The South Africa – Viet Nam Rhino Horn Trade Nexus (PDF ... - WWF

situation at the end-use market: viet nam
TrAdITIoNAL MEdIcINE ANd rhINo horN usAgE IN VIET NAM
For thousands of years the Vietnamese have treated illness and disease with plants, herbs and animal
products gathered from the country’s forests, wetlands, coasts and gardens. These medical traditions are
strongly influenced by the traditional medicine practices of China. Vietnamese typically call Chinese
medicine “Northern medicine” and refer to their own system as “Southern medicine” (Nowell, 2012).
That said, Viet Nam’s extant traditional medical literature only dates from around the 13th century due
to the persistent loss of books from the effects of tropical humidity and relentless war (Miyanagi, 2010).
Tue Tinh, a 17th century author of two major medical treatises, described 580 indigenous drugs in 3873
prescriptions in Nam Duoc Than Hieu (The Miraculous Efficacy of Vietnamese Medicines), and then
later summarized the indications of 630 drugs and the essential theory behind traditional medicine in
Hong Nghia Giac Tu Thu (Medical Book from Village Hong Nghia) (Loi, 1991). A century later, Le Huu
Trac, another prolific writer, produced a grand treatise of traditional medicine comprising more than
30 volumes (Loi, 1991), and his classification system continues to shape the distinct identity of
Vietnamese medicine (Miyanagi, 2010). Consequently, Le Huu Trac is regarded as the person with the
greatest achievement in the history of Vietnamese traditional medicine.
The use of traditional medicines has experienced a significant resurgence, especially in the last quarter of
the 20th century, with government policies designed to enable the development of both traditional and
Western medicines. The trade in traditional medicine has also benefited from the relaxation of international
trade barriers, particularly with China, and the progressive move to a free market economy
(Nguyen and Nguyen, 2008). The scale of traditional medicine usage within Viet Nam is significant with
at least 48 hospitals and institutes devoted to the practice, over 240 traditional medicine departments in
central and provincial hospitals, and over 9000 health centres reportedly licensed to practise traditional
medicine (Nguyen and Nguyen, 2008). In addition, other unregistered herbalists and healers are actively
engaged in providing traditional medicine treatments to patients all over Viet Nam.
Within this context, Viet Nam has an ancient history of using rhino horn as a traditional medicine to
cure a range of illnesses. According to the dichotomised system of traditional medicine in East Asia,
rhino horns are characterized by traditional medical practitioners as having cooling abilities, with bitter,
acidic and salty properties (Nowell, 2012). These attributes reportedly make rhino horns effective in
reducing temperature, especially internal heat in the blood, and purging the body of toxins (Dr Ban
Tran Van, pers. comm., 19 October 2010). In terms of chemical properties, recent literature on
Vietnamese traditional medicines states that rhino horn is mainly composed of keratin, calcium carbonate
and calcium phosphate (Do et al., 2006). When hydrolysed, rhino horn is believed to release
amino acids such as tyrosine and cysteine (TRAFFIC interviews with traditional medicine practitioners,
April 2009). It is also reported that rhino horn solutions can produce alkaloid reactions, but the active
element remains unknown (Do et al., 2006).
Between 2002 and 2007, at least five comprehensive Vietnamese-language pharmacopoeias of plant
and animal substances used in traditional medicine have been published which have specific sections
on rhino horn as medicine (S. Roberton, Wildlife Conservation Society, in litt. to TRAFFIC, 31 May
2012). In Viet Nam, rhino horn has most commonly been used to treat high fevers and convulsions, to
control haemorrhaging, and to assist the liver, kidney and spleen in cleansing the blood of toxins
resulting from alcohol or poison (Do et al., 2006; TRAFFIC Southeast Asia interviews with traditional
medicine practitioners, April 2009). Rhino horn is also reportedly used in Viet Nam to treat people who
suffer from epilepsy, high blood pressure, allergy, measles, stroke, long-term sleeping disorder or who
have “fallen down from a height”, presumably resulting from dizziness (Dr Ban Tran Van, pers. comm.,
18 October 2010; Anon., 2011c). Another published reference on medicinal plants and animals in Viet
Nam lists “high fever, delirium, severe headache, convulsion, haematemesis, epistaxis, jaundice, carbuncle on
the spine, ulcer, and impotence” as ailments that rhino horn “can cure” (Do et al., 2006). Pregnant women
and people with “internal cold” are advised not to use rhino horn (TRAFFIC interviews with traditional
medicine practitioners, April 2009; Dr Ban Tran Van, pers. comm., 18 October 2010).
