The Road to Hemispheric Cooperation: Beyond the Cartagena

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“iron fist” law-enforcement approach is akin to a drug fix, which provides an intense, ephemeral, and ultimately false satisfaction. The option to consume this political narcotic is not to let our arms drop, nor is it to internalize violence as a fate predetermined by inscrutable gods. On the contrary, this problem does have a solution. But it is a longer, more complex, more expensive and more demanding solution than we would like to admit. Endnotes 1 Estimation based on World Health Organization (WHO) numbers. WHO, World Report on Violence and Health (Geneva: WHO, 2002). Available at: http://www.who.int/violence_injury_ prevention/violence/world_report/en/. 2 Ibid. WHO shows the homicide rate in Latin America and the Caribbean (27.5 per 100,000 population) as the highest in the world, well over sub-Saharan Africa (22 per 100,000). These data are prior to those cited in the text. Moreover, the aggregation of countries by regions is different in both sources. 3 Geneva Declaration Secretariat, The Global Burden of Armed Violence (Geneva: Geneva Declaration Secretariat, 2008). 4 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Global Study on Homicide: Trends, Context, Data; (Vienna: UNODC, 2011). Available at: http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-andanalysis/homicide.html. 5 Ibid. 6 WHO, World Report on Violence and Health. 7 Ibid. 8 Jan van Dijk et al., The Burden of Crime in the EU – Research Report: A Comparative Analysis of the European Survey of Crime and Safety (EU ICS) 2005, (UNICRI-Gallup Europe-Max Planck Institute-CEPS-Geox, 2005). 9 Lucía Dammert and Marta Lagos, La seguridad ciudadana - El problema principal de América Latina (Santiago de Chile: Latinobarómetro, 2012). 10 Ibid. 11 WHO, World Report on Violence and Health. 12 Estimation from J. L. Londoño et al. (eds.), Asalto al Desarrollo: Violencia en América Latina (Washington, D.C.: Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo, 2000). Regional GDP figures from World Bank. 13 Dammert and Lagos. 14 Latin American Public Opinion Project (LAPOP), “The Ameri- casBarom 15 J. L. Londoño et al. (eds.), Asalto al Desarrollo: Violencia en América Latina, pp. 31-43; A. Morrison, et al., “The Violent Americas: Risk Factors, Consequences, and Policy Implications of Social and Domestic Violence,” in H. Frühling et al. (eds.), Crime and Violence in Latin America: Citizen Security, Democracy, and the State (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Centre Press, 2003), pp. 102-107. For more recent information see Wendy Cunningham et al., Youth at risk in Latin America and the Caribbean (Washington D.C.: World Bank, 2008). Available at http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTLACREGTOPLAB- SOCPRO/Resources/YouthatriskinLAC.pdf. 16 Pablo Fajnzylber et al., Determinants of Crime Rates in Latin America and the World: An Empirical Assessment (Washington D.C.: World Bank, 1998). 17 J. L. Londoño and R. Guerrero, “Violencia en América Latina: Epidemiología y Costos,” in J. L. Londoño et al. (eds.), Asalto al Desarrollo. Violencia en América Latina (Washington D.C.: Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo, 2000), pp. 11-58. 18 United Nations Development Program (UNDP), Venciendo el Temor: (In)seguridad ciudadana y desarrollo humano en Costa Rica – Informe Nacional de Desarrollo Humano 2005 (San José, PNUD-Costa Rica, 2006). 19 It is interesting to note that in other parts of the world such as Southeast Asia, countries that face the same conditions or used to have such conditions did not have the same level of homicides or the same type of youth/crime gang formation. 20 B. Kliksberg, Mitos y Realidades sobre la Criminalidad en América Latina (Guatemala: F & G Editores, 2007), p. 23. 21 Pablo Fajnzylber et al., “Inequality and Violent crime,” Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. 45, No. 1, 2002, p. 25; J. R. and P. M. Blau, “The Cost of Inequality: Metropolitan Structure and Violent Crime,” American Sociological Review, 47, 1982, pp. 114-129; Pablo Fajnzylber et al., Determinants of Crime Rates in Latin America and the World; F. Bourguignon, F, “Crime as a Social Cost of Poverty and Inequality: A Review Focusing on Developing Countries,” in S. Yusuf et al. (eds.), Facets of Globalization: International and Local Dimensions of Development (Washington D.C.: World Bank, 2001), pp. 171-192; N. Prabna Unnithan and Hugh P. Whitt, “Inequality, Economic Development and Lethal Violence: A Cross-National Analysis of Suicide and Homicide, International Journal of Comparative Sociology, Vol. 33, 1992, pp. 3-4; B. Kennedy et al., “Social Capital, Income The Road to Hemispheric Cooperation: Beyond the Cartagena Summit of the Americas The Brookings Institution ❘ Latin America Initiative 72
