Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities

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Figure 5. Percentage of steps performed using each PDA prompt level across three cooking recipes and three students. As reflected in Figures 2–4 students were able to learn to independently use the PDA self-prompting system to complete recipes without instructor prompts. Andy and Monica required the greatest number of sessions to criteria on their first recipe, however, Wanda increased her number of sessions to criteria on the second recipe. Although the ham and cheese recipe (Wanda’s first recipe) required 24 steps (compared to 19 steps for microwave hamburger helper), it appears that students found this recipe less difficult to perform when using the PDA. Errors across all recipes were most frequently committed when students initiated completion of a step without using the PDA and performed the step incorrectly, thus requiring the instructor to prompt them to use the devise. This behavior occurred with Wanda when completing her second recipe. She proceeded to perform a step incorrectly and was prompted by the instructor to look at the picture (next prompt level). Figure 5 presents the percentages for each prompt level used by each student across the three cooking recipes during self-prompting and probe sessions with the PDA. Students showed trends toward requiring less intrusive prompt levels (video and picture audio) within and across tasks. All three students used video for the greatest amount of time during the first session of the their first recipe (Andy 78.9%, Monica 72%, and Wanda 37.5), but quickly faded it’s use within the second session (Andy 0%, Monica 2%, and Wanda 8.3%) and subsequently relied less on video across the first session of the remaining recipes (i.e., use of video on first session of second recipe: Andy 13.6%, Monica 25%, and Wanda 21.1%). With the exception of Monica on her last recipe, students infrequently used the pic- Personal Digital Assistant / 435
ture audio feature of the PDA, but instead they frequently accessed the picture prompt if they were unable to perform a step independently. This behavior continued for each student into maintenance sessions when students were presented with the PDA for use with previously mastered recipes. Social Validity When presented with a choice of the PDA, portable DVD player, or picture cookbook to hypothetically cook pudding, all three students responded that they would like to use the portable DVD player because it had movies. Imitating a cable television cooking program, Monica further said that she wanted to, “Watch the movies and be an iron chef.” Discussion As the technology of PDA systems progresses and prices lower (Swan, Swan, Van Hover, & Bell, 2002), handheld computers may be a low-cost, effective means for students to have access to information anywhere at anytime (van ‘t Hooft & Vahey, 2007). The current study supports previous research reporting that students with intellectual disabilities can learn to use an electronic, portable, handheld prompting system to independently complete tasks (Cihak et al., 2008; Davies et al., 2002b, 2003; Riffel et al., 2005; Taber-Doughty et al., 2008; Van Laarhoven et al., 2007). The study extends the research literature evaluating handheld self-prompting systems by using a system that provided picture, auditory, and video prompting within one program. Students demonstrated the ability to independently use a PDA to self-prompt completion of the three cooking recipes without the need for external adult prompting. An important contribution of the current study was demonstrating the ability of students to determine what level of prompting they needed or preferred. Students initially used more intrusive levels of prompts if needed and self-faded these levels of prompts (i.e., video to photos), later re-instituted use of more intrusive prompt levels when needed (i.e., during maintenance sessions), or used no prompts at all. These results show that students may initially need video prompts rather than photographs for more difficult steps (Mechling & Stephens, 2009) or may need to refer back to more intrusive prompt levels when a task is not continuously performed The small number of students participating in the study calls for future research to replicate the findings. Furthermore, additional studies are needed to investigate use of selfprompting systems with multiple prompt levels across other disabilities and tasks. Of interest, for example, would be how students with autism use the system and on which prompt levels they would rely (visual, auditory, video). Further evaluation of different tasks may provide information concerning whether some activities or steps are better suited for video modeling or prompting or whether pictures or auditory prompts will suffice. Furniss et al. (1999) stated that the nature of the task rather than students’ abilities likely influenced successful use of a PDA in their study. A limitation of the current study was that there was no further clustering of task steps as they were learned or a change in the photographs or video segments used. As tasks are learned it may be beneficial to cluster steps into fewer pictures or combine multiple video segments into fewer segments (Furniss et al., 1999). Students may initially require video prompting and then move to lengthier video segments that resemble video modeling (Cannella-Malone et al., 2006). It is important to select methods of instruction that match the needs of the individual students (Simpson, 2005). One critical advantage of a PDA is the ability to individualize the system to meet the needs of each student (Furniss et al., 1999). Future studies may wish to investigate the adaptability of prompts as a student’s performance progresses, presentation of cues at the student’s own individual pace (Davies et al., 2003), and other customization features that can be adapted to the individual. For example, realistic photographs and video segments from the student’s actual environment may assist with acquisition of skills compared to generic stimuli on commercial programs. The current study used custom-made photographs and video recordings that exemplified each student’s cooking environment. Future research may need to compare the benefits of customized verses commercially available software programs for prompting tasks. Although 436 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-September 2010
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Education and Training in Autism an
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Manuscripts Accepted for Future Pub
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dents in classes that included stud
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TABLE 1 Summary Descriptors of Meli
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tions were conducted at their work
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her function more independently wit
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eluctant to engage in interactions.
