1367260110.5528Understanding Syntax

Words belong to different classes 41You should have the following results. In (21a), capitulated is intransitive – it hasonly one argument, Lee and Kim: note that you can get this answer without actuallyknowing the meaning of the verb. Gave is ditransitive, although note that in (21b)the participants appear in a different order than that in (19): the recipient (thechildren) in this example comes before what is given. Assassinated is a transitive verb,which is why (21c) is impossible: its direct object is missing. Both verbs in (21d)are transitive: both love and detest have two arguments. You may have thought thatthese are intransitive verbs, because there is no argument immediately following theverb. But this is wrong, as we can tell because *Kim loves/detests is ungrammatical.The direct object arguments, sprouts and cabbage, would normally be positionedimmediately after the verb, but in (21d), each of them has been moved from its usualposition, for emphasis. Even displaced in this way, sprouts and cabbage still fulfil therequirements of both verbs for an ‘item loved/detested’ participant. So even if anargument is displaced from its usual position, it still ‘counts’ as an argument of theverb that it’s associated with.In English, there are very many verbs that are ‘ambitransitive’: these can beeither transitive or intransitive, such as sing, cook, read, eat. Fewer verbs can onlybe transitive (devour, reject) or only intransitive (erupt, disappear). This situation isnot necessarily the same for all languages. For instance, in Jarawara, an Amazonianlanguage (Dixon 2004b), about half the verbs are strictly intransitive, somewhatfewer are strictly intransitive, and maybe a third of the total are ambitransitive.More verb classes are illustrated as we go along, in Chapters 3, 4 and 5. What wehave seen in this section is that across all languages, verbs occur with specific ‘core’arguments: these are the arguments required by the verb. The verb also selects theparticular grammatical properties of its arguments, as we’ve seen. This relationshipbetween a verb and its arguments is one kind of dependency: a relationshipcontracted between elements in a sentence. We will see other kinds of dependenciesthroughout this book.2.2.2 Verbs and their grammatical categoriesVerbs have more cross-linguistic differences in the grammatical categories theyexpress than any other word class. The major categories are illustrated here.2.2.2.1 Tense and aspectThese are the most common morphosyntactic categories associated with verbs, andthis discussion provides only a brief sketch of these extensive categories. Startingwith English, you may be surprised to learn that morphologically speaking (in termsof form) English verbs have only two tenses, namely present and past:(22) a. Kim helps Lee every day.b. Kim helped Lee every day.