eNDNOTeS272 In September 1986, the first Zone of Peace, Freedom, and Neutrality (ZOPFAN)in the Philippines was declared in Naga City in southern Luzon. This was acommunity-based and people-initiated peace effort, involving the council ofelders and the church. Since then, this model has gained ground around thecountry. For more details, see: Pushpa Iyer, Peace Zones of Mindanao,Philippines: Civil Society Efforts to End Violence (Massachusetts: CollaborativeLearning Projects, October 2004); Mario Cabrera, “Schools as ‘Zones of Peace’,”UNICEF Philippines; Tilman Wörtz Zeitenspiegel, The Philippines: Peace Zones ina War Region (Tuebingen, Germany: Institute for Peace Education); and DebbieUy, “Philippines: Local Communities Push for Peace Zones,” Institute for War andPeace Reporting, 3 October 2008.273 Church groups involved were of various denominations depending on thecommunity. In communities where more than one religious or church group ispresent, the full range of religious groups would ideally be involved in theprocess.274 Mario Cabrera, “Schools as ‘Zones of Peace’,” UNICEF Philippines.275 See, for example: HRW, Lessons in Terror: Attacks on Education inAfghanistan (New York: HRW, July 2006), 24.276 Antonio Giustozzi and Claudio Franco, The Battle for the Schools: The Talebanand State Education (Afghanistan Analysts Network, 13 December 2011), 3-5.277 HRW, Lessons in Terror: Attacks on Education in Afghanistan (New York: HRW,July 2006), 32-34; Marit Glad, Knowledge on Fire: Attacks on Education inAfghanistan - Risks and Measures for Successful Mitigation (Afghanistan: CAREInternational, September 2009), 33-36. See also: Dana Burde, “PreventingViolent Attacks on Education in Afghanistan: Considering The Role of Community-Based Schools,” in Protecting Education from Attack: A State-of-the-Art Review(Paris: UNESCO, 2010). For a detailed analysis of the nature, scope and motivesof attacks, please see the Afghanistan profile in Part III of the present volume;and UNSC, Children and Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General,A/66/782–S/2012/261, 26 April 2012, para 16.278 Results from CARE’s research showed that 85% of key informants felt protectionof schools is the community’s responsibility. See Marit Glad, Knowledge onFire: Attacks on Education in Afghanistan - Risks and Measures for SuccessfulMitigation (Afghanistan: CARE International, September 2009), 44.279 Afghanistan Ministry of Education, National Education Strategic Plan forAfghanistan 2010-2014, 6. See also GCPEA, Study on Field-based ProgrammaticMeasures to Protect Education from Attack (New York: GCPEA, 2011), 36-37.280 The concept of community schools has been taken to scale by national andinternational agencies. Community schools are now estimated to reach 156,000students, according to data given in Morten Sigsgaard, Education and Fragility inAfghanistan: A Situational Analysis (Paris: UNESCO International Institute forEducational Planning, 2009), 19. This information illustrates the scope for variationin the level at which communities engage in one specific form of programmaticaction. Some villages have initiated community schools themselves, othershave been involved primarily in their implementation.281 Dana Burde, “Preventing Violent Attacks on Education in Afghanistan:Considering The Role of Community-Based Schools,” in Protecting Educationfrom Attack: A State-of-the-Art Review (Paris: UNESCO, 2010), 257, 259.282 HRW, Lessons in Terror: Attacks on Education in Afghanistan (New York: HRW,2006), 115.283 Brendan O’Malley, Education Under Attack 2010 (Paris: UNESCO, 2010), 30.284 Antonio Giustozzi and Claudio Franco, The battle for the schools: The Talebanand state education (Afghanistan Analysts Network, August 2011), 2, 10-13.285 Ibid., 10-13.286 Antonio Giustozzi and Claudio Franco, The ongoing battle for schools:Uprisings, negotiations and Taleban tactics (Afghanistan Analysts Network,February 2013), 1-3.287 Dana Burde, “Preventing Violent Attacks on Education in