Arendt und Zannini - 2013 - Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries

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OODHEAD PUBLISHING SERIES IN FOOD SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND NUTRITION
Cereals are a staple of the human diet and have a significant effect on health. As a result,
they are of major significance to the food industry. This book provides a comprehensive
overview of all of the im portant cereal and pseudo-cereal species, from their composition
to their use in food products.
The book reviews the major cereal species, starting with wheat and triticale before
covering rye, barley and oats. It goes on to discuss other major species such as rice, maize,
sorghum and millet, as well as pseudo-cereals such as buckwheat, quinoa and amaranth.
Each chapter reviews grain structure, chemical composition (including carbohydrate and
protein content), processing and applications in food and beverage products.
Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries is an essential reference for academic
researchers interested in the area of cereal grains and products. It is also an invaluable
reference for professionals in the food and beverage industry working with cereal
products, including ingredient manufacturers, food technologists, nutritionists, as well as
policy-makers and health care professionals.
Elke Arendt is Professor in the School of Food and Nutritional Sciences at University
College Cork (UCC), Ireland. D r Emanuele Zannini is a Senior Research Scientist at the
School of Food and Nutritional Sciences at UCC.
Woodhead Publishing Limited
80 High Street, Sawston
Cambridge CB22 3HJ
UK
ISBN: 978-0-85709-413-1
Woodhead Publishing
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DOI; 10.1533/9780857098924.114
Abstract: Rice (Oriza sativa L.) is the staple food for nearly two-thirds of the
world’s population. In 2010, China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam and
Myanmar alone provided more than 75 % of the world’s total rice production.
Rice has the lowest protein content of all the cereals; however, rice protein is
highly nutritious and has one of the highest lysine contents among the cereals.
Rice is rich in starch, low in fibre and has no detectable levels of vitamins A, C or
D. Rice is consumed in the form of noodles, puffed rice, fermented sweet rice and
snack foods produced by extrusion cooking. It is used for making bakery
products, sauces, infant foods, breakfast cereals, alcoholic beverages and vinegar.
Continuing population growth and consequent rice consumption increases will
mean that the global demand for rice will expand significantly in the near future.
An integrated approach that involves more efficient and environmentally
sustainable agricultural practices, pest management and the development of new
rice varieties adapted to country-specific farming conditions suitable for a
changing climate should be vigorously pursued.
Key words: rice, chemical composition, rice utilization in food and beverages.
3.1 Introduction
Rice {Oriza sativa L.) is the leading food crop in the developing world in
terms of total world production (672 x 10® tonnes) (FAO/UN, 2012). It
represents the staple food for almost two-thirds of the world’s population
(Roy et al., 2011).
Rice provides 21 % of global human per capita energy and 15 % of per
capita protein (Maclean et a/., 2002; Guimaraes, 2009). However, the world’s
stocks of stored rice grain have been falling in negative correlation to each
year’s consumption levels which now exceeds actual annual production
(Shiina and Global, 2010). Rice is generally considered a semi-aquatic
annual grass plant, which can be grown under a broad range of climatic
conditions (Yoshida, 1981). Cultivated rice belongs to the species O. sativa
and O. glaberrima. While O. sativa is the predominant species, O. gaitérrima
is cultivated on a limited scale and only in Africa. The major rice
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Rice 115
producers in 2010 were China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam and
Myanmar producing alone more than 75 % (506 x 10^ tonnes) of the world
production. Rice grain (rough rice or paddy) comprises the edible rice
caryopsis of fruit (brown, dehulled or dehusked rice) enclosed in a protective
covering, the hull (husk). During the milling process, rough rice is
milled to produce polished edible grain by first subjecting to dehusking and
then to the removal of brownish outer bran layer known as whitening.
Finally, polishing is carried out to remove the bran particles and provides
surface gloss to the edible white portion.
The way rice is generally consumed differs from its major food-crop relatives.
Wheat and barley are mostly consumed after the grain is ground to
flour. Rice is primarily consumed as polished grain; however, a small amount
of the rice crop is used to make ingredients for processed foods and as
animal feed. Rice flour possesses unique attributes, such as a bland taste,
white colour, ease of digestion and hypoallergenic properties (Kadan et ai,
2001). Rice is consumed in the form of noodles, puffed rice, fermented sweet
rice and snack foods made by extrusion cooking (Mercier et al., 1989). It is
used for producing bread, cakes, cookies (alone or blended with wheat) and
canned foods, and for the production of alcoholic beverages or as an adjunct
in their production, for example beer. Furthermore, the low levels of sodium,
absence of gliadin and presence of easily digested carbohydrates have made
rice one of the most suitable cereal grain flours for the preparation of foods
for coeliac patients (Zannini et al., 2012).
3.1.1 History, production, price, yield and area
The genus Oryza, named by Linnaeus in 1753, originated in the Gondwanaland
continent and, following the fracture of the supercontinent, became
widely distributed in the humid tropics of Africa, South America, South and
Southeast Asia and Oceania (Chang, 1976). The date and the geographical
location of rice domestication have long been a subject of debate. Indeed,
it is also widely recognized that domestication is not a single ‘event’, but
rather a dynamic evolutionary process that occurs over time and, in some
species, continues to this day (Gepts, 2010). The most ancient archaeological
finds, in the Yangzi delta in China, date back to 5000 BC (Latham, 1998).
Historical records suggest multiple domestications for rice (O. sativa)
(Kovach et al., 2007) between 2000 and 1500 BC in areas including central
India, northern Burma, northern Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and into southeast
China (Chang, 1976). In India, the earliest known remains of rice are
dated around 1500 BC. In Japan, rice seems to have been introduced from
the Yangzi region around 400 BC (Latham, 1998). From this broad area, the
cultivation of rice extended to Indonesia, the Philippines and northern
Australia. Subsequently, traders spread the grain throughout Asia, the
Middle East and Europe (Marshall et al.,1994). In North and South America,
rice was introduced relatively recently with the first official documentation
I Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

116 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries
Table 3.1 Rice and total cereal grain production and producer price in the world
from 2000-2010
Year
Total rice
production
(Mt)
Total cereal
production
(Mt)“
Rice as
% of total
grains
Area rice
harvested
(Mha)
Rice
yield
(t/ha)
Producer price
(US $/tonnes)
W -
2000 599.3 2044 29.3 154.0 3.9 298.99
2001 599.8 2093 28.7 151.9 3.9 294.28
2002 571.3 2077 27.5 147.6 3.9 285.51
2003 587.0 2260 26.0 148.5 4.0 314.85
2004 607.9 2247 27.1 150.5 4.0 342.73
2005 634.3 2219 28.6 154.9 4.1 367.91
2006 641.2 2335 27.5 155.2 4.1 394.70
2007 657.1 2503 26.3 154.9 4.2 431.74
2008 689.0 2470 27.9 157.6 4.4 513.30
2009 684.7 2472 27.7 158.3 4.3 494.54
2010 672.0 2412 27.9 153.6 4.4 -
Average 631.2 2285 27.6 153.4 4.1 373.85
"Total cereal production includes corn, rice, wheat, barley, sorghum, millet, oats, rye, mixed
grain.
Source: Data from FAO/UN (2012).
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Rice 117
Table 3.2 Rice production estimates in the 10 leading-producing countries; fiveyear
average 2006-2010
Rank
Country
Production
(Mt)
Area harvested
(Mha)
Rice yield
(t/ha)
World
production (%)
1 China 191.5 29.5 6.5 28.6
2 India 137.3 42.0 3.3 20.5
3 Indonesia 60.5 12.4 4.9 9.0
4 Bangladesh 45.5 11.1 4.1 6.8
5 Viet Nam 37.8 7.3 5.2 5.7
6 Myanmar 32.1 8.00 4.0 4.8
7 Thailand 31.4 10.7 2.9 4.7
8 Philippines 16.0 4.3 3.7 2.4
9 Brazil 11.7 2.8 4.2 1.7
10 Japan 10.7 1.6 6.7 1.6
Total 574.5 129.7 4.5“ 85.8
“Average of rice yield among the 10 leading producing countries.
Source: Data from FAO/UN (2012).
China (6.5 tonnes/ha), second only to Japan with 6.7 tonnes/ha (FAO/UN,
2012) (Table 3.2). Throughout the last 10 years, rice production has gradually
increased by approximately 10%, growing from 599.3 x 10*’ to 672.0 x
10*’ tonnes, mainly due to an improved yield that has been increased by
= 11 % (Table 3.1).
As reported in Table 3.3, there are broad variations in rice prices among
the top 10 producer countries with Bangladesh and Japan having the lowest
and highest rice prices, respectively. Japan’s rice price is almost five times
higher than the average world rice price for 2009, at levels of 2348.9
US $/tonne and 94.54 US $/tonne, respectively (FAO/UN, 2012). Moreover,
during the last number of decades world average rice prices increased from
286.23 US $/tonnes in 2000 to 494.54 US $/tonnes in 2009 which represents
an increase of more than 40 % (FAO/UN, 2012).
3.1.2 Phytology, classification and cultivation
Cultivated rice {O. sativa L.) is a cereal grain grass belonging to the tribe
Oryzeae (Tzvelev, 1989), under the sub-family Pooideae, in the grass family
Poaceae (also known as Gramineae) (Tzvelev, 1989). Vaughan (1994) indicated
that the genus Oriza has 22 species. However, only O. sativa and O.
glaberrima are cultivated. The number of chromosomes of cultivated rice
and its related species varies from 24 to 48, with the ‘n’ number equal to
12. O. sativa is a diploid species with 2n = 24 chromosomes. Generally, the
rice plant is characterized by round, hollow, jointed culms, with rather flat,
sessile leaf blades and a terminal panicle. Although the rice plant is an
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

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Rice 119
annual species, under favourable environmental conditions, O. sativa may
grow more than once per year. Similarly to other taxa belonging to the tribe
Oryzeae, rice may be classified as semi-aquatic plants, although extreme
variants are grown not only in deep water (up to 5 m) but also on dry land
(Chang, 1985). In Africa, the rice cultivated belongs to the species O. glaberrima
Steud. that differs from O. sativa mainly in its lack of secondary
branching on the primary branches of the panicle. It is also a strictly annual
plant (Chang, 1965).
The majority of commercial rice varieties range from 1 to 2 m in
height; however, the rice plant varies in size from dwarf mutants (only
0.3-0.4 m tall) to floating varieties (more than 7 m tall). The vegetative
structures consist of fibrous roots, culms (made up of series of nodes and
internodes) and leaves that consist of a leaf sheath and leaf blade (lamina).
The leaf sheath is continuous with the blade. It envelops the culm
above the node in varying length, form and tightness (Chang, 1965). It
supports the plant during the vegetative growth, being photosynthetically
active and acting as a storage site for starch and sugar before heading
(Chang, 1964). The panicle is composed of a panicle neck node (base),
rachis (axis), primary and secondary branches, pedicles, rudimentary
glumes and spikelets (or flower). Panicle shapes range from compact to
intermediate to open. Compact shape is preferred in the modern cultivation
because this type has generally been associated with higher yields
(IBPGR-IRRI, 1980).
The duration of growth for cultivated rice varies from 80 to 280 days and
can be generally divided into early (80-130 days), intermediate (130-160
days) and late (160-t- days) maturing cultivars (Yoshida, 1981). In the rice
plant, three growth phases can be distinguished: the vegetative phase -
when the plant begins to partition assimilation to the developing panicle;
the reproductive phases with panicle (flowering) development; and the
ripening or grain-filling phase which begins after anthesis and ends at maturation
(Tanaka, 1965).
Different environmental factors influence the development of the rice
plant, such as temperature, day length, nutrition, planting density and
humidity (Nemoto et ai, 1995). Although normally a cereal of the wetland,
rice can be grown either on dry land or under water. The common practice
of flooding the paddy fields has been adopted as a means of irrigation and
also to control weeds (Kent and Evers, 1994). The Malayan word padi
means ‘of rice straw’, but the anglicized form of the vtord,paddy, is used to
refer both to the water-covered fields in which rice is grown and also to the
harvested rice, with attached husk or hull. Rice can be cultivated in temperate
and tropical areas, and in cool and warm regions. It is grown, for
example, in hot, wet climates, as well as in the foothills of the Alps, up to
1220 m in the Andes of Peru, 1830 m in the Philippines and 3050 m in India.
This wide adaptability of the rice plant partially explains its importance as
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120 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries
3.1.3 Structure of the rice kernel
The rice grain (rough rice or paddy) consists of an outer protective covering,
the hull (husk), and the edible rice caryopsis or kernel (brown, cargo,
dehulled or dehusked rice). The main parts of the rice grain are the hull
(20 %), pericarp (2 %), tegmen (seed coat), aleurone layer (5 %), endosperm
(89-94%) and embryo (2-3%) (Delcour and Hoseney, 2010).
The hull consists of lemma, palea, rachilla, and sterile lemmas (Fig. 3.1).
The dehulled rice grain (caryopsis) is called brown rice because of the
pericarp colouring. A rice caryopsis has the same gross structure as that of
other cereals (Fig. 3.2). It varies from 5 to 8 mm in length and weighs about
25 mg. At the mature stage, the rice caryopsis is enclosed in a tough siliceous
hull (husk) (Fig. 3.2) that represents approximately 18-20 % by weight of
the rice grain (Champagne et ai, 2004). The rice hull is composed of two
modified leaves, namely lemma and palea, which are joined together longitudinally
(Fig. 3.2). This outer layer provides protection for the rice caryopsis
from insect infestations and fungal damage and against large humidity
fluctuations in the external environment (Marshall et ai, 1994).
Inside the hull, three distinct layers, the pericarp, seed coat and nucellus,
surround the starchy endosperm. These layers comprise the bran fraction
of the rice grain representing about 5-8 % of the brown rice weight (Champagne
et ai, 2004).
The pericarp is fibrous and varies in thickness. Next to the pericarp there
are two layers of crushed cells representing the remains of the inner integuments
- the tegmen or seed coat. In coloured rice, the pigments are located
in the seed coat or in the pericarp.
The aleurone layer (Fig. 3.2) completely surrounds the endosperm and
the outer side of the embryo. The cells surrounding the starchy endosperm
are cuboidal, containing mainly protein bodies (aleurone grains) and lipid
Lemma

odies, while the rectangular aleurone cells, surrounding the embryo, are
characterized by fewer and smaller lipid bodies which lack aleurone grains
(Champagne et al., 2004). The starchy endosperm is characterized by two
distinct regions - the subaleurone layer and the central region. The subaleurone
region is typified by a limited number of small, oval-shaped starch
granules surrounded by three different types of membrane-bound protein
bodies. The starch granule takes a number of forms; a large spherical body
with a dense centre surrounded by concentric rings measuring 1-2 pm in
diameter; a small spherical body characterized by concentric rings and
measuring 0.5-0.75 pm in diameter; and crystalline protein bodies (2-3.5 pm
in diameter) that appear to be a composite of small, angular components,
each of which displays crystal lattice fringes (Bechtel and Pomeranz, 1978).
The central endosperm is primarily composed of large starch granules (with
diameter 3-9 pm), with a polygonal (hexagonal) shape resembling those of
oats (Kent and Evers, 1994; Delcour and Hoseney, 2010). They are highly
compact and surrounded by dense proteinaceous material. In this region of
the endosperm, the main protein bodies resemble the large spherical protein
bodies detected in the subaleurone zone (Bechtel and Pomeranz, 1978).
The embryo (germ) is situated on one side of the endosperm towards
the base of the caryopsis. Unusually, the embryo is not firmly attached to
the endosperm and consists of a short axis with the plumbe at its apex
and the primary root at its base (Tateoka, 1964). The embryonic axis is
bound on the inner side by the scutellum (cotyledon), which lies next to the
pnHncrvprm
Rice 121
Lemma
Palea
Starchy endosperm
Aleurone layer
Embryo
Subaleurone layer
Sterile lemmas
Rachilla
Pedicel
Fig. 3.2
A rice kernel in longitudinal cross-section.

122 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries
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3.2 Rice carbohydrate composition and properties
As reviewed by Champagne et al. (2004), the variety, environmental conditions
and processing all influence the gross composition of rice and its
fractions. Polysaccharides, proteins and lipids represent the three major
constituents of the rice kernel. Generally, rice has the lowest protein content
(7%) (Table 3.4) amongst the cereals, even though rice protein has one of
the highest lysine contents (Juliano, 2003). From a chemical compositional
viewpoint, the hull is low in starch, protein and fat while it is particularly
rich in cellulose, lignin, arabinoxylans and minerals (mostly silica). Nutritionally,
the rice bran is a particularly interesting because of its balanced
content of protein (13.2-17.3 % dry basis), fat (17.0-22.9 % dry basis),
carbohydrate (16.1 % dry basis) and dietary fibre (27.6-33.3 % dry basis)
(Pomeranz and Ory, 1982), as well as vitamins and minerals presents in
amounts which are beneficial to humans (Champagne et al., 2004). Among
the structural components of the rice kernel, the starchy endosperm has the
highest and the lowest carbohydrate and lipid contents, respectively. Additionally,
protein levels are low when compared to levels in the bran but
higher than levels in the hull. The embryo is particularly rich in lipids
(19.3-23.8 % dry weight basis) and protein (17.7-23.9 % dry weight basis)
(Pomeranz and Ory, 1982). The composition of brown rice is shown in Table
3.4. Vitamins are generally present in higher levels in brown rice than in
milled rice, particularly the B vitamins which are mainly concentrated in
the scutellum (Hinton, 1948b). Rice has no detectable levels of vitamins A,
Table 3.4
Brown rice composition
Constituent Content (per 100 g)
Moisture (g) 14.0
Energy content (Kcal) 363-385
Crude protein (g) 7.1-8.3
Crude fat (g) 1.6- 2.8
Crude fibre (g) 0.6- 1.0
Crude ash (g) 1.0-1.5
Calcium (mg) 10-50
Phosphorus (mg) 0.17-0.43
Iron (mg) 0.2-5.2
Zinc (mg) 0.6- 2.8
Carbohydrates (g) 73-87
Total dietary fibre (g) 2.9-4.0
Water-insoluble fibre (g) 2.0
Sugar (g) 1.9
Others“ (mg) 6.5-10.4
“Rice also contains small quantities of B-complex vitamins,
including thiamine (Bi), riboflavin (B2), niacin, pyridoxine (Bd,
pantothenic acid, biotin, folic acid and vitamin E.
Source: Adapted from Champagne et al. (2004).
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Rice 123
C or D. Minerals are mainly concentrated in the hull and in the bran;
however, the bran phytic acid, and also probably dietary fibre, in the aleurone
layer forms complexes with minerals and proteins, thus reducing their
bioavailability (Juliano, 2003).
3.2.1 Starch
Starch is concentrated in the endosperm fraction of the rice kernel (Table
3.5), and accounts for approximately 90 % of the total milled rice dry
weight. As observed in other cereal grains, starch granules are mainly composed
of a branched fraction, amylopectin, and a linear fraction, amylose.
Amylose is an essentially linear polymer of a-(l-^4)-linked D-glucopyranosyl
units with few (6) linkages (Ball etal., 1996). Typical amylose
levels in starches are 15-25 % (Manners, 1997). In rice, amylose contents
have five classifications: waxy (0-2% amylose), very low (5-12%), low
(12-20%), intermediate (20-25%) or high (25-33%) starch contents
(Juliano et al., 1981; Sano, 1984). The eating quality of rice is remarkably
influenced by gelatinization temperature of starch and its amylose content
(Juliano, 2003). Indeed, the latter is directly correlated with volume expansion
and water absorption during cooking and with final hardness, whiteness
and dullness of cooked rice (Bergman et al., 2004). In particular, rice with
a high amylose content exhibits high volume expansion and tends to cook
firm and dry and become hard upon cooling. In contrast, rice with a low
amylose content tends to cook moist and sticky and is often referred to as
sticky rice (Mutters and Thompson, 2009).
Amylopectin consists of a-(l-^4) linked o-glucosyl chains and is highly
branched with 5-6% a-(l->6)-bonds (Buléon et al., 1998). The individual
chains may vary between 10 and 100 glucose units (Manners, 1979). Since
milled rice is 85 % starch, starch gelatinization is one of the most important
factors affecting the texture and cooking time of the cooked products
(Juliano and Perez, 1983). The gelatinization behaviour is remarkably influenced
by the structure of the rice starch. In particular, very short (degree
of polymerization DP < 12) amylopectin chains were negatively correlated
Table 3.5
Carbohydrate content in rice kernel
Carbohydrate
Amount
(%, dry weight)
References
Starch 90.68 Yanai, 1979
Amylose 29.46 Yanai, 1979
Reducing sugar (g maltose/100 g rice) 0.12 Chrastil, 1990
Non-reducing sugar (g sucrose/100 g rice) 0.26 Chrastil, 1990
Total sugars 0.38 Chrastil, 1990
Fibre 0.28 Moritaka, 1972
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t *
124 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries
with gelatinization onset (To), peak (Tp) and conclusion (Tc) temperatures
of rice starches as measured by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC),
whilst longer (12 < DP < 24) amylopectin chains had a positive correlation
(Nakamura, 2002; Noda et al., 2003; Vandeputte et al., 2003). Additionally,
short amylopectin chains have a reduced tendency to form double helices,
a feature which may reduce the packing order within the crystalline structure
(Gidley and Bulpin, 1987). Thus, starches with higher amounts of very
short amylopectin chains will have lower molecular weight, a crystalline
order and non-optimized packing within the crystalline lamellae. As a
result, they will most likely have a lower gelatinization temperature
(Vandeputte and Delcour, 2004). On the other hand, amylopectin, with the
chain length of 18-21 DP, is able to form double helices, adequately filling
the crystalline lamellae and thus increasing the gelatinization temperatures
(Vandeputte et al., 2003).
In addition to amylose and amylopectin, starch granules contain small
quantities of other minor components, such as proteins, lipids and minerals
(phosphorus) which are either at the surface or inside the granules. The
lipid content ranges from 0.9-1.3 % (Azudin and Morrison, 1986) in nonwaxy
rice starches (12.2-28.6 % amylose), while its content is negligible in
waxy rice starches (1.0-2.3 % amylose) (Azudin and Morrison, 1986). Starch
proteins are generally either storage proteins that exist mainly as protein
bodies (i.e. prolamin or gluteline) (Resurrección et al., 1993) or biosynthetic
or hydrolytic enzymes (Baldwin, 2001). The latter are probably entrapped
within the starch granules during starch synthesis (Denyer et al., 1995). In
addition to lipids and proteins, phosphorus is an important non-carbohydrate
component of rice starch. It is mainly 6-phosphoglucose phosphorus
(0.003 % on dry basis) in the waxy rice starch granule, whereas it is mainly
phospholipid phosphorus (0.048% on dry basis) in the non-waxy rice
starches (Hizukuri et al., 1983; Jane et al., 1996). Other mineral components
of starch include Ca, K, Mg and Na in their ionic form. Rice starch is widely
used as a thickening, stabilizing or filling agent in many food applications;
however, it is primarily consumed as part of cooked, whole-grain rice
(James, 1983).
1
3.2,2 Dietary fibre
Studies on comparative chemical composition of several cereal grains have
shown that rice has the lowest fibre content (0.8%), followed by wheat
(1%), millet (1.5%), corn (2.0%), rye (2.2%), barley (3.7%), sorghum
(4.1%) and oats (5.6%) (Champagne et al., 2004). Moreover, the fibre
content also varied within the rice varieties. Savitha and Singh (2011) estimated
the fibre content of five different varieties of paddy (four pigmented
and one non-pigmented) which had been shelled and milled in pre- and
post-parboiled form. They observed that the dietary fibre contents were
high in pigmented varieties compared to non-pigmented rice with a
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Rice 125
concentration of 9-10 g/100 g and, ~6 g/100 g, respectively. The distribution
of fibre throughout the rice kernel is uneven, with the bran containing 70 %
of the total dietary fibre followed by polish with 19 %, and the endosperm
with 11% (Resurrection et ai, 1979). Polish is a by-product obtained by
abrasive milling of rice. It is distinguished from the bran, since polish contains
relatively more starchy endosperm (Resurrection et ah, 1979) than the
bran, which contains more of the pericarp, seed coat, nucellus, aleurone
layer and germ. Dietary fibre represent almost 17-29 % (Abdul-Hamid and
Luan, 2000) of the rice bran (Champagne et al., 2004).
Rice dietary fibre has been reported to have positive effects on human
health (Abdul-Hamid and Luan, 2000). In this regard, Abdul-Hamid and
Luan (2000) studied the use of a dietary fibre preparation, derived from
defatted rice bran, as a functional ingredient for bakery products. They
found that dietary fibre from defatted rice bran had comparable waterbinding,
a higher fat-binding and an increased emulsifying capacity, when
compared to the commercial fibre from sugar beet which was used as
control. Additionally, sensory evaluations revealed that the incorporation
of 5 and 10% of rice bran into the bread was acceptable to the sensory
panellists.
3.3 Other constituents of the rice kernel
After starch, protein is quantitatively the major rice component. In addition,
rice also contains a whole array of minor constituents, and some of
these, such as vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals, have a great impact
on the functional properties of rice-based products.
3.3.1 Protein
Protein is the second most abundant component in rice, following starch. It
ranges between 4.3 and 18.2 % with a mean of 9 % (Gomez, 1979; Kennedy
and Burlingame, 2003). Its content (Gomez, 1979) was found to differ significantly
from one variety to another (Chandrasekhar and Mulk, 1970;
Gomez, 1979; Juliano and Villareal, 1993) ranging from 4.5 to 15.9 % in O.
sativa varieties and 10.2-15.9 % in O. glaberrima varieties (Kennedy and
Burlingame, 2003). Environmental conditions (radiation, temperature) and
cultural practices (water management, weed control, time of harvest) have
also been shown to greatly influence the protein content of the rice grain.
Amongst the cultural practices, increasing plant space (low plant densities)
is particularly effective in increasing the protein content of the rice grain,
probably because more nitrogen is available per plant (De Datta et al.,
1972). Nitrogen fertilization, particularly if applied during the reproductive
stage, almost always increases the protein content of rice (De Datta et al.,
1972).
I Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

126 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries
1
Traditionally, cereal proteins are classified into albumin, globulin,
prolamin and glutelin according to their solubility, as described by Osborne
(1924). The outer tissues of the rice kernel are rich in albumin (66-98%)
and globulin, whereas the starchy endosperm (milled rice) is richest in
glutelin (Zhou et ai, 2002; Champagne et al., 2004). Prolamin is a minor
constituent of all milling fractions of the rice grain (Shih, 2004). Indeed, in
milled rice, the soluble fractions of rice protein are =9.7-14.2 % albumin
(water-soluble proteins), 13.5-18.9% globulin (salt-soluble proteins),
3.0-5.4% prolamin (alcohol-soluble proteins) and 63.8-73.4% glutelin
(alkali-soluble proteins) (Zhou et al., 2002; Juliano, 2003).
Although ‘Osborne fractionation’ is still widely used, it is more usual
today to classify seed proteins into three groups: storage proteins, structural
and metabolic proteins, and protective proteins. Seed storage proteins fall
into three different Osborne fractions and occur in three different tissues
of the grain (Shewry and Halford, 2002).
The rice embryo contains globulin storage proteins, with sedimentation
coefficients of about 7 (7S globulin). It is readily soluble in a dilute salt
solution and appears to function solely as storage protein (Shewry and
Halford, 2002). Rice storage globulins of 11-12S are located in the starchy
endosperm and account for about 70-80 % of the total protein. These rice
proteins are not readily soluble in dilute salt solutions and, hence, are classically
defined as glutelins, but they clearly belong to the 11-12S globulin
family (Shewry and Halford, 2002).
Brown rice is generally regarded as having the lowest protein content
among the common grains. However, the net protein utilization and digestible
energy in rice are the highest amongst the common cereal grains
(Childs, 2004).
Rice protein is unique amongst the cereal proteins as it is richest in
glutelin and lowest in prolamin (Kaul and Raghaviah, 1975). The prolamin
fraction is poorest in lysine but rich in sulphur amino acids. The generally
high lysine content of rice protein is due to the low prolamin (high sulphur
amino acids/low lysine fraction) content. Because of that, rice protein,
together with oat protein, has a higher lysine content (3.8 and 4.0 g/16 g of
N, respectively) than the other cereals such as wheat (2.3 g/16 g of N), corn
(2.5 g/16 g of N), barley (3.2 g/16 g of N), sorghum (2.7 g/16 g of N), millet
(2.7 g/16 g of N) and rye (3.7 g/16 g of N) (Childs, 2004). Rice proteins are
also relatively rich in the essential amino acid methionine (Wang et al.,
1978) (Table 3.6). However, despite the high lysine content in rice, this
amino acid is still the first limiting essential amino acid in the crop (Alekaev,
1976), based on the human requirements as estimated in the WHO (1973)
amino acid pattern.
Protein is a major factor in determining the texture, pasting capacity and
sensory characteristics of milled rice. Many studies found that protein plays
a significant role in determining the functional properties of starch, includinrt
tVip npiQtina fmd

Rice 127
Table 3.6 Range of amino acid composition
(g/16.8 g N) of brown rice and milled rice
Amino acids Brown rice Milled rice
Alanine 5.8 5.6-5.S
Arginine 8.5-10.5 S.6-8.7
Aspartic acid 9.0-9.5 9.1-9.6
Cysteine 1.8- 2.6 1.9-2.1
Glutamic acid 19.9-17.6 18.3-18.5
Glycine 4.7-4.8 4.5^.8
Histidine 2.4-2.6 2.3-2.7
Isoleucine 3.6-4.6 3.7-4.S
Leucine 8.3-S.9 8.4-S.6
Lysine 3.9-4.3 3.4^.2
Methionine 2.3-2.5 2.3-3.0
Phenylalanine 5.0-5.3 5.3-5.5
Proline 4.8-5.1 4.6-5.1
Serine 4.8-S.8 5.3-5.9
Threonine 3.9-4.0 3.7-3.9
Tryptophan 1.3-1.5 1.3-1.8
Tyrosine 3.S-4.6 4.4-5.5
Valine 5.0-6.6 4.9-6.8
Source'. Adapted from Shih (2004).
crystallizing capacities of starch, and increasing the pasting temperature of
the isolated rice starch (Shih, 2004). Additionally, high protein content in
rice causes longer cooking time and firmer structure and is negatively correlated
with reduced smoothness, stickiness, taste and overall palatability
(Mutters and Thompson, 2009).
3.3.2 Lipids
Rice grains contain low levels of lipids (approximately 2.2 % of total grain
weight) when compared to other cereals such as corn (4.9 %),barley (3.4 %),
oats (5.9 %) sorghum (3.9 %) and millet (4.7 %) (Childs, 2004). Only wheat
and rye showed a lower lipid content, having a concentration equal to 1.9
and 1.5 % of total grain weight (data quoted at 14 % moisture), respectively
(Childs, 2004). Fat distribution within the rice caryopsis is not uniform with
lipid being primarily concentrated in the bran fraction and in the embryo
(Table 3.7) (Choudhury and Juliano, 1980; Godber and Juliano, 2004).
Within the endosperm, lipids were unevenly distributed, with the lowest
amount in the centre of the kernel and increasing progressively towards the
outer layer of the endosperm (Normand et al., 1966). Linoleic acid is the
major fatty acid present in brown rice, at an average of 38%, followed in
decreasing amounts by oleic (35 %), and palmitic acid (23%) (Table 3.7).
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Rice 129
In accordance with Mano et al. (1999), cereal lipids can be separated into
neutral lipids, glycolipids and phospholipids. Neutral lipids, principally triglycerides,
are evenly distributed amongst the different structural parts of
the grain even though the highest proportion is localized to the bran and
in the embryo. Conversly, glycolipids and phospholipids are concentrated
in the hulls and in the hulls/endosperm, respectively (Table 3.7).
Based on cellular distribution and association, rice lipids can be classified
into two basic fractions - non-starch lipids and starch lipids. Non-starch
lipids are stored in oil droplets called spherosomes, about 0.1-1 pm in size
(Bechtel and Pomeranz, 1978) and are distributed throughout the kernel
(Choudhury and Juliano, 1980). Choudhury and Juliano (1980) found that
the highest content of non-starch lipids in brown rice was concentrated in
the bran (39-41 %) followed by polish (15-21 %), embryo (14-18%), subaleurone
layer (12-14%) and the inner endosperm (12-19%). Starch
lipids typically comprise 0.5-1 % of the milled rice and include those lipids
(mainly monoacyl lipids, i.e. fatty acids and phospholipids) in complexes
with amylose in the starch granules of the rice kernels. Their content differs
between waxy and non-waxy varieties with the latter having more starch
lipids and less non-starch lipids in brown and milled rice than the former
(Choudhury and Juliano, 1980). The predominant fatty acids in rice starch
were linoleic (C18:2) and palmitic (C16:0) acids (Kitahara et al., 1997).
The existence of starch-lipid complexes has several consequences. For
example, complex development impacted on the formation of resistant
starch (RS) (Kitahara et al., 1996, 1997) and, additionally, yields of RS
(Mangala et al., 1999) were increased significantly by the removal of lipids
from rice starch. Guraya et al. (1997) reported that the amylose-lipid
complex formation with long-chain saturated monoglycerides generally
increases the resistance of the in vitro digestion over complexes with shorter
chains or more unsaturated monoglycerides. This is due to the increase of
the amylose-lipid structure stability. Amylose-lipid complexes also impact
pasting behaviour by decreasing the water-solubility in rice pastes cooked
for 30-90 min (Kaur and Singh, 2000) and increasing the pasting temperature
and peak viscosity, as determined using a Brookfield viscometer. Tocopherols
and tocotrienols, collectively called tocols or the vitamin E complex,
is an important group of nutrients associated with rice lipids due to their
non-polar solubility which will be discussed further in the following section.
3.3.3 Vitamins
Vitamins are nutritional components produced by plants. Cereal grains are
well known to be good sources of certain vitamins, particularly some of the
B-complex vitamins. The rice kernel contains little or no vitamin A, C or D.
Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is prevalent among the poor in Asia, because
their diets are totally dependent on rice, which does not contain vitamin A

130 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries
1
í ' “
Golden Rice (GR), is a new rice variety that has been genetically modified
to contain p-carotene (Datta and Khush, 2002), a source of vitamin A
in the endosperm of the rice grain, providing a new alternative intervention
to combat VAD (Toenniessen, 2001). Nestlé (2001) report that the extent
to which the p-carotene in GR can compensate for biological, cultural, and
dietary barriers is limited. Thus, it should be viewed as a complement to
existing interventions (Dawe et al., 2002). To have greatest impact, GR
varieties should be suited for widespread adoption in Asia and should
deliver as much P-carotene as possible (Dawe et al., 2002).
Vitamin Bj (thiamine) is distributed throughout the rice caryopsis. Wang
et al. (1950) reported that vitamin Bi is mainly concentrated in the scutellum
(more than 55 %) and this, along with the aleurone layer, accounts over
80% of the vitamin B,. Similar findings were reported by Hinton (1948a)
who identified the scutellum as the rice structure containing the highest
amount of vitamin Bj with 47%, followed by the combined pericarp, seed
coat, nucellus and the aleurone layer with 34 %, the embryo with 11 %, and
finally, the endosperm with 8%. An overview of the vitamin content of
brown rice is given in Table 3.8. Due to the practice of polishing the grain
to remove the bran layer and the germ, which contain the B-complex vitamins,
persons who eat rice as their staple diet have developed a thiamine
deficiency disease called beriberi. This syndrome has caused huge suffering
in the Far East, particularly in earlier periods 1870-1910, and may originally
have meant ‘great weakness’ (Carpenter, 2004). Characteristically, it includes
symptoms of weight loss, emotional disturbances, impaired sensory perception,
weakness and heart failure (Thomas, 2006). However, parboiling rough
rice permits the water-soluble vitamins and mineral salts to spread through
Table 3.8
Minerals
Mineral and vitamin composition of brown rice
Vitamins (pg/g at 14 %
moisture)
Main (mg/g at 14 % moisture)
Ca 0.1-0.5 Thiamin (Bi) 2.9-6.1
K 0.6- 2.8 Riboflavin (B2) 0.4-1.4
Mg 0.2- 1.5 Cyanocobalamin (B12) 0-0.004
P 1.7-4.3 Pyridoxine (B^) 5-9
S 0.3-1.9 Pantothenci acid 9-15
Si 0.6-1.4 Biotin 0.04-0.10
Minor (pg/g at 14 % moisture) Folic acid 0.1-0.5
Na 17-340 Retinol (A) 0-011
Cu 1-6 Vitamin E 9-25
Fe 2-52 Niacin 35-53
Mn 2-36
Zn 6-28
Cl 210-560
Source: Data from Champagne et al. (2004).
) Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Rice 131
the endosperm and the proteinaceous material to sink into the compact
mass of gelatinized starch. This results in a smaller loss of vitamins, minerals
and amino acids during the milling of parboiled grains (Mickus and Luh,
1991), thus explaining why the consumption of parboiled rice was associated
with immunity from beriberi (Bhattacharya, 2004).
Rice bran oil contains about 0.1-0.14% vitamin E components and
0.9-2.9% oryzanol, with their concentrations varying substantially according
to the origin of the rice bran (Lloyd et ai, 2000). Vitamin E was first
discovered in 1922 as a micronutrient supporting fertility (Evans and
Bishop, 1922). For this reason, vitamin E was scientifically named tocopherol
(Toe).The word ‘tocopherol’ comes from the Greek words tokos meaning
childbirth, phero meaning to bring forth and ‘ol’ indicating the alcoholic
properties of the molecule (Miyazawa et ai, 2011).Vitamin E is a generic
term for a group that comprises four tocopherols and four tocotrienols (a,
p, Yand 6), which differ only in the degree of saturation of their hydrophobic
tails (Chaudhary and Khurana, 2009). Among them, a-tocopherol has the
highest biological activity (Duvernay et ai, 2005) working as a chainbreaking
antioxidant that prevents the propagation of free radical reactions
(Becker et ai, 2004), thus ensuring inhibition of lipid peroxidation (Niki
and Noguchi, 2004).
Oryzanol is the other antioxidant found in rice bran oil and represents
a mixture of esters of ferulic acid with sterols and triterpene alcohols (Zigoneanu
et al, 2008). Cycloartenol, |3-sitosterol, 24-methylene-cycloartanol
and campesterol (4-desmethysterols) are the most prevalent oryzanol components
found in the rice bran (Lloyd et al., 2000). Vitamin contents of the
rice caryopsis can be affected by cultural practice and/or grain processing.
Taira et al. (1976) showed how ‘topdressing’ rice with nitrogen fertilizer at
panicle initiation and again at full heading stage decreases the riboflavin
content (B2) from 1.41-1.43 pg/g to 1.16-1.27 pg/g and increases the nicotinic
acid content from 54.7-55.4 pg/g to 58.3-62.1 pg/g. In contrast, thiamine
(Bi) and folic acid (B9) were not affected by nitrogen fertilization.
Additionally, during the normal milling process extensive losses of vitamins
have been reported. These losses include thiamin (Bi) by 68-82 %, riboflavin
(B2) by 57 %, niacin (B3) by 64-79 %, biotin (H) by 86 %, pantothenic
acid (B5) by 51-67 %, B^ by 43-86 %, folic acid (B9) by 60-67 %, vitamin E
by 82 % (Luh, 1991b; Dexter, 1998).
3.3.4 Minerals
Rice mineral content ranges from 1.0-1.5 % (Childs, 2004), decreasing from
the outer bran layers in to the endosperm (Itani et al, 2002; Lamberts et al,
2007). The bran contains about 51 % of total amount of minerals, followed
by 28 % in the milled rice fraction and 10 % each in the germ and polish
(Childs, 2004). The most abundant macro-elements found in rice are P and
K, whilst Cl, Na and Zn are the primary micro-element representatives
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

132 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries
(Table 3.8). Phosphorus is the most important element in nutritional terms;
however, in rice bran, a major proportion (90 %) of it exists as phytin phosphorus.
Wang et al. (2011) examined phytic acid (PA) and six mineral elements,
including; Mg, Ca, Mn, Fe, Zn and Se, in rice to reveal their distribution
in the different fractions to investigate the effect of degree of milling
(DOM) on the loss of these constituents during the milling process. They
found that most of the mineral elements and PA were present in the fractions
of the outermost part (bran and outer endosperm fraction), whereas
only small amounts are accumulated in the core endosperm fraction of the
rice kernels. Generally, the mineral content in rice followed the order Mg
> Ca > Mn > Zn > Fe > Se. P, Mg, Ca, Mn and Fe are mainly located in the
outer layer of the rice kernel. In contrast, Zn and Se seem to be evenly
distributed through the rice caryopsis (Wang et«/., 2011). Milling was shown
to have a large effect on mineral element concentrations and using this
technique to adjust the flour yield allows improvement of the elemental
composition of rice flour (Wang et al., 2011). Antoine et al. (2012) analysed
the mineral composition of 25 rice brands available on the Jamaican market
in addition to a local field trial sample. Brown rice was found to contain,
on average, significantly greater concentrations of Cr, Cu, K, Mg, Mn, Na,
P and Zn, in comparison with the white rice samples. White rice does not
significantly contribute to mineral nutrition for most essential elements.
3.3.5 Phytochemicals
Phytochemicals are non-nutritive components present in a plant-based diet
that exert protective or disease-preventing effects. Rice bran contains a
significant amount of natural phytochemicals such as oryzanols, tocopherols
and tocotrienols that have been reported as the strongest antioxidants in
rice bran (Orthoefer and Eastman, 2004). Polyphenols in rice are also of
particular interest due to their multiple biological activities. These phenolic
compounds, that include ferulic acid and diferulates, anthocyanins, anthocyanidins
and polymeric proanthocyanidins (condensed tannins) (Chun et al.,
2005), have a protective effect on cell constituents against oxidative damage.
Additionally, epidemiological studies have shown that they can prevent
cancers, cardiovascular and nerve diseases (Kehrer, 1993), as well as
possessing remarkable anti-inflammatory properties (Hou et al., 2012).
However, some of these bioactive components are heat labile and are often
lost during the high heat processing treatments (Pascual et al., 2012).
3.4 Rice processing
Rice processing comprises parboiling, followed by the various stages in the
milling process. The complex processing steps are detailed in the following

3.4.2 Rice milling
The objective of milling is to remove the rice hull, bran and germ, with
minimum endosperm breakage (Owens, 2001). Each milling step is briefly
described below.
Rice 133
3.4.1 Parboiling rice
Parboiling paddy (or rough rice) is a hydro-thermal treatment aimed at
inducing milling, nutritional and organoleptic improvements in rice (Kar
et al., 1999). It is an alternative method to prolong rice storage, reduce
broken grain, increase head rice yield and reduce nutritional loss during
the polishing process (Bhattacharya, 2004). The meaning of parboiled
rice, as the name implies, is rice that has been partially boiled, i.e. cooked
(Bhattacharya, 2004). Parboiled rice originated in ancient India and, nowadays,
is applied to one-quarter of the world’s paddy produce (Kar et al.,
1999). Industrially, this pre-cooking procedure consists of water and heat
which are applied separately to avoid over-imbibition and bursting or
deshaping of the rice caryopsis. In practice, the process consists of soaking
rough rice in water until it is saturated, draining the excess of water and
then steaming or otherwise heating the grain to gelatinize the starch, with
subsequent drying and packaging of the grains (Bhattacharya, 2004). Drying
methods are the key factors influencing the milling quality of the rice (Bhattacharya
and Indudhara Swamy, 1967). Several processes have been used
to dry parboiled rice such as sun drying, hot air drying, vacuum drying and
superheated steam drying (Bhattacharya, 2004; Soponronarit et al, 2004;
Taechapairoj et al., 2004).
Parboiling rice is also an economical way to improve the storage stability
(reduction of insect infestation) and significantly increase the nutritive
value of the rice. In this regard, during the parboiling treatment, vitamins
and minerals seep into the endosperm from their natural place of residence
in the bran and aluerone layer. Thus, post-milling parboiled rice contains
much greater amounts of B vitamins, minerals (especially Ca, P, and Fe),
and free amino acids than raw rice (Bhattacharya, 2004). Additionally, the
loss of nutrients during washing is also greatly reduced. From a technological
viewpoint, parboiled grains do not mash together after cooking, thus
remaining whole, and making rice suitable for making products which are
canned, expanded or flaked.
However, the parboiling of rough rice also has certain disadvantages. The
rice husk represents a hurdle for the entire parboiling process because it
has a poor thermal conductivity resulting in increased time and heat energy
required for wetting and heating. Moreover, the husk is also a barrier during
the drying operation after parboiling, and the final rice is more prone to
oxidative rancidity. Kar et al. (1999) developed a method for parboiling
dehusked rice, thus saving processing time, cooking energy and maintaining
satisfactory sensory quality of the final product.

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134 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries
Precleaning/destoning
Preliminary cleaning is the first step in advance of milling rice, and it is
carried out to eliminate immature rough rice and unfilled grains from
paddy, foreign grains as well as vegetable (weed seeds, straw, chaff), animal
(rodent, excreta and hairs, insects and insect frass, mites) and mineral (mud,
dust, stones, sand, metal objects, nails, nuts) impurities. The large light and
large heavy impurities are removed by a rotating screen, while the smaller
ones are removed by an oscillating sieve. The small stones are removed by
a destoner or gravity separator, in conjunction with air current aspiration,
using the difference in density weight of rough rice and stones as the mechanism
of separation. A permanent rotating and self-cleaning electromagnet
is normally installed to trap iron or steel particles from the paddy (Bond,
2004).
Husking/husking aspiration
Husk is not edible and therefore must be removed from paddy. The husk
is not tightly bound to the kernel and so it is easily removed. Generally,
rubber-roll hullers are used to dehull rough rice. This machine consists of
two rubber-rolls of identical diameter, one rotating clockwise and the
second counter clockwise. One roll moves about 25 % faster than the other.
Tlte difference in peripheral speeds subjects the paddy grains, which fall
between the rolls, to a shearing action that strips off the husk (Wimberly,
1983). The clearance between the two rolls is based on the length of the
grain (Bond, 2004). Payman et al. (2007) studied the factors that affect
the operation of a rubber-roll hulling machine in an effort to decrease the
amount of rice breakage. They found that linear speed differences of rollers
of 229.3 m min"' ensure the least rice breakage. However, other factors such
as the rice variety and grain humidity influence the efficiency of the husking
process. After the husking, the detached husk is removed using a double
air-trap aspiration system, in which the hull is in part removed by aspiration
as the grain passes over the coarse bran sieve and the remaining hull is
aspirated upwards by an air-trap system positioned above the rough rice
separator (Bond, 2004).
Paddy separation
Tlte paddy must be separated before the brown rice goes to the bran
removal stage (Wimberly, 1983). The separating machine separates the
product of the husking operation into three parts - brown rice, paddy and
a mixture of the two. Brown rice is fed to the whitening machine, paddy is
sent back for husking and the mixture is returned to the separator (Fouda,
2011). Natural differences between the paddy and brown rice aid the paddy
separation process, such as (i) the average weight of paddy by volume is
less than that of brown rice; and (ii) the paddy grains are longer, wider and
thicker than those of brown rice. The paddy separator commonly used

Rice 135
today is the tray type. It consists of several indented trays mounted one
above the other about 5 cm apart, clamped together and attached to an
oscillating frame. The assembly of trays has a double inclination. The table
inclination is adjustable to meet different paddy varieties and conditions
and to achieve maximum separation capacity. The tray section moves up
and forward, making a slight jumping movement. Paddy moves onto each
tray from the highest corner of the double-inclined tray. As it moves across
the tray downward towards the end of the tray opposite the feeding end,
the brown rice separates from the paddy. The brown rice has a smoother
surface and a greater bulk density and moves to the top of the tray (highest
corner) where it is conveyed to the polishers. The paddy moves to the lower
part of the tray (lowest corner) where it is conveyed back to the husker.
Some of the unseparated paddy moves to the centre of the tray where it is
returned to the inlet of the separator.
Whitening (bran removal)
In this process, bran - which is tightly attached to brown rice - is removed
from the rice kernel. Therefore, during this process rice kernels are subject
to intensive mechanical and thermal stress which causes some rice kernel
damage and breakage. The most common whitening machines, the abrasivetype
whitener and the friction-type whitener, use the abrasive and friction
process for bran removal, as the equipment names suggest. The abrasion
process uses a coarse surface to break and peel the bran off the rice grain.
The friction process uses the friction between the grains themselves to
break and peel off the bran (Wimberly, 1983).
Polishing
The aim of the polishing step is to remove the loose bran which, even after
the whitening process, still adheres to the surface of the milled rice. There
is a rubber polisher that polishes the whitened rice using a rubber brush;
however, the friction-type whitener is sometimes used as a polisher. Generally,
the polishing machine has a cone shape that is covered with leather
strips, which gently brush the grain as it passes through the machine which
operates at a lower rpm. The leather strips roll the whitened rice over and
over against the screen. Under slight pressure, the remaining bran is
removed from the milled rice passing through these screens and the rice
becomes shinier and glossier (Wimberly, 1983; Bond, 2004).
Grading
After the whitening operation, the unbroken rice is still mixed with different
sized broken rice pieces, bran and dust. Bran and dust particles are
separated by air aspiration, while the small broken rice and germs are separated
by a vibrating sieve or rotary cylinders called trieurs. The latter is
mainly composed of a slowly indented rotating cylinder that is installed at
a slight incline. Each indent has the ability to catch grains or grain particles.
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

136 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries
which are then lifted from the grain mass and discharged by gravity when
the indent cannot hold the grain any longer (Wimberly, 1983; Bond, 2004).
Milling
Three methods, namely wet, dry and semi-dry milling, have been used to
grind polished rice kernels or brokens into flour (Chiang and Yeh, 2002).
Wet grinding is a traditional process used to prepare rice flour and includes
five successive steps: soaking, adding excess water during grinding, filtering,
drying and sieving. This process comprises the use of several machines and
much manpower. Additionally, this process is known to have significant
flour loss and high energy consumption (Yeh, 2004). Dry grinding does
not use water (no waste water generation) and is characterized by its
limited consumption of energy. Herein, the rice kernel is ground with dry
grinding machinery such as a hammer mill, pin mill, roller mill or disc mill,
etc. Nevertheless, many food items made of dry ground flour (for instance,
noodles) have inadequate rheological properties for many consumer uses
(Yeh, 2004).
In the semi-dry grinding methods, the properties of flour are intermediate
to those of both dry and wet ground flour from the perspectives
of particle size, viscosity, damaged starch, etc. (Ngamnikom and
Songsermpong, 2011). The semi-dry grinding process is characterized by
three consecutive steps: soaking, drying to remove excess water (15-17 %
wet basis) and grinding with dry grinding machinery (Yeh, 2004). Nevertheless,
the semi-dry method has some disadvantages, such as the longer time
required to adjust the rice kernel moisture content, the high energy consumption
needed for the drying step, the excessive consumption of water
and the generation of waste water. Generally, wet-milled flour is superior
to dry-milled flour for making traditional baked products (Bean et ai, 1983)
and Thai rice-based snack food (Jomduang and Mohamed, 1994). The superior
quality of wet-milled flour is mainly due to its low proportion of
damaged starch and finest relative particle size (Chen et al., 1999).
Ngamnikom and Songsermpong (2011) investigated the performance of
a new grinding process, which includes freezing rice with liquid nitrogen
prior to dry grinding. In terms of damaged starch content, average particle
size, particle size distribution, microscopic structures and energy consumption,
they found that the freeze grinding resulted in (i) reduced particle size
and damaged starch content due to the extremely low temperature of the
sample prior to grinding, and (ii) a smaller flour particle size than from dry
grinding resulting in a greater yield after sieving. Moreover, freeze grinding
produced a higher flour yield after sieving in comparison with dry grinding
using an identical grinder. Finally, the energy consumption of freeze grinding
was similar to dry grinding and much lower than that detected for the
wet grinding process. Consequently, the authors conclude that the freeze
grinding process was a viable alternative to the traditional wet grinding

3.5.1 Bakery products from rice
The production of bakery products based on rice presents several technological
problems, when compared to their wheat counterparts, due to
the absence of gluten protein which gives the wheat its unique ability to
form highly expanded, tender, white and flavoursome yeast leavened or
chemicallv leavened baked nrodiirt« IM aty 1 OQfSl Tn a dnnoh svctem the
3.5 Food and beverage applications of rice
Rice 137
Rice consumption falls into the following three categories: direct food use,
processed foods use and brewer’s use. After hulling, brown rice can be
processed in different ways. It can be (i) decorticated by abrasion ‘milling’
to obtain white polished rice, (ii) parboiled, thus retaining more original
minerals and vitamin Bj compared with polished white rice, or (iii) not
decorticated and consumed as brown rice. However, parboiled rice and
brown rice are generally not as appreciated because of their darker colour
compared to white polished rice. Polished rice may also be ground into a
powder (flour), which enters the food industry in the form of cakes, noodles,
baked products, puddings, snack foods, infant formulas, fermented goods
and other industrial products (Kiple and Ornelas, 2000).
Cooking of all types of rice is performed by applying heat (boiling or
steaming) to soaked rice until the starch grains are fully gelatinized and
excess water is expelled from the cooked product. Cooked rice can be used
for making porridge (thick gruel) or congee (thin soup), or lightly fried in
oil to make fried rice.
Rice, which is low in sodium, fat and cholesterol-free, serves as an aid in
treating hypertension. It is also free from allergens and now widely used in
baby foods (James and McCaskill, 1983). Rice starch can also serve as a
substitute for glucose in oral rehydration solution for infants suffering from
diarrhoea (Childs, 2004).
Either uncooked or fully cooked, rice combines well with protein-rich
foods such as meat, poultry, fish, cheese and eggs for two reasons. Firstly,
rice is bland and thus serves to carry the flavour of the mixed ingredients.
Secondly, from a dietary perspective, rice is low in protein and thus mixtures
with protein-rich foods provide additional nutritional dimensions to rice
foods. Rice can be lightly fried before boiling (Middle East), combined with
salt, butter or margarine after soaking (Americans) or cooked in extra
water to produce porridge (thick gruel) or congee (thin soup) (China,
Korea and Japan). Rice can also be cooked with curries (in India and
Malaysia), sauces (in the Philippines) or with combinations of various ingredients,
including pork, shrimp, chicken and vegetables (in China) (Boesch,
1967). Detailed methods and recipes for rice food preparations were
described by Luh (1999), Owen (1993), Jeffrey and Duguid (1998) and Luh
(1991b).

