1367260110.5528Understanding Syntax

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Heads and their dependents 131(48) sagasaga e-na (Saliba)mouth.of.the.river at-3sg‘at the mouth of the river’(49) a. Wisi seuan-in bi-mu-ban. (Southern Tiwa)two man-pl 1sg.Su-see-past‘I saw two men.’b. Bey-mu-ban.2sg.Su/1sg.Obj-see-past‘You saw me.’(The notation 2sg.Su/1sg.Obj in (49b) indicates a marker which is a fusion oftwo separate pieces of grammatical information; here, a second person singularsubject and a first person singular object.)(50) a. raul tawīl (Chadian Arabic)man tall.masc‘a tall man’b. mara tawīlawoman tall.fem‘a tall woman’
132Understanding syntax∑The Chadian Arabic examples in (50) are dependent-marking. The adjectivemeaning ‘tall’ is a dependent on the head noun in each example, and agrees withthat noun in gender.4.3.7 Some typological distinctions between languagesMany languages fall fairly neatly into either the head-marking class or thedependent-marking class. Good examples of head-marking languages are Abkhaz(a northwest Caucasian language) and the native American language Navajo. In fact,the indigenous language families of the Americas, and in particular North America,are nearly all head-marking: these families include Mayan (e.g. Jacaltec, Tzotzil),Athabaskan (e.g. Navajo), Iroquoian (e.g. Mohawk, Cherokee), Algonquian (e.g. Cree,Blackfoot), Siouan (e.g. Crow, Lakhota) and Salish (e.g. Squamish).Conversely, many languages from the Indo-European family (to which Englishbelongs) are heavily dependent-marking, including German, Greek, Armenianand the Slavonic languages (e.g. Russian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian etc.). Butdependent-marking languages also predominate among the native Australianlanguages known as Pama-Nyungan (e.g. Dyirbal, Yidiny); the Northeast Caucasianlanguages (e.g. Chechen); and the Dravidian languages of southern India (e.g.Malayalam).Another typological possibility is for the relationship between a head and itsdependent not to be formally marked at all. This happens most often in languageswhich have very little morphology (= variation in the forms of words), such asChinese, Vietnamese, and indeed English. In Chinese, for example, pronouns (andfull noun phrases) have the same form whether they are subjects or objects:(51) a. Wo changchang jian ta. (Chinese)I often see he‘I often saw him.’b. Ta changchang jian wo.he often see I‘He often saw me.’Example (51) shows that wo translates as either ‘I’ or ‘me’, and ta as either ‘he’ or‘him’ (in fact, ta translates both ‘he/him’ and ‘she/her’). So the dependent nounphrases aren’t marked in any way in these Chinese examples. In other words, thereis no case-marking in Chinese: the dependents of a verb are not marked to showtheir relationship to that verb. And neither is there any head-marking, since the verbdoesn’t undergo agreement with either the object or the subject. Note that in such alanguage, the word order is crucial (as in English) to show who’s doing what to whom.We can conclude that although many languages do have head-marking or dependentmarking,some languages have neither.English has very little formal marking on either heads or dependents. For example,in an English PP such as in the shower, neither the head P in nor its dependent NPthe shower is marked to show the syntactic relationship between them. The same
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?UnderstandingSyntaxThird edition
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ContentsiiiUnderstandingSyntaxThird
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?For S.J. and Maggie the younger,th
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?ContentsAcknowledgementsNote to th
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Contentsix4.2 Where does the head o
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?AcknowledgementsOver the 13 years
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?Note to the studentThis book is an
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?List of abbreviations used in exam
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1What is syntax?1.1 Some concepts a
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What is syntax? 3way doesn’t func
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What is syntax? 5wonder why (7) is
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What is syntax? 7So if the word Has
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What is syntax? 9b. Why hydestow (i
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What is syntax? 11use of they in (2
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1.2.2 How to read linguistic exampl
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What is syntax? 15glosses contain o
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What is syntax? 17some third party,
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What is syntax? 19some of the examp
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What is syntax? 21need to be able t
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What is syntax? 23verb (counted out
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(49) a. I charged the battery up.b.
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What is syntax? 27Standard dialectm
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What is syntax? 29Republic of Vanua
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What is syntax? 31∑ Tinrin has a
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Words belong to different classes 3
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(82) I’ll see you right/straight/
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(11) I’m not that bothered about
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3Looking inside sentencesThis chapt
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Looking inside sentences 75grammati
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Looking inside sentences 77∑ Moda
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Looking inside sentences 79the same
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Page 100 and 101: Looking inside sentences 83in this
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Page 104 and 105: Looking inside sentences 87clause
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Relationships within the clause 181
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(54) Ruš‐a gadadi-z cük ga-na.g
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(5) wičhÃ¡ša ki mathó óta w
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7Processes that change grammatical
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Processes that change grammatical r
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7.4 The causative constructionProce
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(2) Da rara hàmu da pàu.they be.r
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(3) bey‐mu‐ban2sg(Su)/1sg(Obj)
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A. Bare(1) a. [kwati i i-karuka tš
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8Wh-constructions: Questions and re
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Wh-constructions: Questions and rel
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8.1.3 Multiple wh-questionsWh-const
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. Inona no novidin’ iza?what prt
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(2) a. Ddaru Mair weld y ffilm?aux.
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9Asking questions about syntaxThe t
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Asking questions about syntax 273su
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Asking questions about syntax 275(1
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(23) a. Cerddon nhw i ’r dre.walk
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Asking questions about syntax 279fu
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Asking questions about syntax 281Th
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Asking questions about syntax 283Is
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Asking questions about syntax 285un
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Sources of data used in examplesDat
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Sources of data used in examples 28
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GlossaryThis glossary contains brie
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Glossary 293This phenomenon is know
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Glossary 295proform: A word which s
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References 297Beale, Anthony (1974)
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References 299Dixon, R. M. W. and A
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References 301Levinson, Stephen C.
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References 303Sohn, Ho-Min (1999).
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Language index 305French (Romance:
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1Subject indexabsolutive case (see
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Subject index 309critical period 28
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Subject index 311double 200indirect
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