Inequality, and Firearm Violent Crime, Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 47, No. 1, 1998, pp. 7-17. 22 A. Hashmati, “Continental and Sub-continental Income Inequality. IZA Discussion Papers No. 1271 (Bonn, Germany: August 2004); United Nations University – World Institute for Development Economics Research (UNU-WIDER), World Income Inequality Database, available at: http://www.wider.unu.edu/research/Database/en_GB/database/. It is important to note, however, that even though it remains at very high levels between 2000 and 2007, socioeconomic inequality fell in 12 of the 17 countries in the region for which comparable data are available. See also L. F. López-Calva and N. Lustig, “Explaining the Decline in Inequality in Latin America: Technological Change, Educational Upgrading, and Democracy,” in L. F. López-Calva & N. Lustig (eds.), Declining Inequality in Latin America: A Decade of Progress? (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2010), p. 3. 23 Kliksberg, Mitos y Realidades. 24 International Labor Organization (ILO), Trabajo Decente y Juventud en América Latina 2010 (Lima, OIT-Prejal, 2010). 25 Population data from Sistema de Integración Económica Centroamericana (SIECA), “Centroamérica – Estimaciones y Proyecciones de la Población Total. Available at: http://www.sieca.int/site/VisorDocs.aspx?IDDOC=Cac he/17990000003323/17990000003323.swf. 26 ILO, Juventud y Trabajo Decente y las Vinculaciones entre Trabajo Infantil y Empleo Juvenil – Centroamérica, Panamá y República Dominicana (ILO – OIT, pp. 40, 75-76, 2008). Retrieved from http://www.empleo-foil.oit.or.cr/olacd/images/stories/Informe_trabajo_infantil_empleo_juvenil.pdf. This figure includes the Dominican Republic. 27 C. Ribando-Seelke, Gangs in Central America (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, January 3, 2011); T. Bruneau et al. (eds.), Maras: Gang Violence and Security in Central America (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2012). 28 UNDP, Abrir Espacios a la Seguridad Ciudadana y el Desarrollo Humano – Informe sobre Desarrollo Humano para América Central 2009-2010 (San José: PNUD, 2009), pp. 106-114. 29 Londoño and Guerrero, “Violencia en América Latina: Epidemio- logía y Costos.” 30 United Nations Population Fund, State of World Population 2007—Unleashing the Potential of Urban Growth (New York: UNFPA, 2007). 31 Mitchel A. Seligson and Amy Smith (eds.), The Political Culture of Democracy 2010; Latin American Public Opinion Project (LAPOP), Vanderbilt University and USAID, 2010. Available at: http://www.vanderbilt.edu/lapop/insights/RegionalEng.pdf. 32 R. Stohl and D. Tuttle, The Small Arms Trade in Latin America (New York: NACLA, 2008). 33 Geneva Declaration Secretariat, The Global Burden of Armed Violence (Geneva: Geneva Declaration Secretariat, 2008). 34 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Global Study on Homicide: Trends, Context, Data (Vienna: UNODC, 2011), p. 115. Available at: http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/homicide.html; Instituto de Investigaciones de Convivencia y Seguridad Ciudadana (INCOSEC) La Situación de Seguridad en Venezuela—Primer Trimestre 2010, 2010, pp. 4-5. Available at: http://incosec.sumospace.com/wp-content/ uploads/2010/04/informe-1-trimestre-2010-final-4.pdf. 35 UNODC, Global Study on Homicide: Trends, Context, Data, p. The Road to Hemispheric Cooperation: Beyond the Cartagena Summit of the Americas The Brookings Institution ❘ Latin America Initiative 73 44. 36 UNODC, Crime and Development in Central America (Vienna: UNODC, 2007), pp. 45-51. 37 For Mexico: Based on author’s own calculations in Londoño and Guerrero, p. 27 and Instituto Ciudadano de Estudios sobre la Inseguridad (ICESI), available at http://www.icesi.org.mx/ documentos/estadisticas/estadisticasOfi/denuncias_homicidio_doloso_1997_2010.pdf. For Guatemala: International Crisis Group (2010). Guatemala: Squeezed between crime and impunity, Latin America Report No. 33, June 22, 2010, p. 7. See also UNODC, Global Study on Homicide: Trends, Context, Data, p. 51-55. 38 According to figures from the International Organization on Migration, sexual trafficking alone generates a turnover in excess of $16 billion. See C. Ribando-Seelke, Trafficking in Persons in Latin America and the Caribbean; (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, September 9, 2011). 39 UNDP, Venciendo el Temor, pp. 321-327. The findings for Costa Rica show a strong positive correlation between rates of homicide, robbery and theft at the cantonal level and apprehensions for illegal possession of narcotics. See also CNN Mexico, “The Advancement of Drug Dealing, a Threat to the Relative Safety of the City,” October 17, 2011. 40 This indicator is an aggregate measure of the effectiveness of contract enforcement, the probability of crime occurrence, and the quality of the police and courts, as well as the trust placed in them. 41 Daniel Kaufmann et al., World Governance Indicators, 2010. Available at: http://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/index. asp.
