Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities

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struction for this population uncovered a limited number of studies (Courtade, Spooner, & Browder, 2007). Of the 11 studies that were discovered, eight dealt with concepts that related to only one content area of the National Science Education Content Standards (Content Standard F: Science in Personal and Social Perspectives). While these studies were designed to address daily living skills they had content that overlapped with science. Although the number of studies that address some aspect of science is limited, they do offer guidance for developing effective instructional strategies. In general, these studies followed principles of applied behavior analysis methodology of operationalizing behavior, using procedures to promote and transfer stimulus control from teacher prompting to stimulus materials, and the use of feedback and reinforcement of correct responses (Alberto & Troutman, 2009). One common feature of several of the studies identified by Courtade et al. (2007) was the use of a task analysis to break skills down into the steps required to complete a response chain (e.g., Gast, Winterling, Wolery, & Farmer 1992; Marchand-Martella, Martella, Christensen, Agran, & Young 1992; Spooner, Stem, & Test, 1989). None of the studies analyzed by Courtade et al. (2007) addressed one of the most fundamental aspects of science: the process of inquiry. The National Research Council asserts that “inquiry is a set of interrelated processes by which scientists and students pose questions about the natural world and investigate phenomena; in doing so, students acquire knowledge and develop a rich understanding of concepts, principles, models, and theories (NRC, 1996, p. 214).” Within the National Science Education Standards, inquiry is described as a critical component of a science program. Inquiry-based instruction requires more than hands-on activities. Students also learn to follow a problem solving process that can be applicable to the real world. Some research suggests that the use of an inquirybased approach vs. a traditional science curriculum (i.e., one based on facts, laws, and theories with the secondary use of hands-on activities) reveals a positive impact on student performance criteria that includes: achievement, process skills, analytic skills, related skills (e.g., reading, math), and other areas (e.g., creativity, logical thinking; Shymansky, Kyle, & Alport, 1983). Some research also suggests that students with mild disabilities may improve performance when taught with an inquiry method as compared to a more traditional textbook approach (Scruggs, Mastropieri, Bakken, & Brigham, 1993). In contrast, there may be limitations to the use of an inquiry approach. The first is that many teachers do not have training to use this approach. Even science teachers within general education have expressed a lack of preparation for inquiry-based instruction (Roehrig & Luft, 2004). Second, some experts have questioned the whole premise of minimal guidance during instruction as being inconsistent with research on how students learn (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006). Learners may need guidance until they have sufficiently high prior knowledge to self-direct their learning. Scruggs and Mastropieri (1995) also found that students with intellectual disabilities need “something more” than an inquirybased instruction alone such as reductions in vocabulary demands, the use of graphic organizers, the use of multiple presentations, carefully structured questioning, familiarizing students with science materials, and guided coaching. When students with moderate and severe intellectual disabilities participate in an inquiry process, this “something more” for an inquiry-based lesson may be instruction on each step of a task analysis. The questions that could be raised are whether this is still inquiry and what benefit this would have over the traditional task analysis of a specific daily living skill that includes some science. A task analytic approach would still be considered inquiry if the instruction contains the essential features of classroom inquiry. However, this variation involves less learner self-direction and more direction from the teacher and materials used (NRC, 2000). That is, students would be using strategies to derive some information about the materials to be explored, but would do so through interaction with the teacher. According to the National Research Council, the essential features of classroom inquiry include: (a) the learner engages in scientifically oriented questions, (b) the learner gives priority to evidence in respond- Inquiry-Based Science Instruction / 379
ing to questions, (c) the learner formulates explanations from evidence, (d) the learner connects explanations to scientific knowledge, and (e) the learner communicates and justifies explanations. Each of these essential features can be simplified and defined as a task analysis for inquiry. There are at least two advantages to using a task analysis of the process of inquiry versus of a specific daily living skill. First, an inquiry task analysis may have applicability across changing science content. That is, students may learn a generalized method for interacting with materials during a science lesson. Second, this generalized method can be used for science content that goes beyond daily living skills such as fossils, volcanoes, and chemical reactions. These broader topics are not only part of the general content standards that states are required to assess, but also may foster leisure interests (e.g., volcanoes), future career options (e.g., work in a lab or museum), or safety skills (e.g., avoiding mixing chemicals) for students with intellectual disabilities. The purpose of this investigation was to determine if training teachers of students with moderate and severe intellectual disabilities in the use of a task analysis for inquiry-based instruction could be applied across science content. Further objectives of this study were to determine if training the teachers would increase students’ participation in an inquirybased lesson. The independent variable was an inquirybased instructional training package based on reviews of research studies involving training staff who work with individuals with developmental disabilities (Demchak, 1987; Jahr, 1998). Demchak reviewed behavioral staff training in special education settings and compared antecedent, contingency management, and multi-faceted procedures. Antecedent procedures focus on training staff before the skills are to be applied. Antecedent procedures include instructions, modeling, and