Afghanistan:Considering The Role of Community-Based Schools,” in Protecting Educationfrom Attack: A State-of-the-Art Review (Paris: UNESCO, 2010), 258.288 Some examples include: In Herat in western Afghanistan, police collaboratedwith the community after an attack to arrange meetings to negotiate an end toattacks and the reopening of schools. Global Education Cluster, ProtectingEducation in Countries Affected by Conflict Booklet 3: Community-basedProtection and Prevention (Global Education Cluster, October 2012), 8. In 2010, itwas reported that a school in Jowzjan reopened after local communities put pressureon the Taliban. Elsewhere, the Taliban closed schools for two months as thegovernment wanted to use them as election stations. The local elders convincedthe government not to conduct election polling in schools and the Taliban topermit the schools to function. Antonio Giustozzi and Claudio Franco, The Battlefor the Schools:The Taleban and State Education (Afghanistan Analysts Network,13 December 2011), 6.289 Antonio Giustozzi and Claudio Franco, The Battle for the Schools: The Talibanand State Education (Afghanistan Analysts Network, 13 December 2011), 14-15.290 Boys’ enrolment rates in community schools versus traditional governmentschools were 34.4% higher and girls’ enrolment was 51.1% higher. The performancegap between girls and boys was reduced by a third. Dana Burde and LeighLinden, The Effect of Village-Based Schools: Evidence from a RandomizedControlled Trial in Afghanistan, IZA DP No. 6531 (Bonn, Germany: Institute for theStudy of Labor, April 2012).291 Marit Glad, Knowledge on Fire: Attacks on Education in Afghanistan - Risksand Measures for Successful Mitigation (Afghanistan: CARE International,September 2009), 44, 47.292 Ibid., 55.293 While there is reluctance amongst communities to negotiate with armedinsurgents, fear of criminal groups may be greater. Marit Glad, Knowledge onFire: Attacks on Education in Afghanistan - Risks and Measures for SuccessfulMitigation (Afghanistan: CARE International, September 2009), 47-49.294 Antonio Giustozzi and Claudio Franco, The Battle for the Schools:The Talebanand State Education (Afghanistan Analysts Network, 13 December 2011), 17.295 Marit Glad, Knowledge on Fire: Attacks on Education in Afghanistan - Risksand Measures for Successful Mitigation (Afghanistan: CARE International,September 2009), 50-51, 54.296 Based on the information contained in CARE’s report, with regards to threatsto girls’ education. Marit Glad, Knowledge on Fire: Attacks on Education inAfghanistan - Risks and Measures for Successful Mitigation (Afghanistan: CAREInternational, September 2009), 21.297 Key informant interview with INGO staff member based in Kabul, May 2013.298 Marit Glad, Knowledge on Fire: Attacks on Education in Afghanistan - Risksand Measures for Successful Mitigation (Afghanistan: CARE International,September 2009), 4.299 Key informant interview with INGO staff member based in Kabul, May 2013.300 Pushpa Iyer, Peace Zones of Mindanao, Philippines: Civil Society Efforts toEnd Violence (Massachusetts: Collaborative Learning Projects, October 2004).301 See, for example: Save the Children, Rewrite the Future Global EvaluationNepal Midterm Country Report (London: Save the Children, March 2009), 11.302 In the case of Liberia, unarmed guards evolved into a permanent measurewith costs to the school. See UNESCO, Protecting Education from Attack: A Stateof-the-ArtReview (Paris: UNESCO, 2010), 28.303 Current debates are characterized by a lack of consensus over what constitutesan ‘attack’ on higher education communities, versus an infringement ofacademic freedom [or of the right to education] that falls short of the meaning ofthe term ‘attack’. This has methodological repercussions evident in the difficultyof establishing an agreed-upon set of indicators for monitoring attacks.216
