Lectures on Modern History - Faculty of Social Sciences

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38/John Actonesque and romantic figure of his time.The Venetians, commanding the seaboard with their galleys, werenot easy to dislodge from the towns they occupied. Essentially a maritimeand commercial Power, their centre of gravity lay so far east that itwas once proposed to move the capital from the Lagoons to theBosphorus. When the advancing Turk damaged their trade and threatenedtheir Colonial empire, they took advantage of Italian disintegrationto become a continental state, and the general insecurity and oppressionof miniature potentates made it a happy fate to be subject to the sereneand politic government, whose 3000 ships still held the sea, flying theChristian flag. Renouncing non-intervention on the mainland, they setpower above prosperity, and the interest of the State above the welfareand safety of a thousand patrician houses. Wherever there were troubledwaters, the fisher was Venice. All down the Eastern coast, and along theAlpine slopes to the passes which were the trade route to Northern Europe,and still farther, at the expense of Milan and Naples, the patriarchof Aquileia and the Duke of Ferrara, the Emperor and the Pope, theQueen of the Adriatic extended her intelligent sway. It was under thelong administration of the Doge Foscari, Byron’s hero, that it dawnedupon the Venetians that it might be their mission to supersede the frailand helpless governments of the Peninsula; and their famous politicianand historian, Paruta, believed that it was in their power to do whatRome had done. Their ambition was evident to their neighbours, andthose whom they had despoiled, under every plausible pretext, awaitedthe opportunity of retribution.Julius, taking counsel with Machiavelli, found it easy to form aleague composed of their enemies. As it was not the interest of the empire,France and Spain, to spite Venice by strengthening each other, theVenetians imagined they could safely hold their ground, leaving the dependentcities to make their own terms with the enemy. Padua held outvictoriously against Maximilian, but the battle of Agnadello was lostagainst the French in the same year 1509, in which, fighting under theCrescent in the Indian Ocean, the Venetians were defeated by the Portuguese,and lost their Eastern trade. They soon obtained their revenge.Having gained his ends by employing France against Venice in the Leagueof Cambray, Julius now allied himself with the Venetians to expel theFrench from Milan. He had recovered the papal possessions, he hadbroken the Venetian power, and in this his third effort to reconstituteItaly, he still succeeded, because he had the support of the Venetians and
<strong>Lectures</strong> on Modern History/39the Swiss. The French gave battle to the Spaniards at Ravenna and tothe Swiss at Novara, and then they evacuated the Milanese.Lewis XII swore that he would wreak vengeance on the papacy,and, in conjunction with the Emperor, opened a Council at Pisa, whichwas attended by a minority of cardinals. Julius met the attack by callinga general Council to meet at the Lateran, which was the first since thegreat reforming Council, and was still sitting when Julius died in 1513.Like the Council at Pisa, it was regarded at Rome as a move in the greatgame of Politics, and it made no serious attempt to heal the longstandingand acknowledged wounds of the Church. Its action spread the beliefthat the reigning diseases were known, but that the remedy was refused,and that reforms that might help religion were not to be expected fromChurch or State. Julius II died without having expelled the barbarians,as he bad promised. The French were gone, but the Spaniards remainedunshaken, and were still the pivot of the operations of the Holy See. Theinvestiture of Naples was granted to Ferdinand of Aragon, and the fairestregion in Europe bound Spain irrevocably to the Popes.Although the Italian scheme of Julius was left half-way, his Romanscheme was completed; the intermittent suzerainty of the Middle Ageswas straightened out into effective sovereignty over the half of CentralItaly, where anarchy used to reign, and the temporal power was fixed onfoundations solid enough to bear the coming diminution of spiritualpower. The added splendours of modern royalty, round which cardinalsof reigning houses—Medici, Este, Famese, Gonzaga—displayed thepomp and ceremony of semi-regal state, in palaces built by Bramanteand Michael Angelo, with the ambassadors and protectors of the Powers,and the heads of princely families that had worn the tiara, madeRome the magnetic pole of aristocratic society. As the capital of anabsolute monarchy, as others were, it became associated with principleswhich, in the Middle Ages, it resisted with spiritual and secular weapons;and the magnitude of the change was apparent when Leo X, by theConcordat of Bologna, conceded to Francis I the choice of bishops andthe higher patronage of the Church of France. For Francis on his accessionsent an army into Italy, the last work of Julius II was overthrown atMarignano, and France again was master of the Milanese.The final struggle was to come at the vacancy of the Imperial throne.Ferdinand of Aragon was dead, and Naples passed to the King of undividedSpain. It was the unswerving policy of Rome that it should not beunited with the Empire, and against that fixed axiom the strongest dy-
Page 1 and 2: Lectures on Modern
Page 3: ContentsInaugural Lecture: On the S
Page 6 and 7: 6/John Actonexperience, is eminentl
Page 8 and 9: 8/John Actonideas which we call the
Page 10 and 11: 10/John Actonhave borne testimony a
Page 12 and 13: 12/John Actonchiefly belonged to th
Page 14 and 15: 14/John Actonsonalities, it is true
Page 16 and 17: 16/John ActonFrance, explained and
Page 18 and 19: 18/John Actonappears to us, is thei
Page 20 and 21: 20/John Actonof our day, of whom it
Page 22 and 23: 22/John Actonmindedness have been d
