1367260110.5528Understanding Syntax

Processes that change grammatical relations 215In fact, passive constructions occur most typically in languages which, like Germanor Japanese, are syntactically and morphologically accusative in their alignment.Recall from Chapter 6 that this gives rise to languages which have a definite subjectgrammatical relation, and which generally also have case-marking and/or verbalagreement which patterns according to the nominative/accusative alignment. Thus,accusative systems treat all subjects the same way (A plus S noun phrases), and treatobjects differently (O noun phrases): S = A π O.But what about the passive in ergative/absolutive languages, which group S and Oarguments (the absolutive NPs) in opposition to A arguments (the ergative NPs):S = O π A? It will help at this point to revise the discussion in Chapter 6 concerningthe different ways in which NPs group together in each system. These tables shouldhelp to refresh your memory:Table 7.1Accusative and ergative case systemsAccusative systemA S ONominativeAccusativeErgative systemA S OErgativeAbsolutiveIt might seem that ergative languages would not have a passive construction, sincethe division between all subjects and all objects found in accusative languages ismuch less evident, or even absent. Indeed, not all ergative languages have passives:for instance, Dyirbal and Lezgian (see Chapter 6) do not. However, a number ofergative languages do have a passive construction, as illustrated in (9) from Inuktitut(Greenlandic), and (10) – slightly adapted – from Tzotzil. As before, the (a) sentencesare active, the (b) ones passive, and the passive marker on the verb is in bold. Thegrammatical relations (A, O, S) are also indicated on the NPs:(9) a. angut-ip(A) arnaq(O) taku-vaa (Inuktitut)man-erg woman.abs see-3sg/3sg‘The man saw the woman.’b. arnaq(S) (anguti-mit) taku-tau-puqwoman.abs man-by see-passive-3sg‘The woman was seen (by the man).’(10) a. S-mil-ox-Ø (O)Xun li Petul-e(A) (Tzotzil)3sg.erg-kill-past‐3sg.abs John the Peter-def‘Peter killed John.’b. Mil-bil-Ø juʔun Petul li Xun-e(S)kill-passive‐3sg.abs by Peter the John-def‘John was killed by Peter.’In (9a), ergative/absolutive alignment is indicated in the active sentence via casemarking on the NPs, the A argument being ergative, and the O argument absolutive: