Arendt und Zannini - 2013 - Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries
Arendt und Zannini - 2013 - Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries
Arendt und Zannini - 2013 - Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries
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OODHEAD PUBLISHING SERIES IN FOOD SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND NUTRITION<br />
<strong>Cereal</strong>s are a staple of <strong>the</strong> human diet <strong>and</strong> have a significant effect on health. As a result,<br />
<strong>the</strong>y are of major significance to <strong>the</strong> <strong>food</strong> industry. This book provides a comprehensive<br />
overview of all of <strong>the</strong> im portant cereal <strong>and</strong> pseudo-cereal species, from <strong>the</strong>ir composition<br />
to <strong>the</strong>ir use in <strong>food</strong> products.<br />
The book reviews <strong>the</strong> major cereal species, starting with wheat <strong>and</strong> triticale be<strong>for</strong>e<br />
covering rye, barley <strong>and</strong> oats. It goes on to discuss o<strong>the</strong>r major species such as rice, maize,<br />
sorghum <strong>and</strong> millet, as well as pseudo-cereals such as buckwheat, quinoa <strong>and</strong> amaranth.<br />
Each chapter reviews grain structure, chemical composition (including carbohydrate <strong>and</strong><br />
protein content), processing <strong>and</strong> applications in <strong>food</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>beverage</strong> products.<br />
<strong>Cereal</strong> <strong>grains</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>food</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>beverage</strong> <strong>industries</strong> is an essential reference <strong>for</strong> academic<br />
researchers interested in <strong>the</strong> area of cereal <strong>grains</strong> <strong>and</strong> products. It is also an invaluable<br />
reference <strong>for</strong> professionals in <strong>the</strong> <strong>food</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>beverage</strong> industry working with cereal<br />
products, including ingredient manufacturers, <strong>food</strong> technologists, nutritionists, as well as<br />
policy-makers <strong>and</strong> health care professionals.<br />
Elke <strong>Arendt</strong> is Professor in <strong>the</strong> School of Food <strong>and</strong> Nutritional Sciences at University<br />
College Cork (UCC), Irel<strong>and</strong>. D r Emanuele <strong>Zannini</strong> is a Senior Research Scientist at <strong>the</strong><br />
School of Food <strong>and</strong> Nutritional Sciences at UCC.<br />
Woodhead Publishing Limited<br />
80 High Street, Sawston<br />
Cambridge CB22 3HJ<br />
UK<br />
ISBN: 978-0-85709-413-1<br />
Woodhead Publishing<br />
ISIS Walnut Street 1100<br />
Philadelphia, PA 19102<br />
USA<br />
www.woodheadpublishing.com<br />
www.woodheadpublishingonline.com
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Rice<br />
DOI; 10.1533/9780857098924.114<br />
Abstract: Rice (Oriza sativa L.) is <strong>the</strong> staple <strong>food</strong> <strong>for</strong> nearly two-thirds of <strong>the</strong><br />
world’s population. In 2010, China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam <strong>and</strong><br />
Myanmar alone provided more than 75 % of <strong>the</strong> world’s total rice production.<br />
Rice has <strong>the</strong> lowest protein content of all <strong>the</strong> cereals; however, rice protein is<br />
highly nutritious <strong>and</strong> has one of <strong>the</strong> highest lysine contents among <strong>the</strong> cereals.<br />
Rice is rich in starch, low in fibre <strong>and</strong> has no detectable levels of vitamins A, C or<br />
D. Rice is consumed in <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>m of noodles, puffed rice, fermented sweet rice <strong>and</strong><br />
snack <strong>food</strong>s produced by extrusion cooking. It is used <strong>for</strong> making bakery<br />
products, sauces, infant <strong>food</strong>s, breakfast cereals, alcoholic <strong>beverage</strong>s <strong>and</strong> vinegar.<br />
Continuing population growth <strong>and</strong> consequent rice consumption increases will<br />
mean that <strong>the</strong> global dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> rice will exp<strong>and</strong> significantly in <strong>the</strong> near future.<br />
An integrated approach that involves more efficient <strong>and</strong> environmentally<br />
sustainable agricultural practices, pest management <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> development of new<br />
rice varieties adapted to country-specific farming conditions suitable <strong>for</strong> a<br />
changing climate should be vigorously pursued.<br />
Key words: rice, chemical composition, rice utilization in <strong>food</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>beverage</strong>s.<br />
3.1 Introduction<br />
Rice {Oriza sativa L.) is <strong>the</strong> leading <strong>food</strong> crop in <strong>the</strong> developing world in<br />
terms of total world production (672 x 10® tonnes) (FAO/UN, 2012). It<br />
represents <strong>the</strong> staple <strong>food</strong> <strong>for</strong> almost two-thirds of <strong>the</strong> world’s population<br />
(Roy et al., 2011).<br />
Rice provides 21 % of global human per capita energy <strong>and</strong> 15 % of per<br />
capita protein (Maclean et a/., 2002; Guimaraes, 2009). However, <strong>the</strong> world’s<br />
stocks of stored rice grain have been falling in negative correlation to each<br />
year’s consumption levels which now exceeds actual annual production<br />
(Shiina <strong>and</strong> Global, 2010). Rice is generally considered a semi-aquatic<br />
annual grass plant, which can be grown <strong>und</strong>er a broad range of climatic<br />
conditions (Yoshida, 1981). Cultivated rice belongs to <strong>the</strong> species O. sativa<br />
<strong>and</strong> O. glaberrima. While O. sativa is <strong>the</strong> predominant species, O. gaitérrima<br />
is cultivated on a limited scale <strong>and</strong> only in Africa. The major rice<br />
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, <strong>2013</strong>
Rice 115<br />
producers in 2010 were China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam <strong>and</strong><br />
Myanmar producing alone more than 75 % (506 x 10^ tonnes) of <strong>the</strong> world<br />
production. Rice grain (rough rice or paddy) comprises <strong>the</strong> edible rice<br />
caryopsis of fruit (brown, dehulled or dehusked rice) enclosed in a protective<br />
covering, <strong>the</strong> hull (husk). During <strong>the</strong> milling process, rough rice is<br />
milled to produce polished edible grain by first subjecting to dehusking <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>n to <strong>the</strong> removal of brownish outer bran layer known as whitening.<br />
Finally, polishing is carried out to remove <strong>the</strong> bran particles <strong>and</strong> provides<br />
surface gloss to <strong>the</strong> edible white portion.<br />
The way rice is generally consumed differs from its major <strong>food</strong>-crop relatives.<br />
Wheat <strong>and</strong> barley are mostly consumed after <strong>the</strong> grain is gro<strong>und</strong> to<br />
flour. Rice is primarily consumed as polished grain; however, a small amount<br />
of <strong>the</strong> rice crop is used to make ingredients <strong>for</strong> processed <strong>food</strong>s <strong>and</strong> as<br />
animal feed. Rice flour possesses unique attributes, such as a bl<strong>and</strong> taste,<br />
white colour, ease of digestion <strong>and</strong> hypoallergenic properties (Kadan et ai,<br />
2001). Rice is consumed in <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>m of noodles, puffed rice, fermented sweet<br />
rice <strong>and</strong> snack <strong>food</strong>s made by extrusion cooking (Mercier et al., 1989). It is<br />
used <strong>for</strong> producing bread, cakes, cookies (alone or blended with wheat) <strong>and</strong><br />
canned <strong>food</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> production of alcoholic <strong>beverage</strong>s or as an adjunct<br />
in <strong>the</strong>ir production, <strong>for</strong> example beer. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, <strong>the</strong> low levels of sodium,<br />
absence of gliadin <strong>and</strong> presence of easily digested carbohydrates have made<br />
rice one of <strong>the</strong> most suitable cereal grain flours <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> preparation of <strong>food</strong>s<br />
<strong>for</strong> coeliac patients (<strong>Zannini</strong> et al., 2012).<br />
3.1.1 History, production, price, yield <strong>and</strong> area<br />
The genus Oryza, named by Linnaeus in 1753, originated in <strong>the</strong> Gondwanal<strong>and</strong><br />
continent <strong>and</strong>, following <strong>the</strong> fracture of <strong>the</strong> supercontinent, became<br />
widely distributed in <strong>the</strong> humid tropics of Africa, South America, South <strong>and</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>ast Asia <strong>and</strong> Oceania (Chang, 1976). The date <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> geographical<br />
location of rice domestication have long been a subject of debate. Indeed,<br />
it is also widely recognized that domestication is not a single ‘event’, but<br />
ra<strong>the</strong>r a dynamic evolutionary process that occurs over time <strong>and</strong>, in some<br />
species, continues to this day (Gepts, 2010). The most ancient archaeological<br />
finds, in <strong>the</strong> Yangzi delta in China, date back to 5000 BC (Latham, 1998).<br />
Historical records suggest multiple domestications <strong>for</strong> rice (O. sativa)<br />
(Kovach et al., 2007) between 2000 <strong>and</strong> 1500 BC in areas including central<br />
India, nor<strong>the</strong>rn Burma, nor<strong>the</strong>rn Thail<strong>and</strong>, Laos, Vietnam <strong>and</strong> into sou<strong>the</strong>ast<br />
China (Chang, 1976). In India, <strong>the</strong> earliest known remains of rice are<br />
dated aro<strong>und</strong> 1500 BC. In Japan, rice seems to have been introduced from<br />
<strong>the</strong> Yangzi region aro<strong>und</strong> 400 BC (Latham, 1998). From this broad area, <strong>the</strong><br />
cultivation of rice extended to Indonesia, <strong>the</strong> Philippines <strong>and</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Australia. Subsequently, traders spread <strong>the</strong> grain throughout Asia, <strong>the</strong><br />
Middle East <strong>and</strong> Europe (Marshall et al.,1994). In North <strong>and</strong> South America,<br />
rice was introduced relatively recently with <strong>the</strong> first official documentation<br />
I Woodhead Publishing Limited, <strong>2013</strong>
116 <strong>Cereal</strong> <strong>grains</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>food</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>beverage</strong> <strong>industries</strong><br />
Table 3.1 Rice <strong>and</strong> total cereal grain production <strong>and</strong> producer price in <strong>the</strong> world<br />
from 2000-2010<br />
Year<br />
Total rice<br />
production<br />
(Mt)<br />
Total cereal<br />
production<br />
(Mt)“<br />
Rice as<br />
% of total<br />
<strong>grains</strong><br />
Area rice<br />
harvested<br />
(Mha)<br />
Rice<br />
yield<br />
(t/ha)<br />
Producer price<br />
(US $/tonnes)<br />
W -<br />
2000 599.3 2044 29.3 154.0 3.9 298.99<br />
2001 599.8 2093 28.7 151.9 3.9 294.28<br />
2002 571.3 2077 27.5 147.6 3.9 285.51<br />
2003 587.0 2260 26.0 148.5 4.0 314.85<br />
2004 607.9 2247 27.1 150.5 4.0 342.73<br />
2005 634.3 2219 28.6 154.9 4.1 367.91<br />
2006 641.2 2335 27.5 155.2 4.1 394.70<br />
2007 657.1 2503 26.3 154.9 4.2 431.74<br />
2008 689.0 2470 27.9 157.6 4.4 513.30<br />
2009 684.7 2472 27.7 158.3 4.3 494.54<br />
2010 672.0 2412 27.9 153.6 4.4 -<br />
Average 631.2 2285 27.6 153.4 4.1 373.85<br />
"Total cereal production includes corn, rice, wheat, barley, sorghum, millet, oats, rye, mixed<br />
grain.<br />
Source: Data from FAO/UN (2012).<br />
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Rice 117<br />
Table 3.2 Rice production estimates in <strong>the</strong> 10 leading-producing countries; fiveyear<br />
average 2006-2010<br />
Rank<br />
Country<br />
Production<br />
(Mt)<br />
Area harvested<br />
(Mha)<br />
Rice yield<br />
(t/ha)<br />
World<br />
production (%)<br />
1 China 191.5 29.5 6.5 28.6<br />
2 India 137.3 42.0 3.3 20.5<br />
3 Indonesia 60.5 12.4 4.9 9.0<br />
4 Bangladesh 45.5 11.1 4.1 6.8<br />
5 Viet Nam 37.8 7.3 5.2 5.7<br />
6 Myanmar 32.1 8.00 4.0 4.8<br />
7 Thail<strong>and</strong> 31.4 10.7 2.9 4.7<br />
8 Philippines 16.0 4.3 3.7 2.4<br />
9 Brazil 11.7 2.8 4.2 1.7<br />
10 Japan 10.7 1.6 6.7 1.6<br />
Total 574.5 129.7 4.5“ 85.8<br />
“Average of rice yield among <strong>the</strong> 10 leading producing countries.<br />
Source: Data from FAO/UN (2012).<br />
China (6.5 tonnes/ha), second only to Japan with 6.7 tonnes/ha (FAO/UN,<br />
2012) (Table 3.2). Throughout <strong>the</strong> last 10 years, rice production has gradually<br />
increased by approximately 10%, growing from 599.3 x 10*’ to 672.0 x<br />
10*’ tonnes, mainly due to an improved yield that has been increased by<br />
= 11 % (Table 3.1).<br />
As reported in Table 3.3, <strong>the</strong>re are broad variations in rice prices among<br />
<strong>the</strong> top 10 producer countries with Bangladesh <strong>and</strong> Japan having <strong>the</strong> lowest<br />
<strong>and</strong> highest rice prices, respectively. Japan’s rice price is almost five times<br />
higher than <strong>the</strong> average world rice price <strong>for</strong> 2009, at levels of 2348.9<br />
US $/tonne <strong>and</strong> 94.54 US $/tonne, respectively (FAO/UN, 2012). Moreover,<br />
during <strong>the</strong> last number of decades world average rice prices increased from<br />
286.23 US $/tonnes in 2000 to 494.54 US $/tonnes in 2009 which represents<br />
an increase of more than 40 % (FAO/UN, 2012).<br />
3.1.2 Phytology, classification <strong>and</strong> cultivation<br />
Cultivated rice {O. sativa L.) is a cereal grain grass belonging to <strong>the</strong> tribe<br />
Oryzeae (Tzvelev, 1989), <strong>und</strong>er <strong>the</strong> sub-family Pooideae, in <strong>the</strong> grass family<br />
Poaceae (also known as Gramineae) (Tzvelev, 1989). Vaughan (1994) indicated<br />
that <strong>the</strong> genus Oriza has 22 species. However, only O. sativa <strong>and</strong> O.<br />
glaberrima are cultivated. The number of chromosomes of cultivated rice<br />
<strong>and</strong> its related species varies from 24 to 48, with <strong>the</strong> ‘n’ number equal to<br />
12. O. sativa is a diploid species with 2n = 24 chromosomes. Generally, <strong>the</strong><br />
rice plant is characterized by ro<strong>und</strong>, hollow, jointed culms, with ra<strong>the</strong>r flat,<br />
sessile leaf blades <strong>and</strong> a terminal panicle. Although <strong>the</strong> rice plant is an<br />
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, <strong>2013</strong>
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Rice 119<br />
annual species, <strong>und</strong>er favourable environmental conditions, O. sativa may<br />
grow more than once per year. Similarly to o<strong>the</strong>r taxa belonging to <strong>the</strong> tribe<br />
Oryzeae, rice may be classified as semi-aquatic plants, although extreme<br />
variants are grown not only in deep water (up to 5 m) but also on dry l<strong>and</strong><br />
(Chang, 1985). In Africa, <strong>the</strong> rice cultivated belongs to <strong>the</strong> species O. glaberrima<br />
Steud. that differs from O. sativa mainly in its lack of secondary<br />
branching on <strong>the</strong> primary branches of <strong>the</strong> panicle. It is also a strictly annual<br />
plant (Chang, 1965).<br />
The majority of commercial rice varieties range from 1 to 2 m in<br />
height; however, <strong>the</strong> rice plant varies in size from dwarf mutants (only<br />
0.3-0.4 m tall) to floating varieties (more than 7 m tall). The vegetative<br />
structures consist of fibrous roots, culms (made up of series of nodes <strong>and</strong><br />
internodes) <strong>and</strong> leaves that consist of a leaf sheath <strong>and</strong> leaf blade (lamina).<br />
The leaf sheath is continuous with <strong>the</strong> blade. It envelops <strong>the</strong> culm<br />
above <strong>the</strong> node in varying length, <strong>for</strong>m <strong>and</strong> tightness (Chang, 1965). It<br />
supports <strong>the</strong> plant during <strong>the</strong> vegetative growth, being photosyn<strong>the</strong>tically<br />
active <strong>and</strong> acting as a storage site <strong>for</strong> starch <strong>and</strong> sugar be<strong>for</strong>e heading<br />
(Chang, 1964). The panicle is composed of a panicle neck node (base),<br />
rachis (axis), primary <strong>and</strong> secondary branches, pedicles, rudimentary<br />
glumes <strong>and</strong> spikelets (or flower). Panicle shapes range from compact to<br />
intermediate to open. Compact shape is preferred in <strong>the</strong> modern cultivation<br />
because this type has generally been associated with higher yields<br />
(IBPGR-IRRI, 1980).<br />
The duration of growth <strong>for</strong> cultivated rice varies from 80 to 280 days <strong>and</strong><br />
can be generally divided into early (80-130 days), intermediate (130-160<br />
days) <strong>and</strong> late (160-t- days) maturing cultivars (Yoshida, 1981). In <strong>the</strong> rice<br />
plant, three growth phases can be distinguished: <strong>the</strong> vegetative phase -<br />
when <strong>the</strong> plant begins to partition assimilation to <strong>the</strong> developing panicle;<br />
<strong>the</strong> reproductive phases with panicle (flowering) development; <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
ripening or grain-filling phase which begins after an<strong>the</strong>sis <strong>and</strong> ends at maturation<br />
(Tanaka, 1965).<br />
Different environmental factors influence <strong>the</strong> development of <strong>the</strong> rice<br />
plant, such as temperature, day length, nutrition, planting density <strong>and</strong><br />
humidity (Nemoto et ai, 1995). Although normally a cereal of <strong>the</strong> wetl<strong>and</strong>,<br />
rice can be grown ei<strong>the</strong>r on dry l<strong>and</strong> or <strong>und</strong>er water. The common practice<br />
of flooding <strong>the</strong> paddy fields has been adopted as a means of irrigation <strong>and</strong><br />
also to control weeds (Kent <strong>and</strong> Evers, 1994). The Malayan word padi<br />
means ‘of rice straw’, but <strong>the</strong> anglicized <strong>for</strong>m of <strong>the</strong> vtord,paddy, is used to<br />
refer both to <strong>the</strong> water-covered fields in which rice is grown <strong>and</strong> also to <strong>the</strong><br />
harvested rice, with attached husk or hull. Rice can be cultivated in temperate<br />
<strong>and</strong> tropical areas, <strong>and</strong> in cool <strong>and</strong> warm regions. It is grown, <strong>for</strong><br />
example, in hot, wet climates, as well as in <strong>the</strong> foothills of <strong>the</strong> Alps, up to<br />
1220 m in <strong>the</strong> Andes of Peru, 1830 m in <strong>the</strong> Philippines <strong>and</strong> 3050 m in India.<br />
This wide adaptability of <strong>the</strong> rice plant partially explains its importance as<br />
r»rr>t^ wtrwIrixttiHo onH 1QQzl^
120 <strong>Cereal</strong> <strong>grains</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>food</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>beverage</strong> <strong>industries</strong><br />
3.1.3 Structure of <strong>the</strong> rice kernel<br />
The rice grain (rough rice or paddy) consists of an outer protective covering,<br />
<strong>the</strong> hull (husk), <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> edible rice caryopsis or kernel (brown, cargo,<br />
dehulled or dehusked rice). The main parts of <strong>the</strong> rice grain are <strong>the</strong> hull<br />
(20 %), pericarp (2 %), tegmen (seed coat), aleurone layer (5 %), endosperm<br />
(89-94%) <strong>and</strong> embryo (2-3%) (Delcour <strong>and</strong> Hoseney, 2010).<br />
The hull consists of lemma, palea, rachilla, <strong>and</strong> sterile lemmas (Fig. 3.1).<br />
The dehulled rice grain (caryopsis) is called brown rice because of <strong>the</strong><br />
pericarp colouring. A rice caryopsis has <strong>the</strong> same gross structure as that of<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r cereals (Fig. 3.2). It varies from 5 to 8 mm in length <strong>and</strong> weighs about<br />
25 mg. At <strong>the</strong> mature stage, <strong>the</strong> rice caryopsis is enclosed in a tough siliceous<br />
hull (husk) (Fig. 3.2) that represents approximately 18-20 % by weight of<br />
<strong>the</strong> rice grain (Champagne et ai, 2004). The rice hull is composed of two<br />
modified leaves, namely lemma <strong>and</strong> palea, which are joined toge<strong>the</strong>r longitudinally<br />
(Fig. 3.2). This outer layer provides protection <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> rice caryopsis<br />
from insect infestations <strong>and</strong> fungal damage <strong>and</strong> against large humidity<br />
fluctuations in <strong>the</strong> external environment (Marshall et ai, 1994).<br />
Inside <strong>the</strong> hull, three distinct layers, <strong>the</strong> pericarp, seed coat <strong>and</strong> nucellus,<br />
surro<strong>und</strong> <strong>the</strong> starchy endosperm. These layers comprise <strong>the</strong> bran fraction<br />
of <strong>the</strong> rice grain representing about 5-8 % of <strong>the</strong> brown rice weight (Champagne<br />
et ai, 2004).<br />
The pericarp is fibrous <strong>and</strong> varies in thickness. Next to <strong>the</strong> pericarp <strong>the</strong>re<br />
are two layers of crushed cells representing <strong>the</strong> remains of <strong>the</strong> inner integuments<br />
- <strong>the</strong> tegmen or seed coat. In coloured rice, <strong>the</strong> pigments are located<br />
in <strong>the</strong> seed coat or in <strong>the</strong> pericarp.<br />
The aleurone layer (Fig. 3.2) completely surro<strong>und</strong>s <strong>the</strong> endosperm <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> outer side of <strong>the</strong> embryo. The cells surro<strong>und</strong>ing <strong>the</strong> starchy endosperm<br />
are cuboidal, containing mainly protein bodies (aleurone <strong>grains</strong>) <strong>and</strong> lipid<br />
Lemma
odies, while <strong>the</strong> rectangular aleurone cells, surro<strong>und</strong>ing <strong>the</strong> embryo, are<br />
characterized by fewer <strong>and</strong> smaller lipid bodies which lack aleurone <strong>grains</strong><br />
(Champagne et al., 2004). The starchy endosperm is characterized by two<br />
distinct regions - <strong>the</strong> subaleurone layer <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> central region. The subaleurone<br />
region is typified by a limited number of small, oval-shaped starch<br />
granules surro<strong>und</strong>ed by three different types of membrane-bo<strong>und</strong> protein<br />
bodies. The starch granule takes a number of <strong>for</strong>ms; a large spherical body<br />
with a dense centre surro<strong>und</strong>ed by concentric rings measuring 1-2 pm in<br />
diameter; a small spherical body characterized by concentric rings <strong>and</strong><br />
measuring 0.5-0.75 pm in diameter; <strong>and</strong> crystalline protein bodies (2-3.5 pm<br />
in diameter) that appear to be a composite of small, angular components,<br />
each of which displays crystal lattice fringes (Bechtel <strong>and</strong> Pomeranz, 1978).<br />
The central endosperm is primarily composed of large starch granules (with<br />
diameter 3-9 pm), with a polygonal (hexagonal) shape resembling those of<br />
oats (Kent <strong>and</strong> Evers, 1994; Delcour <strong>and</strong> Hoseney, 2010). They are highly<br />
compact <strong>and</strong> surro<strong>und</strong>ed by dense proteinaceous material. In this region of<br />
<strong>the</strong> endosperm, <strong>the</strong> main protein bodies resemble <strong>the</strong> large spherical protein<br />
bodies detected in <strong>the</strong> subaleurone zone (Bechtel <strong>and</strong> Pomeranz, 1978).<br />
The embryo (germ) is situated on one side of <strong>the</strong> endosperm towards<br />
<strong>the</strong> base of <strong>the</strong> caryopsis. Unusually, <strong>the</strong> embryo is not firmly attached to<br />
<strong>the</strong> endosperm <strong>and</strong> consists of a short axis with <strong>the</strong> plumbe at its apex<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> primary root at its base (Tateoka, 1964). The embryonic axis is<br />
bo<strong>und</strong> on <strong>the</strong> inner side by <strong>the</strong> scutellum (cotyledon), which lies next to <strong>the</strong><br />
pnHncrvprm<br />
Rice 121<br />
Lemma<br />
Palea<br />
Starchy endosperm<br />
Aleurone layer<br />
Embryo<br />
Subaleurone layer<br />
Sterile lemmas<br />
Rachilla<br />
Pedicel<br />
Fig. 3.2<br />
A rice kernel in longitudinal cross-section.
122 <strong>Cereal</strong> <strong>grains</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>food</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>beverage</strong> <strong>industries</strong><br />
1<br />
'<br />
i cm<br />
f i g<br />
' 8<br />
■<br />
3.2 Rice carbohydrate composition <strong>and</strong> properties<br />
As reviewed by Champagne et al. (2004), <strong>the</strong> variety, environmental conditions<br />
<strong>and</strong> processing all influence <strong>the</strong> gross composition of rice <strong>and</strong> its<br />
fractions. Polysaccharides, proteins <strong>and</strong> lipids represent <strong>the</strong> three major<br />
constituents of <strong>the</strong> rice kernel. Generally, rice has <strong>the</strong> lowest protein content<br />
(7%) (Table 3.4) amongst <strong>the</strong> cereals, even though rice protein has one of<br />
<strong>the</strong> highest lysine contents (Juliano, 2003). From a chemical compositional<br />
viewpoint, <strong>the</strong> hull is low in starch, protein <strong>and</strong> fat while it is particularly<br />
rich in cellulose, lignin, arabinoxylans <strong>and</strong> minerals (mostly silica). Nutritionally,<br />
<strong>the</strong> rice bran is a particularly interesting because of its balanced<br />
content of protein (13.2-17.3 % dry basis), fat (17.0-22.9 % dry basis),<br />
carbohydrate (16.1 % dry basis) <strong>and</strong> dietary fibre (27.6-33.3 % dry basis)<br />
(Pomeranz <strong>and</strong> Ory, 1982), as well as vitamins <strong>and</strong> minerals presents in<br />
amounts which are beneficial to humans (Champagne et al., 2004). Among<br />
<strong>the</strong> structural components of <strong>the</strong> rice kernel, <strong>the</strong> starchy endosperm has <strong>the</strong><br />
highest <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowest carbohydrate <strong>and</strong> lipid contents, respectively. Additionally,<br />
protein levels are low when compared to levels in <strong>the</strong> bran but<br />
higher than levels in <strong>the</strong> hull. The embryo is particularly rich in lipids<br />
(19.3-23.8 % dry weight basis) <strong>and</strong> protein (17.7-23.9 % dry weight basis)<br />
(Pomeranz <strong>and</strong> Ory, 1982). The composition of brown rice is shown in Table<br />
3.4. Vitamins are generally present in higher levels in brown rice than in<br />
milled rice, particularly <strong>the</strong> B vitamins which are mainly concentrated in<br />
<strong>the</strong> scutellum (Hinton, 1948b). Rice has no detectable levels of vitamins A,<br />
Table 3.4<br />
Brown rice composition<br />
Constituent Content (per 100 g)<br />
Moisture (g) 14.0<br />
Energy content (Kcal) 363-385<br />
Crude protein (g) 7.1-8.3<br />
Crude fat (g) 1.6- 2.8<br />
Crude fibre (g) 0.6- 1.0<br />
Crude ash (g) 1.0-1.5<br />
Calcium (mg) 10-50<br />
Phosphorus (mg) 0.17-0.43<br />
Iron (mg) 0.2-5.2<br />
Zinc (mg) 0.6- 2.8<br />
Carbohydrates (g) 73-87<br />
Total dietary fibre (g) 2.9-4.0<br />
Water-insoluble fibre (g) 2.0<br />
Sugar (g) 1.9<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs“ (mg) 6.5-10.4<br />
“Rice also contains small quantities of B-complex vitamins,<br />
including thiamine (Bi), riboflavin (B2), niacin, pyridoxine (Bd,<br />
panto<strong>the</strong>nic acid, biotin, folic acid <strong>and</strong> vitamin E.<br />
Source: Adapted from Champagne et al. (2004).<br />
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, <strong>2013</strong>
Rice 123<br />
C or D. Minerals are mainly concentrated in <strong>the</strong> hull <strong>and</strong> in <strong>the</strong> bran;<br />
however, <strong>the</strong> bran phytic acid, <strong>and</strong> also probably dietary fibre, in <strong>the</strong> aleurone<br />
layer <strong>for</strong>ms complexes with minerals <strong>and</strong> proteins, thus reducing <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
bioavailability (Juliano, 2003).<br />
3.2.1 Starch<br />
Starch is concentrated in <strong>the</strong> endosperm fraction of <strong>the</strong> rice kernel (Table<br />
3.5), <strong>and</strong> accounts <strong>for</strong> approximately 90 % of <strong>the</strong> total milled rice dry<br />
weight. As observed in o<strong>the</strong>r cereal <strong>grains</strong>, starch granules are mainly composed<br />
of a branched fraction, amylopectin, <strong>and</strong> a linear fraction, amylose.<br />
Amylose is an essentially linear polymer of a-(l-^4)-linked D-glucopyranosyl<br />
units with few (6) linkages (Ball etal., 1996). Typical amylose<br />
levels in starches are 15-25 % (Manners, 1997). In rice, amylose contents<br />
have five classifications: waxy (0-2% amylose), very low (5-12%), low<br />
(12-20%), intermediate (20-25%) or high (25-33%) starch contents<br />
(Juliano et al., 1981; Sano, 1984). The eating quality of rice is remarkably<br />
influenced by gelatinization temperature of starch <strong>and</strong> its amylose content<br />
(Juliano, 2003). Indeed, <strong>the</strong> latter is directly correlated with volume expansion<br />
<strong>and</strong> water absorption during cooking <strong>and</strong> with final hardness, whiteness<br />
<strong>and</strong> dullness of cooked rice (Bergman et al., 2004). In particular, rice with<br />
a high amylose content exhibits high volume expansion <strong>and</strong> tends to cook<br />
firm <strong>and</strong> dry <strong>and</strong> become hard upon cooling. In contrast, rice with a low<br />
amylose content tends to cook moist <strong>and</strong> sticky <strong>and</strong> is often referred to as<br />
sticky rice (Mutters <strong>and</strong> Thompson, 2009).<br />
Amylopectin consists of a-(l-^4) linked o-glucosyl chains <strong>and</strong> is highly<br />
branched with 5-6% a-(l->6)-bonds (Buléon et al., 1998). The individual<br />
chains may vary between 10 <strong>and</strong> 100 glucose units (Manners, 1979). Since<br />
milled rice is 85 % starch, starch gelatinization is one of <strong>the</strong> most important<br />
factors affecting <strong>the</strong> texture <strong>and</strong> cooking time of <strong>the</strong> cooked products<br />
(Juliano <strong>and</strong> Perez, 1983). The gelatinization behaviour is remarkably influenced<br />
by <strong>the</strong> structure of <strong>the</strong> rice starch. In particular, very short (degree<br />
of polymerization DP < 12) amylopectin chains were negatively correlated<br />
Table 3.5<br />
Carbohydrate content in rice kernel<br />
Carbohydrate<br />
Amount<br />
(%, dry weight)<br />
References<br />
Starch 90.68 Yanai, 1979<br />
Amylose 29.46 Yanai, 1979<br />
Reducing sugar (g maltose/100 g rice) 0.12 Chrastil, 1990<br />
Non-reducing sugar (g sucrose/100 g rice) 0.26 Chrastil, 1990<br />
Total sugars 0.38 Chrastil, 1990<br />
Fibre 0.28 Moritaka, 1972<br />
I Woodhead Publishing Limited, <strong>2013</strong>
t *<br />
124 <strong>Cereal</strong> <strong>grains</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>food</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>beverage</strong> <strong>industries</strong><br />
with gelatinization onset (To), peak (Tp) <strong>and</strong> conclusion (Tc) temperatures<br />
of rice starches as measured by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC),<br />
whilst longer (12 < DP < 24) amylopectin chains had a positive correlation<br />
(Nakamura, 2002; Noda et al., 2003; V<strong>and</strong>eputte et al., 2003). Additionally,<br />
short amylopectin chains have a reduced tendency to <strong>for</strong>m double helices,<br />
a feature which may reduce <strong>the</strong> packing order within <strong>the</strong> crystalline structure<br />
(Gidley <strong>and</strong> Bulpin, 1987). Thus, starches with higher amounts of very<br />
short amylopectin chains will have lower molecular weight, a crystalline<br />
order <strong>and</strong> non-optimized packing within <strong>the</strong> crystalline lamellae. As a<br />
result, <strong>the</strong>y will most likely have a lower gelatinization temperature<br />
(V<strong>and</strong>eputte <strong>and</strong> Delcour, 2004). On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>, amylopectin, with <strong>the</strong><br />
chain length of 18-21 DP, is able to <strong>for</strong>m double helices, adequately filling<br />
<strong>the</strong> crystalline lamellae <strong>and</strong> thus increasing <strong>the</strong> gelatinization temperatures<br />
(V<strong>and</strong>eputte et al., 2003).<br />
In addition to amylose <strong>and</strong> amylopectin, starch granules contain small<br />
quantities of o<strong>the</strong>r minor components, such as proteins, lipids <strong>and</strong> minerals<br />
(phosphorus) which are ei<strong>the</strong>r at <strong>the</strong> surface or inside <strong>the</strong> granules. The<br />
lipid content ranges from 0.9-1.3 % (Azudin <strong>and</strong> Morrison, 1986) in nonwaxy<br />
rice starches (12.2-28.6 % amylose), while its content is negligible in<br />
waxy rice starches (1.0-2.3 % amylose) (Azudin <strong>and</strong> Morrison, 1986). Starch<br />
proteins are generally ei<strong>the</strong>r storage proteins that exist mainly as protein<br />
bodies (i.e. prolamin or gluteline) (Resurrección et al., 1993) or biosyn<strong>the</strong>tic<br />
or hydrolytic enzymes (Baldwin, 2001). The latter are probably entrapped<br />
within <strong>the</strong> starch granules during starch syn<strong>the</strong>sis (Denyer et al., 1995). In<br />
addition to lipids <strong>and</strong> proteins, phosphorus is an important non-carbohydrate<br />
component of rice starch. It is mainly 6-phosphoglucose phosphorus<br />
(0.003 % on dry basis) in <strong>the</strong> waxy rice starch granule, whereas it is mainly<br />
phospholipid phosphorus (0.048% on dry basis) in <strong>the</strong> non-waxy rice<br />
starches (Hizukuri et al., 1983; Jane et al., 1996). O<strong>the</strong>r mineral components<br />
of starch include Ca, K, Mg <strong>and</strong> Na in <strong>the</strong>ir ionic <strong>for</strong>m. Rice starch is widely<br />
used as a thickening, stabilizing or filling agent in many <strong>food</strong> applications;<br />
however, it is primarily consumed as part of cooked, whole-grain rice<br />
(James, 1983).<br />
1<br />
3.2,2 Dietary fibre<br />
Studies on comparative chemical composition of several cereal <strong>grains</strong> have<br />
shown that rice has <strong>the</strong> lowest fibre content (0.8%), followed by wheat<br />
(1%), millet (1.5%), corn (2.0%), rye (2.2%), barley (3.7%), sorghum<br />
(4.1%) <strong>and</strong> oats (5.6%) (Champagne et al., 2004). Moreover, <strong>the</strong> fibre<br />
content also varied within <strong>the</strong> rice varieties. Savitha <strong>and</strong> Singh (2011) estimated<br />
<strong>the</strong> fibre content of five different varieties of paddy (four pigmented<br />
<strong>and</strong> one non-pigmented) which had been shelled <strong>and</strong> milled in pre- <strong>and</strong><br />
post-parboiled <strong>for</strong>m. They observed that <strong>the</strong> dietary fibre contents were<br />
high in pigmented varieties compared to non-pigmented rice with a<br />
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, <strong>2013</strong>
Rice 125<br />
concentration of 9-10 g/100 g <strong>and</strong>, ~6 g/100 g, respectively. The distribution<br />
of fibre throughout <strong>the</strong> rice kernel is uneven, with <strong>the</strong> bran containing 70 %<br />
of <strong>the</strong> total dietary fibre followed by polish with 19 %, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> endosperm<br />
with 11% (Resurrection et ai, 1979). Polish is a by-product obtained by<br />
abrasive milling of rice. It is distinguished from <strong>the</strong> bran, since polish contains<br />
relatively more starchy endosperm (Resurrection et ah, 1979) than <strong>the</strong><br />
bran, which contains more of <strong>the</strong> pericarp, seed coat, nucellus, aleurone<br />
layer <strong>and</strong> germ. Dietary fibre represent almost 17-29 % (Abdul-Hamid <strong>and</strong><br />
Luan, 2000) of <strong>the</strong> rice bran (Champagne et al., 2004).<br />
Rice dietary fibre has been reported to have positive effects on human<br />
health (Abdul-Hamid <strong>and</strong> Luan, 2000). In this regard, Abdul-Hamid <strong>and</strong><br />
Luan (2000) studied <strong>the</strong> use of a dietary fibre preparation, derived from<br />
defatted rice bran, as a functional ingredient <strong>for</strong> bakery products. They<br />
fo<strong>und</strong> that dietary fibre from defatted rice bran had comparable waterbinding,<br />
a higher fat-binding <strong>and</strong> an increased emulsifying capacity, when<br />
compared to <strong>the</strong> commercial fibre from sugar beet which was used as<br />
control. Additionally, sensory evaluations revealed that <strong>the</strong> incorporation<br />
of 5 <strong>and</strong> 10% of rice bran into <strong>the</strong> bread was acceptable to <strong>the</strong> sensory<br />
panellists.<br />
3.3 O<strong>the</strong>r constituents of <strong>the</strong> rice kernel<br />
After starch, protein is quantitatively <strong>the</strong> major rice component. In addition,<br />
rice also contains a whole array of minor constituents, <strong>and</strong> some of<br />
<strong>the</strong>se, such as vitamins, minerals <strong>and</strong> phytochemicals, have a great impact<br />
on <strong>the</strong> functional properties of rice-based products.<br />
3.3.1 Protein<br />
Protein is <strong>the</strong> second most ab<strong>und</strong>ant component in rice, following starch. It<br />
ranges between 4.3 <strong>and</strong> 18.2 % with a mean of 9 % (Gomez, 1979; Kennedy<br />
<strong>and</strong> Burlingame, 2003). Its content (Gomez, 1979) was fo<strong>und</strong> to differ significantly<br />
from one variety to ano<strong>the</strong>r (Ch<strong>and</strong>rasekhar <strong>and</strong> Mulk, 1970;<br />
Gomez, 1979; Juliano <strong>and</strong> Villareal, 1993) ranging from 4.5 to 15.9 % in O.<br />
sativa varieties <strong>and</strong> 10.2-15.9 % in O. glaberrima varieties (Kennedy <strong>and</strong><br />
Burlingame, 2003). Environmental conditions (radiation, temperature) <strong>and</strong><br />
cultural practices (water management, weed control, time of harvest) have<br />
also been shown to greatly influence <strong>the</strong> protein content of <strong>the</strong> rice grain.<br />
Amongst <strong>the</strong> cultural practices, increasing plant space (low plant densities)<br />
is particularly effective in increasing <strong>the</strong> protein content of <strong>the</strong> rice grain,<br />
probably because more nitrogen is available per plant (De Datta et al.,<br />
1972). Nitrogen fertilization, particularly if applied during <strong>the</strong> reproductive<br />
stage, almost always increases <strong>the</strong> protein content of rice (De Datta et al.,<br />
1972).<br />
I Woodhead Publishing Limited, <strong>2013</strong>
126 <strong>Cereal</strong> <strong>grains</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>food</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>beverage</strong> <strong>industries</strong><br />
1<br />
Traditionally, cereal proteins are classified into albumin, globulin,<br />
prolamin <strong>and</strong> glutelin according to <strong>the</strong>ir solubility, as described by Osborne<br />
(1924). The outer tissues of <strong>the</strong> rice kernel are rich in albumin (66-98%)<br />
<strong>and</strong> globulin, whereas <strong>the</strong> starchy endosperm (milled rice) is richest in<br />
glutelin (Zhou et ai, 2002; Champagne et al., 2004). Prolamin is a minor<br />
constituent of all milling fractions of <strong>the</strong> rice grain (Shih, 2004). Indeed, in<br />
milled rice, <strong>the</strong> soluble fractions of rice protein are =9.7-14.2 % albumin<br />
(water-soluble proteins), 13.5-18.9% globulin (salt-soluble proteins),<br />
3.0-5.4% prolamin (alcohol-soluble proteins) <strong>and</strong> 63.8-73.4% glutelin<br />
(alkali-soluble proteins) (Zhou et al., 2002; Juliano, 2003).<br />
Although ‘Osborne fractionation’ is still widely used, it is more usual<br />
today to classify seed proteins into three groups: storage proteins, structural<br />
<strong>and</strong> metabolic proteins, <strong>and</strong> protective proteins. Seed storage proteins fall<br />
into three different Osborne fractions <strong>and</strong> occur in three different tissues<br />
of <strong>the</strong> grain (Shewry <strong>and</strong> Hal<strong>for</strong>d, 2002).<br />
The rice embryo contains globulin storage proteins, with sedimentation<br />
coefficients of about 7 (7S globulin). It is readily soluble in a dilute salt<br />
solution <strong>and</strong> appears to function solely as storage protein (Shewry <strong>and</strong><br />
Hal<strong>for</strong>d, 2002). Rice storage globulins of 11-12S are located in <strong>the</strong> starchy<br />
endosperm <strong>and</strong> account <strong>for</strong> about 70-80 % of <strong>the</strong> total protein. These rice<br />
proteins are not readily soluble in dilute salt solutions <strong>and</strong>, hence, are classically<br />
defined as glutelins, but <strong>the</strong>y clearly belong to <strong>the</strong> 11-12S globulin<br />
family (Shewry <strong>and</strong> Hal<strong>for</strong>d, 2002).<br />
Brown rice is generally regarded as having <strong>the</strong> lowest protein content<br />
among <strong>the</strong> common <strong>grains</strong>. However, <strong>the</strong> net protein utilization <strong>and</strong> digestible<br />
energy in rice are <strong>the</strong> highest amongst <strong>the</strong> common cereal <strong>grains</strong><br />
(Childs, 2004).<br />
Rice protein is unique amongst <strong>the</strong> cereal proteins as it is richest in<br />
glutelin <strong>and</strong> lowest in prolamin (Kaul <strong>and</strong> Raghaviah, 1975). The prolamin<br />
fraction is poorest in lysine but rich in sulphur amino acids. The generally<br />
high lysine content of rice protein is due to <strong>the</strong> low prolamin (high sulphur<br />
amino acids/low lysine fraction) content. Because of that, rice protein,<br />
toge<strong>the</strong>r with oat protein, has a higher lysine content (3.8 <strong>and</strong> 4.0 g/16 g of<br />
N, respectively) than <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r cereals such as wheat (2.3 g/16 g of N), corn<br />
(2.5 g/16 g of N), barley (3.2 g/16 g of N), sorghum (2.7 g/16 g of N), millet<br />
(2.7 g/16 g of N) <strong>and</strong> rye (3.7 g/16 g of N) (Childs, 2004). Rice proteins are<br />
also relatively rich in <strong>the</strong> essential amino acid methionine (Wang et al.,<br />
1978) (Table 3.6). However, despite <strong>the</strong> high lysine content in rice, this<br />
amino acid is still <strong>the</strong> first limiting essential amino acid in <strong>the</strong> crop (Alekaev,<br />
1976), based on <strong>the</strong> human requirements as estimated in <strong>the</strong> WHO (1973)<br />
amino acid pattern.<br />
Protein is a major factor in determining <strong>the</strong> texture, pasting capacity <strong>and</strong><br />
sensory characteristics of milled rice. Many studies fo<strong>und</strong> that protein plays<br />
a significant role in determining <strong>the</strong> functional properties of starch, includinrt<br />
tVip npiQtina fmd
Rice 127<br />
Table 3.6 Range of amino acid composition<br />
(g/16.8 g N) of brown rice <strong>and</strong> milled rice<br />
Amino acids Brown rice Milled rice<br />
Alanine 5.8 5.6-5.S<br />
Arginine 8.5-10.5 S.6-8.7<br />
Aspartic acid 9.0-9.5 9.1-9.6<br />
Cysteine 1.8- 2.6 1.9-2.1<br />
Glutamic acid 19.9-17.6 18.3-18.5<br />
Glycine 4.7-4.8 4.5^.8<br />
Histidine 2.4-2.6 2.3-2.7<br />
Isoleucine 3.6-4.6 3.7-4.S<br />
Leucine 8.3-S.9 8.4-S.6<br />
Lysine 3.9-4.3 3.4^.2<br />
Methionine 2.3-2.5 2.3-3.0<br />
Phenylalanine 5.0-5.3 5.3-5.5<br />
Proline 4.8-5.1 4.6-5.1<br />
Serine 4.8-S.8 5.3-5.9<br />
Threonine 3.9-4.0 3.7-3.9<br />
Tryptophan 1.3-1.5 1.3-1.8<br />
Tyrosine 3.S-4.6 4.4-5.5<br />
Valine 5.0-6.6 4.9-6.8<br />
Source'. Adapted from Shih (2004).<br />
crystallizing capacities of starch, <strong>and</strong> increasing <strong>the</strong> pasting temperature of<br />
<strong>the</strong> isolated rice starch (Shih, 2004). Additionally, high protein content in<br />
rice causes longer cooking time <strong>and</strong> firmer structure <strong>and</strong> is negatively correlated<br />
with reduced smoothness, stickiness, taste <strong>and</strong> overall palatability<br />
(Mutters <strong>and</strong> Thompson, 2009).<br />
3.3.2 Lipids<br />
Rice <strong>grains</strong> contain low levels of lipids (approximately 2.2 % of total grain<br />
weight) when compared to o<strong>the</strong>r cereals such as corn (4.9 %),barley (3.4 %),<br />
oats (5.9 %) sorghum (3.9 %) <strong>and</strong> millet (4.7 %) (Childs, 2004). Only wheat<br />
<strong>and</strong> rye showed a lower lipid content, having a concentration equal to 1.9<br />
<strong>and</strong> 1.5 % of total grain weight (data quoted at 14 % moisture), respectively<br />
(Childs, 2004). Fat distribution within <strong>the</strong> rice caryopsis is not uni<strong>for</strong>m with<br />
lipid being primarily concentrated in <strong>the</strong> bran fraction <strong>and</strong> in <strong>the</strong> embryo<br />
(Table 3.7) (Choudhury <strong>and</strong> Juliano, 1980; Godber <strong>and</strong> Juliano, 2004).<br />
Within <strong>the</strong> endosperm, lipids were unevenly distributed, with <strong>the</strong> lowest<br />
amount in <strong>the</strong> centre of <strong>the</strong> kernel <strong>and</strong> increasing progressively towards <strong>the</strong><br />
outer layer of <strong>the</strong> endosperm (Norm<strong>and</strong> et al., 1966). Linoleic acid is <strong>the</strong><br />
major fatty acid present in brown rice, at an average of 38%, followed in<br />
decreasing amounts by oleic (35 %), <strong>and</strong> palmitic acid (23%) (Table 3.7).<br />
T n r>/-\r»trocL iti t liA l-in ll rtl/air» Ckf*\A rp rirF ^ C A n tc t h p m a i n r f i i t t v nr*iH /"X n h lp ‘1\
“O<br />
^ 'o.<br />
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Rice 129<br />
In accordance with Mano et al. (1999), cereal lipids can be separated into<br />
neutral lipids, glycolipids <strong>and</strong> phospholipids. Neutral lipids, principally triglycerides,<br />
are evenly distributed amongst <strong>the</strong> different structural parts of<br />
<strong>the</strong> grain even though <strong>the</strong> highest proportion is localized to <strong>the</strong> bran <strong>and</strong><br />
in <strong>the</strong> embryo. Conversly, glycolipids <strong>and</strong> phospholipids are concentrated<br />
in <strong>the</strong> hulls <strong>and</strong> in <strong>the</strong> hulls/endosperm, respectively (Table 3.7).<br />
Based on cellular distribution <strong>and</strong> association, rice lipids can be classified<br />
into two basic fractions - non-starch lipids <strong>and</strong> starch lipids. Non-starch<br />
lipids are stored in oil droplets called spherosomes, about 0.1-1 pm in size<br />
(Bechtel <strong>and</strong> Pomeranz, 1978) <strong>and</strong> are distributed throughout <strong>the</strong> kernel<br />
(Choudhury <strong>and</strong> Juliano, 1980). Choudhury <strong>and</strong> Juliano (1980) fo<strong>und</strong> that<br />
<strong>the</strong> highest content of non-starch lipids in brown rice was concentrated in<br />
<strong>the</strong> bran (39-41 %) followed by polish (15-21 %), embryo (14-18%), subaleurone<br />
layer (12-14%) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> inner endosperm (12-19%). Starch<br />
lipids typically comprise 0.5-1 % of <strong>the</strong> milled rice <strong>and</strong> include those lipids<br />
(mainly monoacyl lipids, i.e. fatty acids <strong>and</strong> phospholipids) in complexes<br />
with amylose in <strong>the</strong> starch granules of <strong>the</strong> rice kernels. Their content differs<br />
between waxy <strong>and</strong> non-waxy varieties with <strong>the</strong> latter having more starch<br />
lipids <strong>and</strong> less non-starch lipids in brown <strong>and</strong> milled rice than <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>mer<br />
(Choudhury <strong>and</strong> Juliano, 1980). The predominant fatty acids in rice starch<br />
were linoleic (C18:2) <strong>and</strong> palmitic (C16:0) acids (Kitahara et al., 1997).<br />
The existence of starch-lipid complexes has several consequences. For<br />
example, complex development impacted on <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>mation of resistant<br />
starch (RS) (Kitahara et al., 1996, 1997) <strong>and</strong>, additionally, yields of RS<br />
(Mangala et al., 1999) were increased significantly by <strong>the</strong> removal of lipids<br />
from rice starch. Guraya et al. (1997) reported that <strong>the</strong> amylose-lipid<br />
complex <strong>for</strong>mation with long-chain saturated monoglycerides generally<br />
increases <strong>the</strong> resistance of <strong>the</strong> in vitro digestion over complexes with shorter<br />
chains or more unsaturated monoglycerides. This is due to <strong>the</strong> increase of<br />
<strong>the</strong> amylose-lipid structure stability. Amylose-lipid complexes also impact<br />
pasting behaviour by decreasing <strong>the</strong> water-solubility in rice pastes cooked<br />
<strong>for</strong> 30-90 min (Kaur <strong>and</strong> Singh, 2000) <strong>and</strong> increasing <strong>the</strong> pasting temperature<br />
<strong>and</strong> peak viscosity, as determined using a Brookfield viscometer. Tocopherols<br />
<strong>and</strong> tocotrienols, collectively called tocols or <strong>the</strong> vitamin E complex,<br />
is an important group of nutrients associated with rice lipids due to <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
non-polar solubility which will be discussed fur<strong>the</strong>r in <strong>the</strong> following section.<br />
3.3.3 Vitamins<br />
Vitamins are nutritional components produced by plants. <strong>Cereal</strong> <strong>grains</strong> are<br />
well known to be good sources of certain vitamins, particularly some of <strong>the</strong><br />
B-complex vitamins. The rice kernel contains little or no vitamin A, C or D.<br />
Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is prevalent among <strong>the</strong> poor in Asia, because<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir diets are totally dependent on rice, which does not contain vitamin A
130 <strong>Cereal</strong> <strong>grains</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>food</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>beverage</strong> <strong>industries</strong><br />
1<br />
í ' “<br />
Golden Rice (GR), is a new rice variety that has been genetically modified<br />
to contain p-carotene (Datta <strong>and</strong> Khush, 2002), a source of vitamin A<br />
in <strong>the</strong> endosperm of <strong>the</strong> rice grain, providing a new alternative intervention<br />
to combat VAD (Toenniessen, 2001). Nestlé (2001) report that <strong>the</strong> extent<br />
to which <strong>the</strong> p-carotene in GR can compensate <strong>for</strong> biological, cultural, <strong>and</strong><br />
dietary barriers is limited. Thus, it should be viewed as a complement to<br />
existing interventions (Dawe et al., 2002). To have greatest impact, GR<br />
varieties should be suited <strong>for</strong> widespread adoption in Asia <strong>and</strong> should<br />
deliver as much P-carotene as possible (Dawe et al., 2002).<br />
Vitamin Bj (thiamine) is distributed throughout <strong>the</strong> rice caryopsis. Wang<br />
et al. (1950) reported that vitamin Bi is mainly concentrated in <strong>the</strong> scutellum<br />
(more than 55 %) <strong>and</strong> this, along with <strong>the</strong> aleurone layer, accounts over<br />
80% of <strong>the</strong> vitamin B,. Similar findings were reported by Hinton (1948a)<br />
who identified <strong>the</strong> scutellum as <strong>the</strong> rice structure containing <strong>the</strong> highest<br />
amount of vitamin Bj with 47%, followed by <strong>the</strong> combined pericarp, seed<br />
coat, nucellus <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> aleurone layer with 34 %, <strong>the</strong> embryo with 11 %, <strong>and</strong><br />
finally, <strong>the</strong> endosperm with 8%. An overview of <strong>the</strong> vitamin content of<br />
brown rice is given in Table 3.8. Due to <strong>the</strong> practice of polishing <strong>the</strong> grain<br />
to remove <strong>the</strong> bran layer <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> germ, which contain <strong>the</strong> B-complex vitamins,<br />
persons who eat rice as <strong>the</strong>ir staple diet have developed a thiamine<br />
deficiency disease called beriberi. This syndrome has caused huge suffering<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Far East, particularly in earlier periods 1870-1910, <strong>and</strong> may originally<br />
have meant ‘great weakness’ (Carpenter, 2004). Characteristically, it includes<br />
symptoms of weight loss, emotional disturbances, impaired sensory perception,<br />
weakness <strong>and</strong> heart failure (Thomas, 2006). However, parboiling rough<br />
rice permits <strong>the</strong> water-soluble vitamins <strong>and</strong> mineral salts to spread through<br />
Table 3.8<br />
Minerals<br />
Mineral <strong>and</strong> vitamin composition of brown rice<br />
Vitamins (pg/g at 14 %<br />
moisture)<br />
Main (mg/g at 14 % moisture)<br />
Ca 0.1-0.5 Thiamin (Bi) 2.9-6.1<br />
K 0.6- 2.8 Riboflavin (B2) 0.4-1.4<br />
Mg 0.2- 1.5 Cyanocobalamin (B12) 0-0.004<br />
P 1.7-4.3 Pyridoxine (B^) 5-9<br />
S 0.3-1.9 Panto<strong>the</strong>nci acid 9-15<br />
Si 0.6-1.4 Biotin 0.04-0.10<br />
Minor (pg/g at 14 % moisture) Folic acid 0.1-0.5<br />
Na 17-340 Retinol (A) 0-011<br />
Cu 1-6 Vitamin E 9-25<br />
Fe 2-52 Niacin 35-53<br />
Mn 2-36<br />
Zn 6-28<br />
Cl 210-560<br />
Source: Data from Champagne et al. (2004).<br />
) Woodhead Publishing Limited, <strong>2013</strong>
Rice 131<br />
<strong>the</strong> endosperm <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> proteinaceous material to sink into <strong>the</strong> compact<br />
mass of gelatinized starch. This results in a smaller loss of vitamins, minerals<br />
<strong>and</strong> amino acids during <strong>the</strong> milling of parboiled <strong>grains</strong> (Mickus <strong>and</strong> Luh,<br />
1991), thus explaining why <strong>the</strong> consumption of parboiled rice was associated<br />
with immunity from beriberi (Bhattacharya, 2004).<br />
Rice bran oil contains about 0.1-0.14% vitamin E components <strong>and</strong><br />
0.9-2.9% oryzanol, with <strong>the</strong>ir concentrations varying substantially according<br />
to <strong>the</strong> origin of <strong>the</strong> rice bran (Lloyd et ai, 2000). Vitamin E was first<br />
discovered in 1922 as a micronutrient supporting fertility (Evans <strong>and</strong><br />
Bishop, 1922). For this reason, vitamin E was scientifically named tocopherol<br />
(Toe).The word ‘tocopherol’ comes from <strong>the</strong> Greek words tokos meaning<br />
childbirth, phero meaning to bring <strong>for</strong>th <strong>and</strong> ‘ol’ indicating <strong>the</strong> alcoholic<br />
properties of <strong>the</strong> molecule (Miyazawa et ai, 2011).Vitamin E is a generic<br />
term <strong>for</strong> a group that comprises four tocopherols <strong>and</strong> four tocotrienols (a,<br />
p, Y<strong>and</strong> 6), which differ only in <strong>the</strong> degree of saturation of <strong>the</strong>ir hydrophobic<br />
tails (Chaudhary <strong>and</strong> Khurana, 2009). Among <strong>the</strong>m, a-tocopherol has <strong>the</strong><br />
highest biological activity (Duvernay et ai, 2005) working as a chainbreaking<br />
antioxidant that prevents <strong>the</strong> propagation of free radical reactions<br />
(Becker et ai, 2004), thus ensuring inhibition of lipid peroxidation (Niki<br />
<strong>and</strong> Noguchi, 2004).<br />
Oryzanol is <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r antioxidant fo<strong>und</strong> in rice bran oil <strong>and</strong> represents<br />
a mixture of esters of ferulic acid with sterols <strong>and</strong> triterpene alcohols (Zigoneanu<br />
et al, 2008). Cycloartenol, |3-sitosterol, 24-methylene-cycloartanol<br />
<strong>and</strong> campesterol (4-desmethysterols) are <strong>the</strong> most prevalent oryzanol components<br />
fo<strong>und</strong> in <strong>the</strong> rice bran (Lloyd et al., 2000). Vitamin contents of <strong>the</strong><br />
rice caryopsis can be affected by cultural practice <strong>and</strong>/or grain processing.<br />
Taira et al. (1976) showed how ‘topdressing’ rice with nitrogen fertilizer at<br />
panicle initiation <strong>and</strong> again at full heading stage decreases <strong>the</strong> riboflavin<br />
content (B2) from 1.41-1.43 pg/g to 1.16-1.27 pg/g <strong>and</strong> increases <strong>the</strong> nicotinic<br />
acid content from 54.7-55.4 pg/g to 58.3-62.1 pg/g. In contrast, thiamine<br />
(Bi) <strong>and</strong> folic acid (B9) were not affected by nitrogen fertilization.<br />
Additionally, during <strong>the</strong> normal milling process extensive losses of vitamins<br />
have been reported. These losses include thiamin (Bi) by 68-82 %, riboflavin<br />
(B2) by 57 %, niacin (B3) by 64-79 %, biotin (H) by 86 %, panto<strong>the</strong>nic<br />
acid (B5) by 51-67 %, B^ by 43-86 %, folic acid (B9) by 60-67 %, vitamin E<br />
by 82 % (Luh, 1991b; Dexter, 1998).<br />
3.3.4 Minerals<br />
Rice mineral content ranges from 1.0-1.5 % (Childs, 2004), decreasing from<br />
<strong>the</strong> outer bran layers in to <strong>the</strong> endosperm (Itani et al, 2002; Lamberts et al,<br />
2007). The bran contains about 51 % of total amount of minerals, followed<br />
by 28 % in <strong>the</strong> milled rice fraction <strong>and</strong> 10 % each in <strong>the</strong> germ <strong>and</strong> polish<br />
(Childs, 2004). The most ab<strong>und</strong>ant macro-elements fo<strong>und</strong> in rice are P <strong>and</strong><br />
K, whilst Cl, Na <strong>and</strong> Zn are <strong>the</strong> primary micro-element representatives<br />
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, <strong>2013</strong>
132 <strong>Cereal</strong> <strong>grains</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>food</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>beverage</strong> <strong>industries</strong><br />
(Table 3.8). Phosphorus is <strong>the</strong> most important element in nutritional terms;<br />
however, in rice bran, a major proportion (90 %) of it exists as phytin phosphorus.<br />
Wang et al. (2011) examined phytic acid (PA) <strong>and</strong> six mineral elements,<br />
including; Mg, Ca, Mn, Fe, Zn <strong>and</strong> Se, in rice to reveal <strong>the</strong>ir distribution<br />
in <strong>the</strong> different fractions to investigate <strong>the</strong> effect of degree of milling<br />
(DOM) on <strong>the</strong> loss of <strong>the</strong>se constituents during <strong>the</strong> milling process. They<br />
fo<strong>und</strong> that most of <strong>the</strong> mineral elements <strong>and</strong> PA were present in <strong>the</strong> fractions<br />
of <strong>the</strong> outermost part (bran <strong>and</strong> outer endosperm fraction), whereas<br />
only small amounts are accumulated in <strong>the</strong> core endosperm fraction of <strong>the</strong><br />
rice kernels. Generally, <strong>the</strong> mineral content in rice followed <strong>the</strong> order Mg<br />
> Ca > Mn > Zn > Fe > Se. P, Mg, Ca, Mn <strong>and</strong> Fe are mainly located in <strong>the</strong><br />
outer layer of <strong>the</strong> rice kernel. In contrast, Zn <strong>and</strong> Se seem to be evenly<br />
distributed through <strong>the</strong> rice caryopsis (Wang et«/., 2011). Milling was shown<br />
to have a large effect on mineral element concentrations <strong>and</strong> using this<br />
technique to adjust <strong>the</strong> flour yield allows improvement of <strong>the</strong> elemental<br />
composition of rice flour (Wang et al., 2011). Antoine et al. (2012) analysed<br />
<strong>the</strong> mineral composition of 25 rice br<strong>and</strong>s available on <strong>the</strong> Jamaican market<br />
in addition to a local field trial sample. Brown rice was fo<strong>und</strong> to contain,<br />
on average, significantly greater concentrations of Cr, Cu, K, Mg, Mn, Na,<br />
P <strong>and</strong> Zn, in comparison with <strong>the</strong> white rice samples. White rice does not<br />
significantly contribute to mineral nutrition <strong>for</strong> most essential elements.<br />
3.3.5 Phytochemicals<br />
Phytochemicals are non-nutritive components present in a plant-based diet<br />
that exert protective or disease-preventing effects. Rice bran contains a<br />
significant amount of natural phytochemicals such as oryzanols, tocopherols<br />
<strong>and</strong> tocotrienols that have been reported as <strong>the</strong> strongest antioxidants in<br />
rice bran (Orthoefer <strong>and</strong> Eastman, 2004). Polyphenols in rice are also of<br />
particular interest due to <strong>the</strong>ir multiple biological activities. These phenolic<br />
compo<strong>und</strong>s, that include ferulic acid <strong>and</strong> diferulates, anthocyanins, anthocyanidins<br />
<strong>and</strong> polymeric proanthocyanidins (condensed tannins) (Chun et al.,<br />
2005), have a protective effect on cell constituents against oxidative damage.<br />
Additionally, epidemiological studies have shown that <strong>the</strong>y can prevent<br />
cancers, cardiovascular <strong>and</strong> nerve diseases (Kehrer, 1993), as well as<br />
possessing remarkable anti-inflammatory properties (Hou et al., 2012).<br />
However, some of <strong>the</strong>se bioactive components are heat labile <strong>and</strong> are often<br />
lost during <strong>the</strong> high heat processing treatments (Pascual et al., 2012).<br />
3.4 Rice processing<br />
Rice processing comprises parboiling, followed by <strong>the</strong> various stages in <strong>the</strong><br />
milling process. The complex processing steps are detailed in <strong>the</strong> following
3.4.2 Rice milling<br />
The objective of milling is to remove <strong>the</strong> rice hull, bran <strong>and</strong> germ, with<br />
minimum endosperm breakage (Owens, 2001). Each milling step is briefly<br />
described below.<br />
Rice 133<br />
3.4.1 Parboiling rice<br />
Parboiling paddy (or rough rice) is a hydro-<strong>the</strong>rmal treatment aimed at<br />
inducing milling, nutritional <strong>and</strong> organoleptic improvements in rice (Kar<br />
et al., 1999). It is an alternative method to prolong rice storage, reduce<br />
broken grain, increase head rice yield <strong>and</strong> reduce nutritional loss during<br />
<strong>the</strong> polishing process (Bhattacharya, 2004). The meaning of parboiled<br />
rice, as <strong>the</strong> name implies, is rice that has been partially boiled, i.e. cooked<br />
(Bhattacharya, 2004). Parboiled rice originated in ancient India <strong>and</strong>, nowadays,<br />
is applied to one-quarter of <strong>the</strong> world’s paddy produce (Kar et al.,<br />
1999). Industrially, this pre-cooking procedure consists of water <strong>and</strong> heat<br />
which are applied separately to avoid over-imbibition <strong>and</strong> bursting or<br />
deshaping of <strong>the</strong> rice caryopsis. In practice, <strong>the</strong> process consists of soaking<br />
rough rice in water until it is saturated, draining <strong>the</strong> excess of water <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>n steaming or o<strong>the</strong>rwise heating <strong>the</strong> grain to gelatinize <strong>the</strong> starch, with<br />
subsequent drying <strong>and</strong> packaging of <strong>the</strong> <strong>grains</strong> (Bhattacharya, 2004). Drying<br />
methods are <strong>the</strong> key factors influencing <strong>the</strong> milling quality of <strong>the</strong> rice (Bhattacharya<br />
<strong>and</strong> Indudhara Swamy, 1967). Several processes have been used<br />
to dry parboiled rice such as sun drying, hot air drying, vacuum drying <strong>and</strong><br />
superheated steam drying (Bhattacharya, 2004; Soponronarit et al, 2004;<br />
Taechapairoj et al., 2004).<br />
Parboiling rice is also an economical way to improve <strong>the</strong> storage stability<br />
(reduction of insect infestation) <strong>and</strong> significantly increase <strong>the</strong> nutritive<br />
value of <strong>the</strong> rice. In this regard, during <strong>the</strong> parboiling treatment, vitamins<br />
<strong>and</strong> minerals seep into <strong>the</strong> endosperm from <strong>the</strong>ir natural place of residence<br />
in <strong>the</strong> bran <strong>and</strong> aluerone layer. Thus, post-milling parboiled rice contains<br />
much greater amounts of B vitamins, minerals (especially Ca, P, <strong>and</strong> Fe),<br />
<strong>and</strong> free amino acids than raw rice (Bhattacharya, 2004). Additionally, <strong>the</strong><br />
loss of nutrients during washing is also greatly reduced. From a technological<br />
viewpoint, parboiled <strong>grains</strong> do not mash toge<strong>the</strong>r after cooking, thus<br />
remaining whole, <strong>and</strong> making rice suitable <strong>for</strong> making products which are<br />
canned, exp<strong>and</strong>ed or flaked.<br />
However, <strong>the</strong> parboiling of rough rice also has certain disadvantages. The<br />
rice husk represents a hurdle <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> entire parboiling process because it<br />
has a poor <strong>the</strong>rmal conductivity resulting in increased time <strong>and</strong> heat energy<br />
required <strong>for</strong> wetting <strong>and</strong> heating. Moreover, <strong>the</strong> husk is also a barrier during<br />
<strong>the</strong> drying operation after parboiling, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> final rice is more prone to<br />
oxidative rancidity. Kar et al. (1999) developed a method <strong>for</strong> parboiling<br />
dehusked rice, thus saving processing time, cooking energy <strong>and</strong> maintaining<br />
satisfactory sensory quality of <strong>the</strong> final product.
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134 <strong>Cereal</strong> <strong>grains</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>food</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>beverage</strong> <strong>industries</strong><br />
Precleaning/destoning<br />
Preliminary cleaning is <strong>the</strong> first step in advance of milling rice, <strong>and</strong> it is<br />
carried out to eliminate immature rough rice <strong>and</strong> unfilled <strong>grains</strong> from<br />
paddy, <strong>for</strong>eign <strong>grains</strong> as well as vegetable (weed seeds, straw, chaff), animal<br />
(rodent, excreta <strong>and</strong> hairs, insects <strong>and</strong> insect frass, mites) <strong>and</strong> mineral (mud,<br />
dust, stones, s<strong>and</strong>, metal objects, nails, nuts) impurities. The large light <strong>and</strong><br />
large heavy impurities are removed by a rotating screen, while <strong>the</strong> smaller<br />
ones are removed by an oscillating sieve. The small stones are removed by<br />
a destoner or gravity separator, in conjunction with air current aspiration,<br />
using <strong>the</strong> difference in density weight of rough rice <strong>and</strong> stones as <strong>the</strong> mechanism<br />
of separation. A permanent rotating <strong>and</strong> self-cleaning electromagnet<br />
is normally installed to trap iron or steel particles from <strong>the</strong> paddy (Bond,<br />
2004).<br />
Husking/husking aspiration<br />
Husk is not edible <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e must be removed from paddy. The husk<br />
is not tightly bo<strong>und</strong> to <strong>the</strong> kernel <strong>and</strong> so it is easily removed. Generally,<br />
rubber-roll hullers are used to dehull rough rice. This machine consists of<br />
two rubber-rolls of identical diameter, one rotating clockwise <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
second counter clockwise. One roll moves about 25 % faster than <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
Tlte difference in peripheral speeds subjects <strong>the</strong> paddy <strong>grains</strong>, which fall<br />
between <strong>the</strong> rolls, to a shearing action that strips off <strong>the</strong> husk (Wimberly,<br />
1983). The clearance between <strong>the</strong> two rolls is based on <strong>the</strong> length of <strong>the</strong><br />
grain (Bond, 2004). Payman et al. (2007) studied <strong>the</strong> factors that affect<br />
<strong>the</strong> operation of a rubber-roll hulling machine in an ef<strong>for</strong>t to decrease <strong>the</strong><br />
amount of rice breakage. They fo<strong>und</strong> that linear speed differences of rollers<br />
of 229.3 m min"' ensure <strong>the</strong> least rice breakage. However, o<strong>the</strong>r factors such<br />
as <strong>the</strong> rice variety <strong>and</strong> grain humidity influence <strong>the</strong> efficiency of <strong>the</strong> husking<br />
process. After <strong>the</strong> husking, <strong>the</strong> detached husk is removed using a double<br />
air-trap aspiration system, in which <strong>the</strong> hull is in part removed by aspiration<br />
as <strong>the</strong> grain passes over <strong>the</strong> coarse bran sieve <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> remaining hull is<br />
aspirated upwards by an air-trap system positioned above <strong>the</strong> rough rice<br />
separator (Bond, 2004).<br />
Paddy separation<br />
Tlte paddy must be separated be<strong>for</strong>e <strong>the</strong> brown rice goes to <strong>the</strong> bran<br />
removal stage (Wimberly, 1983). The separating machine separates <strong>the</strong><br />
product of <strong>the</strong> husking operation into three parts - brown rice, paddy <strong>and</strong><br />
a mixture of <strong>the</strong> two. Brown rice is fed to <strong>the</strong> whitening machine, paddy is<br />
sent back <strong>for</strong> husking <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> mixture is returned to <strong>the</strong> separator (Fouda,<br />
2011). Natural differences between <strong>the</strong> paddy <strong>and</strong> brown rice aid <strong>the</strong> paddy<br />
separation process, such as (i) <strong>the</strong> average weight of paddy by volume is<br />
less than that of brown rice; <strong>and</strong> (ii) <strong>the</strong> paddy <strong>grains</strong> are longer, wider <strong>and</strong><br />
thicker than those of brown rice. The paddy separator commonly used
Rice 135<br />
today is <strong>the</strong> tray type. It consists of several indented trays mounted one<br />
above <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r about 5 cm apart, clamped toge<strong>the</strong>r <strong>and</strong> attached to an<br />
oscillating frame. The assembly of trays has a double inclination. The table<br />
inclination is adjustable to meet different paddy varieties <strong>and</strong> conditions<br />
<strong>and</strong> to achieve maximum separation capacity. The tray section moves up<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong>ward, making a slight jumping movement. Paddy moves onto each<br />
tray from <strong>the</strong> highest corner of <strong>the</strong> double-inclined tray. As it moves across<br />
<strong>the</strong> tray downward towards <strong>the</strong> end of <strong>the</strong> tray opposite <strong>the</strong> feeding end,<br />
<strong>the</strong> brown rice separates from <strong>the</strong> paddy. The brown rice has a smoo<strong>the</strong>r<br />
surface <strong>and</strong> a greater bulk density <strong>and</strong> moves to <strong>the</strong> top of <strong>the</strong> tray (highest<br />
corner) where it is conveyed to <strong>the</strong> polishers. The paddy moves to <strong>the</strong> lower<br />
part of <strong>the</strong> tray (lowest corner) where it is conveyed back to <strong>the</strong> husker.<br />
Some of <strong>the</strong> unseparated paddy moves to <strong>the</strong> centre of <strong>the</strong> tray where it is<br />
returned to <strong>the</strong> inlet of <strong>the</strong> separator.<br />
Whitening (bran removal)<br />
In this process, bran - which is tightly attached to brown rice - is removed<br />
from <strong>the</strong> rice kernel. There<strong>for</strong>e, during this process rice kernels are subject<br />
to intensive mechanical <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>rmal stress which causes some rice kernel<br />
damage <strong>and</strong> breakage. The most common whitening machines, <strong>the</strong> abrasivetype<br />
whitener <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> friction-type whitener, use <strong>the</strong> abrasive <strong>and</strong> friction<br />
process <strong>for</strong> bran removal, as <strong>the</strong> equipment names suggest. The abrasion<br />
process uses a coarse surface to break <strong>and</strong> peel <strong>the</strong> bran off <strong>the</strong> rice grain.<br />
The friction process uses <strong>the</strong> friction between <strong>the</strong> <strong>grains</strong> <strong>the</strong>mselves to<br />
break <strong>and</strong> peel off <strong>the</strong> bran (Wimberly, 1983).<br />
Polishing<br />
The aim of <strong>the</strong> polishing step is to remove <strong>the</strong> loose bran which, even after<br />
<strong>the</strong> whitening process, still adheres to <strong>the</strong> surface of <strong>the</strong> milled rice. There<br />
is a rubber polisher that polishes <strong>the</strong> whitened rice using a rubber brush;<br />
however, <strong>the</strong> friction-type whitener is sometimes used as a polisher. Generally,<br />
<strong>the</strong> polishing machine has a cone shape that is covered with lea<strong>the</strong>r<br />
strips, which gently brush <strong>the</strong> grain as it passes through <strong>the</strong> machine which<br />
operates at a lower rpm. The lea<strong>the</strong>r strips roll <strong>the</strong> whitened rice over <strong>and</strong><br />
over against <strong>the</strong> screen. Under slight pressure, <strong>the</strong> remaining bran is<br />
removed from <strong>the</strong> milled rice passing through <strong>the</strong>se screens <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> rice<br />
becomes shinier <strong>and</strong> glossier (Wimberly, 1983; Bond, 2004).<br />
Grading<br />
After <strong>the</strong> whitening operation, <strong>the</strong> unbroken rice is still mixed with different<br />
sized broken rice pieces, bran <strong>and</strong> dust. Bran <strong>and</strong> dust particles are<br />
separated by air aspiration, while <strong>the</strong> small broken rice <strong>and</strong> germs are separated<br />
by a vibrating sieve or rotary cylinders called trieurs. The latter is<br />
mainly composed of a slowly indented rotating cylinder that is installed at<br />
a slight incline. Each indent has <strong>the</strong> ability to catch <strong>grains</strong> or grain particles.<br />
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, <strong>2013</strong>
136 <strong>Cereal</strong> <strong>grains</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>food</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>beverage</strong> <strong>industries</strong><br />
which are <strong>the</strong>n lifted from <strong>the</strong> grain mass <strong>and</strong> discharged by gravity when<br />
<strong>the</strong> indent cannot hold <strong>the</strong> grain any longer (Wimberly, 1983; Bond, 2004).<br />
Milling<br />
Three methods, namely wet, dry <strong>and</strong> semi-dry milling, have been used to<br />
grind polished rice kernels or brokens into flour (Chiang <strong>and</strong> Yeh, 2002).<br />
Wet grinding is a traditional process used to prepare rice flour <strong>and</strong> includes<br />
five successive steps: soaking, adding excess water during grinding, filtering,<br />
drying <strong>and</strong> sieving. This process comprises <strong>the</strong> use of several machines <strong>and</strong><br />
much manpower. Additionally, this process is known to have significant<br />
flour loss <strong>and</strong> high energy consumption (Yeh, 2004). Dry grinding does<br />
not use water (no waste water generation) <strong>and</strong> is characterized by its<br />
limited consumption of energy. Herein, <strong>the</strong> rice kernel is gro<strong>und</strong> with dry<br />
grinding machinery such as a hammer mill, pin mill, roller mill or disc mill,<br />
etc. Never<strong>the</strong>less, many <strong>food</strong> items made of dry gro<strong>und</strong> flour (<strong>for</strong> instance,<br />
noodles) have inadequate rheological properties <strong>for</strong> many consumer uses<br />
(Yeh, 2004).<br />
In <strong>the</strong> semi-dry grinding methods, <strong>the</strong> properties of flour are intermediate<br />
to those of both dry <strong>and</strong> wet gro<strong>und</strong> flour from <strong>the</strong> perspectives<br />
of particle size, viscosity, damaged starch, etc. (Ngamnikom <strong>and</strong><br />
Songsermpong, 2011). The semi-dry grinding process is characterized by<br />
three consecutive steps: soaking, drying to remove excess water (15-17 %<br />
wet basis) <strong>and</strong> grinding with dry grinding machinery (Yeh, 2004). Never<strong>the</strong>less,<br />
<strong>the</strong> semi-dry method has some disadvantages, such as <strong>the</strong> longer time<br />
required to adjust <strong>the</strong> rice kernel moisture content, <strong>the</strong> high energy consumption<br />
needed <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> drying step, <strong>the</strong> excessive consumption of water<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> generation of waste water. Generally, wet-milled flour is superior<br />
to dry-milled flour <strong>for</strong> making traditional baked products (Bean et ai, 1983)<br />
<strong>and</strong> Thai rice-based snack <strong>food</strong> (Jomduang <strong>and</strong> Mohamed, 1994). The superior<br />
quality of wet-milled flour is mainly due to its low proportion of<br />
damaged starch <strong>and</strong> finest relative particle size (Chen et al., 1999).<br />
Ngamnikom <strong>and</strong> Songsermpong (2011) investigated <strong>the</strong> per<strong>for</strong>mance of<br />
a new grinding process, which includes freezing rice with liquid nitrogen<br />
prior to dry grinding. In terms of damaged starch content, average particle<br />
size, particle size distribution, microscopic structures <strong>and</strong> energy consumption,<br />
<strong>the</strong>y fo<strong>und</strong> that <strong>the</strong> freeze grinding resulted in (i) reduced particle size<br />
<strong>and</strong> damaged starch content due to <strong>the</strong> extremely low temperature of <strong>the</strong><br />
sample prior to grinding, <strong>and</strong> (ii) a smaller flour particle size than from dry<br />
grinding resulting in a greater yield after sieving. Moreover, freeze grinding<br />
produced a higher flour yield after sieving in comparison with dry grinding<br />
using an identical grinder. Finally, <strong>the</strong> energy consumption of freeze grinding<br />
was similar to dry grinding <strong>and</strong> much lower than that detected <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
wet grinding process. Consequently, <strong>the</strong> authors conclude that <strong>the</strong> freeze<br />
grinding process was a viable alternative to <strong>the</strong> traditional wet grinding
3.5.1 Bakery products from rice<br />
The production of bakery products based on rice presents several technological<br />
problems, when compared to <strong>the</strong>ir wheat counterparts, due to<br />
<strong>the</strong> absence of gluten protein which gives <strong>the</strong> wheat its unique ability to<br />
<strong>for</strong>m highly exp<strong>and</strong>ed, tender, white <strong>and</strong> flavoursome yeast leavened or<br />
chemicallv leavened baked nrodiirt« IM aty 1 OQfSl Tn a dnnoh svctem <strong>the</strong><br />
3.5 Food <strong>and</strong> <strong>beverage</strong> applications of rice<br />
Rice 137<br />
Rice consumption falls into <strong>the</strong> following three categories: direct <strong>food</strong> use,<br />
processed <strong>food</strong>s use <strong>and</strong> brewer’s use. After hulling, brown rice can be<br />
processed in different ways. It can be (i) decorticated by abrasion ‘milling’<br />
to obtain white polished rice, (ii) parboiled, thus retaining more original<br />
minerals <strong>and</strong> vitamin Bj compared with polished white rice, or (iii) not<br />
decorticated <strong>and</strong> consumed as brown rice. However, parboiled rice <strong>and</strong><br />
brown rice are generally not as appreciated because of <strong>the</strong>ir darker colour<br />
compared to white polished rice. Polished rice may also be gro<strong>und</strong> into a<br />
powder (flour), which enters <strong>the</strong> <strong>food</strong> industry in <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>m of cakes, noodles,<br />
baked products, puddings, snack <strong>food</strong>s, infant <strong>for</strong>mulas, fermented goods<br />
<strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r industrial products (Kiple <strong>and</strong> Ornelas, 2000).<br />
Cooking of all types of rice is per<strong>for</strong>med by applying heat (boiling or<br />
steaming) to soaked rice until <strong>the</strong> starch <strong>grains</strong> are fully gelatinized <strong>and</strong><br />
excess water is expelled from <strong>the</strong> cooked product. Cooked rice can be used<br />
<strong>for</strong> making porridge (thick gruel) or congee (thin soup), or lightly fried in<br />
oil to make fried rice.<br />
Rice, which is low in sodium, fat <strong>and</strong> cholesterol-free, serves as an aid in<br />
treating hypertension. It is also free from allergens <strong>and</strong> now widely used in<br />
baby <strong>food</strong>s (James <strong>and</strong> McCaskill, 1983). Rice starch can also serve as a<br />
substitute <strong>for</strong> glucose in oral rehydration solution <strong>for</strong> infants suffering from<br />
diarrhoea (Childs, 2004).<br />
Ei<strong>the</strong>r uncooked or fully cooked, rice combines well with protein-rich<br />
<strong>food</strong>s such as meat, poultry, fish, cheese <strong>and</strong> eggs <strong>for</strong> two reasons. Firstly,<br />
rice is bl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> thus serves to carry <strong>the</strong> flavour of <strong>the</strong> mixed ingredients.<br />
Secondly, from a dietary perspective, rice is low in protein <strong>and</strong> thus mixtures<br />
with protein-rich <strong>food</strong>s provide additional nutritional dimensions to rice<br />
<strong>food</strong>s. Rice can be lightly fried be<strong>for</strong>e boiling (Middle East), combined with<br />
salt, butter or margarine after soaking (Americans) or cooked in extra<br />
water to produce porridge (thick gruel) or congee (thin soup) (China,<br />
Korea <strong>and</strong> Japan). Rice can also be cooked with curries (in India <strong>and</strong><br />
Malaysia), sauces (in <strong>the</strong> Philippines) or with combinations of various ingredients,<br />
including pork, shrimp, chicken <strong>and</strong> vegetables (in China) (Boesch,<br />
1967). Detailed methods <strong>and</strong> recipes <strong>for</strong> rice <strong>food</strong> preparations were<br />
described by Luh (1999), Owen (1993), Jeffrey <strong>and</strong> Duguid (1998) <strong>and</strong> Luh<br />
(1991b).
3.5.2 Cakes<br />
Rice cakes are made in many cultures <strong>and</strong> have a wide range of processing<br />
— ^ ^ r»-»«f* r-f-i, TUo rinp paVp nn tn 1«? rnn
Rice 139<br />
as a breakfast, dessert or snack <strong>food</strong>. The product is made from rice that is<br />
soaked overnight, gro<strong>und</strong> <strong>and</strong> mixed with sugar <strong>and</strong> coconut milk. The<br />
resulting batter is <strong>the</strong>n fermented <strong>for</strong> several hours, during which time<br />
acidification <strong>and</strong> leavening occur. The fermented batter is steamed <strong>for</strong><br />
approximately 30 min be<strong>for</strong>e serving (Kelly et al, 1995). Idli cakes are a<br />
very popular fermented <strong>food</strong> consumed in <strong>the</strong> Indian subcontinent (Ghosh<br />
<strong>and</strong> Chattopadhyay, 2011). Eaten at breakfast in South India <strong>and</strong> Sri Lanka,<br />
in combination with coconut chutney <strong>and</strong> sambar (stew of tamarind <strong>and</strong><br />
pigeon pea) (Nout, 2009), <strong>the</strong>y are small, white, acidic, leavened <strong>and</strong> steamcooked<br />
cakes which are <strong>the</strong> product of a lactic fermented thick batter made<br />
from polished rice <strong>and</strong> dehulled black gram dhal, a pulse. The fermentation<br />
of idli is natural; no back-slopping technique is used, although <strong>the</strong> use of<br />
<strong>the</strong> same vessels <strong>and</strong> utensils may help to stabilize a mixed LAB microflora<br />
(Nout, 2009). The cakes are soft, moist <strong>and</strong> spongy with a desirable sour<br />
flavour (Steinkraus, 1983). It has also been reported that during fermentation,<br />
vitamins B <strong>and</strong> C increase, <strong>and</strong> also phytate is hydrolysed almost to<br />
50% of its original content (Ghosh <strong>and</strong> Chattopadhyay, 2011).<br />
MiGao is a kind of steam cooked Chinese cake obtained from rice flour<br />
<strong>and</strong> sticky rice flour (in <strong>the</strong> ratio of 2:3) by steaming in a bamboo steamer.<br />
It is famous <strong>for</strong> its soft <strong>and</strong> sticky texture <strong>and</strong> it is habitually served as a<br />
dessert. Traditionally, <strong>the</strong>se products are packaged in polyethylene bags<br />
after steaming <strong>and</strong> cooling (Ji et al., 2007b). It has a short shelf-life (two<br />
days) <strong>and</strong> loses its softness, quickly becoming stale <strong>and</strong> hard (Ji et al.,<br />
2007b). Ji et al. (2007a) investigated <strong>the</strong> evolution of Enterobactericeae,<br />
LAB, Gram-positive, catalase-positive cocci. Staphylococcus aureus. Bacillus<br />
strains, yeasts <strong>and</strong> moulds in MiGao during its shelf-life in order to select<br />
<strong>the</strong> most suitable strains as starter or protective cultures. During <strong>the</strong> first<br />
two days, <strong>the</strong>y fo<strong>und</strong> that Gram-positive bacteria were dominant, mainly<br />
represented by S. epidermidis <strong>and</strong> S. aureus. Bacillus (mainly Bacillus brevis)<br />
strains occurred by <strong>the</strong> third day, reaching a maximum level of 1 x 10'’ CLU/g<br />
after five days of storage. No Enterobactericeae or LAB were detected in<br />
<strong>the</strong> processed products throughout <strong>the</strong> storage period. The count of yeasts<br />
<strong>and</strong> moulds increased slowly but remained low throughout <strong>the</strong> storage<br />
period. The amount <strong>and</strong> type of <strong>food</strong>borne pathogens <strong>and</strong> <strong>food</strong> spoilage<br />
microorganisms identified in this product was extensive. In order to improve<br />
<strong>the</strong> microbial safety of this traditional Chinese steamed cake, several preservative<br />
strategies, such us combined pH, temperature <strong>and</strong> natural preservatives,<br />
should be developed (Ji et al., 2007a).<br />
Mochi, a kind of glutinous rice (waxy or sweet rice) cake, is particularly<br />
common in Oriental areas such as Taiwan, China <strong>and</strong> Japan <strong>and</strong> is a special<br />
rice cake <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> celebration of <strong>the</strong> Chinese Lunar New Year. It consists of<br />
high moisture, soft <strong>and</strong> slightly sticky dough served as a dessert. Conventionally,<br />
glutinous rice is washed, cooked with water <strong>and</strong> po<strong>und</strong>ed right after<br />
cooking to ensure loss of <strong>the</strong> rice kernel integrity <strong>and</strong> allow <strong>for</strong>mation of<br />
tbp. V15Pn-Plactic* mivtlirp 5inrí Vpb flo^rr\iir
140 <strong>Cereal</strong> <strong>grains</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>food</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>beverage</strong> <strong>industries</strong><br />
is sometimes sweetened with sugar or enriched with lard <strong>and</strong> cinnamon<br />
flour. There are many o<strong>the</strong>r types of rice cakes made in Asia. For example,<br />
biko, cuchinta (or kutsinta), suman <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r rice cakes are made in <strong>the</strong><br />
Philippines.<br />
3.5.3 Rice breakfast cereals<br />
Rice breakfast cereals can be classified into hot cereals - those <strong>the</strong> need to<br />
be cooked or mixed with hot water be<strong>for</strong>e serving such as instant rice gruel,<br />
<strong>and</strong> granular products such as cream of rice, <strong>and</strong> ready-to-eat (RTF) breakfast<br />
cereals - those that can be eaten directly from <strong>the</strong> package such as<br />
gun-puffed rice cereals, oven-puffed rice cereals, extruded-puffed rice <strong>and</strong><br />
shredded rice cereal (Luh, 1991a; Yeh, 2004). The shelf-life of RTE rice<br />
breakfast cereals is expected to be 12 months at 20 °C. However, suboptimal<br />
conditions may lead to a decreased shelf-life, <strong>and</strong> shelf-life depends on<br />
parameters, such as packaging material, sealing <strong>and</strong> storage, which should<br />
be adequate to avoid a loss of crispness <strong>and</strong> flavour, <strong>and</strong> to prevent water<br />
uptake by hygroscopic products or hydrolytic rancidity due to oxidative<br />
deterioration (Luh, 1991a).<br />
3.5.4 Rice crackers<br />
Rice crackers are popular in China, Japan <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r Asian countries. They<br />
are made from rice cakes using glutinous or non-glutinous rice as <strong>the</strong><br />
primary ingredient. After being washed <strong>and</strong> soaked in water <strong>for</strong> a couple<br />
of hours, rice is steamed in a steamer. When <strong>the</strong> steamed rice is kneaded,<br />
<strong>the</strong> resulting rice dough material has a homogeneous viscosity. After cooling,<br />
rice dough is shaped into <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>m of <strong>the</strong> final product with a cutting<br />
machine or punching tool. These pellets are <strong>the</strong>n dried thoroughly (moisture<br />
content drops to 10 %) <strong>and</strong> are <strong>the</strong>n baked in an oven at a temperature<br />
ranging from 200 to 260 °C. Thereafter, <strong>the</strong> exp<strong>and</strong>ed final product has a<br />
moisture content of 3-5 % (Koizumi <strong>and</strong> Kamedamachi, 1975; Lu, 2004).<br />
3.5,5 Noodles<br />
Rice noodles, in various contents, <strong>for</strong>mulations <strong>and</strong> shapes, are one of <strong>the</strong><br />
principal <strong>for</strong>ms of rice products consumed in Sou<strong>the</strong>ast Asia since ancient<br />
times (Yeh, 2004). To prepare <strong>for</strong> consumption, <strong>the</strong> noodles may ei<strong>the</strong>r be<br />
stir-fried by mixing with meats <strong>and</strong> vegetables, or boiled in a broth <strong>and</strong><br />
served as a soup noodle. Due to <strong>the</strong> absence of gluten, rice proteins are<br />
unable to <strong>for</strong>m continuous visco-elastic dough; thus it is common to subject<br />
part of <strong>the</strong> rice flour to pre-gelatinization to create a binder <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> remaining<br />
flour. Depending on <strong>the</strong> production process, rice noodles can be made<br />
by sheeting a batter, which is used to produce sheets <strong>and</strong> flat noodles, or by<br />
extrusion, which is used to produce vermicelli types. For <strong>the</strong> production of<br />
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, <strong>2013</strong>
Rice 141<br />
sheeted rice noodles, particularly popular in most parts of Sou<strong>the</strong>ast Asia,<br />
sou<strong>the</strong>rn China <strong>and</strong> Japan, a wet-milled rice batter is layered onto a rotating<br />
heated drum <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>med sheet is stripped off <strong>and</strong> conveyed to a steaming<br />
tunnel where <strong>the</strong> gelatinization process takes place. The noodles can be<br />
<strong>the</strong>n cut into 1 cm wide strips to make fresh rice ribbon noodles or dried<br />
be<strong>for</strong>e sale.<br />
In rice vermicelli noodle production, milled rice is filtered, pulverized<br />
<strong>and</strong> moulded into balls that are precooked in boiling water <strong>for</strong> about 20 min<br />
or steamed to allow surface gelatinization. The partially cooked rice balls<br />
are <strong>the</strong>n kneaded to evenly distribute <strong>the</strong> gelatinized rice throughout <strong>the</strong><br />
dough where it will function as a binder. The kneaded dough is extruded<br />
through a die.The extruded noodles are <strong>the</strong>n fur<strong>the</strong>r steamed <strong>for</strong> 10-15 min,<br />
followed by a washing step <strong>und</strong>er running water, <strong>and</strong> finally are dried in<br />
trays. Alternatively, <strong>the</strong> extruded noodles are partially cooked in boiling<br />
water <strong>and</strong> cooled in cold water. The noodles are <strong>the</strong>n subject to <strong>the</strong> drying<br />
(Fu, 2008). Good-quality noodles can generally be recognized by <strong>the</strong> brightness<br />
of <strong>the</strong>ir colour, retarded discoloration, reduced microbial <strong>and</strong> chemical<br />
(rancidity) deterioration <strong>and</strong> appropriate flavour <strong>and</strong> textural characteristics<br />
which will vary according to <strong>the</strong> noodle type <strong>and</strong> region.<br />
3.5.6 Germinated brown rice<br />
Germinated brown rice, produced by soaking brown rice <strong>grains</strong> in water<br />
until <strong>the</strong>y begin to sprout (Komatsuzaki et ai, 2007), is becoming popular<br />
in Japan <strong>and</strong> Korea as an alternative to brown rice with improved texture.<br />
The germination process involves a déstructuration of starch, fibres<br />
<strong>and</strong> proteins, resulting in generating physiologically active intermediates<br />
(Palmiano <strong>and</strong> Juliano, 1972; Komatsuzaki etal., 2007), such as y-aminobutyric<br />
acid (GABA) (Moongngarm <strong>and</strong> Saetung, 2010), <strong>and</strong> in an improvement<br />
of flavour, digestibility <strong>and</strong> organoleptic <strong>and</strong> nutritional quality (Hunt et al.,<br />
2002; Tian et al., 2004; Chung et al., 2012b). There<strong>for</strong>e, germinated brown<br />
rice has been suggested to be utilized as a healthy ingredient in a variety<br />
of <strong>food</strong>s. In <strong>the</strong> study conducted by Chung et al. (2012a), germinated brown<br />
rice was tested as a partial replacement of wheat flour in noodle-making,<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> effect of heat-moisture treatment of germinated brown rice on <strong>the</strong><br />
texture <strong>and</strong> cooking quality of <strong>the</strong> noodles was investigated. They fo<strong>und</strong><br />
that replacement of germinated brown rice flour with wheat flour significantly<br />
degrades <strong>the</strong> cooking <strong>and</strong> textural quality of cooked noodles, resulting<br />
in increased cooking loss <strong>and</strong> softness. However, noodles made from<br />
<strong>the</strong> flour containing heat-moisture treated germinated brown rice showed<br />
substantially improved cooking <strong>and</strong> textural qualities comparable to <strong>the</strong><br />
control wheat noodle. Consequently, treated germinated brown rice can be<br />
successfully used as a replacement of wheat flour <strong>for</strong> noodle-making with<br />
additional health-promoting <strong>and</strong> nutritive values. Never<strong>the</strong>less, heatmoisture<br />
treatment normally induces darkening <strong>and</strong> flavour modification<br />
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142 <strong>Cereal</strong> <strong>grains</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>food</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>beverage</strong> <strong>industries</strong><br />
due to <strong>the</strong> Maillard reaction, which should be carefully considered <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
use of treated germinated brown rice.<br />
3.5.7 Infant <strong>food</strong>s<br />
Although baby <strong>food</strong>s can be in <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>m of rice flour, waxy rice flour, parboiled<br />
rice, rice polishing, rice oil or granulated rice, generally precooked<br />
milled rice is a dominant carbohydrate source to wean infants up to one<br />
year of age. This is due to its tastelessness, low allergen potential <strong>and</strong> nutritional<br />
value, including its lack of potentially allergenic gluten (Mennella<br />
et al., 2006; Meharg et al., 2008b). Tlie latter trait is particularly important<br />
<strong>for</strong> infants with coeliac disease (Meharg et al., 2008a, b). The key to making<br />
this type of cereal is ensuring <strong>the</strong> ease of reconstitution with milk or<br />
<strong>for</strong>mula in a homogeneous manner. The process to produce precooked rice<br />
essentially consists of preparing a cooked rice slurry which is <strong>the</strong>n dried<br />
on a double-drum atmospheric dryer, flaked <strong>and</strong> subsequently packaged<br />
(Kelly, 1985).<br />
Recently, several studies have shown that rice <strong>and</strong> rice-based infant<br />
products contain elevated contents of both total <strong>and</strong> inorganic arsenic<br />
(Meharg et al., 2008b; Ljung et al., 2011). These elements are known to<br />
increase infant morbidity <strong>and</strong> mortality. Moreover, Wang et al. (2012) isolated<br />
S. aureus in infant rice cereal sold in <strong>the</strong> Shaanxi province in China,<br />
<strong>and</strong> many S. aureus isolates exhibited resistance to different antimicrobials<br />
<strong>and</strong> show expression of various toxin genes. Additionally, Richards et al.<br />
(2005) demonstrated that reconstituted infant rice cereal can support luxuriant<br />
growth of Enterobacter sakazakii, a pathogenic microorganism known<br />
to cause illness in preterm neonates, infants <strong>and</strong> children from three days<br />
to four years of age. For this reason, reconstituted cereal that is not immediately<br />
consumed should be discarded or stored at lower temperatures to<br />
inhibit E. sakazakii, <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>food</strong>borne pathogen, growth.<br />
3.5.8 Canned rice<br />
For consumer convenience, canned rice is produced in Japan, Korea, <strong>the</strong><br />
USA <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r countries. Two types of canned rice are produced today.<br />
After precooking, canned rice is sold by wet pack, which is defined as a<br />
product with an excess of liquid, such as soup, <strong>and</strong> dry pack, which is defined<br />
as a product with free <strong>and</strong> separate <strong>grains</strong> without unbo<strong>und</strong> or excess moisture.<br />
The major problem that afflicts <strong>the</strong>se products is <strong>the</strong> change of <strong>the</strong> rice<br />
grain textural properties during storage. This is due to complete breakdown<br />
of <strong>the</strong> kernels <strong>and</strong>/or <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>mation of rice clumps <strong>and</strong> development of<br />
unpleasant mouthfeel. The use of parboiled rice helps prevents <strong>the</strong> disintegration<br />
of <strong>the</strong> rice kernel (Demon! <strong>and</strong> Burns, 1968). Azanza (2003) developed<br />
a <strong>the</strong>rmally processed rice-based product <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> Philippine military.<br />
f o<br />
r QKK
Sake<br />
In Japan, <strong>the</strong> use of rice <strong>for</strong> brewing sake (Japanese rice wine) ranks second<br />
only in importance to its primary use as <strong>food</strong>. It is not produced by a conventional<br />
beer brewing process, but <strong>the</strong>re are several similarities between<br />
beer <strong>and</strong> sake (Hardwick, 1995). Sake is made from steamed rice by a<br />
double fermentation process involving koji {A. oryzae) <strong>and</strong> yeast (S. cerevisiae)<br />
(Kamara et al., 2009). The first step in sake brewing is polishing of rice.<br />
This process, as previously described, involves <strong>the</strong> abrasive removal of<br />
<strong>the</strong> protein, lipids <strong>and</strong> minerals mainly localized in <strong>the</strong> germ <strong>and</strong> in <strong>the</strong><br />
outer part of <strong>the</strong> rice kernel. Then <strong>the</strong> milled rice is washed, steeped in<br />
water <strong>and</strong> steamed <strong>for</strong> 30-60 min lYoshizawa <strong>and</strong> Opawa. 19851. The first<br />
Rice 143<br />
accepted by <strong>the</strong> panellists <strong>and</strong> was adopted as military <strong>food</strong> ration, particularly<br />
suitable in areas with minimum or absent kitchen facilities.<br />
3.5.9 Vinegar<br />
Rice vinegar is an ancient <strong>and</strong> common product in <strong>the</strong> Far East. It is made<br />
by a series of microbial processes which take one to three months<br />
<strong>and</strong>, unlike o<strong>the</strong>r types of fermentation, three microbiological processes<br />
are known to occur simultaneously or sequentially <strong>and</strong> proceed in a single<br />
pot (so-called triple fermentation). These fermentations include saccharification<br />
of <strong>the</strong> gelatinized rice starch using an inoculums of rice koji (mouldy<br />
steamed rice grain populated by <strong>the</strong> genera Aspergillus) (Hesseltine, 1965;<br />
Steinkraus, 1996), alcohol fermentation of <strong>the</strong> sugar released with<br />
Saccharomyces sake <strong>and</strong>, finally, <strong>the</strong> acetic acid fermentation (oxidation of<br />
ethanol to acetic acid) using unfiltered fresh vinegars from a previous<br />
batch as inoculum to provide <strong>the</strong> necessary microorganisms <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> acetic<br />
acid fermentation. Haruta et al. (2006), Koizumi et al. (1996) <strong>and</strong> Entani<br />
<strong>and</strong> Masai (1985) investigated <strong>the</strong> succession of bacterial <strong>and</strong> fungal<br />
communities during <strong>the</strong> fermentation of rice vinegar. The microbial succession<br />
was dominated by A. oryzae (saccharification), Saccharomyces sp.,<br />
Zygosaccharomyces sp. <strong>and</strong> C<strong>and</strong>ida sp. (alcohol fermentation), Lnciohnc//-<br />
lus acetotolerans, Acetobacter pasteurianus, A. aceti <strong>and</strong> A. xylinum (acetic<br />
fermentation).<br />
Two Japanese traditional rice vinegars, komesu, which is a polished<br />
amber rice vinegar, <strong>and</strong> kurosu, which is an unpolished black rice vinegar,<br />
are known <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir health benefits via <strong>the</strong> prevention of inflammation <strong>and</strong><br />
hypertension (Murooka <strong>and</strong> Yamshita, 2008). In addition to vinegar, rice<br />
koji is also used as <strong>the</strong> primary ingredient <strong>for</strong> a number of o<strong>the</strong>r condiments<br />
<strong>and</strong> seasoning sauces, such as shoyu (soy sauce), miso (umami flavoured<br />
sauce), mirin (sweet syrup) <strong>and</strong> alcoholic <strong>beverage</strong>s, as described in <strong>the</strong> next<br />
section.<br />
3.5.10 Alcoholic rice <strong>beverage</strong>s
144 <strong>Cereal</strong> <strong>grains</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>food</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>beverage</strong> <strong>industries</strong><br />
step of fermentation is <strong>the</strong> production of a seed mash. The steamed rice is<br />
mixed with water, yeast <strong>and</strong> koji which is <strong>the</strong>n fermented <strong>for</strong> 15 days at<br />
approximately 20 °C. Due to <strong>the</strong> presence of LAB, <strong>the</strong> mash is acidified.<br />
This naturally acidified mash is mixed with water, steamed rice <strong>and</strong> koji at<br />
8°C. After a few days, <strong>the</strong> mash is warmed slowly to about 15 °C. The seed<br />
mash is <strong>the</strong>n cooled <strong>and</strong> stored <strong>for</strong> five to seven days be<strong>for</strong>e it is used <strong>for</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> main mash. Subsequently, steamed rice, koji <strong>and</strong> water are added to <strong>the</strong><br />
seed mash at 12°C.The quantity added is about twice that of <strong>the</strong> seed mash.<br />
An essential difference between beer <strong>and</strong> sake is that <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> latter <strong>the</strong><br />
natural enzymes contained in <strong>the</strong> rice kernel are not used to break down<br />
<strong>the</strong> starch <strong>and</strong> are, in fact, deliberately inactivated be<strong>for</strong>e <strong>the</strong> saccharifying<br />
steps of <strong>the</strong> sake brewing. The solubilization of rice starch is ensured by<br />
amylolytic action of <strong>the</strong> fungal enzymes derived from koji, which is dominated<br />
by A. oryzae. Koji contains a- <strong>and</strong> ¡3-amylases capable of starch<br />
liquefaction to glucose.The acidic characteristic of ko;7, resulting from lactic<br />
acid fermentation or lactic acid adjunct addition, inhibits <strong>the</strong> growth of<br />
wild microorganisms that may compromise <strong>the</strong> quality of <strong>the</strong> fermentation<br />
process.<br />
As soon as <strong>the</strong> fungal population reaches its highest concentration<br />
(10* CFU/g) originally present in <strong>the</strong> koji (generally after two days of fermentation<br />
at 12 °C), one part steamed rice <strong>and</strong> one part water is added<br />
again. A third addition is per<strong>for</strong>med <strong>the</strong> following day <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> vigour of<br />
<strong>the</strong> fermentation is enhanced by increasing <strong>the</strong> temperature to 18 °C. After<br />
an additional 13-17 days, <strong>the</strong> fermentation almost ceases <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> alcohol<br />
content rises to 17-20%, which is a world record as <strong>the</strong> highest ethanol<br />
content to be obtained by fermentation without distillation.<br />
A turbid filtrate is normally obtained from <strong>the</strong> fermented mash by charcoal<br />
filtration through canvas bags (to adjust flavour <strong>and</strong> colour). It is <strong>the</strong>n<br />
usually pasteurized to kill yeast <strong>and</strong> harmful microorganisms (if present),<br />
to inactivate enzymes <strong>and</strong> to adjust <strong>the</strong> maturation velocity - a process<br />
which takes approximately three to eight months. At <strong>the</strong> end of maturation,<br />
but be<strong>for</strong>e <strong>the</strong> bottle-pasteurization, sake is blended with water to reach<br />
<strong>the</strong> appropriate alcohol content (15-16%) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>n filtered through activated<br />
carbon to adjust <strong>the</strong> colour, taste <strong>and</strong> flavour (Yoshizawa <strong>and</strong> Ogawa,<br />
1985).<br />
Several indigenous rice beer-like products are produced aro<strong>und</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
world such as siijen, which is a popular local rice beer of Assam (India)<br />
(Deori et al., 2007). Additionally, distilled rice-based <strong>beverage</strong>s exist, such<br />
as shochu which is a popular alcoholic drink that is distilled from sake or<br />
related alcohol in <strong>beverage</strong>s (Murooka <strong>and</strong> Yamshita, 2008).<br />
Rice is also widely used as brewing adjunct in <strong>the</strong> USA <strong>and</strong> in Japan<br />
after maize (Childs, 2004). As an adjunct, rice is favoured by some brewers<br />
because of its lower lipid <strong>and</strong> protein contents as compared with those of<br />
corn grits. Broken rice, obtained as a by-product of <strong>the</strong> edible rice milling<br />
industry, or rice grist is generally used in brewing. Rice is characterized by<br />
©Woodhead Publishing Limited, <strong>2013</strong>
Rice 145<br />
a neutral aroma <strong>and</strong> flavour <strong>and</strong>, when converted efficiently to fermentable<br />
sugars, yields a clean tasting, light beer (Coors, 1976).<br />
3.6 Conclusions<br />
Rice is consumed in various <strong>for</strong>ms including plain rice, noodles, puffed rice,<br />
breakfast cereals, cakes, fermented sweet rice, snack <strong>food</strong>s, beer, wine <strong>and</strong><br />
vinegar. It is grown in every continent (except Antarctica), in over 114<br />
countries from 53° north to 40° south, <strong>and</strong> from sea level to an altitude of<br />
3000 m, thus representing <strong>the</strong> best cereal crop in terms of <strong>food</strong> energy per<br />
production area. As reported by Fitzgerald et al. (2009), rice production is<br />
endangered by several factors, such as increasing urbanization leading to<br />
loss of farming l<strong>and</strong>, urban migration resulting in fewer <strong>food</strong>-producing<br />
farmers, biofuel policies that negatively affect <strong>the</strong> availability of grain <strong>for</strong><br />
consumption, decreased f<strong>und</strong>ing <strong>for</strong> rice research <strong>and</strong> issues of climate<br />
change. All of <strong>the</strong>se factors, ei<strong>the</strong>r directly or indirectly, influence both <strong>the</strong><br />
quantity <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> quality of rice that is available <strong>for</strong> <strong>food</strong>-based consumption.<br />
A smart integration of different disciplines, such as soil <strong>and</strong> water<br />
management, agricultural practices, plant breeding, post-harvest technology<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>food</strong> processing, could offer a valid solution <strong>for</strong> current <strong>and</strong> emerging<br />
or future problems associated with <strong>food</strong> production, security, distribution<br />
<strong>and</strong> quality.<br />
3.7 Future trends<br />
Nearly 50 % of <strong>the</strong> global population, mostly concentrated in less-developed<br />
countries, depend on rice as <strong>the</strong>ir major energy source. The question, of<br />
course, is whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> rice-producing countries, supported by ongoing technological<br />
developments, can keep production levels ahead of population<br />
growth. Over <strong>the</strong> longer term, a rice yield growth of 1.0-1.2 % annually will<br />
be needed to feed <strong>the</strong> world at an af<strong>for</strong>dable cost. The real cutting edge<br />
solutions to <strong>the</strong> problems of rice production lie in developing <strong>and</strong>/or adapting<br />
strategies to break <strong>the</strong> yield barrier, thus improving <strong>the</strong> input efficiency<br />
<strong>and</strong>, additionally, emphasis must be put on ways to disseminate <strong>the</strong> modern<br />
scientific knowledge <strong>and</strong> technology to farmers. While <strong>the</strong>se approaches<br />
could lead to sustained productivity using current rice varieties, ef<strong>for</strong>ts to<br />
develop new varieties that have adapted to <strong>and</strong> can respond to <strong>the</strong> specific<br />
farming conditions, should be vigorously pursued. Lastly, from a technological<br />
viewpoint, production <strong>and</strong> processing conditions remarkably influence<br />
<strong>the</strong> nutritional per<strong>for</strong>mance of <strong>the</strong> final rice products. Increasing <strong>the</strong><br />
consumption of brown rice <strong>and</strong> germinated brown rice, both characterized<br />
by a higher content of healthy beneficial <strong>food</strong> components (Roy et ai,<br />
2011), compared to <strong>the</strong> well-milled white rice, will significantly help to<br />
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146 <strong>Cereal</strong> <strong>grains</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>food</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>beverage</strong> <strong>industries</strong><br />
mi<br />
avoid malnutrition <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r dietary <strong>and</strong> <strong>food</strong>-related diseases in <strong>the</strong><br />
future.<br />
,U-7 ‘ . ' r f '<br />
3.8 References<br />
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affected by nitrogen fertilizer <strong>and</strong> some triazines <strong>and</strong> substituted ureas. Agronomy<br />
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1<br />
Woodhead Publishing Limited, <strong>2013</strong>
Barley<br />
DOI: 10.1533/9780857098924.155<br />
Abstract: Barley {Hordeum vulgare L.) has been one of <strong>the</strong> most important <strong>food</strong><br />
<strong>grains</strong> since ancient times. Amongst cereals, it ranks fourth in quantity produced<br />
<strong>and</strong> cultivation area in <strong>the</strong> world. Barley has been cultivated commonly <strong>for</strong><br />
centuries due its versatility, ability to adapt to unfavourable climate <strong>and</strong> soil<br />
conditions, <strong>and</strong> superior properties <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> malting <strong>and</strong> brewing <strong>industries</strong>. The<br />
increased interest in barley as a human <strong>food</strong> ingredient results from studies which<br />
have shown barley to be an excellent source of dietary fibre <strong>and</strong>, in particular,<br />
(3-glucan. Barley kernels contain complex carbohydrates (mainly starch), have a<br />
low fat content <strong>and</strong> are moderately well-balanced in terms of protein to meet<br />
amino acid requirements, as well as minerals, vitamins (particularly vitamin E)<br />
<strong>and</strong> antioxidant polyphenols. In addition to its use in <strong>the</strong> production of malt <strong>for</strong><br />
brewing, barley is used as whole-grain, pearled, raw-grain flour, whole roasted<strong>grains</strong><br />
mature barley flour <strong>and</strong> roasted-grain flour <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> production of breakfast<br />
cereals, stews, soups, pastas <strong>and</strong> noodles, as a coffee substitute <strong>and</strong> in porridges,<br />
sauces <strong>and</strong> baked products (including bread <strong>and</strong> flat bread). Given <strong>the</strong> greater<br />
consumer <strong>and</strong> manufacturer focus on <strong>the</strong> physiological benefits <strong>and</strong> nutritional<br />
properties of barley <strong>and</strong> associated by-products, newly emerging opportunities<br />
exist <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> incorporation of barley into human <strong>food</strong>s.<br />
Key words: barley, chemical composition, barley utilization in <strong>food</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>beverage</strong>s.<br />
4.1 Introduction<br />
Barley belongs to <strong>the</strong> family Poaceae <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> genus Hordeum, <strong>the</strong> most<br />
common <strong>for</strong>m being Hordeum vulgare. It has been one of <strong>the</strong> most important<br />
<strong>food</strong> <strong>grains</strong> since ancient times <strong>and</strong> nowadays has one of <strong>the</strong> highest<br />
l<strong>and</strong>s industrial use. It ranks fourth in quantity produced <strong>and</strong> cultivation<br />
area of cereals in <strong>the</strong> world (Zhou, 2010). Barley has a long history of use as<br />
a source of human nutrition, with archaeological studies revealing <strong>the</strong> cultivation<br />
of two-row barley in Iran from 8000 BC <strong>and</strong> six-row barley from<br />
aro<strong>und</strong> 6000 BC (von Bothmer <strong>and</strong> Jacobsen, 1985). The increasing use of<br />
wheat, rice <strong>and</strong> maize in <strong>the</strong> human diet has led to a drastic decrease in<br />
human barley use <strong>and</strong> consumption, except <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> production of alcoholic<br />
<strong>beverage</strong>s such as beer. Thus, currently its primary use is in <strong>the</strong> brewing<br />
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, <strong>2013</strong>