3.5.2 Cakes
Rice cakes are made in many cultures and have a wide range of processing
— ^ ^ r»-»«f* r-f-i, TUo rinp paVp nn tn 1«? rnn

Rice 139
as a breakfast, dessert or snack food. The product is made from rice that is
soaked overnight, ground and mixed with sugar and coconut milk. The
resulting batter is then fermented for several hours, during which time
acidification and leavening occur. The fermented batter is steamed for
approximately 30 min before serving (Kelly et al, 1995). Idli cakes are a
very popular fermented food consumed in the Indian subcontinent (Ghosh
and Chattopadhyay, 2011). Eaten at breakfast in South India and Sri Lanka,
in combination with coconut chutney and sambar (stew of tamarind and
pigeon pea) (Nout, 2009), they are small, white, acidic, leavened and steamcooked
cakes which are the product of a lactic fermented thick batter made
from polished rice and dehulled black gram dhal, a pulse. The fermentation
of idli is natural; no back-slopping technique is used, although the use of
the same vessels and utensils may help to stabilize a mixed LAB microflora
(Nout, 2009). The cakes are soft, moist and spongy with a desirable sour
flavour (Steinkraus, 1983). It has also been reported that during fermentation,
vitamins B and C increase, and also phytate is hydrolysed almost to
50% of its original content (Ghosh and Chattopadhyay, 2011).
MiGao is a kind of steam cooked Chinese cake obtained from rice flour
and sticky rice flour (in the ratio of 2:3) by steaming in a bamboo steamer.
It is famous for its soft and sticky texture and it is habitually served as a
dessert. Traditionally, these products are packaged in polyethylene bags
after steaming and cooling (Ji et al., 2007b). It has a short shelf-life (two
days) and loses its softness, quickly becoming stale and hard (Ji et al.,
2007b). Ji et al. (2007a) investigated the evolution of Enterobactericeae,
LAB, Gram-positive, catalase-positive cocci. Staphylococcus aureus. Bacillus
strains, yeasts and moulds in MiGao during its shelf-life in order to select
the most suitable strains as starter or protective cultures. During the first
two days, they found that Gram-positive bacteria were dominant, mainly
represented by S. epidermidis and S. aureus. Bacillus (mainly Bacillus brevis)
strains occurred by the third day, reaching a maximum level of 1 x 10'’ CLU/g
after five days of storage. No Enterobactericeae or LAB were detected in
the processed products throughout the storage period. The count of yeasts
and moulds increased slowly but remained low throughout the storage
period. The amount and type of foodborne pathogens and food spoilage
microorganisms identified in this product was extensive. In order to improve
the microbial safety of this traditional Chinese steamed cake, several preservative
strategies, such us combined pH, temperature and natural preservatives,
should be developed (Ji et al., 2007a).
Mochi, a kind of glutinous rice (waxy or sweet rice) cake, is particularly
common in Oriental areas such as Taiwan, China and Japan and is a special
rice cake for the celebration of the Chinese Lunar New Year. It consists of
high moisture, soft and slightly sticky dough served as a dessert. Conventionally,
glutinous rice is washed, cooked with water and pounded right after
cooking to ensure loss of the rice kernel integrity and allow formation of
tbp. V15Pn-Plactic* mivtlirp 5inrí Vpb flo^rr\iir

140 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries
is sometimes sweetened with sugar or enriched with lard and cinnamon
flour. There are many other types of rice cakes made in Asia. For example,
biko, cuchinta (or kutsinta), suman and other rice cakes are made in the
Philippines.
3.5.3 Rice breakfast cereals
Rice breakfast cereals can be classified into hot cereals - those the need to
be cooked or mixed with hot water before serving such as instant rice gruel,
and granular products such as cream of rice, and ready-to-eat (RTF) breakfast
cereals - those that can be eaten directly from the package such as
gun-puffed rice cereals, oven-puffed rice cereals, extruded-puffed rice and
shredded rice cereal (Luh, 1991a; Yeh, 2004). The shelf-life of RTE rice
breakfast cereals is expected to be 12 months at 20 °C. However, suboptimal
conditions may lead to a decreased shelf-life, and shelf-life depends on
parameters, such as packaging material, sealing and storage, which should
be adequate to avoid a loss of crispness and flavour, and to prevent water
uptake by hygroscopic products or hydrolytic rancidity due to oxidative
deterioration (Luh, 1991a).
3.5.4 Rice crackers
Rice crackers are popular in China, Japan and other Asian countries. They
are made from rice cakes using glutinous or non-glutinous rice as the
primary ingredient. After being washed and soaked in water for a couple
of hours, rice is steamed in a steamer. When the steamed rice is kneaded,
the resulting rice dough material has a homogeneous viscosity. After cooling,
rice dough is shaped into the form of the final product with a cutting
machine or punching tool. These pellets are then dried thoroughly (moisture
content drops to 10 %) and are then baked in an oven at a temperature
ranging from 200 to 260 °C. Thereafter, the expanded final product has a
moisture content of 3-5 % (Koizumi and Kamedamachi, 1975; Lu, 2004).
3.5,5 Noodles
Rice noodles, in various contents, formulations and shapes, are one of the
principal forms of rice products consumed in Southeast Asia since ancient
times (Yeh, 2004). To prepare for consumption, the noodles may either be
stir-fried by mixing with meats and vegetables, or boiled in a broth and
served as a soup noodle. Due to the absence of gluten, rice proteins are
unable to form continuous visco-elastic dough; thus it is common to subject
part of the rice flour to pre-gelatinization to create a binder for the remaining
flour. Depending on the production process, rice noodles can be made
by sheeting a batter, which is used to produce sheets and flat noodles, or by
extrusion, which is used to produce vermicelli types. For the production of
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Rice 141
sheeted rice noodles, particularly popular in most parts of Southeast Asia,
southern China and Japan, a wet-milled rice batter is layered onto a rotating
heated drum and the formed sheet is stripped off and conveyed to a steaming
tunnel where the gelatinization process takes place. The noodles can be
then cut into 1 cm wide strips to make fresh rice ribbon noodles or dried
before sale.
In rice vermicelli noodle production, milled rice is filtered, pulverized
and moulded into balls that are precooked in boiling water for about 20 min
or steamed to allow surface gelatinization. The partially cooked rice balls
are then kneaded to evenly distribute the gelatinized rice throughout the
dough where it will function as a binder. The kneaded dough is extruded
through a die.The extruded noodles are then further steamed for 10-15 min,
followed by a washing step under running water, and finally are dried in
trays. Alternatively, the extruded noodles are partially cooked in boiling
water and cooled in cold water. The noodles are then subject to the drying
(Fu, 2008). Good-quality noodles can generally be recognized by the brightness
of their colour, retarded discoloration, reduced microbial and chemical
(rancidity) deterioration and appropriate flavour and textural characteristics
which will vary according to the noodle type and region.
3.5.6 Germinated brown rice
Germinated brown rice, produced by soaking brown rice grains in water
until they begin to sprout (Komatsuzaki et ai, 2007), is becoming popular
in Japan and Korea as an alternative to brown rice with improved texture.
The germination process involves a déstructuration of starch, fibres
and proteins, resulting in generating physiologically active intermediates
(Palmiano and Juliano, 1972; Komatsuzaki etal., 2007), such as y-aminobutyric
acid (GABA) (Moongngarm and Saetung, 2010), and in an improvement
of flavour, digestibility and organoleptic and nutritional quality (Hunt et al.,
2002; Tian et al., 2004; Chung et al., 2012b). Therefore, germinated brown
rice has been suggested to be utilized as a healthy ingredient in a variety
of foods. In the study conducted by Chung et al. (2012a), germinated brown
rice was tested as a partial replacement of wheat flour in noodle-making,
and the effect of heat-moisture treatment of germinated brown rice on the
texture and cooking quality of the noodles was investigated. They found
that replacement of germinated brown rice flour with wheat flour significantly
degrades the cooking and textural quality of cooked noodles, resulting
in increased cooking loss and softness. However, noodles made from
the flour containing heat-moisture treated germinated brown rice showed
substantially improved cooking and textural qualities comparable to the
control wheat noodle. Consequently, treated germinated brown rice can be
successfully used as a replacement of wheat flour for noodle-making with
additional health-promoting and nutritive values. Nevertheless, heatmoisture
treatment normally induces darkening and flavour modification
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142 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries
due to the Maillard reaction, which should be carefully considered for the
use of treated germinated brown rice.
3.5.7 Infant foods
Although baby foods can be in the form of rice flour, waxy rice flour, parboiled
rice, rice polishing, rice oil or granulated rice, generally precooked
milled rice is a dominant carbohydrate source to wean infants up to one
year of age. This is due to its tastelessness, low allergen potential and nutritional
value, including its lack of potentially allergenic gluten (Mennella
et al., 2006; Meharg et al., 2008b). Tlie latter trait is particularly important
for infants with coeliac disease (Meharg et al., 2008a, b). The key to making
this type of cereal is ensuring the ease of reconstitution with milk or
formula in a homogeneous manner. The process to produce precooked rice
essentially consists of preparing a cooked rice slurry which is then dried
on a double-drum atmospheric dryer, flaked and subsequently packaged
(Kelly, 1985).
Recently, several studies have shown that rice and rice-based infant
products contain elevated contents of both total and inorganic arsenic
(Meharg et al., 2008b; Ljung et al., 2011). These elements are known to
increase infant morbidity and mortality. Moreover, Wang et al. (2012) isolated
S. aureus in infant rice cereal sold in the Shaanxi province in China,
and many S. aureus isolates exhibited resistance to different antimicrobials
and show expression of various toxin genes. Additionally, Richards et al.
(2005) demonstrated that reconstituted infant rice cereal can support luxuriant
growth of Enterobacter sakazakii, a pathogenic microorganism known
to cause illness in preterm neonates, infants and children from three days
to four years of age. For this reason, reconstituted cereal that is not immediately
consumed should be discarded or stored at lower temperatures to
inhibit E. sakazakii, and other foodborne pathogen, growth.
3.5.8 Canned rice
For consumer convenience, canned rice is produced in Japan, Korea, the
USA and other countries. Two types of canned rice are produced today.
After precooking, canned rice is sold by wet pack, which is defined as a
product with an excess of liquid, such as soup, and dry pack, which is defined
as a product with free and separate grains without unbound or excess moisture.
The major problem that afflicts these products is the change of the rice
grain textural properties during storage. This is due to complete breakdown
of the kernels and/or the formation of rice clumps and development of
unpleasant mouthfeel. The use of parboiled rice helps prevents the disintegration
of the rice kernel (Demon! and Burns, 1968). Azanza (2003) developed
a thermally processed rice-based product for the Philippine military.
f o
r QKK