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THE ROAD TO HEMISPHERIC COOPERATION
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Latin America
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INTRODuCTION Ted Piccone I Senior F
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fOSTERINg A CulTuRE Of INNOvATION I
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Technology and Innovation Innovatio
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Figure 1: Latin America (5 Countrie
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Figure 3: Affordability of Fixed Br
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Figure 5: Percentage of Internet Pe
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the demand for innovation. Policies
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Opportunities for Cooperation in In
Page 21 and 22: COMMENTARy by CAROl gRAHAM Senior F
Page 23 and 24: include free trade agreements (FTAs
Page 25 and 26: mented by Latin American countries.
Page 27 and 28: $350 billion in 2010, with China di
Page 29 and 30: The current situation is important:
Page 31 and 32: EDuCATION IN THE AMERICAS: WHAT THE
Page 33 and 34: Graph 2. Student Performance and Te
Page 35 and 36: Graph 5. Percentage of Students at
Page 37 and 38: Graph 7. Difference in Mean Scores
Page 39 and 40: generally carry no consequences. At
Page 41 and 42: access to and use of technology, an
Page 43 and 44: 23 J. Enrique Hinostroza and Christ
Page 45 and 46: PROMOTINg ENERgy SECuRITy AND TACkl
Page 47 and 48: the governments of the Western Hemi
Page 49 and 50: Brazil, in turn, leads an initiativ
Page 51 and 52: agencies, including Spain’s Ibero
Page 53 and 54: as many scientists believe, this pa
Page 55 and 56: footnotes 1 A full copy of the repo
Page 57 and 58: 24 Repsol is a privately held Spani
Page 59 and 60: PublIC SECuRITy CHAllENgES IN THE A
Page 61 and 62: Figure 1.2 Homicide rates in Latin
Page 63 and 64: ates are found in Mexico, Peru, Arg
Page 65 and 66: ●● Organized crime. The data pr
Page 67 and 68: ago. 42 In Venezuela the problem is
Page 69 and 70: operations by transnational syndica
Page 71: This is, in essence, what enabled t
Page 75 and 76: COMMENTARy by vANDA fElbAb-bROWN Fe
Page 77 and 78: THE INTER-AMERICAN DEMOCRATIC CHART
Page 79 and 80: The process began with modification
Page 81 and 82: A little over 12 years later in Hon
Page 83 and 84: 5. Respect and Apply the IADC Regar
Page 85 and 86: vide political or technical assista
Page 87 and 88: 1978. For the criteria used in dete
Page 89 and 90: While the current trend of inter-Am
Page 91 and 92: The Context The Summit of the Ameri
Page 93 and 94: (CAF). Other global institutions al
Page 95 and 96: ●● There was an open and frank
Page 97 and 98: ●● Eliminating the threat of na
Page 99 and 100: tive role in monitoring and evaluat
Page 101 and 102: 15 Carlo Dade, “Will There Be Ano
Page 103 and 104: many Brazilian diplomats, the main
Page 105: 1775 Massachusetts Avenue, NW Washi
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