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Yang, Y.-F., & Hung, Y.-C. (2009). Developmental Progression of Referential Resolution in Comprehending Online Texts. Educational Technology & Society, 12 (2), 283–297. Developmental Progression of Referential Resolution in Comprehending Online Texts Yu-Fen Yang and Ya-Chen Hung Graduate school of applied foreign languages, National Yunlin University of Science & Technology, Douliu, Yunlin, Taiwan, R. O. C. // Tel:+ 886-5-534-2601 Ext. 3136 // Fax: +886-5-531-2058 // yangy@yuntech.edu.tw ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to examine readers’ comprehension as they develop their mental representation of reference in four sequential online texts. A total of 92 college students from three reading classes were recruited to complete the following steps in each text: (1) identify references, (2) draw the relationships between references, and (3) answer reading comprehension test items. Results of this study showed that the correlation between referential resolution and reading comprehension tests ranged from .68 to .90 in four online texts. This indicated that when readers’ scores in referential resolution increased, their scores in reading comprehension tests were also raised. Among three groups of readers, the more-proficient readers were able to integrate the references in different parts of the text as a coherent network from text 1 to 4. In contrast, average and lessproficient readers initially did not integrate any reference when reading the first text. They eventually clustered different references and referred them to a correct subject in the final text. The keys to the development of college readers’ mental representation of reference lay in whether they were actively engaged in comprehension monitoring and frequently asked for feedback tool as a scaffold. Keywords Reading strategy; Feedback tool; Trace result; Comprehension monitoring; Reading comprehension Introduction Whether a reader is able to construct a comprehensible and coherent mental representation of textual information in memory is central to comprehension (van den Broek & Kremer, 1998; Walsh & John-Laird, 2004). According to Payne and Reader (2006), the construction of mental representation is a necessary step for comprehension. It aids the reader to encode textual information in a clustered way so that the textual information is more likely to be stored into the reader’s long-term memory (Potelle and Rouet, 2003). Tea and Lee (2004) also state that the reader’s mental map presents his text processing and helps him solve reading difficulties, such as referential resolution. Referential resolution is the process of searching for events, people, or objects appearing in different parts of a text referring to the same entity (Paterson, Sanford, Moxey, and Dawydiak, 1998). This is essentially difficult for college students who learn English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in Taiwan for they very often fail to recognize the connections among sentences in texts due to the lack of instruction in referential resolution (Bensoussan and Laufer, 1984; Chu, Swaffar, and Charney, 2002). For instance, in a short text “I have a brother. His name is Tom. He is a senior high school student.” The mental map of this short text in referential resolution is shown in Figure 1. His name a brother Figure 1. An example of mental map in referential resolution Referential resolution in this study is defined as a reading strategy applied by the reader to interpret the references that have the same meanings as other elements in a text, such as “his name”, “Tom”, and “he” refer to “a brother.” While resolving the references, the reader is engaged in comprehension monitoring which he monitors, regulates, and evaluates his own reading process (Hartman, 2001). The management and regulation of one’s own reading process is helpful for meaning construction of text (Paris and Winograd, 1990). ISSN 1436-4522 (online) and 1176-3647 (print). © International Forum of Educational Technology & Society (IFETS). The authors and the forum jointly retain the copyright of the articles. Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for components of this work owned by others than IFETS must be honoured. Abstracting with credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, to republish, to post on servers, or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. Request permissions from the editors at kinshuk@ieee.org. Tom He 283
Comprehension monitoring is the awareness that a reader has about the linguistic forms and their relationships with other elements in a text (Potelle and Rouet, 2003). More-proficient readers are found to plan, predict outcomes, and monitor their reading process (Brown, 1987). Particularly, they are able to detect inconsistencies in reading and commonly look back at and recall the text inconsistencies (Zabruck and Ratner, 1989). The results of Yang’s study (2002) also reveal that the more-proficient readers actively engage in monitoring their ongoing reading process as they try to compensate for words that have not been previously decoded. They also employ higher levels of comprehension monitoring in reading such as examining text coherence by internal and external consistency (Baker, 1996). In contrast, less-proficient readers are indicated to have a lower level of comprehension monitoring (Oakhill & Yuill, 1988). Their lower comprehension monitoring may result from inadequate knowledge and skills in reading comprehension. They commonly have a limited vocabulary and they often fail to comprehend the individual words in a text. As a result, they spend much time and efforts on decoding each word in a sentence rather than comprehending and integrating textual information. Focusing on the decoding process, most less-proficient readers are unaware of connections in linking sentences together (Bensoussan & Laufer, 1984). Less-proficient readers will not engage in comprehension monitoring unless they are asked to think about their reading process through activities or instruction (Hartley, 2001). The computer assisted learning environment is found to greatly support readers’ engagement of comprehension monitoring as it provides explicit modeling and individualized scaffolding (Potelle and Rouet, 2003). The modeling and scaffolding may help readers build the mental map to show their cognitive structure and the meaningful content of the text. This is fundamentally important for EFL college readers in Taiwan as there are about 45 or more students of varying language proficiency levels involved in one class. The large class size limits the classroom teacher from providing the individualized support and guidance and monitoring each reader’s progress. In this study, the computer system first informs students of the goal of incorporating the system in instruction and the types of references a student is asked to identify. It then models the procedure in identifying and resolving reference. A trial section is also provided for students to practice. After these three activities, the system requires students to identify the references in reading an online text and then to figure out the relationship between references by drawing their mental maps. That is, the computer system allows the reader to recognize and clarify the meanings of the references in a text. If students encounter difficulties in identifying and resolving references, a feedback tool is provided for their scaffolding. The feedback tool provides three candidate references for each referential device that needs correction back to students. Finally, students are asked to finish an online reading comprehension test in each text. The purpose of this study is thus to examine readers’ comprehension as they develop their mental representation of reference in four sequential online texts. Three research questions are addressed. 1. How do EFL readers with different English reading proficiency level develop their mental representation of reference in four sequential online texts? 2. How does the incorporation of system in instruction help EFL readers develop their mental representation of reference in comprehending texts? 3. How does the development of readers’ mental representation of reference assist their comprehension of online texts? Method Participants A total of 92 junior and senior college students were recruited from three reading classes in a technological university in central Taiwan. Their language proficiency levels were identified by their reading scores in a simulated online exam Testing of English for International Communication (TOEIC). The maximum achievable score in the reading section of the online exam was 200. 284
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April 2009 Volume 12 Number 2
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Abstracting and Indexing Educationa
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Engaging students in multimedia-med
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this study discusses computer-based
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Sampling for preliminary study One
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Part 2 Pearson correlation .349** 1
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Figure 1. Box and whisker plot of t
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characteristics and learning styles
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However, critical reflection and in
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novels, so they collected any relat
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1. Theories of teaching: Comments m
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grammatical errors and basic writin
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Ho, B., & Richards, J. C. (1993). R
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Hwang, K.-A., & Yang, C.-H. (2009).
