Online
(info)
_tools.php
http://www.ikpgabi.uni-
stuttgart.de/english/page/fra_
page_e.html
http://europa.eu.int/comm/en
terprise/construction/internal
/essreq/environ/intrmlca.pdf
(info)
http://www.natureplus2.org/
web/main/
http://www.byak.de/
http://www.wupperinst.org/P
rojekte/mipsonline/
Germany IFU UMBERTO http://www.umberto.de/engli
sh/index.htm
SimaPro http://www.pre.nl/simapro/d
Netherlands Pre, Product Ecology
Consultants
Netherlands IVAM IVAM LCA Data 4; 1350 processes,
leading to more than 350 materials
Netherlands NVTB (Dutch Construction
Products Association)
MRPI (Environmental Relevant Product
Information)
Netherlands NEN (Dutch standardisation
organisation)
MEPB (Material Based Environmental
Profile for Building) (in development)
Norway NBI (Norwegian Building
Research Institute)
Environmental Declaration of building
products
Norway NBI (Norwegian Building
Research Institute)
EcoDec (Miljødeklarasjoner -
Environmental Declaration)
efault.htm
http://www.ivambv.uva.nl/u
k/index.htm
http://www.nvtb.nl/default.a
sp
http://www.nen.nl/nl/act/spe
c/mmg/
http://www.byggforsk.no/def
ault.aspx?spraak=en
http://www.byggforsk.no/def
ault.aspx?spraak=en
105

Appendix 2 - Life Cycle Assessment Tools
Sweden Chalmers University of
Technology
SPINE (Sustainable Product Information
Network for the Environment); links to
LCAiT, EcoLab,and EPS Design System,
used for EPD and LCA
http://www.environmental-
center.com/consulting/chalm
ers/spine.htm
Sweden CIT Ekologik LCAit http://www.lcait.com/
Switzerland SIA Schweizerischer
Ingenieur- und
Architektenverein (Swiss
Society of Engineers and
Architects)
SIA – Ecological product declaration,
Internet database and SIA-documents
D 093 und 493
http://www.sia.ch/d/praxis/b
auprodukte/
Taiwan Government of Taiwan Green Building Logo http://www.ftis.org.tw/sidn/S
United
Kingdom
United
Kingdom
Boustead Consulting Ltd.
BRE (Building Research
Establishment)
USA U.S. EPA Environmentally
Preferable Purchasing (EPP)
Program
USA Green Design Initiative of
Carnegie Mellon.
Boustead (UK based data general and
building specific, has been used and
adapted to Australia by DPWS in LCAid
Environmental Profiles of Construction
Materials, Components and Buildings
BEES - Building for Environmental and
Economic Sustainability
EIOLCA - Economic Input/Output LCA
data
idn1-2/SIDN1-2.htm
http://www.boustead-
consulting.co.uk/
http://www.environmental-
center.com/software/bre/bre.
htm
http://www.bfrl.nist.gov/oae/
software/bees.html
http://www.eiolca.net/
USA BuildingGreen, Inc. Green Buildings Advisor http://www.greenbuildingad
visor.com/
2. Energy demand and environmental impact for the operational
performance of buildings (Building Performance and Rating Software)
Country Model owner Model name Contact
Australia Sustainable Energy FirstRate house energy rating software http://www.seav.vic.gov.au/
Authority Victoria
buildings/firstrate/
United BEPAC, the UK affiliate of BREGains http://www.bepac.dmu.ac.uk
Kingdom the International Building
Performance Simulation
Association (IBPSA).
/index.html
USA Ecotope SUNCODE (SERI-RES) http://www.ecotope.com/
USA EnerLogic and James J.
Hirsch & Associates.
EQUEST;
DOE-2
PowerDOE
http://www.doe2.com/
USA U.S. Department of Energy EnergyPlus http://www.eere.energy.gov/
buildings/energyplus/overvie
USA Solar Energy Laboratory TRNSYS http://sel.me.wisc.edu/trnsys/
Canada Energy and Environment
Canada Ltd., TerraChoice
Environmental Services Inc.
BREEAM Green Leaf Eco-Rating
Program
Germany University Siegen I D E A (Interactive Database for Energyefficient
Architecture), CD, internet
demo available
Germany
Econzept Ltd.
HELIOS / HELEX - Dynamic heat
simulation for buildings
w.html
default.htm
http://216.58.80.108/product
s/BREEAM%20GL/breeam
_gl.html
http://nesa1.uni-
siegen.de/wwwextern/idea/m
ain.htm
http://www.econzept.com/
106

Appendix 2 - Life Cycle Assessment Tools
3. Environmental impact assessment of building
Country Model owner Model name Contact
Australia Department of Public
Works and Services
(DPWS) Environmental
Services
/
Australia BHP BHP Billiton
Minerals Technology -
Newcastle Laboratories
Sustainable Technology
LISA (LCA in Sustainable Architecture),
also available case studies.
Canada Athena Sustainable
Materials Institute
ATHENA www.athenasmi.ca
International Open Source Code, Free
Software Foundation
Europe:http://www.fsfeur
ope.org/index.en.html
ESP-r, integrated modelling tool, designed
for the Unix operating system, with
supported implementations for Solaris and
Linux, made available at no cost
Germany Privates Institut für
Baupreisforschung
(P.I.B.),
http://www.aum.de/c.php/
LEGOE
(LCA of buildings, monetary and non
monetary costs, environmental impacts)
/Produkte/Legoe-
Wir_ueber_uns/PIB/PIB.r
sys
sys
Denmark SBI (Danish Building and
Urban Research)
BEAT 2002, Building Environmental
Assessment Tool 2002
LCAid http://www.projectweb.g
ov.com.au/dataweb/lcaid
http://www.lisa.au.com/
http://www.esru.strath.ac
.uk/Programs/ESP-r.htm
http://www.aum.de/c.php
Bausoftware/oekologie.r
http://www.dbur.dk/engli
sh/publishing/software/b
eat2002/index.htm
France CSTB Escale www.cstb.fr
France Ecole des Mines de Paris
Centre for Energy Studies
- Paris
Ecquer http://www-
cenerg.ensmp.fr/english/i
ndex.html
Finland VTT LCA House http://www.vtt.fi/rte/inde
Netherlands SBR Eco-Quantum www.ecoquantum.nl
xe.html
http://www.ivam.uva.nl/
uk/producten/product7.ht
Netherlands Stichting SUREAC Greencalc www.dgmr.nl/new/softw
Sweden
United
Kingdom
United
Kingdom
USA
Canada + 20
countries
KTH Infrastructure &
planning
BRE (Building Research
Establishment)
BRE (Building Research
Establishment)
USGBC (U.S. Green
Building Council)
iiSBE, International
Initiative for Sustainable
Built Environment
m
are/software_gc.html
Eco-effect http://www.infra.kth.se/b
ba/bbasvenska/forsning/
miljoweb/miljovardering
/nysammanft.pdf
Envest: environmental impact estimating
software for the early planning phase
le/envest.html
BREEAM environmental impact estimating
software
LEED (Leadership in Energy and
environmental Design), Credit based Green
building estimating and certification system
GBToolTM (Green Building Tool) http://iisbe.org/
www.bre.co.uk/sustainab
http://products.bre.co.uk/
breeam/index.html
http://www.usgbc.org/
http://www.buildingsgro
up.nrcan.gc.ca/software/
gbtool_e.html
Japan Taisei Corp. CASBEE (in development) www.worldworkplace.or
g/japan/con_info_edu_se
ssions.htm (Info)
107

Appendix 3 – Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction
4.3 Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction
In addition to the Internet Resources given in the Monograph on Sustainable Building
and Construction - Basic Principles and Guidelines in Design and Construction to
Reduce Greenhouse Gases in Buildings, selected useful internet resources for further
reading are listed below:
Building Materials and Components:
CRATerre is the international centre for building with earth at the Faculty of
Architecture at the University of Grenoble, France.
http://www.craterre.archi.fr/homepage.html
Dachverband Lehm e.V. lives from the input and commitment of its members. We
are recognised as a non-profit organisation and are the primary forum for technical
know-how and practical skills and experience in the field. A forum for the exchange
of information and ideas between manufacturers, the trade, architects, academics and
clients and all others who work with clay and earth. http://www.dachverbandlehm.de/start_gb.html
Earth Building Foundation, Inc. is a non-profit corporation, currently applying for
tax-exempt status. Help people learn how to utilize earth building for better, safer,
shelter. http://www.earthbuilding.com/
EcoSpecifier's aim is to help architects, designers, builders and specifies to shortcut
the materials sourcing process. Its broader aim is to help create a more sustainable
physical environment by increasing the use of environmentally preferable materials.
EcoSpecifier is a joint initiative of the Centre for Design at RMIT, EcoRecycle
Victoria and the Society for Responsible Design.
http://ecospecifier.rmit.edu.au/flash.htm
Efficient Windows Collaborative, the homepage of the Efficient Windows
Collaborative. It contains advise on how to use advanced windows and to reasons why
to as well as other valuable data and links. http://www.efficientwindows.org
Components of Sustainable Resident Halls (Western Washington University).
http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~sustwwu/sustain/conkle/res_hall.html
German Institute for Building Technology (DIBt) is an institute of the Federal and
State governments for the uniform fulfilment of technical tasks in the field of public
law. http://www.dibt.de/index_eng.html
James & James database of Energy Efficient and Sustainable Building Suppliers
and Services holds the details of over 6,000 companies and organisations. The
database is published in 2 versions, An on-line version which you can search from
here; and the annual European Directory of Sustainable and Energy Efficient
Building. The 1999 edition is out now:
http://www.jxj.com/suppands/edseeb/index.html
108

Appendix 3 – Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction
Natureplus provides the seal of quality in Europe for building products, construction
materials, and home furnishings that are environmentally friendly, do not endanger
our health, and properly perform their allotted function.
http://www.natureplus2.org/web_englisch/main/default.asp
Selector.com - developed in partnership with the Royal Australian Institute of
Architects - gives you detailed product information in an easy-to-read, standardised
format. You can view photographs, technical data, colours and textures, and much
more for thousands of building products. http://www.selector.com.au/
Valorisation of building demolition Materials and Products The overall goals of
the VAMP management system are the reduction of non-differentiated wastes, the
valorisation of reusable and recyclable materials, the optimization of the local
recovery networks and the promotion of new employment opportunities.
http://www.regione.emilia-romagna.it/vamp/index_e.htm
Case studies SBC:
Aga Khan Award for Architecture http://www.akdn.org/agency/aktc_akaa.html
Australian Building Energy Council, Energy Efficient Building Case Studies, The
vision of ABEC is to act as a peak strategic body articulating the views of the
Building and Construction Industry on energy related matters, which will foster an
industry-driven move towards developing world best practice in the management of
greenhouse gas emissions. http://www.abec.com.au/
Cost Efficient Passive Houses as European Standards, Construction of ca. 250
housing units to Passive House standards in five European countries, with in-process
scientific back-up and with evaluation of building operation through systematic
measurement programmes. http://www.cepheus.de/eng/index.html
Earth Centre, Home page of the UK's millennium demonstration project on
sustainable landscape habitat and building design, provides links and detailed
information on the Centre's projects, activities and experiences.
http://www.earthcentre.org.uk/
EASAE, Education of Architects On Solar Energy And Ecology, Case Studies:
http://www-cenerg.ensmp.fr/ease/case_main.html
EC2000 case studies principles are reducing energy consumption by 50% compared
with traditional buildings, reducing CO2 emissions by up to 70%, avoiding airconditioning,
or minimising its energy use, providing good internal visual and thermal
conditions, allowing individual control of lighting, heating and cooling where possible,
stimulating environmentally friendly design and construction.
http://erg.ucd.ie/EC2000/ec2000_about.html, http://erg.ucd.ie/ec2000/, Thermie
Target Demonstration Project (final reports), Energy Comfort 2000:
http://erg.ucd.ie/ec2000/, Solar Energy in European Office Buildings (case study
modules), Altener Mid-Career Education:
http://erg.ucd.ie/mid_career/mid_career.html
109

