The competing <strong>the</strong>ories drawn from shards <strong>of</strong> evidence more than 500 years old are worthy <strong>of</strong> a who-done-it detective novel. Indeed, <strong>the</strong> varying accounts <strong>of</strong> where Columbus really stepped ashore have ignited academic battles as fierce as any. The stakes are high because <strong>the</strong> first voyage <strong>of</strong> Columbus connected <strong>the</strong> continents and <strong>the</strong>ir peoples separated for thousands <strong>of</strong> years, arguably <strong>the</strong> most consequential event in human history. Columbus, <strong>of</strong> course, was not <strong>the</strong> first visitor from across <strong>the</strong> Atlantic. The Viking Norsemen sailing to Greenland and Newfoundland in <strong>the</strong> year 1000 can claim that credit. And o<strong>the</strong>r visitors—African, Basque and Breton sailors—likely made voyages across <strong>the</strong> Atlantic before Columbus that went unrecorded. But <strong>the</strong> expedition that Columbus launched pr<strong>of</strong>oundly changed <strong>the</strong> world forever in a way that <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs did not. His happenstance landing on that low, flat, “bean shaped” island surrounded by reefs, beaches and “<strong>the</strong> most beautiful waters” in <strong>the</strong> pre-dawn hours <strong>of</strong> October 12 decidedly ushered in a new age. The discovery triggered a tidal wave <strong>of</strong> immigrant conquerors seeking quick riches, and set in motion <strong>the</strong> enslavement, murder and near extermination <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> native peoples. Expanding colonies fostered <strong>the</strong> emergence <strong>of</strong> powerful new empires and <strong>the</strong> fall <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs. A new order took hold that sharpened divisions between overlords and <strong>the</strong> subjugated, culminating in <strong>the</strong> massive and monstrous slave trade from Africa that underpinned <strong>the</strong> creation <strong>of</strong> vast new fortunes. Indeed, <strong>the</strong> wealth generated from Caribbean plantations worked by slaves provided a critical concentration <strong>of</strong> capital in Europe that financed <strong>the</strong> Industrial Revolution and made possible modern society. Pinpointing where Columbus landed matters because it goes to <strong>the</strong> heart <strong>of</strong> historical inquiry: How did it happen? Not asking this question would deny <strong>the</strong> inquisitiveness that defines our humanity. After all, <strong>the</strong> landfall unleashed forces that made us who we are today, particularly so for those <strong>of</strong> us living in <strong>the</strong> West Indies— named, <strong>of</strong> course, for <strong>the</strong> woefully wrong assumption by Columbus that he arrived in <strong>the</strong> Orient, <strong>the</strong>n referred to as “The Indies.” Original error Two centuries earlier, Marco Polo pioneered an eastward overland route from Turkey to <strong>the</strong> fabled kingdoms <strong>of</strong> Cathay and Cipango (now known as China and Japan) that generated substantial wealth for traders in silk and spice. But in 1453, <strong>the</strong> gateway city <strong>of</strong> Constantinople (now Istanbul) fell to <strong>the</strong> Ottomans, making such treks far more dangerous and near impossible. Maritime explorers had considerable incentive to find a sea route to <strong>the</strong> Orient to resume <strong>the</strong> lucrative trade. While <strong>the</strong> Portuguese made good progress going south, hugging <strong>the</strong> coast <strong>of</strong> Africa before heading east, Columbus proposed heading west—not knowing, <strong>of</strong> course, that ano<strong>the</strong>r hemisphere lay in between. He and o<strong>the</strong>r educated people <strong>of</strong> his day understood <strong>the</strong> spherical form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> planet based largely on <strong>the</strong>ories developed by <strong>the</strong> ancient Greek philosopher/ geographers. Many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m got surprisingly close to <strong>the</strong> actual size we know today. But some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ancients, notably Ptolemy building on <strong>the</strong> works <strong>of</strong> Marinus <strong>of</strong> Tyre, believed <strong>the</strong> earth to be about 3/4 <strong>of</strong> its true size. Columbus bought into <strong>the</strong> smaller, inaccurate model, but compounded <strong>the</strong> error by applying <strong>the</strong> shorter “Italian” mile, instead <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> longer “Arab” mile, to <strong>the</strong> maps ancient geographers used for measuring <strong>the</strong> size <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> earth. The Italian mile equated to .74 mile (1.24 km) in today’s measurement standards. An Arab mile equaled about 1.1 miles (1.9 km), representing a significant 35% difference. Based on this mistake, Columbus estimated <strong>the</strong> distance to <strong>the</strong> Orient from <strong>the</strong> Canary <strong>Islands</strong> (<strong>the</strong> westernmost islands in <strong>the</strong> Atlantic and logical jumping-<strong>of</strong>f point) to be only 3,000 Italian miles (2,300 miles/3,700 km). At an average speed <strong>of</strong> six knots with favorable winds, an Atlantic crossing to <strong>the</strong> Indies looked to be a reasonable, if still risky, proposition. Had Columbus used <strong>the</strong> longer Arab mile and applied it to a larger sphere, he would have calculated a much longer distance for <strong>the</strong> voyage—and a far more daunting challenge. Setting sail Portuguese and Spanish mariners, along with o<strong>the</strong>rs including Columbus (originally from <strong>the</strong> Republic <strong>of</strong> Genoa, now part <strong>of</strong> modern Italy), had already sailed well into <strong>the</strong> Atlantic. In <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> exploration, <strong>the</strong> Iberian sailors discovered and settled <strong>the</strong> Azores, Madeira, and Canary <strong>Islands</strong> and developed a significant body <strong>of</strong> knowledge and confidence in <strong>the</strong>ir maritime capabilities. Improved ship construction, particularly <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> triangular “lateen” sailing rigs for caravels that greatly improved handling in headwinds, also bolstered <strong>the</strong> prospect <strong>of</strong> longer voyages. Armed with <strong>the</strong> gifts <strong>of</strong> persistence, charm and persuasion, Columbus over time managed to convince Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand <strong>of</strong> Spain to finance most <strong>of</strong> 36 www.timespub.tc
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