NATURAL RESOURCES OF SRI LANKA

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I I I I I I I I I I i [ • i I I I I I bitrarily by one village raising the bund or the spillway, it could inundate the lowermost paddy fields in an upstream village. Interdependent between villages in a cascade required well-coordinated management of land and water resources. The land use associated with tank cascades demonstrated a profound knowledge of resource management in a challenging environment essentially transformed from natural ecosystems into agroecosystems (Abeywickrema, 1990). Integrated land and water resources management in ancient times is reflected in the zonation of land use within the microcatchments. The tanks and the paddy fields occupied the valleys where Low-Humic-Gley soils with poor drainage had limited use other than for bunded paddy cultivation. Ridge summits, often strewn with rock outcrops and inselbergs, were converted into works of art and places of worship and spiritual retreat. The influence of Buddhism led to the establishment of sanctuaries early in history (de Alwis, 1969) and the enduring protection of wildlife unusual in many parts of the world (Kablishingh, 1988). The middle part of the catena between the ridge tops and valley bottoms was used for rain fed chena farming where Reddish Brown Earths proved ideal for many subsidiary seasonal food crops. Although in the modern context, chena wastes resources in Sri Lanka's early history long fallow periods allowed vegetative regeneration, and use was sufficiently infrequent to avoid serious soil erosion and environmental damage. Moreover village farmers spared large trees to provide shade and places for watch-huts. Small trees were lopped at breast height to enable them to sprout again at the end of the rainy season. Even during the Dutch period, introduction of cinnamon in chena lands was apparently done to enrich forest with cinnamon rather than to grow it as a monoculture (Abeywickrema, 1990). The ancient village with its typical threefold land use system — paddy field, home garden, and chena was self-sufficient and provided a stable base for long-term use. As Brohier (1934) noted, "tank" would appear to be synonymous with "village," implying that each agricultural settlement had a tank; and paddy field below it. Heritage 13 The remainder of the ancient population lived in the larger irrigation areas that developed subsequently, or in cities like Anuradhapura in the Dry Zone lowlands. The hill country and the Wet Zone attracted only a few settlements. The skills in irrigation technology possessed by the ancients were unique for a small country like Sri Lanka. As Needham noted "[ajlready in the first century AC, they understood the principle of the oblique weir.... the height of dam spillways were adjusted by removable pillar sluices were well understood, ... the inside surfaces of reservoir abutments were faced with 'ripple bands'... which acted as wave-breaking groynes ... the most striking invention was the intake-towers or valve towers (bisokötuwa)." They developed the knowledge to construct long canals with extremely low gradients, such as the Jaya Ganga, which carried water from Kalawewa to the city tanks of Anuradhapura along a canal 87 kilometers long (Figure 2.3). This yoda ela, which had a gradient of less than 10 cm per kilometer within its first 27 kilometers, continued to maintain itself as a natural stream. Some of the major ancient tanks, such as Yodawewa in Mannar district, were constructed to feed a large number of small tanks. The establishment of forests and construction of ponds, reservoirs and irrigation systems were considered great meritorious acts in accordance with popular Buddhism, the faith of the leaders and the large majority of the people. Sri Lanka's history is full of achievements of kings who contributed to the development of water resources. Since the first century AD kings such as Vasabha (67-111 AD) Mahasena (276-303 AD), Dhatusena (455-473 AD), Agbo II (575- 608 AD) and Parakramabahu I (1153-1186 AD) built numerous reservoirs and irrigation systems which fed vast expanses of paddy field in the Dry Zone. Construction and upkeep of these irrigation systems became massive undertakings. An indigenous expertise developed over the centuries which appears to have been called upon by other countries of South Asia. Not all irrigation systems remained operational throughout this history (Figure 2.1). Their numbers and command areas expanded and contracted with population changes. Nevertheless, up to the twelfth century AD the ancient Dry Zone supported a dense
14 — — - Moinaxifotcascad» PoddyfitWt M Homtsttod km Heritage Cascades of Village Tanks Figure 2.2 Slyambala Wtwa :'^W/ Bandara Ratmal* Timbiri Wtwa
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Page 5 and 6: « . I I I Contents I I Research Te
Page 7 and 8: VI Supply and Processing 77 Sources
Page 9 and 10: VIII 8 Mineral Resources 181 GEMSTO
Page 11 and 12: FUNCTION AND VALUES 261 | Flood Sto
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Page 22 and 23: Introduction
Page 24 and 25: I I I I i i i [ ; ! i I i i i I i i
Page 28 and 29: I I I Heritage 15 HSSA WEWA (JAYA W
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300 250 200- 150 100 so 0 111 280 2
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I I I I I I I I I I I r ; I I I i I
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I I I I I I II I I Ii 1 I ii I I I
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1 i i i i 1 Economies 5g
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I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 •
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I I I ; ! ; I I I I I I I If : I I
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I I I I I I I I I !; • i I I I I
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I I I I I I I I I i ; ï I I I I l
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I I I I I I I I I I n I I I I I I I
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I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I r Ene
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I I I I I I I I I I I I I I |I 1 I
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I I I I I I I I I i É I 1 I Energy
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I I I I I I 1 I p 1 I I Paddy husk
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I I I I I I I I I I j 1 i I 1 I I I
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I I I I I I I I I I I I p II I ! I
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Total suspended particular (TSP) Ni
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I I I I I I I I i I I I I I I I Kar
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I I I I I I I I j I i ! I I s I 1
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I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I pi' U
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I I I I i : I I I I I I I I I I I I
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I i I M f. P Il j IM I ( •• r L
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Land Districts* 3 lowest yielding d
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I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Ii I I
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.,_~ Soil Group Reddish Brown Earth
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I suitability of the lands for majo
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Land FOREST GARDENS As Sri Lanka's