Appendix 3 – Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction
ERG has participated in a number of projects which have produced a range of
deliverables within the European Commissions' THERMIE Programme (Directorate
General XVII for Energy). The files which are free to download include technical
booklets, videos and newsletters. http://erg.ucd.ie/down_thermie.html
EU THERMIE Programme supports many demonstration projects for innovative
RUE and REB (Renewable Energy in Buildings). General information about them is
provided, and it will be extended when more becomes available. You can browse the
information about all these projects. THERMIE Targeted Demonstration Projects
concerning Rational Use of Energy in the Building Sector are available at:
http://europa.eu.int/comm/energy/en/thermie/ttp-bu.htm
European Commissions' THERMIE Programme (Directorate General TREN),
technical booklets, QuickTime videos and newsletters have been prepared which you
are free to download. You can also link to the THERMIE home page.
http://europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/energy_transport/index_en.html
European Green Building Forum, Catalogue of Best Practice, Examples:
http://www.egbf.org
European Solar Building Exhibition is an international building exhibition for solar
and low-energy housing. Twelve European cities are united in the common target to
develop innovative concepts for bioclimatic urban redevelopment, forward-looking
new developments, passive housing and the integration of renewable energy sources.
The Solar Building Exhibition, which is the first project of this kind, will present the
results to the public until the end of 2005 and will serve as a model for future
developments. http://www.eu-exhibition.org/en.htm
Gaia Group contains green architecture case studies and other projects carried out by
The Gaia Group, also publications. http://www.gaiagroup.org/
Green Buildings BC, this British Columbia initiative has been established to reduce
the environmental impact of provincially-funded buildings and, in the process, foster
the growth of BC's environmental industry.
http://www.greenbuildingsbc.com/new_buildings/case_studies.html
High Performance Buildings EREN, Exemplar projects, commercial and residential,
of the National Renewable Energy Lab's Office of Building Technology State and
Community Programme's High Performance Building Projects.
http://www.nrel.gov/buildings/highperformance/projects/
IEA Task 23 International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling
Programme, Information about each of the IEA Solar Heating and Cooling
Programme Tasks including case studies can be found under Research Tasks
section: http://www.iea-shc.org/task23/index.html
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Appendix 3 – Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction
Sustainable Building Information System (SBIS), Building Data Base; Buildings
included in this file have been selected by two means. Those identified as having been
selected in a competitive process that places emphasis on environmental performance
will be included at face value. In other cases, buildings proposed for inclusion will be
selected if recommended by the Technical Advisory Committee of SBIS and if
supporting information is provided that indicates that the building includes some
environmental performance features of interest. Nevertheless, it should be noted that
the buildings included in that file are not promoted by SBIS as necessarily having
superior performance. http://www.sbis.info/database/dbsearch/buildingsearch.jsp
SKAT CASE STUDY SERIES is a collection on intelligent architecture and best
practices of economical and energy-efficient building systems. It encompasses
traditional and socio cultural aspects as well as the requirements of modern living.
The CASE STUDY SERIES comprises three dossiers: Social Housing, Health
Facilities and Educational Facilities.
http://www.gtz.de/basin/publications/index.asp?A=1
Solar Energy in European Office Buildings, Altener Mid-Career Education
An integrated package on Solar Energy and Energy Efficiency in
Office Buildings for experienced: Architects, Building Services Engineers, Building
Economists, Building Energy Managers; Includes case studies; overheads; Instructor
Modules for Architects, Building Service Engineers, Building Economists, Building
Energy Managers; and Technology Modules.
http://erg.ucd.ie/mid_career/mid_career.html
Solarbau Monitor Programme, German case studies for non residential buildings
with extreme low energy consumption. http://www.solarbau.de
Sustainable Architecture and Building Design (SABD) Hong Kong, China, List of
many international Case studies available at:
http://www1.arch.hku.hk/research/BEER/casestud.htm
Japan specific case studies are available at:
http://arch.hku.hk/~cmhui/japan/index/ok-index.html
Sustainable Refurbishment in Europe – SUREURO. http://www.sureuro.com/
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Appendix 3 – Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction
Energy efficiency:
Absorption cooling, a good link collection is available at: http://www.healthget.com/info/absorption_cooling.html
Alliance to Save Energy promotes energy efficiency worldwide to achieve a
healthier economy, a cleaner environment and energy security. Founded in 1977, the
Alliance to Save Energy is a non-profit coalition of business, government,
environmental and consumer leaders. The Alliance to Save Energy supports energy
efficiency as a cost-effective energy resource under existing market conditions and
advocates energy-efficiency policies that minimize costs to society and individual
consumers, and that lessen greenhouse gas emissions and their impact on the global
climate. To carry out its mission, the Alliance to Save Energy undertakes research,
educational programs, and policy advocacy, designs and implements energyefficiency
projects, promotes technology development and deployment, and builds
public-private partnerships, in the U.S.A. and other countries. http://www.ase.org
CLIMATE 1 - The Global Climate Data Atlas
http://www.climate1.com/
Fraunhofer Gesellschaft in Germany provides information and research regarding:
Buildings and Technical Building Components, Solar Cells, Off-grid Power Supplies,
Decentralised Power Supply and Storage in the Grid, Hydrogen Technology, Annual
Reports, Brochures and Product Information, Scientific publications and Conference
papers. http://www.ise.fhg.de/english/sitemap/index.html
World Energy Efficiency Association (WEEA) was founded in June 1993 as a
private, non-profit organization composed of developed and developing country
institutions and individuals charged with increasing energy efficiency (USA).
http://www.weea.org/
Education and research :
Advanced Buildings and Technologies, Building professional's guide to more than
90 environmentally-appropriate technologies and practices. Architects, engineers and
buildings managers can improve the energy and resource efficiency of commercial,
industrial and multi-unit residential buildings through the use of the technologies and
practices described on the web site. http://www.advancedbuildings.org/
Ecole de Mines, EASE Project: Education of Architects in Solar Energy and
Environment, Abstract: http://wwwcenerg.ensmp.fr/english/themes/cycle/html/12a.html,
regener2_APPLICATION OF
THE LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS TO BUILDINGS: wwwcenerg.ensmp.fr/francais/themes/cycle/pdf/regener2.pdf,
EUROPEAN PROJECT
REGENER LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.pdf: http://wwwcenerg.ensmp.fr/francais/themes/cycle/pdf/regenersummary.pdf
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Building Technology Program and
Alliance for Global Sustainability. http://web.mit.edu/bt/www/
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Appendix 3 – Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction
Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology. http://www.rmit.edu.au/
Teachers and Green Schools. http://www.ase.org/greenschools/teachers.htm
University of Hong Kong, Department of Architecture, Building Energy Efficiency
Research (BEER). http://arch.hku.hk/research/BEER/
UK Government Sustainable Development discussion forum website.
http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/consult/construction/response/9.htm
Uni Konstanz, Prof. Dr. E. Bucher (PV): www.unikonstanz.de/FuF/Physik/Bucher/Ishome.htm
Uppsala University Sweden, www.asc.angstrom.uu.se
Displays and Solar Cells, for Smart Windows (decrease energy consumption,
increase comfort)
Transparent PV: www.msk.ne.jp
General Sustainable Building and Construction resources:
building advisory service and information network, basin was set up in 1988 to
provide information and advice on appropriate building technology and to create links
with knowledge resources in the world for all those in need of relevant information:
government officers, financiers, the builders and developers, architects, planners,
producers of building materials, who need up-to-date information and advice on the
manufacture, performance and availability of appropriate outputs and technology
from around the world, and on the effective management of local resources.
http://www.gtz.de/basin/
Building Services Research and Information Association. http://www.bsria.co.uk/
Canadian Sustainable Cities Initiative (SCI) is an innovative and unique trade
development program designed to assist selected cities in developing countries to
make progress towards their economic, social and environmental goals through
partnerships with Canadian companies and organizations that offer technologies and
services relevant to Sustainable Development. (related to CIB).
http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/SSG/vi00007e.html
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Appendix 3 – Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction
CEVE, Experimental Center of Low Cost Housing. Their mission is to contribute,
from our areas of habitat and work and from all sectors, the building of an integrated
society strengthening the values of justice and solidarity so that the benfits of
development may be enjoyed equitably by all its members. AVE (Asociación de
Vivienda Económica) - Association of Economical Housing is a non-profit
organization in Argentina that contributes to the integral and progressive development
of low income population, helping families and Community Based Organisations to
solve housing and unemployment problems by facilitating access to information,
techniques and resources, CONICET - National Council of Scientific and Technical
Research, Site in English and Spanish. http://www.ceve.org.ar/ingles.htm
e3building is a network of building practitioners and researchers striving to promote
future-oriented developments in the building industry, engaging in cooperative
projects, and working together to forge plans for the future.
http://www.e3building.net/en/index.php
Eco-portal one of the internet’s most comprehensive environmental resource, linking
and providing full text search capabilities for the entire contents of over 3,000
reviewed Internet sites related to environmental sustainability. The site tracks the
latest environmental news stories, which are updated several times daily.
http://www.environmentalsustainability.info/
European Data Bank Sustainable Development is designed to list institutions,
associations, societies and experts throughout Europe involved theoretically and/or
practically in the achievement of Sustainable Development on an international,
national and regional level. http://www.sd-eudb.net/
BuildingGreen.com is publisher of Environmental Building News and authoritative
Information on Environmentally Responsible Building Design & Construction.
http://www.buildinggreen.com/index.cfm
International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction
(CIB) was established in 1953 as an Association whose objectives were to stimulate
and facilitate international cooperation and information exchange between
governmental research institutes in the building and construction sector, with an
emphasis on those institutes engaged in technical fields of research. CIB has since
developed into a world wide network of over 5000 experts from about 500 member
organisations active in the research community, in industry or in education, who
cooperate and exchange information in over 50 CIB Commissions covering all fields
in building and construction related research and innovation. http://www.cibworld.nl/
International Federation for Housing and Planning (IFHP) is a world-wide
network of professionals representing the broad field of housing and planning. The
Federation organises a wide range of activities and creates opportunities for an
international exchange of knowledge and experience in the professional field.
http://www.ifhp.org/
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Appendix 3 – Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction
International Network of Engineers and Scientists for Global Responsibility is an
association of individual engineers and scientists as well as 90 member organisations
from five continents. The primary aim of the network is to encourage and facilitate
international communication among engineers and scientists seeking to promote
international peace and security, justice and sustainable development, and working for
a responsible use of science and technology. The network was founded in November
1991 during the congress ‘Challenges’ in Berlin. http://www.inesglobal.org/
ITUT GmbH and the German Chambers of Commerce and Industry present the
database of German companies involved in environmental technologies and services.
This database includes more than 1.000 company profiles.
http://www.enviromeister.de/engl/index.html
Sustainable Building Information System (SBIS) system is designed to provide
users with non-commercial information about sustainable building around the world,
and to point or link the user to more detailed sources of information elsewhere.
http://www.sbis.info/
Skat Foundation and Skat Consulting are sister organisations with a common vision
to contribute to poverty reduction and sustainable development through professional
knowledge sharing and the provision of advisory services in the developing world.
The areas of expertise are: water supply and environmental sanitation, architecture
and settlement management, transport, environmental management, knowledge
management. http://www.skat.ch/
Social Science Information Gateway (SOSIG) is a freely available Internet service
which aims to provide a trusted source of selected, high quality Internet information
for students, academics, researchers and practitioners in the social sciences, business
and law. It is part of the UK Resource Discovery Network. http://www.sosig.ac.uk/
Sustainable Cities Development System, Interactive Campaign, EU.
http://www.sustainable-cities.org/about.html
Sustainable City is an international collaborative research endeavour to develop the
world's first GIS (Geographical Information Systems) computer simulation
programme for any town or city to see itself - and its surrounding environment - as a
whole system. The software will be pre-packaged with core indicators common for all
cities, including the set of 46 key indicators developed by the UN Centre for Human
Settlements (UNCHS) / World Bank Indicators Programme). It will also feature a
larger set of approximately 1,500 indicators which users can select to meet the
particular needs of their city. The indicators will include a broad variety of
measurements ranging from population growth, water quality, air pollution, housing
density, garbage output, energy consumption, energy waste, species diversity, to
literacy rates, access to libraries, personal health and well-being, etc. The software
will also allow users to create their own indicators. http://www.globalvision.org/city/index.html
Sustainable Refurbishment in Europe – SUREURO (also case studies).
http://www.sureuro.com/
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Appendix 3 – Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction
Technologies for Sustainable Development (Austrian Program on Technologies for
Sustainable Development) .For further information go to subprograms and projects.
http://www.nachhaltigwirtschaften.at/english/index.html
TRIALOG - A Journal about Planning and Building in the Third World, for
architects, urban planners, sociologists, geographers, economists and development
planners; for the exchange of professional experience in the field of urban and rural
development in the Third World; for the presentation and discussion of recent
research results, development concepts and policies for urban change; of free
discussions, of work reports and of documentation of alternative approaches.
http://www.tu-darmstadt.de/fb/arch/trialog/
Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment, Energy GmbH, Working Group
on Eco-Efficiency and Sustainable Enterprise.
http://www.oekoeffizienz.de/english/index.html
Life Cycle Assessment LCA
Building Science at the University of California Berkeley is dedicated to the
energy efficiency and environmental quality of buildings. Its underlying premise is
that energy-use patterns and environmental quality are related, and that this
relationship contains great opportunities to improve the built environment. Building
Science also has the objective of breaking down the compartmentalized decisionmaking
that now characterizes building practice. Its research and teaching address the
decisions made by architects, engineers, specifiers, facilities managers, and owners:
http://arch.ced.berkeley.edu/resources/bldgsci/index.htm
Comparative study of national schemes aiming to analyse the problems of LCA
tools and the environmental aspects in harmonised standards; DG Enterprise
European Commission, Price Waterhouse Coopers 2002:
http://europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/construction/internal/essreq/environ/lcarep/lcafin
rep.htm
Comparisons between Environmental Technology Assessment (EnTA) and
selected other environmental tools (e.g. LCA):
http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/publications/integrative/enta/aeet/3.asp
Defining Life Cycle Assessment: http://www.gdrc.org/uem/eia/lca-define.html
Green Building Challenge (GBC) is an on-going international process of more than
twenty countries (IFC – International Framework Community) focused on the
development and testing of a new system for assessing the environmental
performance of buildings. They assigned the Canadian Architect Woytek Kujawski to
develop the software “Green Building Assessment Tool (GBTool)”:
http://www.buildingsgroup.nrcan.gc.ca/projects/gbc_e.html
International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) “The world
buys green”, an international survey of national green product procurement,
made by International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives: www.iclei.org
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Appendix 3 – Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction
International Initiative for Sustainable Built Environment (iiSBE) is an
international non-profit organization whose overall aim is to actively facilitate and
promote the adoption of policies, methods and tools to accelerate the movement
towards a global sustainable built environment. iiSBE has an international Board of
Directors from almost every continent and has a small Secretariat located in Ottawa,
Canada. Specific action includes the establishment of a website and R&D database
accessible to researchers, policymakers and professionals around the world:
http://iisbe.org
Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) is an independent,
non-profit professional society that provides a forum for individuals and institutions
engaged in Study of environmental issues, Management and conservation of natural
resources, Environmental education, and Environmental research and development:
www.setac.org
Stakeholder Forum for Our Common Future includes organisations representing
all the major groups recognised by the UN including business, labour,
parliamentarians, local government, NGOs, indigenous peoples, women, youth,
farmers and scientists Stakeholder Organisation for Sustainable Development:
www.stakeholderforum.org
Support Measures and Initiatives for Enterprises (SMIE) project is financed by
the European Commission's Enterprise Directorate-General in order to set up an
integrated information resource on business support measures. It comprises a Support
Measures database and a Good Practice database accessible via the Internet:
http://europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/smie/good_practice/overview.cfm
Policy areas
A B D DK E EL F FIN I IRL L NL NO P S UK
Business support services 1 2 2 1 2 4 3 2 1 2 1 2 3
Co-operation with other SMEs 1 1 1
Education for an
entrepreneurial society
1 2
Employment
Environment
1 1
Finance 1 2 1 4 1 2 2 1 3 1 3
ICT 1 1 1 1
Improve public administration 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Improve visibility of support
services
1 1 1 1 1 1
Innovation 1
International Cooperation 4
Management 1 1 2 2 1 2
R&D 1 2 1 1 1
Technology 2 3 1 1 2 1 1
Training 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
Totals 5 4 17 6 5 2 11 6 5 5 4 11 2 8 6 14
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Appendix 3 – Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction
Links to more resources:
Advanced building technologies is an US building professional's guide to more than
90 environmentally-appropriate technologies and practices. Architects, engineers and
buildings managers can improve the energy and resource efficiency of commercial,
industrial and multi-unit residential buildings through the use of the technologies and
practices described in this web site. http://www.advancedbuildings.org/
AIVC, Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre
http://www.aivc.org/About_Aivc/about.html
Archnet
CRISP, A European Network on Construction and City related Sustainability
Indicators, links many international resources and offers for downloads:
http://crisp.cstb.fr/links.htm
Ecosustainable is an Australian site with lots of links projects and resources
http://www.ecosustainable.com.au/links.htm
European Thematic Network on Practical Recommendations for Sustainable Building,
“Practical Recommendations for Sustainable Construction” project (PRESCO):
http://www.etn-presco.net/links/index.html
Global Ecovillage Network (GEN) links and supports sustainable settlements. It also
developed the checklist CAS (Communit Sustainability Assessment), which contains
three parts: the “Ecological Checklist”, the “Social Checklist” and the “Spiritual
Checklist” and allows a subjective assessment of communities (according to the
initiators). http://gen.ecovillage.org/
GREENTIE is an international directory of suppliers whose technologies help to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The site also provides information on funding and
on leading international organizations and International Energy Agency (IEA)
programmes whose research, development and demonstration (RD&D) and
information activities centre on clean energy technologies. http://www.greentie.org
IDEA, Interactive Database for Energy-efficient Architecture, University Siegen
FB 7 - Dept. of Building Physics and Solar Energy, please check links.
http://nesa1.uni-siegen.de/wwwextern/idea/main.htm
Hybvent, very good overview about natural and hybrid ventilation (also *.pdf
documents): http://hybvent.civil.auc.dk/puplications/research_papers.htm
Sustainable Building Information System (SBIS), Search; Advanced search by
technologies and specific web sites.
http://www.sbis.info/database/dbsearch/websitesearch.jsp
Share solar buildings, good link collection to sources for renewable energy and
sustainable architecture:
http://www.ateliervandenberg.com/share/sustainable/solar/solarbuilding.htm
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Appendix 3 – Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction
Solar Energy links. http://people.linux-gull.ch/rossen/solar/solarbookmarks.html
Sustainable Architecture, Building and Culture, Directory of Green Building
Professionals, Sustainable Development Professionals, Environmental Health
Professionals and links to other sites. http://www.sustainableabc.com/
Sustainable Architecture, Building and Culture, USA, Directory of Green Building
Professionals, Sustainable Development Professionals, Environmental Health
Professionals: http://www.sustainableabc.com/
The Source for Renewable Energy online business directory.
http://energy.sourceguides.com/index.shtml
Renewable Resources:
Agency of Renewable Resources (FNR). http://www.fnr.de/en/indexen.htm
AGORES – A Global Overview Of Renewable Energies. http://www.agores.org/
Austrian Strawbale Network, Oesterr. Strohballen-Netzwerk (asbn)
Strohballenbau – Links & List of Human Ressources:
http://www.baubiologie.at/asbn/linkseu.html
Biomatnet, Biological Materials for Non-Food Products (Renewable Bio-products).
http://www.nf-2000.org/home.html.
Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA),
site in Portuguese: http://www.ibama.gov.br/
European Strawbale Discussion Forum:
http://amper.ped.muni.cz/mailman/listinfo/strawbale
Natural Product Development, Independent Agro-Industrial Consultancy Group.
http://www.natural-product-development.com/
Strawbale projects worldwide, Information and links, best of Web.
http://www.bestofweb.at/sb_world.html
World Resource Institute INFORMATION AND DATA SOURCE.
http://www.wri.org/
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Appendix 3 – Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction
Renewable Energy:
Asean Center for Energy: http://www.aseanenergy.org/index.htm
CADDET Renewable Energy website is a unique source of global information on
proven, commercial applications covering the full range of renewable energy
technologies. http://www.caddet-re.org/
Erneuerbare Energien Kommunikations- und Informationsservice GmbH is an
independent service enterprise. They work in the fields "renewable energy", "efficient
use of energy" and "energy efficient construction and reconstruction" and is
subdivided in the business areas fairs, congresses, invest and e-media:
http://www.energie-server.de/
EUFORES - the European Forum for Renewable Energy Sources - is an independent,
non-profit making organisation that aims to promote the use of renewable energy:
http://www.eufores.org/
EUREC, European Renewable Energy Centres Agency was established as a
European Economic Interest Grouping in 1991 to strengthen and rationalise the
European RD&D efforts in renewable energy technologies: http://www.eurec.be/
European Association for Renewable Energies EUROSOLAR develops political
and economic plans of action and concepts, including legal frameworks, for the
introduction of Renewable Energies. All political, scientific, technological, and
industrial expertise and grass-roots commitments are important parts of
EUROSOLAR’s platform and produce concrete guidelines, proposals and mandates
for action. EUROSOLAR promotes a broad-based socio-cultural movement in
support of Renewable Energies, the mobilizing of new political and industrial forces
as well as environmentally sustainable architecture. Founded the WCRE in 2001.
http://www.eurosolar.org/new/en/home.html
Independent World Council for Renewable Energy (WCRE) was founded during
the International Impulse Conference for the Creation of an International Renewable
Energy Agency (IRENA), from 8 -10 June 2001 in Berlin. The WCRE is a global
voice for Renewable Energies, communicating the urgent and global need for
Renewable Energies and their availability for all energy demands; analysing the
international barriers to Renewable Energies and preparing proposals to overcome
these; documenting experience of initiatives for Renewable Energies and
communicating best-practice examples world-wide; evaluating the advanced
technological opportunities and applications of Renewable Energy Technologies;
supporting the creation of an International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA);
organizing the "World Renewable Energy Forum"; stimulating international
organizations and governments for the creation of Renewable Energy Policies and
Strategies; informing globally on Renewable Energy activities and projects.
http://www.world-council-for-renewable-energy.org/
International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme,
Information about each of the IEA Solar Heating and Cooling Programme Tasks
can be found under Research Tasks section: http://www.iea-shc.org/
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Appendix 3 – Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction
Lior-International, Official European Commission Information Centre &
Knowledge Gateway for Renewable Energy Sources, coordinator of the agores web
site of the European Commission: http://www.lior-int.com/
Netherlands Agency for Energy and the Environment (NOVEM):
http://www.novem.nl/
Renewable Energy Policy Project (REPP): http://www.crest.org/
Renewable Energy Strategies and Technology Applications for Regenerating Towns,
EU: http://www.resetters.org/
SEDA is an agency created by the New South Wales Government to reduce the level
of greenhouse gas emissions in this state. SEDA accomplishes this by promoting
investment in the commercialisation and use of sustainable energy technologies:
http://www.seda.nsw.gov.au/
Solar Buildings Library, The Library for Solar Architecture is a central repository
for information about renewable energy technologies for buildings and other aspects
relating to solar or bioclimatic architecture. Information may be contributed by any
person or organisation active in the area of renewable energy. Please note that all
articles will be subject to an electronic review process. You have also the possibility
to integrate images or other attachments and links in your report:
http://wire0.ises.org/wire/doclibs/SolArchLib.nsf!OpenDatabase
Solarserver, Forum for Solar Energy. http://www.solarserver.de/index-e.html
Soltherm Europe Initiative – EU Initiatives to stimulate the development of markets
for RES. http://www.soltherm.org/
U.S. Department of Energy's laboratory for renewable energy and energy
efficiency R&D: http://www.nrel.gov/
World-wide Information System for Renewable Energy (WIRE):
http://wire0.ises.org
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Appendix 4 – International Case Studies
4.4 International Case Studies
In this chapter case studies for sustainable building construction projects are presented
described. Due to the lack of reports about case study reports of non residential
sustainable buildings in development countries, also case studies in developed
countries are presented in the framework of this paper. These examples shall show
that sustainable buildings are realisable in all sectors of building construction. The
international transfer of know how to construct sustainable buildings can enhance the
desirably wide spread of sustainable building constructions and the reduction of
related Green House Gas emissions significantly.
Only ten case studies in different countries are presented which are only exemplary
descriptions of good practices for almost sustainable building constructions. They are
not representative, due to the fact that ten buildings in ten countries can not cover the
whole range of possibilities in the numerous specific regions and countries worldwide.
The examples according to the following list are meant for the inspiration of decision
makers and professionals to improve the described good practices and develop
appropriate buildings and constructions by integrated planning and according to
specific basic conditions such as local climate, available materials, culture and
infrastructure. Good practices can always be improved to better practices because the
basic conditions are dynamic and always changing. Furthermore nobody is perfect.
1. Africa
- Ethiopia – Hot and Dry Climate
Promotion of Cost-Efficient Housing in Ethiopia
(Urban housing, local and appropriate materials, labour intensive, low cost)
- Tanzania – Hot and Humid Climate
Chumbe Island Coral Park project Tanzania
(Tourist Resort, local and renewable materials, passive cooling, renewable
energies)
2. America
- Nicaragua – Hot and Humid Climate
Housing Development Villa Hermosa in Diriamba, Nicaragua
(Rural housing, ecological, local and appropriate materials, small and micro
enterprises
- Peru – Mountainous Climate
Resettlement in Peru
(Rural housing, ecological, local and appropriate materials, small and micro
enterprises)
3. Asia
- China – Transition Zone
Changzhou demonstration project
(Housing estate, common materials, energy saving measures)
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Appendix 4 – International Case Studies
- Malaysia - Hot and Humid Climate
MECM Low Energy Office (LEO) building in Putrajaya Malaysia
(Office building, conventional building materials, active cooling, non
renewable energies)
- Philippines – Hot and Humid Climate
Buenavista Homes Jugan Consolacion Cebu City, Philippines
(Urban housing, ecological, local and appropriate materials, labour intensive,
low cost)
- Thailand – Warm and Humid Climate
Bio-Solar House in Thailand
(Residential, energy efficiency, active cooling, renewable energies,
decentralised water
4. Australia
- Australia – Moderate Climate
60L Green Building, Carlton, Victoria
(Commercial building, recycling, renewable materials, renewable energy,
service water)
5. Europe
- Germany – Moderate Climate
Production Hall for train cars “Huebner”
(Production hall, renewable materials, passive cooling, natural ventilation and
lighting)
Please note that there have been already numerous residential and non residential
buildings realised and monitored which have extreme low energy consumption (so
called passive houses) or even have a neutral or positive primarily energy balance by
combining passive solar design with technologies for renewable energy production.
Cutting edge case studies of non residential buildings (e.g. the zero emission
fabrication building “Solvis”) are available on the World Wide Web:
http://www.solarbau.de/english_version/doku/index_0.htm.
Around 250 housing units according to the Passive House standard have been realised
in five European countries, with in-process scientific back-up and with evaluation of
building operation through systematic measurement programmes. Detailed
information and reports of the monitored case studies are available at
http://www.cepheus.de/eng/index.html.
The European Solar Building Exhibition is an international building exhibition for
solar and low-energy housing, first project of this kind, which will present the results
to the public until the end of 2005 and will serve as a model for future developments.
http://www.eu-exhibition.org/en.htm
For further information and numerous case studies worldwide please refer to chapter
Case Studies SBC at “Appendix 3 – Internet Resources Sustainable Building and
Construction”.
123

Case Study Ethiopia – Hot and Dry Climate
Urban housing, local and appropriate materials, labour intensive, low cost
Promotion of Cost-Efficient Housing in Ethiopia
(From Schwitter, D., SKAT/RAS CASE STUDY SERIES DOSSIER: SOCIAL
HOUSING SH6, 2001, http://www.gtz.de/basin/publications/skat/sh6-01.pdf)
Ethiopia has a population of 60 million inhabitants. Although only 15% of the
population lives in urban areas, Ethiopia is one of the fastest urbanising countries of
sub-Saharan Africa. 50% of the population will live in urban areas in twenty years.
The rural-urban migration has accelerated to 4.5%, in some areas it is even higher.
85% of the urban population lives in inhuman, unhygienic and confined conditions.
Construction generally is of low quality, having its reasons in a lack of skilled man
power, high building material wastages, inefficient site organisation, missing quality
controls and limited knowledge of adequate technologies. Capacity building is of
urgent importance to develop the potential of the construction sector as motor for
economic development.
Layout plan Low-cost Housing Project Dire Dawa
The Low-cost Housing Project is
implemented by the Ethiopian Ministry of
Works and Urban Development with the
support of GTZ (German Agency for
Technical Cooperation). The first phase of
the Project is scheduled for 1999 to 2002. A
title deed, a home or house of one‘s own is
the key to become a human being.
The objective of the Project is to enable lowincome
sections of the urban population to
acquire homes of their own that enable them
to improve their living conditions. The
beneficiaries are urban households of the
lower 50% of the income curve with a saving
potential for an initial deposit of at least 20%
of the construction costs.
Special attention is given to the selection of female headed households. Mixed
settlement schemes to avoid social segregation and criminality are promoted in order
to facilitate economic development through purchasing power. Traditionally, this
concept has prevented Ethiopia from getting high urban crime rates as for example in
neighbouring countries. Safeguarding of the basic need for decent housing is as well a
precondition for health as for participation in public and social life.
Digging foundations in Nazareth
In a 1st phase the “Nazareth House” of 36 m² was
constructed. In a 2nd phase, a new housing design
„The Growing House” has been developed. It
consists of a modular system of two basic units,
starting with 30 m² to be extended up to 120 m² as
per need and budget of the user. The “growing
house” considers densification (vertical
construction) and economises on the expenditures
for basic infrastructure, a key problem for
municipalities with low budgets. The m2² rates of the units vary between US$ 40.-
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Case Study Ethiopia – Hot and Dry Climate
Urban housing, local and appropriate materials, labour intensive, low cost
and US$ 80.- Designs are done according to the Ethiopian Building Code to guarantee
durability, also for the following generation. The concept allows the beneficiary to
extend the house according to financial capacity and socio-economic requirements.
The project covers totally 2.460 houses in 6 cities.
New settlement area Nazareth
Earthquake resistant construction technologies are
used, as Ethiopia has earthquake zones. Hollow
blocks are the main building material, they are
easy to produce and hardly need any maintenance
thereafter (ready made). Moreover, a prefabricated
slab system, prefabricated lintels and window sills
are used as well as prefabricated moulded hollow
blocks for beams, allowing woodless construction.
This is environmentally friendly, as Ethiopia has
reduced its forest reserves to 2% of the area of the country.
In order to reach sustainability,
cooperation with the local
financial system is essential. The
Construction and Business Bank
of Ethiopia is the Partner of the
Low-cost Housing Program.
Through facilitation of the
Project, the Bank gives loans to
the beneficiaries at market
interest rates. The credits have a
duration period of maximum 15
years. The individual land title
certificates and the housing units
serve as collateral for the Bank.
The beneficiaries enter into individual contracts with the Bank and thus get linked to
the formal banking system. Individual land title certificates make them become less
vulnerable human beings.
Training-on-the-job for roofing
Training-on-the-job for masons
Internal view
of the
settlement area
in
Nazareth
New settlement
area Nazareth
Evolution Phase 3, Floor Plans, Elevations and Section of housing
in Dire Dawa
125

