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Department of Defense Energy HandbookSpiral 2: 3/28/2011Alternative and Renewable Energy Options for DoD Facilities and Bases11.3 Next Generation Geothermal Energy Extraction ................................................................ 26711.3.1 Enhanced Geothermal Systems .......................................................................................... 26711.3.1.1 Demonstration EGS Projects ...................................................................................................... 26811.3.1.2 Costs Associated With EGS ....................................................................................................... 26911.3.1.3 Disadvantages of EGS.................................................................................................................... 26911.3.1.4 Long-Term Prospective Capability of EGS .............................................................................. 26911.3.1.5 Carbon Dioxide Working Fluid ................................................................................................. 26911.4 Existing Geothermal Energy Facilities .................................................................................. 27011.4.1 The Geysers in Northern California ................................................................................... 27111.4.2 Naval Air Warfare Center Weapons Division, China lake, CA ......................................... 27211.4.3 Blue Mountain Faulkner 1 Geothermal Plant ................................................................... 27211.5 Environmental Impact and Regulatory Issues ...................................................................... 27311.5.1 Permits for Well Construction and Drilling ....................................................................... 27311.5.2 Land Use Rights (Permitting).............................................................................................. 27311.5.3 Environmental Disposal Issues and Methods .................................................................... 27411.5.3.1 Hydrogen Chloride Gas ............................................................................................................... 27411.5.3.2 Geothermal Water ........................................................................................................................ 27411.5.3.3 Mineral Issues .................................................................................................................................. 27411.6 Supplemental Funding and Cost Minimization ..................................................................... 27512 EMERGING TIDAL, WAVE, AND OCEAN TECHNOLOGIES ................................................... 27612.1 Tidal Power.............................................................................................................................. 27612.2 Wave Power ............................................................................................................................ 28012.2.1 Types of Wave Energy Converters ..................................................................................... 28112.2.1.1 Offshore Systems ........................................................................................................................... 28112.2.1.1.1 Salter Duck ................................................................................................................................... 28112.2.1.1.2 Pelamis ............................................................................................................................................ 28212.2.1.2 Onshore Fixed Systems ................................................................................................................ 28212.2.1.2.1 Oscillating Water Columns ...................................................................................................... 28212.2.1.2.2 Tapered Channel System ......................................................................................................... 28312.2.1.2.3 WaveRoller .................................................................................................................................... 28412.2.2 Economics of Wave Power ................................................................................................. 28412.3 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion ...................................................................................... 28512.3.1 OTEC Technologies ............................................................................................................ 28512.3.1.1 Closed-Cycle OTEC ..................................................................................................................... 28612.3.1.2 Open-Cycle OTEC ........................................................................................................................ 28613 ENERGY STORAGE ......................................................................................................................... 28813.1 Electrochemical Energy Storage............................................................................................ 28813.1.1 Batteries .............................................................................................................................. 28813.1.1.1 Primary Batteries ........................................................................................................................... 289xix
Spiral 2: 3/28/201113.1.1.1.1 Alkaline Batteries ......................................................................................................................... 28913.1.1.1.2 Zinc-Carbon Batteries ................................................................................................................ 28913.1.1.1.3 Mercuric-Oxide Batteries .......................................................................................................... 28913.1.1.1.4 Zinc-Air Batteries ......................................................................................................................... 28913.1.1.2 Secondary Batteries ....................................................................................................................... 29013.1.1.2.1 Lead Acid Batteries ..................................................................................................................... 29013.1.1.2.2 Lithium-Ion Batteries .................................................................................................................. 29013.1.1.2.3 Nickel-Cadmium Batteries ....................................................................................................... 29013.1.1.2.4 Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries .............................................................................................. 29013.1.2 Fuel Cells ............................................................................................................................. 29113.1.2.1 Solid Oxide ...................................................................................................................................... 29313.1.2.2 Alkaline ............................................................................................................................................. 29313.1.2.3 Molten Carbonate.......................................................................................................................... 29313.1.2.4 Phosphoric Acid ............................................................................................................................. 29313.1.2.5 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane .................................................................................................. 29313.1.2.5.1 Direct Methanol .......................................................................................................................... 29413.2 Electromagnetic Energy Storage ........................................................................................... 29413.2.1 Supercapacitors .................................................................................................................. 29413.2.2 Superconducting Magnetic Energy .................................................................................... 29513.3 Mechanical Energy Storage .................................................................................................... 29513.3.1 Flywheels ............................................................................................................................. 29513.3.2 Pumped Hydro .................................................................................................................... 29613.3.3 Compressed Air Energy Storage ......................................................................................... 29613.4 Thermal Energy Storage ........................................................................................................ 29613.4.1 Heat Transfer Fluids ........................................................................................................... 29613.4.1.1 Molten Salts ..................................................................................................................................... 29613.4.1.2 High Heat Capacity Fluids ............................................................................................................ 29713.4.2 Water-Based Thermal Energy Storage............................................................................... 29713.4.2.1 Ice Storage ....................................................................................................................................... 29713.4.2.2 Steam Accumulator ....................................................................................................................... 29714 ENERGY DISTRIBUTION, TRANSMISSION, AND ADVANCED METERING ......................... 29814.1 Current Grid Structure .......................................................................................................... 29814.2 Grid Challenges with Renewable Energy .............................................................................. 29814.3 Smart Grid ............................................................................................................................... 29914.3.1 Integrated Communications ............................................................................................... 29914.3.2 Sensing and Measurement .................................................................................................. 29914.3.2.1 Advanced Meters ........................................................................................................................... 29914.3.2.2 Advanced Metering System ......................................................................................................... 30014.3.2.3 Metering Applications and Approaches ................................................................................... 301xx
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