Sake
In Japan, the use of rice for brewing sake (Japanese rice wine) ranks second
only in importance to its primary use as food. It is not produced by a conventional
beer brewing process, but there are several similarities between
beer and sake (Hardwick, 1995). Sake is made from steamed rice by a
double fermentation process involving koji {A. oryzae) and yeast (S. cerevisiae)
(Kamara et al., 2009). The first step in sake brewing is polishing of rice.
This process, as previously described, involves the abrasive removal of
the protein, lipids and minerals mainly localized in the germ and in the
outer part of the rice kernel. Then the milled rice is washed, steeped in
water and steamed for 30-60 min lYoshizawa and Opawa. 19851. The first
Rice 143
accepted by the panellists and was adopted as military food ration, particularly
suitable in areas with minimum or absent kitchen facilities.
3.5.9 Vinegar
Rice vinegar is an ancient and common product in the Far East. It is made
by a series of microbial processes which take one to three months
and, unlike other types of fermentation, three microbiological processes
are known to occur simultaneously or sequentially and proceed in a single
pot (so-called triple fermentation). These fermentations include saccharification
of the gelatinized rice starch using an inoculums of rice koji (mouldy
steamed rice grain populated by the genera Aspergillus) (Hesseltine, 1965;
Steinkraus, 1996), alcohol fermentation of the sugar released with
Saccharomyces sake and, finally, the acetic acid fermentation (oxidation of
ethanol to acetic acid) using unfiltered fresh vinegars from a previous
batch as inoculum to provide the necessary microorganisms for the acetic
acid fermentation. Haruta et al. (2006), Koizumi et al. (1996) and Entani
and Masai (1985) investigated the succession of bacterial and fungal
communities during the fermentation of rice vinegar. The microbial succession
was dominated by A. oryzae (saccharification), Saccharomyces sp.,
Zygosaccharomyces sp. and Candida sp. (alcohol fermentation), Lnciohnc//-
lus acetotolerans, Acetobacter pasteurianus, A. aceti and A. xylinum (acetic
fermentation).
Two Japanese traditional rice vinegars, komesu, which is a polished
amber rice vinegar, and kurosu, which is an unpolished black rice vinegar,
are known for their health benefits via the prevention of inflammation and
hypertension (Murooka and Yamshita, 2008). In addition to vinegar, rice
koji is also used as the primary ingredient for a number of other condiments
and seasoning sauces, such as shoyu (soy sauce), miso (umami flavoured
sauce), mirin (sweet syrup) and alcoholic beverages, as described in the next
section.
3.5.10 Alcoholic rice beverages

144 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries
step of fermentation is the production of a seed mash. The steamed rice is
mixed with water, yeast and koji which is then fermented for 15 days at
approximately 20 °C. Due to the presence of LAB, the mash is acidified.
This naturally acidified mash is mixed with water, steamed rice and koji at
8°C. After a few days, the mash is warmed slowly to about 15 °C. The seed
mash is then cooled and stored for five to seven days before it is used for
the main mash. Subsequently, steamed rice, koji and water are added to the
seed mash at 12°C.The quantity added is about twice that of the seed mash.
An essential difference between beer and sake is that for the latter the
natural enzymes contained in the rice kernel are not used to break down
the starch and are, in fact, deliberately inactivated before the saccharifying
steps of the sake brewing. The solubilization of rice starch is ensured by
amylolytic action of the fungal enzymes derived from koji, which is dominated
by A. oryzae. Koji contains a- and ¡3-amylases capable of starch
liquefaction to glucose.The acidic characteristic of ko;7, resulting from lactic
acid fermentation or lactic acid adjunct addition, inhibits the growth of
wild microorganisms that may compromise the quality of the fermentation
process.
As soon as the fungal population reaches its highest concentration
(10* CFU/g) originally present in the koji (generally after two days of fermentation
at 12 °C), one part steamed rice and one part water is added
again. A third addition is performed the following day and the vigour of
the fermentation is enhanced by increasing the temperature to 18 °C. After
an additional 13-17 days, the fermentation almost ceases and the alcohol
content rises to 17-20%, which is a world record as the highest ethanol
content to be obtained by fermentation without distillation.
A turbid filtrate is normally obtained from the fermented mash by charcoal
filtration through canvas bags (to adjust flavour and colour). It is then
usually pasteurized to kill yeast and harmful microorganisms (if present),
to inactivate enzymes and to adjust the maturation velocity - a process
which takes approximately three to eight months. At the end of maturation,
but before the bottle-pasteurization, sake is blended with water to reach
the appropriate alcohol content (15-16%) and then filtered through activated
carbon to adjust the colour, taste and flavour (Yoshizawa and Ogawa,
1985).
Several indigenous rice beer-like products are produced around the
world such as siijen, which is a popular local rice beer of Assam (India)
(Deori et al., 2007). Additionally, distilled rice-based beverages exist, such
as shochu which is a popular alcoholic drink that is distilled from sake or
related alcohol in beverages (Murooka and Yamshita, 2008).
Rice is also widely used as brewing adjunct in the USA and in Japan
after maize (Childs, 2004). As an adjunct, rice is favoured by some brewers
because of its lower lipid and protein contents as compared with those of
corn grits. Broken rice, obtained as a by-product of the edible rice milling
industry, or rice grist is generally used in brewing. Rice is characterized by
©Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Rice 145
a neutral aroma and flavour and, when converted efficiently to fermentable
sugars, yields a clean tasting, light beer (Coors, 1976).
3.6 Conclusions
Rice is consumed in various forms including plain rice, noodles, puffed rice,
breakfast cereals, cakes, fermented sweet rice, snack foods, beer, wine and
vinegar. It is grown in every continent (except Antarctica), in over 114
countries from 53° north to 40° south, and from sea level to an altitude of
3000 m, thus representing the best cereal crop in terms of food energy per
production area. As reported by Fitzgerald et al. (2009), rice production is
endangered by several factors, such as increasing urbanization leading to
loss of farming land, urban migration resulting in fewer food-producing
farmers, biofuel policies that negatively affect the availability of grain for
consumption, decreased funding for rice research and issues of climate
change. All of these factors, either directly or indirectly, influence both the
quantity and the quality of rice that is available for food-based consumption.
A smart integration of different disciplines, such as soil and water
management, agricultural practices, plant breeding, post-harvest technology
and food processing, could offer a valid solution for current and emerging
or future problems associated with food production, security, distribution
and quality.
3.7 Future trends
Nearly 50 % of the global population, mostly concentrated in less-developed
countries, depend on rice as their major energy source. The question, of
course, is whether the rice-producing countries, supported by ongoing technological
developments, can keep production levels ahead of population
growth. Over the longer term, a rice yield growth of 1.0-1.2 % annually will
be needed to feed the world at an affordable cost. The real cutting edge
solutions to the problems of rice production lie in developing and/or adapting
strategies to break the yield barrier, thus improving the input efficiency
and, additionally, emphasis must be put on ways to disseminate the modern
scientific knowledge and technology to farmers. While these approaches
could lead to sustained productivity using current rice varieties, efforts to
develop new varieties that have adapted to and can respond to the specific
farming conditions, should be vigorously pursued. Lastly, from a technological
viewpoint, production and processing conditions remarkably influence
the nutritional performance of the final rice products. Increasing the
consumption of brown rice and germinated brown rice, both characterized
by a higher content of healthy beneficial food components (Roy et ai,
2011), compared to the well-milled white rice, will significantly help to
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146 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries
mi
avoid malnutrition and other dietary and food-related diseases in the
future.
,U-7 ‘ . ' r f '
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Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Barley
DOI: 10.1533/9780857098924.155
Abstract: Barley {Hordeum vulgare L.) has been one of the most important food
grains since ancient times. Amongst cereals, it ranks fourth in quantity produced
and cultivation area in the world. Barley has been cultivated commonly for
centuries due its versatility, ability to adapt to unfavourable climate and soil
conditions, and superior properties for the malting and brewing industries. The
increased interest in barley as a human food ingredient results from studies which
have shown barley to be an excellent source of dietary fibre and, in particular,
(3-glucan. Barley kernels contain complex carbohydrates (mainly starch), have a
low fat content and are moderately well-balanced in terms of protein to meet
amino acid requirements, as well as minerals, vitamins (particularly vitamin E)
and antioxidant polyphenols. In addition to its use in the production of malt for
brewing, barley is used as whole-grain, pearled, raw-grain flour, whole roastedgrains
mature barley flour and roasted-grain flour for the production of breakfast
cereals, stews, soups, pastas and noodles, as a coffee substitute and in porridges,
sauces and baked products (including bread and flat bread). Given the greater
consumer and manufacturer focus on the physiological benefits and nutritional
properties of barley and associated by-products, newly emerging opportunities
exist for the incorporation of barley into human foods.
Key words: barley, chemical composition, barley utilization in food and beverages.
4.1 Introduction
Barley belongs to the family Poaceae and the genus Hordeum, the most
common form being Hordeum vulgare. It has been one of the most important
food grains since ancient times and nowadays has one of the highest
lands industrial use. It ranks fourth in quantity produced and cultivation
area of cereals in the world (Zhou, 2010). Barley has a long history of use as
a source of human nutrition, with archaeological studies revealing the cultivation
of two-row barley in Iran from 8000 BC and six-row barley from
around 6000 BC (von Bothmer and Jacobsen, 1985). The increasing use of
wheat, rice and maize in the human diet has led to a drastic decrease in
human barley use and consumption, except for the production of alcoholic
beverages such as beer. Thus, currently its primary use is in the brewing
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013