Case Study Tanzania – Hot and Humid Climate
Tourist Resort, local and renewable materials, passive cooling, renewable energy
Chumbe Island Coral Park project Tanzania
(From Huelsemann, J., Krusche,P; Tu- Braunscheig, Germany, http://www.tu-bs.de/)
View on the dome of the visitors centre
The Chumbe Island Coral Park project demonstrates
sustainable use of a tropical island for the benefit of
Zanzibar society. This is achieved by protecting its
coral reef, and a coral rag forest by means of park
management and environmental education. The
project is supported by tourism and combines local
traditions with modern environmental architecture.
Chumbe Island was declared a protected area in 1994.
The first Marine Park in Tanzania is managed by the
Chumbe Island Coral Park Ltd. All infrastructural development has been carried out
in a sustainable and environmentally-friendly way, using technologies which have
close to zero impact on the environment. The buildings were especially designed and
built for this ecologically most sensitive island.
Aerial view of Chumbe Island and site
plan of the coral park project
The visitors centre under construction
and drawings of the construction
principle
View of the vertex and a skylight
of the roof dome
The innovative construction and environmental technology is based on traditional building
techniques and local materials. It provides valuable experiences in sustainable housing
technologies for remote areas and supports small scale industries in the local building sector.
During the designing and building process many local tradesmen and small scale building
enterprises were consulted and incorporated. They contributed with their knowledge of
traditional building techniques and skills to define a new architectural language and
construction, mainly based on the nature of the local material.
The Guest Bungalows are small units carefully placed into natural clearings in the coral rag
forest. Without disturbing the surrounding nature they offer protection from sun, rain and
insects, and use the wind for ventilation. The bungalows provide the guests with water and
electricity. The construction, the orientation and the interior of the bungalows give the visitors
the sense of being alone on an island in harmony with nature. The shape of the roof enables
perfect ventilation by sea breezes. The thatched roof structures follow the principle of latticed
shell constructions and are made traditionally from local poles and ropes. Since 1998 the
126

Case Study Tanzania – Hot and Humid Climate
Tourist Resort, local and renewable materials, passive cooling, renewable energy
project has proved its benefit to the Islamic society of Zanzibar by protecting the island, its
surrounding reef, and educational activities.
The roof protects the
guests from sun and rain.
Only the evening sun can
enter the building. The
solid base of the
bungalow protects from
insects and water.
The roof acts as a wind catcher. During
the south-west monsoon it is open to the
sea with a closing ventilation louvre in
the case of storms. During the northeast
monsoon the roof is high enough to
catch the breeze which blows above the
tree line.
The house is a composition of the solid
base and tower for the technical
components (here the grey part), and the
light-weight roof. The position of the
bungalow was determined by the sea view
and the natural surrounding features.
Each building functions as a self-sufficient unit by generating its own water and energy with
rainwater catchment and filtration, solar water heating and photovoltaic electricity. Sewage is
avoided by using composting systems, and plant beds utilise the grey water.
Small decentralised solar power
systems provide electricity for
lighting in the bungalows. The
Visitors’ Centre has its own solar
generator lighting. A DC/AC
converter enables TV sets and Video
players to be used for educational
purposes.
Chumbe Island has no source of
fresh water other than rain.
Therefore rainwater catchment
provides the most feasible water
supply for drinking and washing.
From the roof of each building the
rain water is funnelled via a
sandstone filter into a cistern which forms the base of each Guest Bungalow and parts of the
Visitors’ Centre. The large size of the cistern enables water storage during an average rainy
season sufficient to provide the bungalow with water even during the following dry season.
For showering, the water is heated by a solar water heater attached to the rear of the technique
tower. The slightly-soiled greywater from the bathrooms is directed into a natural treatment
facility which is screened from insects. Specially adapted plants do absorb the surplus water
continuously. Soil bacteria purify the water completely.
Human wastes are not flushed away with water, but fall directly into a special container which
is part of the composting system which is based on the Swedish “Clivus Multrum Compost
Toilet System”. A sophisticated ventilation system enables aerobic decomposition to take
place inside the container. During the composting process the faeces are reduced to one sixth
of its original volume and the urine is partly evaporated. During the composting process the
organic wastes are transferred into fertilising soil and a decomposition of germs take place.
The end product is a pleasant fertilizer which does not emit off odours.
127

Case Study Nicaragua – Hot and Humid Climate
Rural housing, ecological, local and appropriate materials, micro enterprises
Housing Development Villa Hermosa in Diriamba, Nicaragua
(From Schwitter, D., SKAT/RAS CASE STUDY SERIES DOSSIER: SOCIAL
HOUSING SH1, 1998, http://www.gtz.de/basin/publications/skat/sh1-98.pdf)
Diriamba is a small town 40kms south of Nicaragua’s capital Managua. Its great
advantage is the climate. Located on a hill in the midst of coffee farms, it is much
cooler than stuffy hot Managua and, therefore an attractive place to live, in spite of its
The “seed house” design allows
attractive additions and variations
rather rural setting.
Grupo Sofonias, an international NGO working out
of neighbouring Jinotepe, has 20-year history of
assisting the local population in construction
programs; they had always been directed at the
poorer segments of society and essentially were selfhelp
projects.
In recent years, the economic situation of the middle
class in Nicaragua has worsened so much that many
live in a “poor people’s condition and find it more
and more difficult to maintain a “middle class status”. Especially in the housing
market, young professionals do not have any chance. They neither qualify for
subsidies or commercial mortgages, nor do thy earn enough to rent a house. Many live
in crowded conditions in their parent’s home and often, he couple has to share the
bedroom with other family members. Several interest groups approached Grupo
Sofonias to start a project for “middle class in danger of extinction”.
The German NGO “Viva
Diriamba”, with co financing
from the European Union,
approved a first stage and the
“Swiss development
Cooperation” a second one, to
build a total of 34 houses. The
commercial brand of the
Grupo Sofonias, “EcoTec
S.A.” (its profits are used for
social programs) has
purchased land and contracted
a team of consultants of the
EcoSouth Network to plan the
project.
Evolution Phase 3, Ground Plan, Elevations and Section, Architects:
CIDEM, Sta. Clara, Cuba
The decisive parameters for
the planning were “Economy
and Ecology”, while creating
an attractive neighbourhood
with an architectural touch of its own. Based upon detailed information on Nicaraguan
lifestyles, habits and dreams, and, of course, with all available technical information,
the Cuban team elaborated a simple but innovative proposal. The precarious situation
128

Case Study Nicaragua – Hot and Humid Climate
Rural housing, ecological, local and appropriate materials, micro enterprises
of water supplies, the lack of sewage systems and the need to install an electricity grid
has led to a long but fruitful interchange between the actors.
Seed house evolution
The houses are designed on the “seed
house principle”, which means that by
starting form an identical centre, rooms
can be placed in different directions
and vary in size.
Using all possibilities of locally
available materials in their pure form
creates a comfortable environment and
interesting architectural expressions.
The rooms are high and, through
innovative roof constructions,
economies have been achieved while,
at the same time, the thermal comfort
and the visual attractiveness of the
house have been improved.
Micro-concrete roofing tiles, local
timber, the partial use of puzzolanic
cement (which unfortunately was not
available at the start of the project) and
windows made of wood instead of the
aluminium widows normally used in
Nicaragua, are combined for economy
and ecology.
Grupo Sofonias conceived a system
with sliding interest rates, benefiting the house owners who choose a faster payment
schedule with a higher initial down payment. The current bank rate for preferential
mortgages is 18% with repayment in 20 years. The scheme is so attractive that most
people sign for a 7 years mortgage with 33% down payment, which brings them to a
favourable 9,5% interest rate.
Every family adds its finishing touch Houses under construction
129

Case Study Peru – Mountainous Climate
Rural housing, ecological, local and appropriate materials, micro enterprises
Resettlement in Peru
(From Schwitter, D., SKAT/RAS CASE STUDY SERIES DOSSIER: SOCIAL
HOUSING SH4, 2000, http://www.skatfoundation.org/resources/downloads/pdf/as/sh4-00.pdf)
After a dozen years of chaotic military rule, Peru returned to democratic leadership in
1980. In recent years, bold reform programs and significant progress in curtailing
guerrilla activity have resulted in solid economic growth until 1997.
Group of houses at Chalhuanca – Abancay – Apurímac
After the end of the
terrorism period, arose the
necessity for the total
reconstruction of the areas
affected by the terrorism
violence. One of these areas
is concerned to house
building for people
returning to their old
villages, with the support of
private institutions and
government organizations.
By 1994 there was a deficit
of about 50.000 houses in
rural areas. In order to satisfy this demand, the Peruvian government created the
Program for Reconstruction and Development of Areas under Emergency (PAR), with
the cooperation of different social organizations and NGOs. They planned the
development of different studies and constructive projects within a dynamical and
progressive urbanization process of rural villages. This process represented the change
of traditional building patterns of dispersed villages into new urban building patterns,
that is, new villages with definite streets, marketplaces, squares, etc, but with the
incorporation of the socio cultural lifestyle of the beneficiary population.
House prototype at a rural community – Pantac Ayacucho
House building projects with
international development support and
financial resources of the Peruvian
Government, represented by the
Ministry of Women Promotion and
Human Development – PROMUDEH
PAR, have been developed.
CESEDEM participates in this process,
bringing constructive advising and ecomaterial
supply. CESEDEM is a
private company founded in 1995
dedicated to the investigation and
production of appropriate materials,
local capacity building by offering
technical as well as corporative
advisory service.
130

Case Study Peru – Mountainous Climate
Rural housing, ecological, local and appropriate materials, micro enterprises
Projects:
REHAVIR (Program for rural housing rehabilitation and refugee families): between
1996 and 1998 the governments of Peru and Switzerland convened to rebuild 1.820
new rural houses and 18 communal buildings in 55 new villages. This project
benefited 10.745 people.
PAR/PNUD/PER/96/018 (UNDP, United Nations Program for Development). During
1997–2000 and with financial resources of Peruvian Government, this program
allowed the building of more than 10.600 houses in 145 new rural villages for 27.600
beneficiaries, also the building of 56 school buildings and communal buildings, all of
them built with ecological building materials.
Houses at one of the communities in Abancay
Other projects were supported by different NGOs as TADEPA, VIDAPROM and
INTERNATIONAL SOLIDARITY, under which 600 houses were built, with
financial aid of the European Union and the Spanish NGO INTERMON.
Design:
The house’s area varies from 65 up to 86 m², with a
covered area of between 90 and 112
m2. It has the following distribution: 1 room for
multiple uses, 2 bedrooms, 1 shed, 1 annexed
kitchen. Foundations are made of stone and mud.
The conglomeration of houses facilitates the access
to basic services, as drinking water, electric supply,
latrines and sewerage systems, and also to education
and health services. Walls are made of adobe bricks
of 0.37 cm x 0.37 x 0.125 mm. They have reinforced
structures, in type of counter forts. Roofs are made
of Micro Concrete Roofing (Tejacreto). Between
1996 and 2000, 13,085 houses in 393 villages were
built. 9,200 houses and schools have been covered
with Tejacreto tiles. Affordable shelter for more than
70,930 poor people was provided at a unit cost of averagely US $ 2.100.
Group of persons roofing a house (top),
Building process of houses at
Pantac – Huanta (bottom)
14 workshops were installed at site to cover the demand of building materials. These
workshops were in charge of peasants, who were organized in small and microenterprises.
131