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ehaviors were consistent with Phill
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disabilities. Second, it has promot
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youth with severe disabilities. Min
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parents of students with intellectu
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tributed to such PSE program compon
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TABLE 2 Mean Scores of the 7 PSE Pr
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that educators’ and parents’ po
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gan, 1997). Despite the challenges
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ing the total score of the Family A
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with the identified factors being r
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of a positive outlook has been docu
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TABLE 1 Demographic Characteristics
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ways in the same interviews where s
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In a number of comments, respondent
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practitioners assigned both issues
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eliability (r .92) and good inter-
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TABLE 2 EQCA Adaptive Behaviors: Me
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TABLE 5 ERDCP: Means, SDs, and t Te
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teen of these studies (90%) reveale
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practice may have had an influence
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ing to questions, (c) the learner f
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around a small instructional table
Page 67 and 68: TABLE 2 (Continued) 9. Guide studen
Page 69 and 70: TABLE 3 (Continued) Student Steps B
Page 71 and 72: TABLE 3 (Continued) Student Steps D
Page 73 and 74: esponding to errors by interrupting
Page 75 and 76: Figure 1. Teacher’s number of ste
Page 77 and 78: Figure 2. Number of inquiry skills
Page 79 and 80: TABLE 4 Results of Parent Survey It
Page 81 and 82: data was not simply an artifact of
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Page 85 and 86: TABLE 1 Students’ Description Sub
Page 87 and 88: served a communicative function. In
Page 89 and 90: Descriptive Analysis The first rese
Page 91 and 92: eakdown whenever it is the case. He
Page 95 and 96: stood attribution when two consecut
Page 97 and 98: within easy reach. The instructiona
Page 99 and 100: and provided Takao a pen with thin
Page 101 and 102: Figure 3. Percentages of correct re
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Page 107 and 108: components to be effective promptin
Page 109 and 110: ability (IQ 44, Stanford-Binet Inte
Page 111 and 112: TABLE 1 Task Analysis for Cooking R
Page 113 and 114: pographic); and (c) no response, ch
Page 115 and 116: Figure 2. Percentage of steps perfo
Page 117: Figure 4. Percentage of steps perfo
Page 121 and 122: M. (1992). The effects of self oper
Page 125 and 126: TABLE 1 Stages of The Halliwick’s
Page 127 and 128: plete other steps (Tekin & Kɹrcaal
Page 129 and 130: Figure 1. Percentage of correct res
Page 131 and 132: Martin, J. (1981). The Halliwick Me
Page 133 and 134: systematic instruction to teach fou
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Page 137 and 138: Procedural reliability probes measu
Page 139 and 140: Discussion The purpose of this stud
Page 141 and 142: (1986). Stanford-Binet Intelligence
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Page 149: tive research. (2 nd Ed.). New Jers
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