Some measure of folkloric distinction is made between the various species of rhinoceros, with the horns of
the native Javan Rhino said to be more efficacious than the horns from other species, but in reality any
rhino horn is acceptable (TRAFFIC interviews with traditional medicine practitioners, April 2009). Both
traditional and modern preparation of rhino horn medicines typically involves grinding the horn (in some
situations “burned” horn) to produce a fine powder or, more typically, ground in hot water to produce a
white, cloudy liquid (Beech and Perry, 2011). If only powder is produced, it can be combined with other
Cutting a piece of “rhino horn” in the street in Hanoi.
ingredients to concoct particular medicines. Nowadays, rhino horn is most frequently ground in speciallymanufactured
porcelain bowls with serrated bottoms filled with water until a milky solution for drinking is
produced. For this purpose, pieces of rhino horn are commonly sold in lots weighing between 25 g to 500 g
(TRAFFIC interviews with traditional medicine practitioners, April 2009; Anon., 2011c).
For some practitioners, apart from the horn, no other parts of a rhino are believed to have significant
medicinal value (TRAFFIC interviews with traditional medicine practitioners, April 2009). For others,
however, the entire rhino was once reportedly regarded as a “pharmacy store”. Dried rhino skin could
be cut into small pieces and used to suck poison from wounds associated with snake or rabid dog bite.
Although there is no medicinal report or evidence on the efficacy of rhino skin for drawing out snake
poison, amongst Viet Nam’s snake farming community, it is reported that snake handlers often keep a
piece of dried rhino skin for this purpose (TRAFFIC interviews with traditional medicine practitioners,
April 2009). Rhino blood was also once believed to cure many diseases and was mixed with strong wine
and drunk accordingly (TRAFFIC interviews with traditional medicine practitioners, April 2009). Rhino
dung, too, could be dried and then dipped into a strong alcoholic solution to relieve chronic joint
pains (TRAFFIC interviews with traditional medicine practitioners, April 2009). The rhino gall stone,
locally known as “nguu hoang”, is recorded in the traditional medicine literature as a precious medicinal
element for the treatment of water retention, boils and tumours (TRAFFIC interviews with traditional
medicine practitioners, April 2009). These uses, although noted in various interactions with tradition -
al medicine practitioners, do not appear to be prevalent practices today.
Unlike China where, prior to the 1993 rhino horn trade ban, a vibrant manufacturing industry once
turned out a wide variety of name brand traditional medicine products with rhino horn noted as a
prominent ingredient, similar manufacturing in Viet Nam has always been far more restrained and
undeveloped. Nevertheless, the Hanoi office of the Vietnam Oriental Traditional Medicine Association
reported four medicinal products that purportedly contain rhino horn that are commonly available in
Viet Nam: Cong Thuc (to reduce temperature in the heart); An Cong Nguu Hoang Hoan (for treatment
of stroke and blockage of blood in the brain); Cuc Phuong Chi Bao Don (for treatment of “evil wind”
conditions such as dizziness or faintness, loss of consciousness or the power of speech, breathing difficulties
and blood clots in the brain); and Nguu Hoang Thanh Tam Hoan (for treatment of myocardic
problems, high fever and convulsion) (Dr Ban Tran Van, pers. comm., 19 October 2010; Ms. Ha Tom,
natural products specialist in litt. to TRAFFIC, 17 February 2012). The scale of local manufacturing is
unknown and most of these medicines are probably only produced by traditional medicine practitioners
for patients as required. However, it was suggested that some of these medicines may actually be
imported in a manufactured form from China and then sold to Vietnamese consumers (Dr Ban Tran
Van, pers. comm., 19 October 2010), possibly with local packaging.
116 the south africa – viet nam rhino horn trade nexus TRAFFIC 117
karl ammann