Case Study China – Transition Zone
Housing estate, common materials, energy saving measures
Changzhou demonstration project
(Available on the World Wide Web: http://www.eebuildingschina.org/demo.htm)
China is the world’s second largest emitter of greenhouse gases. Residential and
commercial buildings account for only 20% of the China’s energy consumption. Most
of China’s present building thermal performance is inadequate and energy
consumption per heating unit output is three to four times that of developed countries.
Hence the amount of energy consumed for building heating in China is tremendous.
The actual trends for using individual air-conditioners and heat pumps become a real
concern for the impact on the environment. The country's electricity consumption is
rising 16% annually, and current supply does not keep up with the demand. It is now
recognised that if the energy efficiency of buildings is not improved to meet the
growing demand of energy in China there will be an increase in the level of
greenhouse emissions which are already dangerously high in China. For this reason,
China has already undertaken considerable initiatives in terms of management, energy
efficiency regulation and the development of energy saving technologies. In order to
promote building energy conservation, the Ministry of Construction (MOC) of China
and other state departments concerned have formulated a number of standards,
regulations and policy measures and arranged special research and development
programs.
In 1996, the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) mandated DESSAU-SOPRIN as the
Canadian Executing Agency (CaEA), to carry out the Energy Efficiency in Buildings (EEB) Project in
China. Selected from China’s Agenda 21 Priority Program and funded by CIDA, this project aims to
achieve energy savings in residential and commercial buildings. The expected result is a reduction in
energy consumption through energy efficient measures, and consequently an improvement in the
environment by reducing emissions of air-borne pollutants. Five demonstration projects are realised:
Beijing Demonstration Project is a group of six townhouses in the Future Holiday Garden residential
development in the south of Beijing. Some of the innovative energy efficiency technologies used in this
project are exterior insulation and a vapour barrier in the envelope design, double glazed windows and
a heat recovery ventilator.
Tianjin Demonstration Project is a Canadian designed single family home which was built using an
innovative construction technology, imported from Canada.
Harbin 1 Demonstration Project is a retrofit of an existing residential apartment building belonging to
the Harbin Coal Mine Design Institute in the north east of China. Extensive monitoring was conducted
to determine the energy consumption of the building before and after the retrofit.
Harbin 2 Demonstration Project is a new construction was based on the lessons learned from Harbin 1
in terms of heating system configuration and exterior insulation.
Changzhou Demonstration Project is unique as it is situated in China’s heating and cooling zone, or
transition zone. A few years ago, most residential buildings were not heated neither cooled in the
region of Changzhou. However, in most of the recent buildings heating as well as cooling are
considered a living requirement.
Central heating zone
Transition zone
Non-heating zone
In the past, in order to restrict the energy supply for space
heating, the Chinese government created three climatic zones in
China to regulate the supply of heating energy:
- the central heating zone covers areas with more than
90 days below 5°C
- the transition zone covers areas having 60 to 89 days
below 5°C or areas that have more than 75 days per
year during which the average daily temperature is less
than 8°C
- the non-heating zone covers all other cases
132

Case Study China – Transition Zone
Housing estate, common materials, energy saving measures
Despite Changzhou location in a warmer climate than Harbin or Beijing, the unit cost
for energy is certainly more expensive. The unitary air-conditioner uses electricity and
if this same equipment is used as a heat pump it will also require electricity for
heating. The higher cost of electricity tends to improve the cost effectiveness of the
Energy Efficiency measures proposed for the various architectural systems.
The Changzhou Demonstration Building Project is a
residential building that will be built in the Yi Kang
Garden residential development in Changzhou,
China. The Yi Kang Garden is a 1400 unit
development currently under construction. The
development is to be completed in three phases.
With approximately one third of the apartments
built, the first phase was completed in June 2000.
The Demonstration Project, along with another third
of the apartments, is included in the second phase
and is currently under construction. Through a
collaborative effort between Changzhou Real Estate Development and Housing
Industrialisation Office (the ChEA), the Yi Kang Garden was chosen as the site of this
Demonstration Project.
The final design of the demonstration building is very similar to the initial design of
the reference building. Several energy efficient building components chosen from a
parametrical analysis have been added to the design in order to optimise the energy
consumption of the building. The demonstration building is a seven-story apartment
building with architecture similar to that of the buildings of the Yi Kang Garden
residential development. It is slightly smaller than the typical building of the Yi Kang
model (7 floors instead of 10 or 11). The demonstration building includes 10 regular
apartments and 2 penthouses. It is one of the only buildings in the region to
incorporate insulation and a vapour barrier in its wall design. Among the other energy
efficient features are double glazed windows, and a geothermal heat pump for heating
and cooling which uses local groundwater.
The EE components for the architectural systems are:
- Double pane windows with better seal
- Low weight concrete with insulation
- Roof insulation
- First floor insulation over the garage.
Because of the improvements of the architectural systems, the annual energy cost of
the demonstration building is 44 % less than that of the reference building. With all
the added energy efficient components on the architectural systems, an evaluation of
different mechanical systems was completed. The annual energy cost for the
demonstration building with more efficient heat pumps is 21 % less than those using a
less efficient heat pump.
The analysis of the Changzhou demonstration project has tried out and proven the
usefulness of energy efficient technology in both reducing energy consumption, and
total costs of this type of technology. Building to improve energy efficiency is more
than just a question of complying with the law, the project has proven that there is a
real cost savings associated with a better building.
133

Case Study Malaysia - Hot and Humid Climate
Office building, conventional building materials, active cooling, fossil fuels
MECM Low Energy Office (LEO) building in Putrajaya Malaysia
(Available on the World Wide Web: http://www.ktkm.gov.my/mecm-leo/)
In the beginning of 2004, the Ministry of Energy, Communications & Multimedia
MECM will move to a new building with a floor area of 16.000 m² in the new
Federal Government Administrative Capital, Putrajaya, situated between Kuala
Lumpur and the new Kuala Lumpur International Airport.
The Government of Malaysia wants their new Ministry of Energy building to be
a showcase building for energy efficiency and low environmental impact.
Therefore a design support from the Danish Agency for Development Assistance –
DANIDA (formerly known as DANCED) program was requested and granted. The
building shall demonstrate integration of the best energy efficiency measures,
optimised towards achieving the overall best cost effective solution.
Perspective View from South East Floor Plan with description of the natural and
artificial lighted areas.
Since January 2001 the overall design of the building and its energy systems for
minimum energy consumption was optimised by Danish experts in cooperation with
Malaysian architects and engineers. A computerized design tool was introduced as a
key instrument in the optimization of the building design and the design of the energy
systems. In August 2002 the detailed design of the building has been finalised, and
Putra Perdana Construction Sdn Bhd has started construction on the post and beam
structure out of reinforced concrete.
An ambitious goal was set for the energy efficiency of the air conditioned and active
cooled building: Energy savings of more than 50% compared to traditional new office
buildings in Malaysia should be achieved at an extra construction cost of less than
10%, giving a payback period of the extra investment of less than 10 years, with an
electricity price presently at 29 cent per kWh. The cooling energy for the air
conditioning system is provided by chilled water which is produced in gas district
cooling plant. No renewable energies are used for the conditioning of the building.
The cost target of maximum 10% extra costs for the energy efficiency measures have
been confirmed through the recent Design and Built tender. The computer modelling
has predicted more than 50% energy savings. A subsequent energy monitoring follow
up program is planned. The energy monitoring during use will add vital credibility to
the predictions, that major energy savings and environmental benefits can be achieved
in the building sector of Malaysia. The new MECM LEO building demonstrates the
feasibility of the energy efficiency measures according to the new Malaysian Standard
134

Case Study Malaysia - Hot and Humid Climate
Office building, conventional building materials, active cooling, fossil fuels
MS 1525:2001 "Code of Practice on Energy Efficiency and use of Renewable Energy
for Non-residential Buildings". Following this code, the LEO building must have an
energy consumption less than 135 kWh/m2year. The predictions are, that the LEO
building will have an energy index close to 100 kWh/m² year . This is a very good
performance compared to typical new office buildings in Malaysia and the ASEAN
region, having an Energy Index of 200 – 300 kWh/m2year.
Gas district cooling plant and connection of chilled water
pipe
North elevation during installation of the facade
The energy efficiency measures that are expected to contribute to achieving the goal
of an energy index of 100kWh/m² per year are:
- Creation of a green environment around and on top of the building
- Optimisation of building orientation, with preference to south and north facing
windows, where solar heat is less than for other orientations.
- Energy efficient space planning
- Well insulated building façade (20cm aerated concrete) and building roof (concrete
with insulation, thickness=10 cm)
- Protection of windows from direct sunshine and protection of the roof by second
canopy roof, which prevents direct solar radiation onto the roof.
- Energy efficient cooling system, where the air volume for each building zone is
controlled individually according to demand
- Maximise use of diffuse daylight and use of high efficiency lighting, controlled
according to daylight availability and occupancy. Daylight design is achieved by a
combination of exterior shading and a glazing, which allows 65% of the light through,
and allows only 51% of the heat trough. The atrium allows daylight access to deeper
parts of the building, thereby improving energy savings and user comfort.
- Energy Efficient office equipment (less electricity use and less cooling demand)
- Implementation of an Energy Management System, where the performances of the
climatic systems are continuously optimised to meet optimal comfort criteria at least
energy costs. Intake of outside air is controlled according to CO2 level of the indoor
air, and thereby controlled according to the occupancy level. The more people in the
building, the more fresh air intake required. A daylight responsive control system on
lighting system is combined with a motion detector, which automatically shuts off
lighting and reduce cooling once an office is unoccupied.
- The reduction of the internal heat gains from lighting and office equipment is of
major importance. The recommended indoor temperature range from 23°C to
26°C and the recommended relative humidity is 60% - 70%. It is noted, that the
increase of the room temperature by one degree only reduces energy consumption by
10%. Therefore it is also very costly to have too low room temperatures in the 20 -
22°C region.
135

Case Study Philippines – Hot and Humid Climate
Urban housing, ecological, local and appropriate materials, labour intensive
Buenavista Homes Jugan Consolacion Cebu City, Philippines
(From Schwitter, D., SKAT/RAS CASE STUDY SERIES DOSSIER: SOCIAL
HOUSING SH2, 1998, http://www.gtz.de/basin/publications/skat/sh2-98.pdf)
Metro Cebu is the second largest metropolitan area of the Philippines. It is located
around 500 km south of Manila. Metro Cebu has a population of approximately 1.5
Mio. It has a very serious housing problem. In addition to population growth a large
Economical, ecological and attractive
units with individually created front
gardens
number of people continue to migrate to Cebu.
Buenavista Homes is located in Jugan, Concolacion,
and 12km from the centre of Metro Cebu. The
project consists of 417 houses and lot packages in a
5-hectar area. Each regular package has a lot area of
35m² and a floor area of 23m². The housing unit also
has a provision which allows the buyer to add a
second floor with a maximum area of 23m².
A unit is sold to the open market at a price of US$
4.000. Buyers may however apply for a loan from a
government housing finance institution, in which case the monthly rate is US$ 40 for
a period of 25 years. The package is affordable to the upper level of the low-income
sector of the Philippines. The minimum wage per month in the Philippines is US$ 90,
and the average household income is US$ 130 per month. The project developer is
Legacy Homes Inc., a subsidiary of San Miguel Properties Phils., Inc. which is one of
the Philippines’ largest groups that also produces San Miguel Beer.
Buenavista Homes is a social
housing project. In the
Philippines, developers are
required by law to sell an
equivalent of at least 20% of
the total subdivision area or
total subdivision project cost
at a price which is affordable
to the low-income sector.
Buenavista Homes has
become a commercial success.
All the units were sold even
before their completion
despite the economic crisis
plaguing Asia.
Evolution Phase 3, Ground Plan, Elevations and Section, Architects:
CIDEM, Sta. Clara, Cuba
In addition to its low price,
the project uses appropriate
technology, in particular
compressed earth blocks and
micro-concrete roof tiles. These materials are not only low-cost but they dispose also
of the following advantages.
The materials are attractive and do not look “low-cost” at all.
136

Case Study Philippines – Hot and Humid Climate
Urban housing, ecological, local and appropriate materials, labour intensive
The materials are environmental
friendly because both
technologies use a relatively low
amount of cement and other
energy intensive products. The
blocks are made of ordinary soil
rather than sand and gravel,
which have been depleted
already in many areas (Cebu; for
instance).
House construction using compressed earth blocks
(CEB) and micro concrete roofing (MCR)
The Projects are labour intensive, it is estimated that at least 50-60% of the total
project cost went to labour (15-20% is estimated when conventional materials are
used).
The houses were constructed by Eco-Builders Inc., the business arm of
Pagtambayayong Foundation. Eco-Builders is a business corporation engaged in
house construction site development. Its revenue supports activities of
Pagtambayayong Foundation, one of the bigger Philippine NGOs.
Production of
MCR
Raw Material for compressed
earth blocks
Cosy interior ambience Comfortable modern
kitchen
Terrace-house development, cost-efficient but not looking
low-cost at all
Combination of MCR and CEB during the construction
phase of the housing units
Buenavista Homes show that the use of appropriate technology is commercially viable.
Many other commercial developers have already shown their interest in using the
same approach for their own projects.
137

Case Study Thailand – Warm and Humid Climate
Residential, common materials, active cooling, renewable energies, service water
Bio-Solar House in Thailand
(From Jan Krikke, available at the World Wide Web:
http://www.architectureweek.com/2003/0514/environment_1-1.html)
A research team from Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok has built the country's
first "bio-solar" house. Solar energy powers the air-conditioning, lights, and
household appliances. The house has a heavy, slanting roof with overhanging eaves,
sand-colored walls, a tastefully landscaped garden, and an attached carport. Buried in
the garden are a photovoltaic system, biogas unit, air conditioner, condensation
collection unit, water recycling equipment, filtering units, and storage tanks.
Rain, dew, and condensation from the cooling system produce enough water for a family of
four. Recycled water irrigates the garden, and surplus electricity is sold to the power company
or used to drive an electric car 30 miles (50 kilometres) a day.
Side view of the bio-solar house
Photo: Jan Krikke
The designer and occupant of this self-reliant bio-solar house is Soontorn Boonyatikarm,
professor of architecture at Chulalongkorn University. He long had an interest in ecologically
responsible architecture. But personal circumstance provided additional impetus for the
project. His wife suffers from pulmonary problems, and needs isolation from the notoriously
polluted Bangkok air. The answer was a virtually airtight house in which the air is
continuously filtered. Building a virtually airtight house required a high degree of
workmanship, something not readily available in Thailand.
Comparison of the cooling loads
of a conventional house (left)
with those of the bio-solar house.
Image: Chulalongkorn
University
Plan view of bio-solar house with
oval swimming pool
Image: Chulalongkorn University
Schematic illustration of the PV
power generation and storage
system
Image: Chulalongkorn University
Developing the bio-solar house was a multidisciplinary project
and involved a combination of material science, civil
engineering, and biotechnology. To minimize energy
requirements – a basic concern in a solar-powered house - the
research team spent long hours testing materials for walls,
floors, roof, and glass for their capacity to reduce the cooling
load. The roof, which absorbs most of the heat, is made of
metal. Between the roof and the one-foot- (30-centimeter-)
thick insulation is an air duct, allowing the wind to ventilate the
heat absorbed by the roof. The garden has several artificial
mounts designed to direct the wind toward the house. While the
house has windows on all four sides, eaves and recessed
windows prevent the sun from shining directly into most of the
interior.
138

