Air Quality Guidelines - World Health Organization Regional Office ...

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180 chapter 7 2. LINN, W.S. & HACKNEY, J.D. Short-term human respiratory effects of nitrogen dioxide: determination of quantitative dose–response profiles, phase II. Exposure of asthmatic volunteers to 4 ppm NO 2. Atlanta, GA, Coordinating Research Council, Inc., 1984 (Report No. CRC-CAPM- 48-83-02). 3. ROGER, L.J. ET AL. Pulmonary function, airway responsiveness, and respiratory symptoms in asthmatics following exercise in NO 2. Toxicology and industrial health, 6: 155–171 (1990). 4. EHRLICH, R. & HENRY M.C. Chronic toxicity of nitrogen dioxide. I. Effect on resistance to bacterial pneumonia. Archives of environmental health, 17: 860–865 (1968). 5. Nitrogen oxides. Geneva, World Health Organization, 1997 (Environmental Health Criteria, No. 188).
classical pollutants 7.2 Ozone and other photochemical oxidants Exposure evaluation Ozone and other photochemical oxidants are formed by the action of short-wavelength radiation from the sun on nitrogen dioxide. In the presence of volatile organic compounds, the equilibrium favours the formation of higher levels of ozone. Background levels of ozone, mainly of anthropogenic origin, are in the range 40–70 µg/m 3 (0.02–0.035 ppm) but can be as high as 120–140 µg/m 3 (0.06–0.07 ppm) for 1 hour. In Europe, maximum hourly ozone concentrations may exceed 300 µg/m 3 (0.15 ppm) in rural areas and 350 µg/m 3 (0.18 ppm) in urbanized regions. Submaximal levels (80–90% of maximum) can occur for 8–12 hours a day for many consecutive days. Health risk evaluation Ozone toxicity occurs in a continuum in which higher concentrations, longer exposure duration and greater activity levels during exposure cause greater effects. Short-term acute effects include respiratory symptoms, pulmonary function changes, increased airway responsiveness and airway inflammation. These health effects were statistically significant at a concentration of 160 µg/m 3 (0.08 ppm) for 6.6-hour exposures in a group of healthy exercising adults, with the most sensitive subjects experiencing functional decrements of > 10% within 4–5 hours (1). Controlled exposures of heavily exercising adults or children to an ozone concentration of 240 µg/m 3 (0.l2 ppm) for 2 hours have also been observed to produce decrements in pulmonary function (2, 3). There is no question that substantial acute adverse effects occur with 1 hour of exercising exposure at concentrations of 500 µg/m 3 or higher, particularly in susceptible individuals or subgroups. Field studies in children, adolescents and young adults have indicated that pulmonary function decrements can occur as a result of short-term exposure to ozone concentrations of 120–240 µg/m 3 and higher. Mobile laboratory studies using ambient air containing ozone have observed associations between changes in pulmonary function in children or asthmatics and ozone concentrations of 280–340 µg/m 3 (0.14–0.17 ppm) with exposures lasting several hours. Respiratory symptoms, especially cough, have been associated with ozone concentrations as low as 300 µg/m 3 (0.15 ppm). 181
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World Health Organization Regional
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Air Quality Guidelines for Europe S
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World Health Organization Regional
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Contents introduction Foreword ....
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�� introducti
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Preface introduction The first edit
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PART I GENERAL
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2 chapter 1 increased rapidly since
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4 chapter 1 NATURE OF THE GUIDELINE
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6 chapter 1 exposure influence the
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8 chapter 1 In addition to the 35 p
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10 chapter 1 9. Acute effects on he
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12 chapter 2 atmospheric concentrat
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14 chapter 2 decision as to whether
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16 chapter 2 uncertainty of the dat
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18 chapter 2 uncertainty factor, be
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20 chapter 2 A similar situation oc
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22 chapter 2 Box 1. Classification
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24 chapter 2 The results of calcula
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26 chapter 2 however, several scien
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28 chapter 2 and the impact of expo
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30 chapter 2 permitted only an eval
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introduction chapter 3 Summary of t
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34 chapter 3 guidelines for differe
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36 chapter 3 Table 3. Rationale and
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38 chapter 3 Table 5. Risk estimate
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40 chapter 3 pollutants that may ad
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42 chapter 4 DEFINITIONS Several te
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44 chapter 4 address these economic
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46 chapter 4 Exposure-response rela
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48 chapter 4 uncertainties on the r
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50 chapter 4 substantially owing to
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52 chapter 4 use of epidemiological
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54 chapter 4 pollution from neighbo
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PART II EVALUATION OF RISKS TO HUMA
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organic pollutants 5.1 Acrylonitril
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organic pollutants carcinogen. No s
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organic pollutants 63 demonstrated
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organic pollutants Table 9. Model-d
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organic pollutants 5.3 Butadiene Ex
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organic pollutants Estimates of hum
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organic pollutants 5.4 Carbon disul
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organic pollutants selecting the si
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organic pollutants 5.5 Carbon monox
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organic pollutants than the non-pre
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organic pollutants 15. LONGO, L.D.