Page 24 and 25: 24/John Actonily devoted the day to
Page 26 and 27: 26/John Actonforgive whatever we re
Page 28 and 29: 28/John Actonand settled custom of
Page 30 and 31: 30/John Actoneven by the restoratio
Page 32 and 33: 32/John ActonBy the marriage of Fer
Page 34 and 35: 34/John ActonRome, with a view to u
Page 36 and 37: 36/John Actoncapable guidance, to r
Page 40 and 41: 40/John Actonnasty of emperors went
Page 42 and 43: 42/John ActonItaly, and became, by
Page 44 and 45: 44/John Actonapplied to Rome, and N
Page 46 and 47: 46/John Actonthey were enemies of t
Page 48 and 49: 48/John Actonenchanted region which
Page 50 and 51: 50/John Actonflaw, for the true dim
Page 52 and 53: 52/John Actonup for it in slaves. H
Page 54 and 55: 54/John Actontime in 1616 by the Du
Page 56 and 57: 56/John Actonthe first-fruits of hi
Page 58 and 59: 58/John Actonfrom the Tiber to the
Page 60 and 61: 60/John Actonglected truth, remaine
Page 62 and 63: 62/John Actonsures had been lost. C
Page 64 and 65: 64/John ActonVatican library, the f
Page 66 and 67: 66/John Actonsplendour to the Churc
Page 68 and 69: 68/John Actonsessed the scientific
Page 70 and 71: 70/John ActonErasmus Rogers, the gr
Page 72 and 73: 72/John Actonthe organisation provi
Page 74 and 75: 74/John Actonfrom a higher authorit
Page 76 and 77: 76/John Actonbehalf of the Papacy a
Page 78 and 79: 78/John Actononly to despair, one o
Page 80 and 81: 80/John Actonand proposed that unse
Page 82 and 83: 82/John Actonof Utrecht, the Regent
Page 84 and 85: 84/John ActonErasmus, the quarrel w
Page 86 and 87: 86/John Actonnounce his good intent
Page 88 and 89:
88/John Actonthem too quickly, or t
Page 90 and 91:
90/John ActonBenedictines was usele
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92/John ActonAs trials for witchcra
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94/John Actonup the Council, obedie
Page 96 and 97:
96/John ActonCervini in 1555, refor
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98/John ActonThe outward sign was t
Page 100 and 101:
100/John Actoncould not exist witho
Page 102 and 103:
102/John ActonEngland. The general
Page 104 and 105:
104/John Actonbecame the two hundre
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Page 108 and 109:
108/John ActonSpain was the enemy;
Page 110 and 111:
110/John Actonprorogued the Legatin
Page 112 and 113:
112/John Actonwas consistent, and p
Page 114 and 115:
114/John ActonReformation. The duke
Page 116 and 117:
116/John ActonHistory on the charac
Page 118 and 119:
118/John Actonmeant for the right a
Page 120 and 121:
120/John Actoncame. There the sects
Page 122 and 123:
122/John Actonhe was old enough to
Page 124 and 125:
124/John Actonsurrender the hope of
Page 126 and 127:
126/John Actondred, and that is sti
Page 128 and 129:
128/John Actondynasty rested on his
Page 130 and 131:
130/John ActonIX. Henry the Fourth
Page 132 and 133:
132/John Actonin History.Henry IV c
Page 134 and 135:
134/John Actonpretensions clashed u
Page 136 and 137:
136/John Actonto death by complaisa
Page 138 and 139:
138/John Actonrenewing the theories
Page 140 and 141:
140/John Actonview of the function
Page 142 and 143:
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Page 144 and 145:
144/John Actona Bosnian village his
Page 146 and 147:
146/John Actonmains were so perfect
Page 148 and 149:
148/John Actonwas the restoration o
Page 150 and 151:
150/John ActonXI. The Puritan Revol
Page 152 and 153:
152/John Actonstood. But her succes
Page 154 and 155:
154/John ActonChurch government. Th
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156/John Actonperfect and assured f
Page 158 and 159:
158/John Actonbeyond the conservati
Page 160 and 161:
160/John ActonThe nation was glad t
Page 162 and 163:
162/John Acton£80,000, and underto
Page 164 and 165:
164/John Actonthe auxiliary witness
Page 166 and 167:
166/John ActonIt was during this st
Page 168 and 169:
168/John Actonwere at the mercy of
Page 170 and 171:
170/John ActonLater, when he was hi
Page 172 and 173:
172/John Actonviolent members of th
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174/John Actonboth sides. Innocent
Page 176 and 177:
176/John Actonand arranged for a Fr
Page 178 and 179:
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Page 180 and 181:
180/John ActonTwo facts governed th
Page 182 and 183:
182/John ActonBut war on land would
Page 184 and 185:
184/John Actongreat man who was dea
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Page 188 and 189:
188/John Actonthe narrowest limits,
Page 190 and 191:
190/John Actontook to compel him. T
Page 192 and 193:
192/John Actondanger. His wife was
Page 194 and 195:
194/John Actonwas beside himself wi
Page 196 and 197:
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Page 200 and 201:
200/John Actonest of his crimes. Le
Page 202 and 203:
202/John ActonThe old order termina
Page 204 and 205:
204/John Actonstill more for the pe
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206/John Actonfor action arrived. L
Page 208 and 209:
208/John Actonto sacrifice a legiti
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Page 212 and 213:
212/John ActonXVII. Peter the Great
Page 214 and 215:
214/John ActonThere the Swedes stop
Page 216 and 217:
216/John Actonthe course of Christi
Page 218 and 219:
218/John Actonso complete, that the
Page 220 and 221:
220/John Actonwas Protestant. It wa
Page 222 and 223:
222/John ActonXVIII. Frederic the G
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Page 226 and 227:
226/John Actontaken in tow by Hanov
Page 228 and 229:
228/John Actonand was out of propor
Page 230 and 231:
230/John ActonGerman prince, marrie
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232/John Actondynastic, interests.
Page 234 and 235:
234/John Actonby their victory at Q
Page 236 and 237:
236/John Actonnitely raised. In Eng
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238/John Actonteenth-century sects,
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