Case Study Thailand – Warm and Humid Climate
Residential, common materials, active cooling, renewable energies, service water
At no time of the day does the sun enter the main house directly. To further reduce
heat gain, all windows and doors are equipped with triple-paned insulation glass.
Soontorn claims the house is 14 times more energy-efficient than a conventional
house. Moreover, he says, the house embodies a "philosophy of modern living," based
on economy, technology, environmental preservation, and social values without
sacrificing comfort. This comfort extends to air quality, cooling, lighting, and
acoustics despite the reduced load on the environment. According to calculation the
additional investment needed for the bio-solar house (40 percent more than a
conventional house of this style) would pay for itself in seven years. The cost of this
house was about US$75,000 (3 million Bhat), not including the cost of the solar
panels, which are imported and whose economic competitiveness is hampered by high
import duties.
The biogas unit produces cooking gas
from household waste. The circular
unit is the bio gas tank, the
rectangular container is the overflow
water tank. Waste products fertilize
the organic vegetable garden and the
lawn.
Image: Chulalongkorn University
Water from the house is recycled and
used to irrigate the garden. The
system features are car wash, storage
tank, household plumbing units, a
pipe to send water to the garden,
water from the washing machine, and
the garden being watered.
Image: Chulalongkorn University
Condensation from the air
conditioning system supplies 8
gallons (30 liters) of water per
day. The unit at the left is the
drinking water storage tank; the
unit at the right is the water
purification unit.
Image: Chulalongkorn
University
On the roof of the 180-square-meter, three-bedroom house are 62 square meters of solar cells
capable of generating 22 kilowatts a day. The system can store energy for three days. A
comparable, conventional house would require 15 times more area in solar cells. The air
conditioning unit has a capacity of 9000 Btu and can operate around the clock. At peak
capacity it consumes 6.45 kilowatts per day. The sun powers all equipment. A modified
personal computer linked to dozens of sensors controls the system. This computer, installed
on the landing between the lower and upper floors, enables the occupants to monitor and
adjust the equipment. They can control the temperature and humidity in all the rooms and
read the outdoor wind speed. The system shows if any of the sliding windows are opened, and
how far. On average, the system produces a surplus of 15 kilowatt-hours per day which can be
sold to the power company or used to drive an electric car.
A biogas unit produces cooking gas from household waste. It was adapted from research from
Kasetsart University and the Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency
in Thailand's Ministry of Energy. Dew and rain, which vary by season (80 to 100 litres) of
water per day, are collected from the roof. The air conditioning unit produces 30 litres of
condensation water daily. Water is filtered and stored in a tank with a capacity of 3600 litres.
Wastewater from the kitchen, showers, carport, and washing machine is filtered and reused
for irrigation.
139

Case Study Australia – Moderate Climate
Commercial building, recycling, renewable materials and energy, service water
60L Green Building, Carlton, Victoria
(Available at: http://www.60lgreenbuilding.com/ )
60L is a green commercial building in Australia, unique in its approach to energy and
water consumption, and the use of recycled and re-used materials during construction.
The building opened for business in December 2002 and shows how it is possible to
achieve a commercially viable, healthy, low energy, resource-efficient workplace with
minimal impact on the environment and sets new benchmarks in environmental
performance for commercial buildings in Australia. The building, set in central
Melbourne provides 3.375 m² lettable floor space on four floors. The building shell
itself is partly new, and partly refurbished from a nineteenth-century, heritage-listed
factory. The building was constructed by the utilisation of appropriate technologies
rather than leading edge technology for the sake of it:
Heritage listed west facade of 60L
Building
The original building but was partially dismantled so
that existing materials could be re-used (timber floor
joists and planking, bricks, glazed partitions, most of
the old building structure and the heritage listed
facade. Concrete poured at 60L was made using a
60% recycled aggregate (crushed concrete). Timber
windows and door frames were fabricated from
recycled materials, as reinforcing steel and carpets
(recycled synthetics). The use of glues, adhesives,
sealants and fillers commonly used in buildings was
minimised. The PVC consumption was reduced to
50% of a typical commercial building of the same size
and use. PVC was eliminated from all water &
wastewater pipes, electrical conduits and light fittings. Where new materials had to be
used, preference was given to recycled and recyclable products such as bricks, timber,
steel and copper. During design, the greenhouse emissions of the building were
modelled. They are only about one-third of a typical building of this type and size.
North and west facing facades Floor plan of the 60L Green Building
include large glass areas that
take advantage of winter sun.
A large inner atrium with light
shelves also brings sunlight
into the core of the building.
Six light wells in the building
perimeter also bring light into
the inner areas of the tenancies.
Double glazing and the use of 'low E' window coatings reduces heat loss in winter. This type
of glazing also causes the inside surface of the window to be closer to the internal air
temperature thereby improving the radiant temperature felt by the occupant. That is, it is more
comfortable to sit near one of these windows. 60L uses 100% green power - electricity bought
from a provider who commits to source the same amount of power from a renewable source.
A rooftop solar array generates around 10% of the power for used in the building. The fit-out
specifications require tenants to use energy efficient appliances wherever possible throughout
in the building fit-out. 60L uses less than 35% of the electricity of a typical building of the
same size and function.
140

Case Study Australia – Moderate Climate
Commercial building, recycling, renewable materials and energy, service water
60L features a clever natural
ventilation system based on the
chimney effect that cuts down on
the need for artificial heating and
cooling. The design includes a
large central atrium which
allows air to flow across
tenancies from the light wells
and into the atrium from where it
is then vented to the atmosphere
through four thermal chimneys.
The system is linked to computer
controlled louvre windows in all
tenancies and louvres on the
chimneys which operate
according to wind speed &
direction to optimise natural air
flows through the building.
60L’s thermal chimneys encourage
circulation of fresh air and spread light
into the building core
Section of the 60L Green Building with illustration of the ventilation
system, using the chimney and buoyancy effect.
The air system allows automatic cool air purging at
night (night cooling) to eliminate the heat build-up
from hot summer days. Tenants can also control air
flows through open able windows & louvres in the
office areas. When outside temperatures exceed the
parameters of the fresh air system, tenancies have
small domestic-sized, reverse-cycle air conditioners
Natural lighting design reduces the need for
artificial lighting, thereby reducing the heat
generated by lights, and reducing the need for
cooling of the office environment to achieve a
comfortable working environment.
The building is equipped with a rooftop garden
which is designed to use recycled water processed
by the building's water reclamation system and acts
as an source of thermal mass, insulating the offices
below and providing an offset to heat build-up. In an
average rainfall year, only water required for testing
the fire sprinkler system will require the use of
mains water. 60L will use 90% less mains water
when compared to a traditional commercial building of similar size and function.
60L's approach to water conservation can be summarised through the following:
- Minimise the demand for water by providing water efficient fixtures & fittings,
including water-less urinals and low flush volume toilet pans;
- Use collected rainwater to replace 100% of normal mains water consumption
whenever possible;
- 100% on-site treatment and reuse of grey-water (basins and sinks) & blackwater
(sewage) streams to produce reclaimed water for flushing toilet pans and
irrigating the roof garden and landscape features;
- Use of reclaimed water for flushing toilet pans and irrigating the rooftop
gardens.
141

Case Study Germany – Moderate Climate
Production, renewable materials, passive cooling, natural ventilation + lighting
Production Hall “Huebner”
(From Dr. Uwe Grossmann and Dr. Margrit Kennedy available on the World Wide
Web: Solarbau Monitor Programme,
http://www.solarbau.de/english_version/index.htm)
The aim of the project was the planning, construction and energy-related evaluation of
a factory building with 2.000 m² of floor space. The building is an extension of an
existing manufacturing plant on the site of "Huebner Gummi & Kunststoffe GmbH"
in Waldau near Kassel, Germany.
Northeast façade of the production hall with glazed
roof and facade parts for sufficient natural lighting
Northwest facade of the production hall with thermal
water collector on a Southeast orientated shed
The monitoring, evaluation and documentation of the building construction and
performance in the framework of the SolarBau programme has been carried out by
independent institutes and companies. The SolarBau – Energy Efficiency and solar
energy use in the commercial building sector is a German demonstration program for
the non residential building sector which was initiated by the Federal Ministry of
Education and Research (BMBF) in 1995 and since 1998 carried out by the Federal
Ministry of Economy and Technology (BMWi).
Within a tight financial framework, the integral planning had the task of realizing a
low-energy construction method for a factory building. Special significance was
attached to the choice of natural building materials (wood) and a favourable overall
energy balance of manufacturing and operating energy.
Perspective view of the timber construction of the low
energy production hall
Roof glazing ensures daylight for
illuminating the workplace. The building
is ventilated via an underground heat
exchanger with the waste air being
channelled over the roof and heat
recovery in the form of an integrated
circulation system. The shape, orientation
and design of the shed encourage natural
ventilation. The goal is to dispense with
the use of ventilators as far as possible.
Solar collectors facilitate heating and the
provision of hot water by short-distance
heat.
142

Case Study Germany – Moderate Climate
Production, renewable materials, passive cooling, natural ventilation + lighting
The quantity of utilised timber does store more carbon dioxide than for the
construction of all other building materials have been emitted (e.g. concrete, steel,
plastics and technical equipment). Therefore the described building construction
has a positive CO2 balance and does have a negative global warming potential due to
the utilisation of the big quantity of the renewable material timber.
Schematic perspective view of the air distribution system of the
production hall with information about dimensions and quantity
Air well for the outside air, inlet of
one of the two earth to air heat
exchanger (earth tubes)
Air outlet for the pre warmed (in
winter) or pre cooled (in summer)
outside air in the floor of the
production hall after passing the earth
tube and an additional heat recovery
heat exchanger.
The service energy demand
fort he production hall is more
than four time smaller than for
a comparable reference object.
The primarily energy balance
including the demand for
construction, service and
deconstruction of the building,
for a building utilisation phase of
17,6 GWh in 50 years is only
around 28% of the reference
object which has a demand of
63,4 GWh in 50 years. The
saving of almost 46 GWh
primarily energy is equivalent to
the emission of 10.300 tons CO2.
Vent in one of the sheds for the
exhaust of the inside air. The
buoyancy effect is the driving
force for the sufficient natural
ventilation in the production hall
The main measures for the realisation of the sustainable low energy production hall
can be summarised to specific Methods, Strategies and Technologies:
Methods: Integrated planning process
Simulations of the building construction and service performance
Strategies: Reduction of space heating demand
Passive cooling
Daylighting
Renewable energy use
Technologies: Solar Thermal
Heat Recovery
Nocturnal Ventilation
Ground Heat Exchanger
Decentralised Rainwater Treatment
Ecological Materials
The foundation plate of the building was
insulated underside with recycled glass
gravel
143

Appendix 5 – Physical Data
4.5 Physical Data
From: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) 144
(editor); “Climate Responsive Building – Appropriate Building Construction in
Tropical and Subtropical Regions”; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993

Appendix 5 – Physical Data
From: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) 145
(editor); “Climate Responsive Building – Appropriate Building Construction in
Tropical and Subtropical Regions”; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993

Appendix 5 – Physical Data
From: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) 146
(editor); “Climate Responsive Building – Appropriate Building Construction in
Tropical and Subtropical Regions”; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993

Appendix 5 – Physical Data
From: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) 147
(editor); “Climate Responsive Building – Appropriate Building Construction in
Tropical and Subtropical Regions”; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993

Appendix 5 – Physical Data
From: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) 148
(editor); “Climate Responsive Building – Appropriate Building Construction in
Tropical and Subtropical Regions”; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993

Appendix 5 – Physical Data
From: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) 149
(editor); “Climate Responsive Building – Appropriate Building Construction in
Tropical and Subtropical Regions”; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993

Appendix 6 – References Illustrations
4.6 References Illustrations
Illustration title page: Photovoltaic installation and Windmill for the production of
energy on the rooftop of the administration and seminar building of the Korean
Federation for Environmental Movement (KFEM) in Seoul, South Korea. (Schuetze,
T., South-Korea, Seoul 2001)
Illustration 1 -3 : Nitrous concentration., carbondioxide concentration., methane
concentration. (Greenhouse Gas Division Environment Canada. Available at:
http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/ghg/1990_00_report/sec1_e.cfm)
Illustration 4: Table: global warming potential. (Greenhouse Gas Division
Environment Canada. Available at:
http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/ghg/1990_00_report/sec1_e.cfm)
Illustration 5: Earth mean energy balance. (In: Kiehl and Trenberth, 1997: Earth’s
Annual Global Mean Energy Budget, Bull. Am. Met. Soc. 78, 197-208. Available at:
http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig1-2.htm)
Illustration 5a: The green house effect. (In: Gluecklich, D., Jurrack, U., Neuhaeuser,
M., Richter, A., Schauber, U.; Principles of ecological building; Faculty of
architecture, town and regional planning; Bauhaus-Universitaet Weimar, Germany
2001)
Illustration 6: Urban population. (Compiled by UNEP GRID Geneva from United
Nations Population Division 1997 and WRI, UNEP, UNDP and WB 1998., available
at: http://www.sdnbd.org/sdi/metadata/geo2000-figure/)
Illustration 7: World population. (Compiled by UNEP GRID Geneva from United
Nations Population Division 1997 and WRI, UNEP, UNDP and WB 1998. Available
at: http://www.sdnbd.org/sdi/metadata/geo2000-figure/)
Illustration 8: The impacts and cost blocks during the planning, construction and
utilisation phases and the opportunity to influence these. (In: Kohler, N., Moffatt, S.; ”
The new Philosopher’s Dream: Life cycle analysis of the built environment”, Canada,
Germany 2003)
Illustration 9: The “Sustainability Triangle”, connecting ecological, economic and
social dimensions. (In: “A New Global Paradigm”, adapted from CIB Working
Commission W82 “Future Studies in Construction”)
Illustration 10: Treelike outline of the analysis of a sustainable building. (Bourdeau,
L., CSTB (Centre Scientifique Et Technique Du Batiment); Sustainable Development
and Future Of Construction In France; France 1998)
Illustration 11: Cascade model of planning principles, concerning the needs for a
new building property and the selection of building products, page5. (Ministry of
Transport, Building and Housing; Guideline for Sustainable Building; Germany 2001)
150

