Field Guide to Venomous and Medically Important Invertebrates ...

develop into dermatitis and secondary infection. When their populations are high, they can
disrupt military operations due to severe annoyance. Leptoconops typically are active during the
day while Culicoides may be either diurnal or nocturnal. Diurnal species of both genera prefer
early morning and late afternoon periods. They do not have a long flight range, so most biting
activity occurs near the breeding source which may be any of a wide variety of aquatic and semi-
aquatic habitats including tree holes, decaying vegetation, mud, tidal flats, and salt marshes.
Larvae are difficult to find and identy beyond the family level, but adults are easily collected in
biting collections and light traps. Larval stages are best controlled by habitat management,
although this may not be practical during military operations, or over large areas. Adults can be
controlled by applying residual insecticides to fly harborages, aerial application of pesticides for
wide area treatment, and personal protection methods such as treating screens, bednets, and
uniforms with permethrin, and using repellents such as DEET.
Figure 192. Ceratopogonidae larva on bottom, Chironomidae larvae on top. Photo:
Microscopy-United Kingdom.
Figure 193. Culicoides sp. adult. Photo: Richard C. Russell.
Sand flies (Family Psychodidae, Subfamily Plebotominae)
These tiny (< 0.08 inch, or 2 mm) biting flies transmit leismaniasis from southern Texas
southward throughout much of Central and South America, the Mediterranean, northern Africa,
and throughout the Middle East. They also are vectors of sand fly fever in the Mediterranean
region, North Africa and Middle East, and Bartonellosis in South America. The females feed on
mammals such as rodents and canines, but they will also take blood from humans. Their bite is
painful relative to their small size. The genera of concern include Lutzomyia in the Americas,