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organic pollutants giving quantitat
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organic pollutants 5.7 Dichlorometh
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organic pollutants 4. HARKOV, R. ET
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organic pollutants 5.8 Formaldehyde
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organic pollutants systems (3). The
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organic pollutants 7. HANSEN, J. &
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organic pollutants airborne particl
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organic pollutants some recent anim
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organic pollutants 5.10 Polychlorin
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organic pollutants assessed using t
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organic pollutants 101 11. Levels o
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organic pollutants 103 differences
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organic pollutants 105 3. THEELEN,
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organic pollutants 107 Guidelines A
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organic pollutants 5.13 Tetrachloro
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organic pollutants On the basis of
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organic pollutants With regard to s
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organic pollutants 5.15 Trichloroet
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organic pollutants 117 5. Technical
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organic pollutants 119 standardized
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organic pollutants 121 7. BARNES, A
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inorganic pollutants 6.1 Arsenic Ex
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inorganic pollutants 127 Guidelines
Page 143 and 144: inorganic pollutants 129 from data
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Page 149 and 150: inorganic pollutants 20. DEMENT, J.
Page 151 and 152: inorganic pollutants 137 of subject
Page 153 and 154: inorganic pollutants 6.4 Chromium 1
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Page 157 and 158: inorganic pollutants 6.5 Fluoride 1
Page 159 and 160: inorganic pollutants 145 2. SARIC,
Page 161 and 162: inorganic pollutants Table 16. Hydr
Page 163 and 164: inorganic pollutants 6.7 Lead 149 E
Page 165 and 166: inorganic pollutants reported for g
Page 167 and 168: inorganic pollutants 6. SEPPÄLÄIN
Page 169 and 170: inorganic pollutants BMDL 5 values
Page 171 and 172: inorganic pollutants 6.9 Mercury 15
Page 173 and 174: inorganic pollutants 159 Since thes
Page 175 and 176: inorganic pollutants 161 5. Inorgan
Page 177 and 178: inorganic pollutants 163 In general
Page 179 and 180: inorganic pollutants 165 8. INTEGRA
Page 181 and 182: inorganic pollutants 167 In early s
Page 183 and 184: inorganic pollutants 169 While cis-
Page 185 and 186: Table 21. Respiratory effects after
Page 187: introduction chapter 7 Classical po
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Page 210 and 211: 196 chapter 7 earlier years. Cohort
Page 212 and 213: 198 chapter 7 17. ANDERSON, H.R. ET
Page 215 and 216: indoor air pollutants 8.1 Environme
Page 217 and 218: indoor air pollutants 203 uncertain
Page 219 and 220: indoor air pollutants 205 syndrome.
Page 221 and 222: indoor air pollutants 207 dose-rela
Page 223 and 224: indoor air pollutants 8.3 Radon 209
Page 225 and 226: Greece 73 1988 6 months Hungary 122
Page 227 and 228: indoor air pollutants Fig. 1. Estim
Page 229 and 230: indoor air pollutants 215 25 Bq/m 3
Page 231 and 232: indoor air pollutants 217 21.WRIXON
Page 233 and 234: introduction chapter 9 General appr
Page 235 and 236: general approach Table 30. Differen
Page 237 and 238: general approach 223 sulfur dioxide
Page 239 and 240: general approach 225 Programme for
Page 241 and 242: effects of sulfur dioxide on vegeta
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effects of nitrogen-containing air
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effects of nitrogen-containing air
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effects of ozone on vegetation vege
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effects of ozone on vegetation 237
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introduction chapter 13 Indirect ef
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indirect effects of acidifying comp
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effects of airborne nitrogen pollut
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participants at who air quality gui
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