Appendix 6 – References Illustrations
Illustration 12: Construction of solid concrete buildings. High rise apartments in
Wonju, South-Korea. (Schuetze, T.; South-Korea 1999)
Illustration 13: Construction of solid stone buildings. Residential and commercial
buildings in Kairouan, Tunesia. (Schuetze, T.; Tunesia 2000)
Illustration 14: Construction of a steel frame building in Osaka Japan. (Schuetze, T.;
Japan, Osaka 2003)
Illustration 15: Construction of a timber frame building in Osaka Japan, exterior
view. (Schuetze, T.; Japan, Osaka 2003)
Illustration 15a: Construction of a timber frame building in Osaka Japan, interior
view. (Schuetze, T.; Japan, Osaka 2003)
Illustration 16: Overview different types of vaults. (In: Joffroy, T., Guillaud, H.,
architects researchers, CRATerre-EAG, SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate
Technology); The Basics of Building with Arches, Vaults and Cupolas; Switzerland,
St. Gall 1994)
Illustration 17: Overview different types of cupolas. (In: Joffroy, T., Guillaud, H.,
architects researchers, CRATerre-EAG, SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate
Technology); The Basics of Building with Arches, Vaults and Cupolas; Switzerland,
St. Gall 1994)
Illustration 18: Small geodesic dome (non solid structure). (In: Stulz, R., Mukerji, K.,
SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology); Appropriate Building Materials, A
Catalogue for Potential Solutions, Third Revised Edition; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993)
Illustration 19: Construction of a solid cupola in India. (In: Joffroy, T., Guillaud, H.,
architects researchers, CRATerre-EAG, SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate
Technology); The Basics of Building with Arches, Vaults and Cupolas; Switzerland,
St. Gall 1994)
Illustration 20: Arch constructions out of branches and earth, a finished residential
hut and granary during the construction phase in Rajasthan, India. (Schuetze, T.; India
1997)
Illustration 21: Grid shell construction with paper tubes of the Japanese Pavillon
(Architect Shigeru Ban) at the Expo in Hanover. (Schuetze, T.; Germany 2000)
Illustration 22: Suspended roof structure of the Football Stadium in Seogwipo on
Cheju Island, South-Korea. (Schuetze, T.; South-Korea 2002)
Illustration 23: Straw bale house construction. (In: Straw Bale Flyer; Eweleit, S.,
Meinhof, S., Hansen, L., Germany, Hanover 2000)
Illustration 24: Primary energy demand for cement and straw. (In: Unger, J.; Stroh
als Baustoff, Zu schade zum Verheizen! Tagungsband Strohbau Symposium 2001;
Germany Illmitz, 2001)
151

Appendix 6 – References Illustrations
Illustration 25: Techniques, materials and typical lifespan of biomass roofing. (In:
Hall, N., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology); The Basics of Biomass
Roofing; Switzerland, St. Gall 1997)
Illustration 26: Energy consumption in the production of building materials in Brazil.
(In: Mascaró, J. L., Claro, A. and Schneider, I. E. (1978) A Evolução dos Sistemas de
Construção com o Desenvolvimento Econômico: uma Visão Retrospectiva. São Paulo:
EDUSP. In: CIB, UNEP – IETC; “Agenda 21 for Sustainable Construction in
Developing Countries”; South Africa 2002)
Illustration 27: Bamboo parquet and interior at Columbian Zero Emission (Zeri)
Bamboo Pavilion at the Expo 2000 in Hanover (Architect Velez, S.). (Schuetze, T.;
Germany 2000)
Illustration 28: Columbian Zero Emission (Zeri) Bamboo Pavilion at the Expo 2000
in Hanover (Architect Velez, S.). (Schuetze, T.; Germany 2000)
Illustration 28a: Bamboo in Japan. (Schuetze, T.; Japan 2003)
Illustration 29: Modified traditional clay house in the rural area of Kumasi, Ghana.
With tin roof, modified building corner out of natural stones and cement mortar as
well as inappropriate cement plaster on the existing clay wall in the background.
(Schuetze, T.; Ghana 2002)
Illustration 30: Traditional house with spark eroded clay wall and new tin roof in the
rural area of Kumasi, Ghana. (Schuetze, T.; Ghana 2002)
Illustration 31: Advertisement for cement in the rural area of Kumasi, Ghana.
(Schuetze, T.; Ghana 2002)
Illustration 32: Comparison of a typical production hall (reference object) with an
advanced production hall (construction project). Influence of the three life phases of
two halls for the production of train cars in Kassel, Germany. The reference project is
built according to the legal building codes. The building envelope of the construction
project is highly insulated and has been built mainly from renewable materials
(airtight timber construction). (In: Grossmann, U., “Validierung des Lueftungssystems
einer Produktionshalle” (Dissertation), Hanover, Germany 2002)
Illustration 33: The department of Architecture at the Technical University of
Hanover in a converted commercial building (a former printing plant) with increase of
a new top floor. (In: Deutsche Bauzeitung 5/96, Stuttgart, Germany 1996)
Illustration 33a: Residential buildings in a former roman settlement in Umbria, Italy.
The houses were modified, refurbished and used for almost 2000 years. The
modifications of the building envelope and the use of different materials (baked bricks
and natural stones) are well visible at the façade. (Schuetze, T.; Italy, Umbria 2001)
152

Appendix 6 – References Illustrations
Illustration 34: building in Osaka Japan with destroyed wall surface, caused by
precipitation water, too small roof overhang and too low foundation. Additionally the
clay wall has been covered with cement plaster, which is not appropriate regarding
construction chemistry and therefore shows cracks and falls off on several parts.
(Schuetze, T.; Japan, Osaka 2003)
Illustration 35: Inappropriate reparation of an old mud plastered timbered wall with
cement mortar at a house in the rural area of South Korea. (Schuetze, T.; South Korea,
Wonju 2003)
Illustration 36: Comparison of strength values of fast growing bamboo with relative
slow growing spruce. (In: Dunkelberg, K.; “Bamboo as a building material,
elementary skilful applications using examples from South East Asia” (dissertation)
in: Institute of lightweight structures (IL), University of Stuttgart, Prof. Frei Otto
(editor); “IL 31 Bamboo”; Germany, Stuttgart 1985)
Illustration 37: Efficiency of the material bamboo. Comparison of the energy
balances for the production of different building materials and the relationship to their
structural durability (e.g. certain stress capacity) informs about the sustainability and
shows the efficiency of bamboo. (According to: Janssen, J.J.A.; “Bamboo in building
structures”; Thesis Eindhoven University; Netherlands, Eindhoven 1981. This
document can also be downloaded from the web at:
http://alexandria.tue.nl/extra3/proefschrift/PRF3B/8104676.pdf)
Illustration 38: No baby learns that its output is as worth as mothers input. For other
species human economy must learn to keep its material in use. (From Althaus, D.,
Germany, Detmold, 2002)
Illustration 39: Construction of a traditional timbered building with roof cover out of
rice straw. Those kind of constructions can be dismantled, transported and build up at
another location. All the used materials, generally natural stones, timber, clay and
straw are regional available. (Schuetze, T.; South Korea, 2001)
Illustration 40: Clean deconstruction site with a lot of reusable components. (In:
Landesinstitut fuer Bauwesen (LB) des Landes NRW (editor); Schuetze, T., Willkomm,
W.; „Wiederverwendung und Recycling im Hochbau, Arbeitshilfen fuer die
Realisierung umweltvertraeglicher Materialkreislaeufe“; Germany 2000)
Illustration 41: Refurbished parquet and doors at an exhibition of reusable
components. (In: Landesinstitut fuer Bauwesen (LB) des Landes NRW (editor);
Schuetze, T., Willkomm, W.; „Wiederverwendung und Recycling im Hochbau,
Arbeitshilfen fuer die Realisierung umweltvertraeglicher Materialkreislaeufe“;
Germany 2000)
Illustration 42: Construction of a timbered wall with old and new components. (In:
Landesinstitut fuer Bauwesen (LB) des Landes NRW (editor); Schuetze, T., Willkomm,
W.; „Wiederverwendung und Recycling im Hochbau, Arbeitshilfen fuer die
Realisierung umweltvertraeglicher Materialkreislaeufe“; Germany 2000)
153

Appendix 6 – References Illustrations
Illustration 43: The material separation is the most important recycling condition.
Collection of scrap metals at a building yard. (In: Landesinstitut fuer Bauwesen (LB)
des Landes NRW (editor); Schuetze, T., Willkomm, W.; „Wiederverwendung und
Recycling im Hochbau, Arbeitshilfen fuer die Realisierung umweltvertraeglicher
Materialkreislaeufe“; Germany 2000)
Illustration 44: Cement blocks made out of recycled bricks. (In: Landesinstitut fuer
Bauwesen (LB) des Landes NRW (editor); Schuetze, T., Willkomm, W.;
„Wiederverwendung und Recycling im Hochbau, Arbeitshilfen fuer die Realisierung
umweltvertraeglicher Materialkreislaeufe“; Germany 2000)
Illustration 45: Scrap timber, a raw material for derived timber products. (In:
Landesinstitut fuer Bauwesen (LB) des Landes NRW (editor); Schuetze, T., Willkomm,
W.; „Wiederverwendung und Recycling im Hochbau, Arbeitshilfen fuer die
Realisierung umweltvertraeglicher Materialkreislaeufe“; Germany 2000)
Illustration 46: Soft fibre boards, made from scrap timber. (In: Landesinstitut fuer
Bauwesen (LB) des Landes NRW (editor); Schuetze, T., Willkomm, W.;
„Wiederverwendung und Recycling im Hochbau, Arbeitshilfen fuer die Realisierung
umweltvertraeglicher Materialkreislaeufe“; Germany 2000)
Illustration 47: lawn grid element, made from recycling-plastic. (In: Landesinstitut
fuer Bauwesen (LB) des Landes NRW (editor); Schuetze, T., Willkomm, W.;
„Wiederverwendung und Recycling im Hochbau, Arbeitshilfen fuer die Realisierung
umweltvertraeglicher Materialkreislaeufe“; Germany 2000)
Illustration 47a: Volume to surface ratio of differently arranged building units. (In:
Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor);
“Climate Responsive Building – Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and
Subtropical Regions”; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993)
Illustration 47b: Volume to surface ratio of different sized cubes. (In: Gut, P.,
Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); “Climate
Responsive Building – Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and
Subtropical Regions”; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993)
Illustration 48: World map with the 4 main climate zones. (Schuetze, T. (nach
Olgyay, V.); Germany, Hamburg 2000)
Illustration 49: map of hot and humid (tropical) climate zones (a). “The modified
Koeppen classification uses six letters to divide the world into six major climate
regions, based on average annual precipitation, average monthly precipitation, and
average monthly temperature.” (Available at:
http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011700a.htm)
Illustration 49a: Typical house shape in a tropical climate. (In: Gut, P., Ackerknecht,
D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); “Climate Responsive
Building – Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical Regions”;
Switzerland, St. Gall 1993)
154

Appendix 6 – References Illustrations
Illustration 49b: Typical pile dwelling in the warm and humid climate of Paraguay,
located in a in a temporarily flood zone. Well ventilated structure with elevated living
space and a big veranda, protected by a roof against solar radiation and rain.
(Willkomm, W., Germany 2000)
Illustration 49c: Multi-storey buildings with big windows and steep roofs in the
monsoon climate of the east African islands (e.g.: Lamu and Zanzibar). (Willkomm,
W., Germany 2000)
Illustration 49d: Optimal ventilated building of churches in the hot and humid
climate of Tanzania, with wide roof overhangs and shorter, closed east and west
facades against low sun in the morning and afternoon. (Willkomm, W., Germany 2000)
Illustration 49e: An administration building in tropical Rio De Janeiro, Brazil, with
individual adjustable lamellae functioning as shading elements, vertical orientated at
the east and west facades, horizontal orientated at the north façade and no lamellae at
the south façade due to the location on the southern hemisphere. Big openings in the
façade and multi storied air spaces allow a natural ventilation of the rooms through
shaded and partly greened terrace areas. (Willkomm, W., Germany 2000)
Illustration 49f: Two climate responsive buildings in the tropical climate of Takoradi,
Ghana, viewed from west. The left building is protected against the sun by horizontal
vertical orientated shading elements integrated in a well ventilated structure in front of
the building envelope and the spatial structure. The building on the right side is well
protected against radiation from the south but has no fixed shading elements against
low sun in the west. In case of sunshine there are rollers installed (visible at the first
floor under the roof) which can be temporarily used to shade the openings. (Schuetze,
T., Ghana 2002)
Illustration 49g: West terraces and windows of Japanese apartment buildings well
protected against high sun by roof overhangs and low sun with flexible but not
building integrated bamboo mats, during summer. (Schuetze, T., Japan, Osaka 2002)
Illustration 50: map of arid and hot climate zones (b). “The modified Koeppen
classification uses six letters to divide the world into six major climate regions, based
on average annual precipitation, average monthly precipitation, and average monthly
temperature.” (Available at:
http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011700a.htm)
Illustration 50a: Typical house shape in an arid and hot climate. (In: Gut, P.,
Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); “Climate
Responsive Building – Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and
Subtropical Regions”; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993)
Illustration 50b: Compact and closed buildings with minimised window openings
and thick massive walls out of earth for big phase shift and amplitude attenuation in
the hot and dry climate of Morocco (e.g. with cold nights, dependent on the elevation
above sea level). (Willkomm, W., Germany 2000)
155

