THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE FUNCTION IN EARLY ...

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The bidimensional versions required sorting by two dimensions, such as size and pattern. In these versions, for the separated stimuli, both dimensions were presented adjacently on a single card (e.g., blue on one side and a rabbit on the other). The integrated stimuli consisted of both dimensions presented in a single form, such as a red rabbit. The target cards for this version consisted of a blue rabbit and a red boat (see Figure 12). For the separated test cards, one level of the relevant dimension was presented on the left side of the card for half of the trials, and on the right side for the remaining trials. In all four versions, the same test card (but with lateral side varied for separated test cards) was presented for all five preswitch trials and all five postswitch trials. Procedure. The procedure for all versions was identical to the procedure for the Unidimensional (single test card) version used in Experiment 5. However, for the bidimensional versions, children were told bidimensional rules (e.g., "if it's red it goes here, but if it's blue it goes there") on the pre- and postswitch phases. In all cases, test cards were labeled simply as "one" (e.g., "Where does this one go?"). Children were given a short break (approximately 5 minutes) between the two tasks. The total procedure took approximately 20 minutes to administer. Results Group analyses. As in Experiments 4 and 5, correct responding was scored as the number of correct postswitch trials. To assess the effects of the particular rule pairs used (i.e., the red/blue pair or the stripe/dot pair for the US and UI versions; the color/shape pair or the number/size pair for the BS and BI versions) and the order in which they were used, two mixed (Rule Pair x Order) ANOVAs were conducted, one for the unidimensional versions and one for the bidimensional versions. Rule pair was a within-subject variable and order was a between-subject variable. The only significant finding was that in the unidimensional versions, children performed significantly better on the red/blue rule pair than on the stripe/dot rule pair, F(1, 23) = 4.5 5, p < .05 (effect size f = .45). These analyses were followed by a series of one-way (Preswitch Dimension) ANOVAs that assessed whether within each rule pair, the particular rule (or rules) used in the preswitch phase was related to performance. The only significant finding was that children performed better when the blue rule as opposed to the red rule was used in the preswitch phase, F(1, 22) = 5.0, p < .05 (effect size f = .48). Because all the versions were counterbalanced and in general there were few order effects, we conducted the remaining analyses collapsed across rule pair, order, and preswitch rule(s).
An overall repeated measures ANOVA failed to detect any differences between number of correct postswitch trials for the first and second tasks that children received. Thus, to simplify the analyses and keep them compatible with the analyses of Experiments 4 and 5, the results were averaged across both tasks (see Figure 13). A three-way (Sex x Dimensionality x Separability) ANOVA revealed that children performed better on the unidimensional versions than on the bidimensional versions, F(1, 40) = 29.0, p < .01 (effect size f = .78). Also, the interaction between sex and dimensionality was significant, F(1, 40) = 4.6, p
Page 1 and 2: THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXECUTIVE FUNCTI
Page 3 and 4: In contemporary research, inflexibi
Page 5 and 6: cards by the first dimension. Moreo
Page 7 and 8: Thus, increases in reflection on lo
Page 9 and 10: specialized for the processing and
Page 11 and 12: REDESCRIPTION AND THE RELATION BETW
Page 13 and 14: acquired rapidly at the end of the
Page 15 and 16: did not answer in terms of the post
Page 17 and 18: Negative Priming version of the DCC
Page 19 and 20: This version required children to r
Page 21 and 22: Procedure. Testing took place in a
Page 23 and 24: A three-way mixed ANOVA with sex as
Page 25 and 26: in which they were told four relati
Page 27 and 28: were similar in that children were
Page 29 and 30: Discussion Experiment 3 explored fu
Page 31 and 32: In contrast, CCC theory predicts th
Page 33 and 34: (single test card), was included to
Page 35 and 36: year-olds have difficulty whenever
Page 37: Figure 3. This experiment also asse
Page 41 and 42: for the construction of the concept
Page 43 and 44: EXPERIMENT 7 Method Participants. N
Page 45 and 46: Taken together, the results of Stud
Page 47 and 48: Negative priming in children has al
Page 49 and 50: the competing rules are inhibited d
Page 51 and 52: outlines of rabbits and boats). Dur
Page 53 and 54: The main new finding from Experimen
Page 55 and 56: Results Group analyses. A prelimina
Page 57 and 58: observed in this experiment provide
Page 59 and 60: 3. When the rules did not span majo
Page 61 and 62: Do 3- to 4-year-olds understand eve
Page 63 and 64: perspectives. Therefore, this accou
Page 65 and 66: esponses were hypothesized to be ve
Page 67 and 68: the DCCS because of too little inhi
Page 69 and 70: (2000) pointed out, even in the DCC
Page 71 and 72: (e.g., the rules that are selected,
Page 73 and 74: difficult, however, because global
Page 79 and 80: REFERENCES Adams, F (1986). Intenti
Page 81 and 82: Desimone, R., & Duncan, J. (1995).
Page 83 and 84: Harnishfeger, K. K., & Bjorklund, D
Page 85 and 86: Markman, E. M. (19 89). Categorizat
Page 87 and 88: Rapport, M. D., Chung, K.-M., Shore
Page 89:
Wise, S. P., Murray, E. A., & Gerfe
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