Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities

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ported that they did not know which skills to work on in the concept of SS instruction. This feeling may be a result of the lack of knowledge of SS instruction in the undergraduate courses and in-service trainings they received. In order to close this knowledge gap, there could be separate courses for SS instruction specifically, in special education departments, or the content of SS instruction could be increased in other skills courses. For teachers who are in the field at the moment, there could be seminars and in-service training on SS instruction. The second step of SS instruction is to decide how to teach. The literature suggests deciding how to teach SS according to the child’s developmental level and to the severity of the disability of the child. The literature also suggests that for young children it is appropriate to teach SS with their parents and peers in play, and that in later years it is appropriate to teach SS by peer tutoring (Driscoll & Carter, 2004; Guralnick et al., 2006; Guralnick et al., 2003; Licciardello et al., 2008; Pierce-Jordan & Lifter, 2005). Moreover, the selection could be planned according to the severity of the disability in environments that are natural or very structured (Rutherford et al., 1992; Kenneth & Forness, 1999). However, teachers in this study reported that they taught SS when necessary, without any systematic planning and that they used role modeling as the teaching method. These results are inconsistent with the literature on this subject. However, some participants stated that the information they received on SS instruction was very theoretical and they did not feel competent to determine a method according to the child’s developmental level, the severity of the disability and the particular skills that need to be taught. Also, they stated that they felt inadequate to put their knowledge into practice. Almost fifty percent of the participants reported that they did not know what to do about SS instruction. It seems impossible for teachers to implement appropriate methods of SS instruction without previously closing the gap of knowledge in this area. Although it might not be possible to have time to practice SS instruction in courses, it might be possible to show videos of suggested methods supported by research. The last and one of the most important steps of SS instruction concerns the generalization of skills (Driscoll & Carter, 2004). In this study, fifty percent of the participants found family involvement to be insufficient in order for the children to use SS functionally and to become able to generalize these skills in their natural environments. The low expectation of families may prevent encouraging their children to use SS in their daily lives (Guralnick et al., 2006). However, teachers can solve the generalization issue in systematic instruction by using effective teaching methods. This situation once again brings to mind the participants’ inadequacy when it comes to planning. As a remedy for this, the course contents could be widened, in order to give the necessary skills for generalization instruction to pre-service teachers. In sum, interviews demonstrated that teachers in the field had serious problems and inadequacies regarding SS instruction. The situations reported by the participants, in which they feel inadequate, such as determining which skills to teach and planning SS instruction, impacted negatively their other teaching practices. The participants required information related to a training that would help them increase their skills on SS instruction. As a result, in order to have a systematic planning and practicing on SS instruction, there should be supportive services for both pre-service and in-service teachers. In a few years, another study could be conducted with the same participants to see the effect of such supportive services for these teachers. References Avcıoglu, H. (2005). Etkinliklerle sosyal beceri ögˇretimi (Social skills teaching through activities). Ankara: Kök Yayıncılık. Bierman, L. K. (2001). Social competence. Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology. Brown, H. W., Odom, S. L., & Conroy, M. A. (2001). An intervention hierarchy for promoting young children’s peer interactions in natural environments. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 21, 162–175. Cartledge, G., & Kiarie, M. W. (2001). Learning social skills: Through literature for children and adolescents. Teaching Exceptional Children, 34(2), 40–47. Creswell, J.W. (2005). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualita- Social Skills Instruction / 465
tive research. (2 nd Ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. Cifci, I., & Sucuoglu, B. (2004). Bilisel süreç yaklasımıyla sosyal beceri ögˇretimi (Social skills teaching through cognitive process approach). Ankara: Kök Yayıncılık. Delano, M., & Snell, M. E. (2006). The effects of social stories on the social engagement of children with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 8(1), 29–42. Disalvo, A. C., & Oswald, D. P. (2002). Peer-mediated interventions to increase the social interaction of children with autism: Consideration of peer expectancies. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 17(4), 6–41. Driscoll, C., & Carter, M. (2004). Spatial density as a setting event for the social interaction of preschool children. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 51(1), 7–37. Elias, M., & Maher, C. (1983). Social an effective development of children: A programmatic perspective. Exceptional Children, 49, 339–346. Elliott, N. S., & Gresham, F. M. (1987). Children’s social skills assessment and classification practices. Journal of Counseling and Development, 66, 96–99. Gena, A. (2006). The effects of prompting and social reinforcement on establishing social interactions with peers during the inclusion of four children with autism in preschool. International Journal of Psychology, 41, 541–554. Guralnick, M. J. (1999). Family and child influences on the peer-related social competence of young children with developmental delays. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 5, 21–29. Guralnick, M. J., Connor, R. T., Neville, B., & Hammond, M. A. (2006). Promoting the peer-related social development of young children with mild developmental delays: Effectiveness of a comprehensive intervention. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 111, 336–356. Guralnick, M. J., Neville, B., Connor, R. T., & Hammond, M. A. (2003). Family factors associated with the peer social competence of young children with mild delays. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 108, 272–287. Hansen, J. D., Nangle, D. W., & Meyer, K. A. (1998). Enhancing the effectiveness of social skills intervention with adolescents. Education and Treatment of Children, 21(4), 10–13. Hillier, A., Fish, T., Cloppert, P., & Beversdorf, D. Q. (2007). Outcomes of a social and vocational skills support group for adolescents and young adults on the autism spectrum. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 22, 107–115. Kenneth, K., & Forness, S. R. (1999). Social skills training. In G.N. Siperstein (Eds.), Efficacy of special education and related services. (pp. 49–59). AAMR. Licciardello, C. C., Harchik, A. E., & Luisselli, J. K. (2008). Social skills interventions for children with autism during interactive play at a public elementary school. Education and Treatment of Children, 31(1), 27–37. Odom, S. L., McConnell, S. R., McEvoy, M. A., Peterson, C. A., Ostrosky, M., & Chandler, L. K. (1999). Relative effects of interventions supporting the social competence of young children with disabilities. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 19, 75–91. Pierce-Jordan, S., & Lifter, K. (2005). Interaction of social and play behaviors in preschoolers with and without pervasive developmental disorder. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 25(1), 34–47. Rutherford, R., Chipman, J., Digangi, S., & Anderson, K. (1992). Teaching social skills: A practical instructional approach. Reston, VA: Exceptional Innovations. Sargent, L. R. (1991). Social skills for school and community: Systematic instruction for children and youth with cognitive delay. Washington, D. C: The Division on Mental Retardation of the Council for Exceptional Children. Schloss, P. J., & Smith, M. A. (1994). Applied behavior analysis in the classroom. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Sugai, G., & Lewis, T. J. (1996). Preferred and promising practices for social skills instruction. Focus on Exceptional Children, 29, 1–14. Thiemann, S. K., & Goldstein, H. (2004). Effects of peer training and written text cueing on social communication of school age children with pervasive developmental disorder. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 47, 126–145. Thomas, D. R. (2003). “A general inductive approach for qualitative data analysis,” http://www. fmhs.auckland.ac.nz/soph/centres/hrmas/_docs/ Inductive2003.pdf Vauhgn, S., Kim, A. H., Sloan, C. V. M., Hughes, M. T., Elbaum, B., & Sridhar, D. (2003). Social skills interventions for young children with disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 24(1), 2–13. Zirpoli, T. J., & Melloy, J. K. (1997). Behavior management: Application for teachers and parents (2 nd Ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Received: 18 March 2009 Initial Acceptance: 10 May 2009 Final Acceptance: 8 September 2009 466 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-September 2010
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Education and Training in Autism an
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Manuscripts Accepted for Future Pub
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dents in classes that included stud
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TABLE 1 Summary Descriptors of Meli
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tions were conducted at their work
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her function more independently wit
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eluctant to engage in interactions.
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ehaviors were consistent with Phill
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disabilities. Second, it has promot
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youth with severe disabilities. Min
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parents of students with intellectu
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tributed to such PSE program compon
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TABLE 2 Mean Scores of the 7 PSE Pr
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that educators’ and parents’ po
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gan, 1997). Despite the challenges
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ing the total score of the Family A
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with the identified factors being r
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of a positive outlook has been docu
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TABLE 1 Demographic Characteristics
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ways in the same interviews where s
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In a number of comments, respondent
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practitioners assigned both issues
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eliability (r .92) and good inter-
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TABLE 2 EQCA Adaptive Behaviors: Me
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TABLE 5 ERDCP: Means, SDs, and t Te
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teen of these studies (90%) reveale
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practice may have had an influence
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ing to questions, (c) the learner f
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around a small instructional table
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TABLE 2 (Continued) 9. Guide studen
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TABLE 3 (Continued) Student Steps B
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TABLE 3 (Continued) Student Steps D
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esponding to errors by interrupting
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Figure 1. Teacher’s number of ste
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Figure 2. Number of inquiry skills
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TABLE 4 Results of Parent Survey It
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data was not simply an artifact of
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TABLE 1 Students’ Description Sub
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served a communicative function. In
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Descriptive Analysis The first rese
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eakdown whenever it is the case. He
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stood attribution when two consecut
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Page 107 and 108: components to be effective promptin
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Page 125 and 126: TABLE 1 Stages of The Halliwick’s
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Page 129 and 130: Figure 1. Percentage of correct res
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Page 139 and 140: Discussion The purpose of this stud
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