Fruit Crop Ecology and Management - UVM Apple Orchard

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the most important constraint influenced by geography. Water is another major limitation. Plants require water for both growth and temperature control. An actively growing plant transpires five to 10 times as much water per day as it holds at any given time. Water conservation and quality are very important for fruit growers. Other constraints include excessive wind, cloudiness and moisture. The balance of energy at the surface In addition to Earth’s energy balance on a global scale, distribution and flow of energy take place on a much smaller (micro) scale. Balances are obtained when energy flows to and from matter, as by: Fruit Crop Ecology and Management: Chapter 1 Blueberry leaves show red fall color. • Net radiation (radiant energy moving toward and away from surfaces). • Energy changes associated with evaporation and condensation. • Transport of heat energy by wind. • Movement of heat into and out of the soil profile. Height (feet) 4000 2000 Convective mixed layer Cloud layer R. Isaacs • Energy transfer associated with plant photosynthesis and respiration. During photosynthesis, plants convert carbon dioxide gas and water into simple sugars (carbohydrates) and release oxygen. The energy captured and stored in this process is responsible for the growth and activities of all living organisms. Daily cycle of the boundary layer The planetary boundary layer of air surrounds Earth up to about 3,000 feet. Carbon dioxide, heat energy and water vapor move to and from the plant canopy within this layer. Changes in the amount of energy available on a landscape’s surface directly affect the physical character of this layer. Higher amounts of Free atmosphere Residual layer Stable nocturnal boundary layer Convective mixed layer 0 Noon Sunset Midnight Sunrise Noon Example of the growth and decay of the earth’s boundary layer throughout the day and night in a temperate climate with fair weather conditions. (Adapted from Stull, 1988.) 11
12 energy are usually associated with more rapid vertical movement and transport. The typical daily pattern of the planetary boundary layer begins at sunrise with the air next to the ground heating and rising. This vertical motion creates turbulence that mixes the air. The layer reaches its maximum depth by late morning or early afternoon and begins to diminish shortly after sunset. At sunset, the opposite process takes place. Without sunlight, the ground surface cools. Because air is an effective insulator, the surface and vegetation quickly become cooler than the air above them. This cooling results in the formation of a surface inversion layer that slowly grows deeper during the night. During inversions, ground temperatures may be several degrees cooler than the air above. This is why frost can be on the ground while the ”official” temperature taken at 5 feet is in the mid- or upper 30s F. Because cool air is denser than warm air, air cooled near the surface may flow downhill like a liquid moving under the force of gravity. This cold air drainage creates pronounced Fruit Crop Ecology and Management: Chapter 1 Vines growing in a low area of this vineyard are noticeably smaller. microclimates as it quickly leaves some areas and pools in others. Frost and its formation Soil type and moisture content may affect frost formation. Ground heat flux, the movement of heat energy up out of the soil profile at night, influences the rate of surface cooling. The most common way of reducing this flux is to trap the heat by spreading mulch. In addition, keeping a soil well watered protects against frost formation. A soil with greater water content allows more heat to move toward the surface. Coarsetextured soil with lower waterholding capacity generally experiences more frost. Frost formation is also affected by large bodies of water. Oceans or large inland lakes such as the Great Lakes modify air as it flows across the water. Water may either add or extract heat from the air flowing over it. In temperate climates, this moderation tends to result in fewer cold and warm This satellite image shows clouds of precipitation streaming downwind from the Great Lakes on a December day. An outline of Michigan is drawn over the image. C. Edson National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Page 1 and 2: Michigan State University Extension
Page 4 and 5: Fruit Crop Ecology and Management I
Page 6 and 7: Enterprise goals ◆ High quality f
Page 8 and 9: In Chapter 4, we set aside the imag
Page 10 and 11: ecology of the landscape, including
Page 14 and 15: temperature extremes and in seasona
Page 16 and 17: R. Zoppolo/D. Stefanelli R. Zoppolo
Page 18 and 19: cultural factors — such as crop l
Page 20 and 21: grafting compatibility that will in
Page 22 and 23: set and production. Timing of chemi
Page 24 and 25: 6 CO2 So So r en gy 6 H2O Organic a
Page 26 and 27: Two organisms are better than one.
Page 28 and 29: Plants rely on microbes to recharge
Page 30 and 31: quences. Too much nitrogen results
Page 32 and 33: conditions. Residues of legumes suc
Page 34 and 35: protected with mulch. In a mature p
Page 36 and 37: or yield to a level affecting profi
Page 38 and 39: material because of their distinct
Page 40 and 41: Single and multicycle pathogens Dis
Page 42 and 43: pesticides can affect the nature an
Page 44 and 45: growing shoots. In contrast, the fu
Page 46 and 47: Ecological concept Wounds predispos
Page 48 and 49: Adults and larvae generally are ada
Page 50 and 51: After a certain period, in which sy
Page 52 and 53: How pathogens cause disease Spore l
Page 54 and 55: alance of the community is disrupte
Page 56 and 57: Parasites A parasite lives in, on o
Page 58 and 59: W. Yang Mycorrhizael hyphae (the th
Page 60 and 61: sources of sugar. For example, Tric
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Pesticide impacts on the community
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Such differences lead to significan
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soilborne pathogens. Moisture, temp
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A. Schilder The causal agent of lea
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y ascospores are typically more num
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track of GDD accumulation based on
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indicates that leaf wetness can var
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accumulations were predicted to inc
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alance these positive and negative
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In the foreground, a ground cover o
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Ecological concept Insects can migr
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their growers keep costs as low as
Page 86 and 87:
A 1997 Food Marketing Institute stu
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Working with local governments and
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Direct farm marketing is not easy.
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Human resources: You can’t raise
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Like many fruit farmers, the Gregor
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Richard H. Lehnert, Joy N. Landis,
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But the future of the commercial ma
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sustainable, but they are the best
Page 102 and 103:
J Japanese beetle 46, 47, 67, 76 L
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Fruit Crop Ecology and Management - UVM Apple Orchard

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