EDUCATION UNDER ATTACK 2014304For example, according to Jarecki and Kaisth, in three-quarters of cases ofscholars granted assistance by the Scholar Rescue Fund, the sole or acontributing source of persecution was the state. Henry Jarecki and DanielaKaisth, Scholar Rescue in the Modern World (New York: Institute of InternationalEducation, 2009), 8.305 For an outline of the kinds of attacks taking place in the higher educationsector, see the Global overview in Part I of this study. Also see the ‘Attacks onhigher education’ section in each country profile in Part III of this study.306 Brain drain is the process of migration of highly-skilled and educated peoplethat implies a loss of human capital for the country of origin. Attacks on highereducation may trigger involuntary migration by victims of attacks and those similarlyintimidated who seek physical security elsewhere, as well as voluntarymigration by those seeking more favorable, secure and open environments inwhich to pursue their academic interests.307 Henry Jarecki and Daniela Kaisth, Scholar Rescue in the Modern World (NewYork: Institute of International Education, 2009), 17-20. Iraq is a case in point inillustrating a number of consequences such as self-censorship, fear, retreat andbrain drain following the systematic and widespread attacks on academics anduniversity students. See Dirk Adriaensen, Lieven De Cauter, Ward Treunen,Christopher Parker and Sami Zemni, eds., Beyond Educide. Sanctions,Occupation and the Struggle for Higher Education in Iraq (Gent: Academia Press,2012).308 GCPEA, Study on Field-based Programmatic Measures to Protect Educationfrom Attack (New York: GCPEA, 2011), 3.309 GCPEA, Study on Field-based Programmatic Measures to Protect Educationfrom Attack (New York: GCPEA, 2011), 10.310Tunde Fatunde, “COTE D’IVOIRE: Campuses Closed by Conflict, Sanctions,”University World News, 27 March 2011; K. Parfait, “Pr Germain Gourène(Président de l’Université d’Abobo-Adjamé): ‘Toutes Les Mémoires sur Papier etSupports Electroniques ont été Détruites’ –’SOS pour l’ l’Université d’Abobo-Adjamé’,” Abidjan.net, 26 March 2011; Deborah-Fay Ndhlovu, “Research AfricaExclusive: Fighting in Côte d’Ivoire Disrupts Universities in Abidjan,” ResearchAfrica, 28 March 2011; and Christina Scott and Deborah-Fay Ndhlovu, “FightingDestroys Ivory University,” Mail and Guardian, 8 April 2011.311 African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM), “AMISOM forces launch a militaryoffensive to consolidate security in Mogadishu,” 20 January 2012; “AU,Government Troops Seize al-Shabab Positions in Mogadishu,” VOA News, 19January 2012; “Somalia: Amison invited Mareeg reporter to the latest strategicmilitary bases outside Mogadishu city,” January 2012; “AU troops battle al-Shabab in outer Mogadishu,” Al Jazeera, 20 January 2012; AMISOM, “Somali,AMISOM forces on the outskirts of Kismayo,” 30 September 2012; “Somalia:Kenyan Forces Vacate Kismayo University,” Garowe Online, 23 October 2012;Ismail Hassan, “Explosion at AMISOM Base Kills 4 TFG Soldiers - Bomb TargetsAMISOM Base at Gaheyr University in Mogadishu,” Somalia Report, 17 October2011; and HRW, “Somalia: Pro-Government Militias Executing Civilians,” 28March 2012.312 HRW site visit to Sanaa University Old Campus, 22 March 2012; HRW,Classrooms in the Crosshairs - Military Use of Schools in Yemen’s Capital (NewYork: HRW, 11 September 2012), 16; and HRW, “No Safe Places”: Yemen’sCrackdown on Protests in Taizz (New York: HRW, 6 February 2012), 59.313 See, for example, the case of Yemen, where rebels remained on campus forthree months after students began returning: HRW site visit to Sanaa UniversityOld Campus, 22 March 2012; HRW, Classrooms in the Crosshairs - Military Use ofSchools in Yemen’s Capital (New York: HRW, 11 September 2012), 16.314 See the third essay in Part II of the present volume.315 GCPEA, Institutional Autonomy and the Protection of Higher Education fromAttack: A Research Study of the Higher Education Working Group of the GlobalCoalition to Protect Education from Attack (New York: GCPEA, 2013).316 GCPEA, Institutional Autonomy and the Protection of Higher Education fromAttack: A Research Study of the Higher Education Working Group of the GlobalCoalition to Protect Education from Attack (New York: GCPEA, 2013), 26, 33.317 “Universidades No Pueden Ser Sanituario del Terrorismo: Mindefensa,” ElEspectador.com, 21 May 2010.318 Colombia: Students in The Firing Line – A Report on Human Rights AbusesSuffered by Colombian University Students (National Union of Students,University and College Union and Justice for Colombia, July 2009), 4-5; and “CasoJhonny Silva, a la CIDH,” El Espectador.com, 17 June 2009.319 “Hemos Recibido 312 Amenazas,” El Espectador.com, 14 November 2008;“UN, en Contacto con Las Autoridades para Denunciar Las Amenazas contraDocentes y Estudiantes,” Agencia de Noticias, 14 November 2008; and “Hanamenazado, a 312 Estudiantes de La. U Nacional,” El Tiempo.com, 15 November2010.320 Brendan O’Malley, Education under Attack (Paris: UNESCO, 2007), 51-53.321 Such measures have been used recently in some Mexican universities. See,for example: “Universidades duplican sus gastos en seguridad,” Universia, 19May 2010; Manual de Seguridad para instituciones de Educación Superior:Estrategias para la prevención y atención, Anuies, 2011, 29-39.322 United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights.323 Mario Novelli, Colombia’s Classroom Wars: Political Violence AgainstEducation Sector Trade Unionists (Brussels: Education International, 2009), 41.324 GCPEA, Study on Field-based Programmatic Measures to Protect Educationfrom Attack (New York: GCPEA, 2011), 10-13. For a specific example at schoollevel,see, for instance: HRW, “Targets of Both Sides”: Violence against Students,Teachers, and Schools in Thailand’s Southern Border Provinces (New York: HRW,September 2010), 47-49, 61.325 The Draft Lucens Guidelines for Protecting Schools and Universities fromMilitary Use during Armed Conflict have tried to address the third challenge inGuideline 5 by stating that: “[T]he fighting forces of parties to armed conflictshould generally not be employed on security tasks related to schools anduniversities except when the risk to those institutions is assessed as high; ifalternative means of reducing the likelihood of attack are not feasible; if evacuationfrom the high risk area is not feasible; and if there are no alternative appropriatelytrained civilian personnel available to provide security. (a) If suchfighting forces are engaged in security tasks related to schools and universities,their presence within the grounds or buildings of the school should be avoided ifat all possible, to avoid compromising its civilian status and disrupting thelearning environment.” GCPEA, Draft Lucens Guidelines for Protecting Schoolsand Universities from Military Use During Armed Conflict (New York: GCPEA, 8July 2013).326 For example, a 2009 report on human rights violations against Colombianstudents, issued jointly by the UK’s National Union of Students, UniversityCollege Union and the UK-based NGO Justice for Colombia, concluded that theColombian state not only did little to prevent attacks and systematically failed tocapture or punish perpetrators, but also, security forces were found to have beendirectly involved in many of the attacks. The report suggests that in such a situationonly international pressure and human rights campaigns addressed to thegovernment can make a real difference. See Colombia: Students in The FiringLine – A Report on Human Rights Abuses Suffered by Colombian UniversityStudents (National Union of Students, University and College Union and Justicefor Colombia, 2009), 5-7, 9.327 Brendan O’Malley, Education under Attack (Paris: UNESCO, 2007), 53.328 IIE/SRF, SRF Iraq: Bridging/Scholarship Support Components, October 2011;Email communication from Mr. Jim Miller, SRF, December 4, 2011, cited in GCPEA,Study on Field-based Programmatic Measures to Protect Education from Attack(New York: GCPEA, 2011), 20; UNESCO, “Launch of Avicenna Virtual Campus inIraq,” 12 October 2009.217
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