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I I I I I I I I I I I j I j I I I I
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I I I I Î I '. I I I II I Und 117
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I i : ! ; I I j ! ; • r i \ . ! I
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I I I I I I I! P I I I I I I I I YE
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I I I I I I I I I I j I I; I I I I
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I I I Ii ': I I ! I i . I I 1 I 1 I
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I I !I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
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I I I I I I I I I I gradual emergen
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not be affected seriously during th
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References Abeysekera, W.A.T. (1986
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I I I II I I I [ ! I i i i r I I La
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7 Water Resources Historians studyi
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Water Resources 139 River Basins of
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I I I I l' ; I P r I I I i I I I I
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Water Resources 143 Secular Changes
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I I I I I I I I Water Resources Sur
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I I I I I i I I :Ij I I I I I 1 dev
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I I I I I I I II I Supply / Demand
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I I I I Î I. Î ' I[ IIf I I" I Ii
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I I I I I i ; I ir ': I I I I I I I
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Water Resources 155
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I I I I I I I With her small cities
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I I I Water I I I I k i i i Resourc
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I I Is • I I I I i I i; p I I ! I
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I I I I I I I I [ I I rii i i i i i
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I I I i ! i i i ! ! I I 1 I I I f W
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I I I Sewage pumping ^^^H 10000 ^^^
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Ground Water Ground water is increa
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I I nI I Some Constituents of Mahaw
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Water Resources 173 Ground Water Po
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Population per ha 50 100 250 Source
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I I I I j : I I I I I I i • I P I
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I p I I i I I I I Î Î National Aq
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I I I I I I I I I I IJ I I I I I I
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I I I I I i i i • Year R«. Milli
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I I I i i i i i i \ i i i i i i i i
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I I Ï Mineral n Resources 187 The
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m o 4 2 0 Thousand MT ! I 1fLU 1979
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I I Î . j I ! I I I I I I I I I Ye
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I I n i t i iI i i i f ! I I i I ft
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I 1 I i Mineral Resources
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I 9 Forest Resources Sri Lanka was
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Forest Resources 199 The Natural Hi
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Forest Forest Ownership 3-5- as Ove
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I r ri Forest Resources 203 Mean An
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I I H I I | " I I i t : i i continu
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Forest Resources 207 Forest Plantat
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! i H P ation, however, are regular
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Forest Fuelwood - Future Trends The
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I I Forest I Curtailing the Master
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I I I p I i I ! : i ! ' I : I • i
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Forests Grasslands Coastal and Mari
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I I I ; I I j I I I I I I I I Biolo
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I Ii • i • I I I Ii r 1. coasta
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Kottawa Kanneliya Source: Gunatille
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Out of Danger 1* Biological Diversi
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I I Biological I 1 P 800 years ago.
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I I I I I I I I I I i I 1 I I I I I
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I I I Biological Diversity dipteroc
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II I I 6 - Extent in Sq km (Thousan
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I I I I I I I I I I i i I i I i Kot
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I I I I I I I I I P I T 11 Coastal
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I i I ! I I I Ten Fishery harbors s
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I I i ! I ! i i I > I District Colo
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I 2500 2000- 1500- Value in Million
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Chllow Lagoon Neçombo 4 2 Lagoon K
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I i ! Coastal Resources 247 Coral M
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I I I I I I I I I j I I I I I I( I
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I [ I I I i ii I I I I I is sometim
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I I I I n I I [ ; I I I I I Coastal
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I I I I I it-' [j • i •- r i i
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I I I 257 i p i i i i i I 12 Inland
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I I r I H I ! Ir I : - I r • i ;!
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I I r ! I I I I I I I I I I I I dro
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I I I I I I j f j I I i I I I I f,
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I I r -• I I ri i I I I I I i i i
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I i ( • • > ( • j . I I I 1 I
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I II 1 I I I I I I sustainable use
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I ÏÏ n n Toward Sustainable Devel
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I I are already in use, paddy yield
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n the Puttalam aquaculture industry
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government agencies, including thos
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exists in the preparation of studie
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'V • (• • • Sponsored by th
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NATURAL RESOURCES OF SRI LANKA

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