Appendix 6 – References Illustrations
Illustration 50c: Narrow shaded alleys and courtyards in the desert architecture of
Algeria reduce solar radiation absorbance of buildings and occupants. The platform
roofs do function as sleeping places during the hottest season. (Willkomm, W.,
Germany 2000)
Illustration 50d: Market alleys and intermediate space between buildings shaded
with pergolas and tendril plants reduce the radiation absorbance in hot and dry
Morocco. (Willkomm, W., Germany 2000)
Illustration 50e: Illustration of a traditional building type in Arab countries with a
wind catcher (or scoop), low tech evaporative cooling device (evaporative cooling)
and a double layered roof. (In: Stulz, R., Mukerji, K., SKAT (Swiss Center for
Appropriate Technology); Appropriate Building Materials, A Catalogue for Potential
Solutions, Third Revised Edition; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993)
Illustration 50f: Underground building in Tunisia with immense phase shift and
amplitude attenuation by the ground and 3 to 4m thick ceilings and relative low
construction effort. (Schuetze, T., Tunisia 2001)
Illustration 50g: Double layered roofs at a Hotel building in Morocco. The white
plastered outside layer functions as a well ventilated solar radiation reflector.
(Willkomm, W., Germany 2000)
Illustration 51: map of temperate climate zones (c). “The modified Koeppen
classification uses six letters to divide the world into six major climate regions, based
on average annual precipitation, average monthly precipitation, and average monthly
temperature.” (Available at:
http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011700a.htm)
Illustration 51a: Typical house shape in temperate climate. (In: Gut, P., Ackerknecht,
D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); “Climate Responsive
Building – Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical Regions”;
Switzerland, St. Gall 1993)
Illustration 51b: Architecture on the Greek islands with compact buildings, narrow
shady alleys, small windows and flat roofs, which are functioning as rainwater
collectors for cisterns in an almost dry, so called Mediterranean winter-dry-zone.
(Willkomm, W., Germany 2000)
Illustration 51c: The buildings in the Tuscan city Siena in Italy have sloped roofs,
because the winter rain is more copious than on above mentioned Greek islands, but
narrow shady alleys and compact buildings protect against the same main climatic
problem, the summer heat. (Willkomm, W., Germany 2000)
Illustration 51d: Arcade Corridor on the south side of a building in Venice, Italy. A
comfortable site during low winter sun with warmed walls in the back and the sun in
the face, while comfortable shady and cool during high summer sun. (Willkomm, W.,
Germany 2000)
156

Appendix 6 – References Illustrations
Illustration 51e: Arcade Corridor on the south side of a building in Venice, Italy. A
comfortable site during low winter sun with warmed walls in the back and the sun in
the face, while comfortable shady and cool during high summer sun. (Willkomm, W.,
Germany 2000)
Illustration 51f: Old timbered farm house in the costal area of North Western
Germany with low and sloped straw roof well protected against strong winds and rain.
View from North West the main weather-side. (Schuetze, T., Germany 2001)
Illustration 51g: Old fisher house in the costal area of Western Scotland with natural
stone walls and sloped straw roof well protected against strong winds and rain. View
to North West the main weather-side. (Schuetze, T., Scotland 2000)
Illustration 51h: Old fisher house in the costal area of Jeju Island in South-Korea
with natural stone walls and sloped straw roof well protected against strong winds and
rain. The big opening in the south façade allows comfortable ventilation and shading
during the warm summer, allows passive solar utilisation during the winter and can be
closed during cold nights and strong winds. View from the south west. (Schuetze, T.,
Korea 2002)
Illustration 52: map of cold climate zones (d). “The modified Koeppen classification
uses six letters to divide the world into six major climate regions, based on average
annual precipitation, average monthly precipitation, and average monthly
temperature.” (Available at:
http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011700a.htm)
Illustration 52a: map of polar climate zones (e). “The modified Koeppen
classification uses six letters to divide the world into six major climate regions, based
on average annual precipitation, average monthly precipitation, and average monthly
temperature.” (Available at:
http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011700a.htm)
Illustration 52b: map of highland climate zones (f), with differentiated description of
the specific properties. “The modified Koeppen classification uses six letters to divide
the world into six major climate regions, based on average annual precipitation,
average monthly precipitation, and average monthly temperature.” (Available at:
http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011700a.htm)
Illustration 52c: The Eskimo Igloo a sustainable building with optimal surface/
volume. It consists out of the “insulation” material snow and has a low located tunnel
entrance which anticipates disperse of the uprising warm inside air. (Willkomm, W.,
Germany 2000)
Illustration 52d: A house in the Swiss Alps with low roof at the northern side and
insulating snow mass. (Willkomm, W., Germany 2000)
157

Appendix 6 – References Illustrations
Illustration 52e: The South façade of a school in the Swiss Alps with thick insulated
walls and big insulated windows for the utilisation of the winter sun. During the
summer hidden rollers (Visible on top of the window openings) can be pulled down to
shade the openings. The construction is a contemporary timber construction orientated
at traditional building design. in the Swiss Alps with low roof at the northern side and
insulating snow mass. (Schuetze, T., Switzerland 2002)
Illustration 53: Energy costs in a model office room. (In: Energy Research Group,
School of Architecture, University College Dublin; Daylighting in Buildings; Ireland,
Dublin 1994)
Illustration 54: Examples of different daylighting devices. (In: Energy Research
Group, School of Architecture, University College Dublin; Daylighting in Buildings;
Ireland, Dublin 1994)
Illustration 55: Light directing components. (In: Energy Research Group, School of
Architecture, University College Dublin; Shading Systems; Ireland, Dublin 1994)
Illustration 56: Adjustable external louvres during high & low angle sun. (In: Energy
Research Group, School of Architecture, University College Dublin; Shading Systems;
Ireland, Dublin 1994)
Illustration 57: Adjustable external louvres, protecting again direct sunlight and open
for diffuse and reflected radiation. (In: Energy Research Group, School of
Architecture, University College Dublin; Shading Systems; Ireland, Dublin 1994)
Illustration 58: Internal mirrored louvres, protecting again direct sunlight and open
for diffuse and reflected radiation. (In: Energy Research Group, School of
Architecture, University College Dublin; Shading Systems; Ireland, Dublin 1994)
Illustration 59: External device using prismatic component. (In: Energy Research
Group, School of Architecture, University College Dublin; Shading Systems; Ireland,
Dublin 1994)
Illustration 60: Redirecting Light with heliostats and light pipes. (Schuetze, T. after
Bomin Solar, Hamburg 2003)
Illustration 61: External versus internal louvres. (In: Energy Research Group, School
of Architecture, University College Dublin; Shading Systems; Ireland, Dublin 1994)
Illustration 62: Transparent Shading System (with prisms or mirrors). (In: Energy
Research Group, School of Architecture, University College Dublin; Shading Systems;
Ireland, Dublin 1994)
Illustration 63: Variations of different external shading devices, appropriate to
different designs, latitudes and orientations. (In: Energy Research Group, School of
Architecture, University College Dublin; Shading Systems; Ireland, Dublin 1994)
158

Appendix 6 – References Illustrations
Illustration 63a: External shading devices for different directions and building
locations on southern or northern hemisphere. Horizontal blends on the southern or
northern facade, vertical blends at the eastern and western facade. (In: Gut, P.,
Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); “Climate
Responsive Building – Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and
Subtropical Regions”; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993)
Illustration 64: Schematic sketch of idealised and realistic geometry of capillary and
square-celled honeycomb structures. (In: Platzer, W., J.; in: Solar Energy Vol. 49,
“Directional Hemispherical Solar Transmittance Data for Plastic Honeycomb
Structures”; Fraunhofer ISE, Germany 1992)
Illustration 65: Principle of the light directing effect in translucent insulation material.
(In: Platzer, W., J.; in: Solar Energy Vol. 49, “Directional Hemispherical Solar
Transmittance Data for Plastic Honeycomb Structures”; Fraunhofer ISE, Germany
1992)
Illustration 65a: Samples of different TIM Materials. (Braun, P.; Germany,
Hamburg 2002)
Illustration 66: Solar gain factors of different glazing and shading devices. (In:
Energy Research Group, School of Architecture, University College Dublin; Shading
Systems; Ireland, Dublin 1994)
Illustration 66a: Combination of effective natural and artificial lighting. (In: Krishan,
A., Yannas, S., Baker, N., Szokolay, S. V. (editors); “Climate Responsive Architecture
– A Design Handbook for Energy Efficient Building”; India, New Delhi, 2001)
Illustration 66b: Automatic lighting control for efficient use of artificial lighting. (In:
Altener Program Europe (Editor); Mid Career Education: Solar Energy in European
Office Buildings, Technology Module 4 – Daylight and Artificial Lighting; Europe
1997)
Illustration 67: The Queen’s Building De Montfort University (UK) building uses
the stack effect of chimneys to ventilate auditoria and classrooms. The design of
displacement ventilation and temperature stratification was predicted by saline bath
simulation. (In: European Commission Thermie Project to reduce energy and improve
comfort and environment; Energy efficient building technologies explained,
Information Dossier Number 8; EC 2000)
Illustration 67a: Wind induced cross ventilation (top) and temperature induced
ventilation through an inside courtyard (bottom). (In: Krishan, A., Yannas, S., Baker,
N., Szokolay, S. V. (editors); “Climate Responsive Architecture – A Design Handbook
for Energy Efficient Building”; India, New Delhi, 2001)
159

Appendix 6 – References Illustrations
Illustration 68: The stack effect described in the illustration can also be induced by
placing vents near the floor and under the ceiling. Adjustable shutters can be used to
regulate the required ventilation effect. (In: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss
Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); “Climate Responsive Building –
Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical Regions”;
Switzerland, St. Gall 1993)
Illustration 69: Black coated pipe as solar chimney.
(In: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology)
(editor); “Climate Responsive Building – Appropriate Building Construction in
Tropical and Subtropical Regions”; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993)
Illustration 69a: Floor plan, section and perspective view of a multidirectional
windcatcher in the Middle East. (In: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for
Appropriate Technology) (editor); “Climate Responsive Building – Appropriate
Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical Regions”; Switzerland, St. Gall
1993)
Illustration 69b: Material and surface conditions concerning the grade of absorption
and reflection. (In: Lippsmeier, G.; “Building in the Tropics”; Germany, Munich
1980)
Illustration 69c: Passive cooling strategies. (In: Energy Research Group, University
College Dublin, European Commission Thermie; “Bioclimatic Architecture”; Ireland
1997)
Illustration 70: Passive direct cooling by vegetation and porous clay pot filled with
water at a courtyard house. (In: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for
Appropriate Technology) (editor); “Climate Responsive Building – Appropriate
Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical Regions”; Switzerland, St. Gall
1993)
Illustration 71: Passive indirect cooling technique in a wind tower. (In: Gut, P.,
Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); “Climate
Responsive Building – Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and
Subtropical Regions”; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993)
Illustration 71a: Passive indirect cooling technique with collected rainwater in
combination with double roof, natural ventilation and shading can control the indoor
thermal environment adequately without electricity at a Japanese house in Tokyo.
(From: Kuroiwa, K., Kamiya, H.; Lecture at International Rainwater Conference;
Germany, Mannheim 2001)
Illustration 72: Direct hybrid evaporative cooler at a window opening. (In: Gut, P.,
Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); “Climate
Responsive Building – Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and
Subtropical Regions”; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993)
Illustration 72a: Principle of evaporative sorption cooling process with heat recovery
for building construction. (Schuetze, T.; South Korea, Seoul 2003)
160

Appendix 6 – References Illustrations
Illustration 73: Use of natural ventilation in conjunction with earth coupling; if
natural forced ventilation is not realisable, naturally conditioned air and ventilation
with photovoltaic powered fans are sustainable alternatives. (In: Krishan, A., Yannas,
S., Baker, N., Szokolay, S. V. (editors); “Climate Responsive Architecture – A Design
Handbook for Energy Efficient Building”; India, New Delhi, 2001)
Illustration 74: Roof pond for radiative cooling. Opened at night for radiative cooling
of the storage mass and insulated during the day for cooling of the interior. (In: Gut,
P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor);
“Climate Responsive Building – Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and
Subtropical Regions”; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993)
Illustration 75: Passive solar strategies. (In: Energy Research Group, University
College Dublin, European Commission Thermie; “Bioclimatic Architecture”; Ireland
1997)
Illustration 76: Flatbed solar water collector, based on the thermo-siphon principle,
on the roof of a residential house in Osaka Japan. The storage tank for hot water is
equipped with a mirror to reflect sunlight on the absorber field and hence to enlarge
the geometrical collector area. (Schuetze, T.; Japan, Osaka 2003)
Illustration77: Flatbed solar water collectors, based on forced circulation system, on
the roof of a remodelled existing housing estate in Berlin are visible on the left hand
side. On the right hand side Photovoltaic (PV) systems are installed. (Schuetze, T.;
Germany, Berlin 2002)
Illustration78: Roof pond for passive solar heating. Opened during the day for solar
heating of the storage mass and insulated at night for heating of the interior and
protection from radiative cooling. (In: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center
for Appropriate Technology) (editor); “Climate Responsive Building – Appropriate
Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical Regions”; Switzerland, St. Gall
1993)
161

Appendix 7 – References Literature
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Altener Program Europe (Editor); Mid Career Education: Solar Energy in
European Office Buildings, Technology Module 4 – Daylight and
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Altener Program Europe (Editor); Mid Career Education: Solar Energy in
European Office Buildings, Technology Module 5 – Active Solar
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Altener Program Europe (Editor); Mid Career Education: Solar Energy in
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Schuetze, T., Willkomm, W.; “Klimagerechtes Bauen in Europa“; Germany,
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Spindler H., Glicksman L., Norford L.; The potential for natural and hybrid
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