Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities

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dent to touch the arrow block to advance to the next presentation slide. If the step was not defined as critical (subsequent steps did not rely on its completion) the student was immediately prompted to touch the arrow block. No other prompts were provided for task completion by the instructor. Students received descriptive verbal praise on a VR-3 schedule of reinforcement for unprompted and prompted correct responses. At the end of the session the student could also eat the prepared food item, package it to be eaten at a later time, or offer it to another student or staff member. After criteria was reached for one recipe (100% unprompted correct for one session), one probe session was conducted to evaluate the student’s completion of the currently mastered recipe and any remaining recipes without use of the PDA. In addition, mastered recipes were probed using the PDA during subsequent training conditions to measure maintenance. Social Validity On the day that each student finished the last probe session, each was shown the PDA, a portable DVD player, and a picture-based cookbook. The instructor showed each student a portion of a recipe and operation of the portable DVD player (video and voice over prompts). The instructor also explained one recipe and how to look at and cross off pictures in the cookbook. The instructor then showed the student a box of pudding and asked, “If you were going to make the pudding, which of these would you like to use?” Reliability Interobserver agreement and procedural reliability data were recorded simultaneously on 33.3% of all sessions across probe and selfprompting PDA conditions. Interobserver agreement was calculated using the point-bypoint method in which the number of instructor and observer agreements was divided by the number of agreements plus disagreements and multiplied by 100. Mean interobserver agreement for student independent correct responses was 98.8% across all students and conditions (range 94.7%–100%) and 98.1% across all students during the self-prompting condition for level of prompt used by the student (range 94.7%–100%) Procedural reliability data were recorded for the following instructor behaviors when implementing the study: (a) prompting use of the PDA; (b) delivery of reinforcement; (c) blocking student’s view when completing critical steps; (d) assuring that materials and equipment were in proper locations and working order; and (e) turning on the PDA and delivering task directions. Agreement was calculated by dividing the number of each observed instructor behavior by the number of opportunities, multiplied by 100 (Billingsley, White, & Munson, 1980). Mean procedural accuracy was 97.9% (range 90.9%–100%). Errors occurred, for example, when a high school staff member removed the bowl from the cabinet, the safety cap was not removed in advance from a new bottle of pizza sauce, Wanda left to go to the bathroom and the skillet was removed from the stove to prevent burning, student held finger on “next” icon too long and the program jumped ahead of the target slide, bread clip was not placed on a new loaf of bread, and the handle broke on the measuring cup. Results Figures 2, 3, and 4 show the percentage of steps performed independently correct by each student across the three cooking recipes during probe sessions without the self-prompting device and during PDA self-prompting sessions. Visual inspection of the figures reveals an immediate and abrupt increase in steps completed independently after introduction of the PDA system and that performance was maintained over time. Although students could perform some steps prior to use of the PDA, performance remained low during probe sessions with the exception of Wanda for making individual serving size pizza. It is possible that her level of performance increased prior to use of the PDA because she saw the final product (pepperoni, cheese etc. on the pizza) when her classmates brought the pizza into the classroom to share with classmates. In addition, some steps were repeated across recipes and Monica, for example, began to obtain potholders independently before using the PDA on her last recipe. Personal Digital Assistant / 431
Figure 2. Percentage of steps performed correctly by Andy across the three cooking recipes. 432 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-September 2010
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Education and Training in Autism an
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Manuscripts Accepted for Future Pub
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dents in classes that included stud
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TABLE 1 Summary Descriptors of Meli
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tions were conducted at their work
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her function more independently wit
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eluctant to engage in interactions.
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ehaviors were consistent with Phill
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disabilities. Second, it has promot
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youth with severe disabilities. Min
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parents of students with intellectu
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tributed to such PSE program compon
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TABLE 2 Mean Scores of the 7 PSE Pr
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that educators’ and parents’ po
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gan, 1997). Despite the challenges
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ing the total score of the Family A
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with the identified factors being r
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of a positive outlook has been docu
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TABLE 1 Demographic Characteristics
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ways in the same interviews where s
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In a number of comments, respondent
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practitioners assigned both issues
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eliability (r .92) and good inter-
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TABLE 2 EQCA Adaptive Behaviors: Me
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TABLE 5 ERDCP: Means, SDs, and t Te
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teen of these studies (90%) reveale
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practice may have had an influence
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Page 63 and 64: ing to questions, (c) the learner f
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Page 67 and 68: TABLE 2 (Continued) 9. Guide studen
Page 69 and 70: TABLE 3 (Continued) Student Steps B
Page 71 and 72: TABLE 3 (Continued) Student Steps D
Page 73 and 74: esponding to errors by interrupting
Page 75 and 76: Figure 1. Teacher’s number of ste
Page 77 and 78: Figure 2. Number of inquiry skills
Page 79 and 80: TABLE 4 Results of Parent Survey It
Page 81 and 82: data was not simply an artifact of
Page 83 and 84: Education and Training in Autism an
Page 85 and 86: TABLE 1 Students’ Description Sub
Page 87 and 88: served a communicative function. In
Page 89 and 90: Descriptive Analysis The first rese
Page 91 and 92: eakdown whenever it is the case. He
Page 95 and 96: stood attribution when two consecut
Page 97 and 98: within easy reach. The instructiona
Page 99 and 100: and provided Takao a pen with thin
Page 101 and 102: Figure 3. Percentages of correct re
Page 103 and 104: teacher whether we should fully hon
Page 107 and 108: components to be effective promptin
Page 109 and 110: ability (IQ 44, Stanford-Binet Inte
Page 111 and 112: TABLE 1 Task Analysis for Cooking R
Page 113: pographic); and (c) no response, ch
Page 117 and 118: Figure 4. Percentage of steps perfo
Page 119 and 120: ture audio feature of the PDA, but
Page 121 and 122: M. (1992). The effects of self oper
Page 125 and 126: TABLE 1 Stages of The Halliwick’s
Page 127 and 128: plete other steps (Tekin & Kɹrcaal
Page 129 and 130: Figure 1. Percentage of correct res
Page 131 and 132: Martin, J. (1981). The Halliwick Me
Page 133 and 134: systematic instruction to teach fou
Page 135 and 136: also extremely low with a standard
Page 137 and 138: Procedural reliability probes measu
Page 139 and 140: Discussion The purpose of this stud
Page 141 and 142: (1986). Stanford-Binet Intelligence
Page 143 and 144: focus on the important adults in th
Page 145 and 146: cording to the current environment
Page 147 and 148: that “she felt very inadequate in
Page 149: tive research. (2 nd Ed.). New Jers
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