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Research design In this study, we presented a quazi-experimental design in which we explored how distributed cognition spreads out by uncovering relationships that are consistent with a view that intra-action is as important as interaction and outeraction in promoting learning. The study is conducted in an blended learning environment supporting interaction and outeraction via discussion forum and instant messaging facilities, and intra-action - via enabling students to make annotations. Using our own environment, rather than a product such as WebCT, makes it possible for us to log learner activities in sufficient detail. Snapshots of the environment were provided in Figure 2. On the right-hand side of Figure 2, the system showed material for learners to study. In the Navigator section of Figure 2, learners could select any chapter in their attempts and once click one of the material, it would trigger the system to show corresponding content on the material section. If learners felt uncomfortable while reading the material because of the relatively small screen size, they were allowed to hide the JMSN interface as shown in Figure 2 by just clicking on the Hiding button. Of course they could make JMSN interface visible whenever they needed it by once again clicking on the Hiding button. Figure 2. Main learning environment window consisting of JMSN messenger (left), web content (top right), and discussion forum (bottom right) panes. Text highlighted with Vpen and textual annotations are seen in the web content pane Participants JMSN interface Navigator Click to hide/show JMSN Discussion forum Annotation tool Material Three classes, totaling 135 college students in Taiwan, participated in the experiment, which was conducted in context of a college course. Of the participants, 56 were male and 79 were female. They all were not major in computer related department. Instead, 45 of them were major in Early Childhood Care and Education; others were major in Foreign Languages and Applied Linguistics. The title of the course was “Basic theory of computer” and it ran for 3 months from September 2005 to November 2005. Content of the course included “Fundamental of computer architecture”, “Word”, “EXCEL” and “PowerPoint”. During the 3 months, instructors would teach not only theoretical knowledge but also operating skills of the applications. The course activities were structured as follows: each week, a three hours face-to-face lecture/tutorial in computer classroom was followed by individual self-paced problem solving, with problems given as homework. Individual work was supported by providing relevant web-based materials and web-based communication tools. Usage logs for web-based facilities provided us data reflecting interaction, outeraction and intra-action patterns. 227
Research Tools Web-based learning environment We provided four communication tools to enable and to capture intra-action, interaction and outeraction. Figure 2 and Figure 3 show screen snapshots for these communication tools. Figure 3. Message board window. Unlike in discussion board pane (which lists links to the actual messages), full text of message board messages can be immediately seen Virtual pen system (Vpen): Allows students to make annotations of web-based materials. As when making annotations on paper, students can easily use Vpen to highlight, underline, or textually comment on the web-based materials. As in our system students are not provided a facility to share annotations. Discussion board: Supports deferred communication: primarily used by students to post questions and request help, and to answer such queries. Some of the messages posted to the discussion forum are not directly related to the subject matter of the course, and involve encouraging, complaining, offering excuses etc. JMSN Messenger: A real-time communication tool based on Java technology. Message board: Supports deferred communication. While discussion board is offered as a separate pane on the same window as web-based materials, and thus is most suitable for use in context of these materials, message board is offered in its own window and offers more direct access to message content, making it most suitable for sharing information pertaining to the course overall and information perceived to be particularly important. Interview Author 1 Author 2 Author 3 Message id, subject, author’s name and e-mail Message Content An unstructured face-to-face interview with randomly selected 20 course participants was conducted after the experiment. The primary aim of the interview was to elicit student perceptions regarding the impact of interaction, outeraction and intra-action on their learning. This allowed us to have an insight into whether the relationships uncovered by the experiment are due to cause and effect. All interviews were recorded, transcribed, and later analyzed. 228
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April 2009 Volume 12 Number 2
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Abstracting and Indexing Educationa
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Engaging students in multimedia-med
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this study discusses computer-based
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Sampling for preliminary study One
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Part 2 Pearson correlation .349** 1
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Figure 1. Box and whisker plot of t
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characteristics and learning styles
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However, critical reflection and in
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novels, so they collected any relat
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1. Theories of teaching: Comments m
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grammatical errors and basic writin
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Ho, B., & Richards, J. C. (1993). R
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Hwang, K.-A., & Yang, C.-H. (2009).
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e deduced from the Affective Domain
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Detection procedure Figure 1 shows
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avoided. Image processing is perfor
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falling asleep) as defined in this
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classmates or left their seats duri
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help teachers to recognize the lear
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Hsieh, P.-H., & Dwyer, F. (2009). T
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significant comprehension effects o
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Treatment 3 (keyword group): Studen
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Criteria of achievement measures Th
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esults. A correlational analysis de
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A 2 x 1 ANOVA analyzed the effect o
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References Aragon, S. R. (2004). In
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Raphael, T. (1982). Improving quest
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educing maintenance costs. The cont
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Synchronization functions According
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inconsistency) and navigate directl
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the suitability of the instructiona
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Design of manipulation process The
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Table 1: Comparative analysis of au
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the convenience of mobile-based ass
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According to evaluation result, the
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Tan, O. S., Parsons, R. D., Hinson,
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At a deeper level, though, there wa
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theoretical assumptions. Two theore
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The students were not going to have
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slightly different. The group who c
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every item, not giving any result.