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e deduced from the Affective Domain
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Detection procedure Figure 1 shows
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avoided. Image processing is perfor
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falling asleep) as defined in this
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classmates or left their seats duri
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help teachers to recognize the lear
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Hsieh, P.-H., & Dwyer, F. (2009). T
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significant comprehension effects o
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Treatment 3 (keyword group): Studen
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Criteria of achievement measures Th
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esults. A correlational analysis de
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A 2 x 1 ANOVA analyzed the effect o
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References Aragon, S. R. (2004). In
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Raphael, T. (1982). Improving quest
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educing maintenance costs. The cont
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Synchronization functions According
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inconsistency) and navigate directl
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the suitability of the instructiona
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Design of manipulation process The
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Table 1: Comparative analysis of au
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the convenience of mobile-based ass
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According to evaluation result, the
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Tan, O. S., Parsons, R. D., Hinson,
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At a deeper level, though, there wa
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theoretical assumptions. Two theore
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The students were not going to have
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slightly different. The group who c
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every item, not giving any result.
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edited and presented to the class u
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Figure 10. Screen captures from the
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Some of the concerns that emerge fr
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Ajayi, L. (2009). An Exploration of
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As a result of the confluence of di
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peers (Schellens et al. 2005). Sche
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The integration of discussion board
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ecause the technology allowed the p
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The pre-service teachers perceived
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Furthermore, the study demonstrated
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Schellens, T., van Keer, H., & Valc
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McKean, 2003). Instructors will see
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program at The Ohio State Universit
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Knowledge and skills of developing
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their monthly reflections or assign
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Bull, K., Montgomery, D., Overton,
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frustrating the student). ITSs make
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• Link removal - advanced student
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Expert Module Expert Module’s mai
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Based on the questionnaire results
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students were told that their perfo
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thirds of the interviewed students
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Throughout the semester, students i
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human teacher or question developer
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To test the learning effectiveness
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APPENDIX A Computer Science and Sof
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Thus, the use of computers changes
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Specifically, two objectives were p
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Nonetheless, both teachers assign a
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48% 35% 53% similar similar 69% 42%
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Table 4: Students’ attitudes Stat
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activities. Specifically, the histo
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Huang, Y.-M., Huang, T.-C., Wang, K
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• Could recommended learning sequ
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Analysis of sequences prediction me
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Figure 4. The sorting of learning s
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The figures 5a and 5b illustrate th
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Learning sequence recommendation sy
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In this study, forty subjects were
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The potential for LSRS to promote l
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They pointed out that LSRS helped t
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Cover, T. M., & Thomas, J. A. (1991
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Related Efforts An Internet forum i
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with handheld devices and they were
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agent would direct learners to a le
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Mobile RSS Aggregator In order to s
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learning, such as posting question
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With novel technological support, m
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Shen, L., Wang, M., & Shen, R. (200
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as an ‘affective loop’, which r
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Figure 2 is an example of two-dimen
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preference was gathered through dat
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compute the heart rate (HR) as a fu
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sessions. Of all the 18 learning se
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Burleson, W., Picard, R. W., Perlin
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Wu, C.-C., & Lai, C.Y. (2009). Wire
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The wireless handheld learning envi
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the lengthiness of the scales, whic
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Nursing dictionary We constructed a
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them. The computers were networked
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“The major difference was that I
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questionnaire. We do not consider t
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Faruque, F., Hewlett, P. O., Wyatt,
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etween a user and the system. Addit
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Figure 2. A concept map representin
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C5.0 can help teachers to generate
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that a selected programming exercis
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differences between our system and
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1(students can complete without any
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The PADS sometimes assigned very di
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Corno, L. (2000). Looking at Homewo
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Hwang, W.-Y., Hsu, J.-L., Tretiakov
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listed these functions as allowing
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In the research presented in this a
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Research Tools Web-based learning e
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Table 1. Operational definitions of
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Page 245 and 246: Askar, P., & Altun, A. (2009). CogS
Page 247 and 248: elations, interactions and activiti
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Page 265 and 266: Methodology At the end of the proje
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Richards, G. (2009). Book review: T
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expands the child’s proximal envi
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Chapter 6 exemplifies the activitie
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