role-playing. Contingency management focuses on following certain staff behaviors with consequences. Feedback techniques (i.e., written, verbal, video, posted), performance lotteries, and monetary contingencies were all contingency management techniques. Most research has used multi-component procedures to change staff behaviors. An antecedent strategy that Jahr (1998) found to be effective was modeling. Modeling is a procedure during which the supervisor demonstrates the correct procedures and then the staff member applies the same procedures to a specific individual. Like Demchak, Jahr found that modeling was most often used as part of a multi-component staff training intervention. Kazdin, Kratochwill, and VandenBos (1986) propose the use of standardized manuals to train staff in research-based methods. They propose that manuals provide detailed, explicit guidelines that are cost effective, and can be updated based on new findings. One of the studies reviewed by Demchak (1987) included the use of a training manual as part of an effective multi-component training package (Reid et al., 1985). The use of the training manual combined with investigator feedback and praise, produced improved behaviors for both the teachers and students involved. In the current study, a multi-component treatment package including a video model, role play, feedback, and a specific script (the task analysis) was used to train special education teachers to use an inquiry method. The task analysis was based on Magnusson and Palincsar’s (1995) phases of an inquiry-based approach that include: (a) engage, (b) investigate and describe relationships, (c) construct an explanation, and (d) report. Each phase was divided into specific steps for the teachers to use during instruction. The primary research question was: What is the effect of a multi-component teacher training approach on teacher acquisition of steps to implement an inquiry based science lesson? The second research question examined the effect of this teacher training on generalization across content of the science lessons. A third research question was: What is the concurrent effect of teacher’s use of an inquirybased lesson on student acquisition of inquiry skills needed to participate in science lessons? The final research question was: What is the effect of participation in inquiry-based science lessons on the concurrent effect of use of science terms? 380 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-September 2010
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Education and Training in Autism an
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Manuscripts Accepted for Future Pub
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dents in classes that included stud
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TABLE 1 Summary Descriptors of Meli
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Page 17 and 18: ehaviors were consistent with Phill
Page 19 and 20: disabilities. Second, it has promot
Page 21 and 22: youth with severe disabilities. Min
Page 23 and 24: parents of students with intellectu
Page 25 and 26: tributed to such PSE program compon
Page 27 and 28: TABLE 2 Mean Scores of the 7 PSE Pr
Page 29 and 30: that educators’ and parents’ po
Page 31 and 32: gan, 1997). Despite the challenges
Page 33 and 34: ing the total score of the Family A
Page 35 and 36: with the identified factors being r
Page 37 and 38: of a positive outlook has been docu
Page 39 and 40: Education and Training in Autism an
Page 41 and 42: TABLE 1 Demographic Characteristics
Page 43 and 44: ways in the same interviews where s
Page 45 and 46: In a number of comments, respondent
Page 47 and 48: practitioners assigned both issues
Page 51 and 52: eliability (r .92) and good inter-
Page 53 and 54: TABLE 2 EQCA Adaptive Behaviors: Me
Page 55 and 56: TABLE 5 ERDCP: Means, SDs, and t Te
Page 57 and 58: teen of these studies (90%) reveale
Page 59 and 60: practice may have had an influence
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Page 65 and 66: around a small instructional table
Page 67 and 68: TABLE 2 (Continued) 9. Guide studen
Page 69 and 70: TABLE 3 (Continued) Student Steps B
Page 71 and 72: TABLE 3 (Continued) Student Steps D
Page 73 and 74: esponding to errors by interrupting
Page 75 and 76: Figure 1. Teacher’s number of ste
Page 77 and 78: Figure 2. Number of inquiry skills
Page 79 and 80: TABLE 4 Results of Parent Survey It
Page 81 and 82: data was not simply an artifact of
Page 85 and 86: TABLE 1 Students’ Description Sub
Page 87 and 88: served a communicative function. In
Page 89 and 90: Descriptive Analysis The first rese
Page 91 and 92: eakdown whenever it is the case. He
Page 95 and 96: stood attribution when two consecut
Page 97 and 98: within easy reach. The instructiona
Page 99 and 100: and provided Takao a pen with thin
Page 101 and 102: Figure 3. Percentages of correct re
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Page 107 and 108: components to be effective promptin
Page 109 and 110: ability (IQ 44, Stanford-Binet Inte
Page 111 and 112: TABLE 1 Task Analysis for Cooking R
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pographic); and (c) no response, ch
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Figure 2. Percentage of steps perfo
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Figure 4. Percentage of steps perfo
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ture audio feature of the PDA, but
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M. (1992). The effects of self oper
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TABLE 1 Stages of The Halliwick’s
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plete other steps (Tekin & Kɹrcaal
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Figure 1. Percentage of correct res
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Martin, J. (1981). The Halliwick Me
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systematic instruction to teach fou
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also extremely low with a standard
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Procedural reliability probes measu
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Discussion The purpose of this stud
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(1986). Stanford-Binet Intelligence
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focus on the important adults in th
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cording to the current environment
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that “she felt very inadequate in
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tive research. (2 nd Ed.). New Jers
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