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edited and presented to the class u
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Figure 10. Screen captures from the
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Some of the concerns that emerge fr
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Ajayi, L. (2009). An Exploration of
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As a result of the confluence of di
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peers (Schellens et al. 2005). Sche
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The integration of discussion board
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ecause the technology allowed the p
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The pre-service teachers perceived
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Furthermore, the study demonstrated
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Schellens, T., van Keer, H., & Valc
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McKean, 2003). Instructors will see
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program at The Ohio State Universit
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Knowledge and skills of developing
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their monthly reflections or assign
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Bull, K., Montgomery, D., Overton,
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frustrating the student). ITSs make
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• Link removal - advanced student
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Expert Module Expert Module’s mai
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Based on the questionnaire results
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students were told that their perfo
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thirds of the interviewed students
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Throughout the semester, students i
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human teacher or question developer
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To test the learning effectiveness
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APPENDIX A Computer Science and Sof
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Thus, the use of computers changes
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Specifically, two objectives were p
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Nonetheless, both teachers assign a
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48% 35% 53% similar similar 69% 42%
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Table 4: Students’ attitudes Stat
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activities. Specifically, the histo
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Huang, Y.-M., Huang, T.-C., Wang, K
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• Could recommended learning sequ
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Analysis of sequences prediction me
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Figure 4. The sorting of learning s
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The figures 5a and 5b illustrate th
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Learning sequence recommendation sy
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In this study, forty subjects were
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The potential for LSRS to promote l
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They pointed out that LSRS helped t
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Cover, T. M., & Thomas, J. A. (1991
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Related Efforts An Internet forum i
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with handheld devices and they were
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agent would direct learners to a le
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Mobile RSS Aggregator In order to s
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learning, such as posting question
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With novel technological support, m
Page 181 and 182: Shen, L., Wang, M., & Shen, R. (200
Page 183 and 184: as an ‘affective loop’, which r
Page 185 and 186: Figure 2 is an example of two-dimen
Page 187 and 188: preference was gathered through dat
Page 189 and 190: compute the heart rate (HR) as a fu
Page 191 and 192: sessions. Of all the 18 learning se
Page 193 and 194: Burleson, W., Picard, R. W., Perlin
Page 195 and 196: Wu, C.-C., & Lai, C.Y. (2009). Wire
Page 197 and 198: The wireless handheld learning envi
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Page 201 and 202: Nursing dictionary We constructed a
Page 203 and 204: them. The computers were networked
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Page 207 and 208: questionnaire. We do not consider t
Page 209 and 210: Faruque, F., Hewlett, P. O., Wyatt,
Page 211 and 212: etween a user and the system. Addit
Page 213 and 214: Figure 2. A concept map representin
Page 215 and 216: C5.0 can help teachers to generate
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Page 221 and 222: 1(students can complete without any
Page 223 and 224: The PADS sometimes assigned very di
Page 225 and 226: Corno, L. (2000). Looking at Homewo
Page 227 and 228: Hwang, W.-Y., Hsu, J.-L., Tretiakov
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Page 231: In the research presented in this a
Page 235 and 236: Table 1. Operational definitions of
Page 237 and 238: action, interaction, and outeractio
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Page 241 and 242: Table 6 shows the learners’ prefe
Page 243 and 244: Bell, P., & Winn, W. (2000). Distri
Page 245 and 246: Askar, P., & Altun, A. (2009). CogS
Page 247 and 248: elations, interactions and activiti
Page 249 and 250: Figure 3. A comparison of knowledge
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Page 253 and 254: Figure 7. Visual Representation of
Page 255 and 256: Step 5: Use Boolean to combine the
Page 257 and 258: 2) CogSkillNet provides classroom i
Page 259 and 260: Neo, M., & Neo, T.-K. (2009). Engag
Page 261 and 262: • Conversation and collaboration
Page 263 and 264: IMAGE 2 2. Problem identification I
Page 265 and 266: Methodology At the end of the proje
Page 267 and 268: presentation skills (m = 3.72), and
Page 269 and 270: 6. Can’t be denying that, sometim
Page 271 and 272: Lambert, N. M., & McCombs, B. J. (1
Page 273 and 274: not detected in a previous study, t
Page 275 and 276: et al. (2001) studied the learning
Page 277 and 278: all the students. At the midpoint o
Page 279 and 280: The observed pairs were aware of be
Page 281 and 282: Table 2 shows the results from a mo
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Table 5: The distribution of time (
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As discussed in the section on prev
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McDowell, C., Werner, L., Bullock,
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Comprehension monitoring is the awa
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or roles in a context, such as “I
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Correlation coefficient was also co
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(a) Text 1 (b) Text 2 (c) Text 3 (d
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Table 3 shows that the average read
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Figure 10. Trace results of the les
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monitor their reading process and h
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Conn, S. R., Roberts, R. L., & Powe
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The technology-mediated groups, wit
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hybrid model of supervision was pos
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Our research indicates that the hyb
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Janoff, D. S., & Schoenholtz-Read,
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goal of using storyboards. But, thi
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In general, learning activities nee
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Furthermore, free subjects, such as
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Storyboarding Roots and related wor
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Referees, on the other hand, may wa
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Symbols Interpretation Defines a un
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Figure 4. Top-level storyboard for
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may take subjects such as practical
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network security information envir
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The concrete procedure and interact
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(e.g., for graduation) using such i
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Thus, academic education modeling b
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Feyer, T., Kao, O., Schewe, K.-D.,
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Richards, G. (2009). Book review: T
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expands the child’s proximal envi
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Chapter 6 exemplifies the activitie
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